DOCUNINT MORI I.

00.175 695 SE 020 603

*OTROS Schaaf, Willias L., Ed.
TITLE Reprint Series: Mathematics and Music. RS-8.
INSTITUTION Stanford Univ., Calif. School Mathematics Study
Group.
SKINS AGENCY National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.
DATE 67
28p.: For related documents, see SE 028 676-640
EDRS PRICE RF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Curriculum: Enrichment: *Fine Arts: *Instruction:
Mathesatics Education: *Music: *Rustier Concepts:
Secondary Education: *Secondary School Mathematics:
Supplementary Reading Materials
IDENTIFIERS *$chool Mathematics Study Group
ABSTRACT
This is one in a series of SBSG supplesentary and
enrichment pamphlets for high school students. This series makes
available expository articles which appeared in a variety of
athematical periodicals. Topics covered include: (1) the two most
original creations of the human spirit: (2) mathematics of music: (3)
numbers and the music of the east and west: and (4) Sebastian and the
Wolf. (BP)

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IEDUCAT1ON
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TH4 Pi 40SON 4)44 fwftAN,IA t.(1N 041.G114.
AT,sp, .1 po,sos 1)1 1 ev MW OP4NIONS
STA 'Fp LX) NE.IT NI SSI144,t Y RIPWI. TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
SI NT (7$ $ M A NAIhj N',1,11)11E 01
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E.),,f T P(1,1140N ,1 V
 0 1967 by The Board cf Trustees of the
Leland Stanford Junior University
AU rights reeerved
Prieted ia the United States of Anverka

Financial support for tbe School

Matbernatks Study Group has been
provided by the Nasional Science
Foundation.

3
 Mathematics is such a vast and rapidly expanding field of study that there are
which do not find
inevitably many important and fascinating aspects of the subject
well
a place in the curriculum simply because of lack of time, even though they are
within the grasp of secondary school students.
Some classes and many individual students, however, may
find time to pursue
mathematical topics of special interest to them. The School Mathematics Study
Group is preparing pamphlets designed to make material for such study readily
accessible. Some of the pamphlets deal with material found in the regular curric-
ulum but in a more extended manner or from a novel point of view. Others deal
with topics not usually found at all in the standard curriculum.
This particular series of pamphlets, the Reprint Series, makes available ex-
:ository articles which appeared in a variety of mathematical periodicals. Even if
the periodicals were available to all schools, there is convenience in having articles
on one topic collected and reprinted as is done here.
This series was prepared for the Panel on Supplementary Publications by
Professor William L. Schaaf. His judgment, background, bibliographic skills, and
editorial efficiency were major factors in the design and successful completion of
the pamphlets.
Panel on Supplementary Publications
R. I). Anderson (1962-66) Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
M. Philbrick Bridgess (1962-64) Roxbury Latin School, Westwood, Mass.
Jean M. Calloway (1962-64) Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, Michigan
Ronald J. Clark (1962-66) St. Paul's School, Concord, N. H.
Roy Dubisch (1962-64) University of Washington, Seattle
W. Engene Ferguson (1964-67) Newton High School, Newtonville, Mass.
Thomas J. Hill (1962-65) Montclair State College. Upper Montclair. N. J.
L. Edwin Hirschi (1965-68) University of Utah, Salt Lake City
Karl S. Kalman (1962-65) School District of Philadelphia
Isabelle P Rut ker (1965-68) State Board of Education, Richmond, Va.
Augusta Schurrer (1962-65) State College of Iowa, Cedar Falls
Merrill E. Shanks (1965-68) Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana
Henry W Syer (1962.66) Kent School, Kent, Conn.
Frank L. Wolf (1964-67) Carleton College, Northfield, Minn.
John E. Yarnelle (1964-67) Hanover College, Hanover, Indiana
 PREFACE
people and exhibits many faces:
Music means different things to different harmony and
musical sounds and tones; scales and modes; musical notation; and forms;
musical composition
dissonance; rhythm, melody and counterpoinr,
orchestral and symphonic music; acoustics
the human voice and choral music; radio, T-V, sound motion pic-
and the reproduction of music by phonograph, facets of music related to mathe-
tures. In what ways, if any, are these various musical notation? to the theory
matics? What has mathematics contributed toinstruments? to the high-fidelity
of composition? to the design of musical relations in-
reproduction of musk? Is the composer awire of mathematical mathe-
volved in music and musical composition? Can the mathematician, as easily
These are questions more
matician, enrich the domain of the musician?
have been given are, for the
asked than answered. Moreover, such answers as
periodicals, often inaccessible. That is why
most part, scattered through various enjoyment. It is hoped that
we have brought these essays together for your if they do not answer your
they will at least open new horizons for you, even
with Morris Kline when he says
questions completely. You may then agree
transcribed into the most abstract of the
"the most abstract of the arts can be clearly recognized to be akin to
sciences, and the mou reasoned of the arts is
the music of reason."
William L. Schaaf

111
 Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FOREWORD .

HUMAN SPIRIT
THE Two MOST ORIGINAL CREATIONS OF THE
ELMER B. MODE

11
MATHEMATICS OF MUSIC
Au R. AMIR-Maa
17
WEST
NUMBERS AND THE MUSIC OF THE EAST AND
ALI R. AMIR-MOEZ

21
SEBASTIAN AND THE WOLF .

THEODORE C. RIDOUT

25
FOR FURTHER READING AND STUDY
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
opportunity to
The SCHOOL MATHEMATICS STUDY GROUP takes this
in
exptess its gratitude zo the authors of these articles for their generosity
allowing their material to be reproduced in this manner: Ali R. Amir-Moez,
who, at the time his articles were first published, was associated with Queens
College of the City University of New York; Elmer B. Mode, who was as-
sociated with Boston University when his paper first appeared; and Theodore
C. Ridout, formerly master at Browne and Nichols School, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, who was a member of the Editorial staff of Ginn and Company at
the time his article was written.
its
The SCHOOL MATHEMATICS STUDY GROUP is also pleased to express
sincere appreciation to the several editors and publishers who have been kind
enough to allow these articles to be reprinted, namely:
MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE
ELMER B. MODE, "The Two Most Original Creations of the Human
Spirit", vol. 35 (1962), pp. 13-20.
RECREATIONAL MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE
ALI R. AMIR-MoEz, "Mathematics of Music", vol. 3 (1961), pp.
31-36.
SCRIPTA MATHEMATICA
Au R. ANTIR-M0Ez, "Numbers and the Music of East and West",
vol. 22 ( 1956), pp. 268-270.
THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER
THEODORE C. RIDOUT, "Sebastian and the 'Wolf' ", vol. 48 (1955),
pp. 84-86.

vii
 FOREWORD
and a coinventor
Nearly three hundred years ago, Leibniz, the philosopher
"Music is the pleasure that the human soul
of the calculus, had this to say: being aware that it is counting". In more
experiences from counting without
recent times, the renowned architect, number theosophist and philosopher Claude
Bragdon once observed that "music is made audible, architecture is
number made visible".
the conviction that music,
These two observations would seem to justify
intimately and inextricably associated
at least in some of its aspects, is somehow mathematicians of the
with numbers and their properties. The early Greek Since ancient times, men
Pythagorean School were firmly convinced of this. depends upon its
have known that the pitch of a sound from a plucked string
length, and chat if the ratios of the lengths of the strings are simple whole
Specifically, Pythagoras
numbers, the resulting sounds will be harmonious. and its octave were in
was aware that lengths which sounded a note, disciples its fifth
believed that the dis-
the ratio 2:3:4. In fact, Pythagoras and his in a musical pro-
tances of the astronomical planets from the earth were also through space,
gression, and that therefore the heavenly bodies, as they moved
the phrase "the harmony of the
gave forth harmonious sounds: whence arose only explanation of the
spheres". The Pythagoreans fully believed that the
Universe was to be found in the
order and harmony and perfection in the
science of numbers, or arithmetike.
that for 1500 years, from the
!ndeed, this convictioh was so deep-rooted classified knowledge as the Seven
time of Pythagoras to the Middle Ages, men
Liberal Arts: the trivium (grammar, rhetoric,
and logic) and the quadrivium
the mathematical
(arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music). Furthermore,
absolute, or arithmetic: numbers
sciences were thought of as follows: numbers magnitudes in motion, or
applied, or music; magnitudes at rest, or geometry;
astronomy.
and mathematics? Listen to
What have other observers said about music
J. J. Sylvester, the brilliant, poetic, temperamental British mathematician of
much to the theory of invariants
the mid-nineteenth century who contributed so The musician feels Mathe-
and matrices: "Mathematics is the music of Reason. the opinion of Helmholz,
matics, the mathematician thinks Music". Or again, and Music, the most
more the physicist than the mathematician: "Mathematics so related as to reveal the
sharply contrasted fields of scientific activity, are yet
activities of our mind". Finally, from
secret connection binding together all the
author of the "Dance of Life" and
the pen of Havelock Ellis, the celebrated
culture: "It is not surprising that the
perceptive interpreter of civilization and
and again appealed to the arts in order to
greatest mathematicians have again have indeed found it in the most
find some analogy to their own work. They although it would certainly
varied arts, in poetry, in painting, and in sculpture,
seem that it is in music, the most
abstract of all the arts, the art of number
and of time, that we find the closest analogy."
 The Two Most Original Creations
of the Human Spirit
ELMER B. MODE
claim to
"The science of Pure Mathemarks, in its modern developments, may
claimant for this psi-
be the most original creation of the human spirit. Another
don is music." World.
A. N. WHr1111113AD, Sanwa grad the Modem

I. Introduction. In the luotation given above a great Anglo-American

interest, one a
philosopher (I) characterized two distinct fields of human mumaly
science, the other an art. The arts and the sciences, however, are not
to solv; s
exclusive. Art has often borrowed from science in its attempts
higher forms has many
problems and to perfect its achievements. Science in its
all foreign in the
of the attributes of an art. Vivid aesthetic feelings are not at in fact, wrote as
work of the scientist. The late Professor George Birkhoff,
follows:
be
"A system of laws may be beautiful, or a mathematical proof may either
elegant, although no auditory or visual experience is directly involved in
desirability which is more than
case. It would seem indeed that all feeling of
aesthetic feeling." (2)
mere appetite has some claim to be regarded as
"there exists a
Serge Koussevitzky, noted conductor, has stated also that
profound unity between science and art." (3)
It is not, however, the purpose of this paper, to discuss the relationships
of the lesser
between the sciences and the arts, but rather to enumerate some There is no
known attributes which music and mathematics have in common.
attempt to establish a thesis.
2. Number and Pitch. The study of mathematics usually begins with
has
the natural numbers or positive integers. Their symbolic representation
scale of ten, the principle
been effectively accomplished by means of a radix or
indicates the power of ten to be
of place-value where the position of a digit
multiplied by it, and a zero. The concept of number is most basic in mathe-
cardinal number, such as five, is
matics. We cannot directly sense number. A instances each of which
an abstraction which comes to us from many concrete
connected with the one upon which
possesses other attributes not even remotely
differing groups as the fingers of the hand, the
our interest is fixed. Such widely Dionne quintuplets, are
sides of the pentagon, the arms of a starfish, and the
each group to be matched
all instances of "fiveness," the property which enables
The establishment of
or placed into one-to-one correspondence with the other. only good eyesight.
such equivalence requires no knowledge of mathematics,
mathematicians.
With these facts in mind we may state a definition familiar to of the
The (cardinal) number of it group of objects is the invariant property
group and all other groups which can be matched with it.
small portion of the
The positive integers constitute, however, but a intervals in the con-
numbers of mathematics. The former mark off natural
3
 tinuum of teal numbers. The difference
is readily sensed; man finds no difficultybetween two small groups of objects
in distinguishing visually, at once,
between three and four, objects, but the
distinction between, say, thiny-two and
thirty-three objects calls for something
more than good vision.
In music, study begins with notes or tones. In western music
representation is accomplished by means of their symbolic
tion, and the rest, which denotes cessation a scale of seven, a principle of posi-
nent and unchangeable about a given of tone. There is something perma-
note.
may emit it, the clarinet may sound it, and the You may sing it, the violin string
with it. The quality or timbre, the loudness trumpet may fill the room
sound may be markedly different or intensity, and duration of one
from another; yet among these differences of
sound there remains one unchanging attribute,
a single such now or any combination its pitch. This is the same for
of
be defined as the invariant property of :he them. The pitch of a note may then
note and all other notes which way
be matched with it. Notes which can be matched
also, as an abstraction, derived from are said to be in unison. Pitch,
many
ment of pitch equivalence does not require auditory experiences. The establish-
ear. a knowledge of music, only a keen
The notes of the diatonic scale mark off convenient
tinuum of pitches. Within a given intervals in a con-
range, the interval between
scale is, in general, readily sensed, but two tones of the
outside
may fail to distinguish between or even to hear of such a range the human ear
ter of fact, "tones" removed from the two differing tones. As a mat-
range of audibility cease to be such. As
psychological entities they disappear and
in a physical medium. may be identified only as vibrations
Invariance of pitch is an important musical
musician not playing a kied instrument property and the ability of a
to maintain
note is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition this property for a given
story of the distracted singing teacher who, for his artistry. This recalls the
pupil, sprang suddenly from the piano, after accompanying his none-too-apt
hair, and shouted: "I play the white thrust his fingers wildly through his
sing in the cracks." notes, and I play the black notes, but you

3. Symbols. Mathematics is
They are indispensable tools in thecharacterized by an extensive use of
work; they constitute the principalsymbols.
for the precise expression of ideas; vehicle
be non-existent. The most without them modern mathematics would
important mathematical symbols are, with few
exceptions, in universal use among the civilized
countries of the world.
Music also is distinguished by a universal symbolism.
anything but the simplest musical composition The creation of
nificant musical ideas is difficult if or the transmission of sig-
not impossible without the symbols of music.
Incidentally it may be remarked that the
page of a musical score and the
page of a book in calculus are equally unintelligible
are very few fields of activity outside of mathematicsto the uninitiated. There
music which have developed so extensively their (including logic) and
Chemistry and phonetics are nearest in this own symbolic language.
respect.

4
 training involves the acquir-
In both music and mathematics preliminary
ing of technique. Mathematics demands such facile manipulation of symbols
encouraged to elimi-
that the detailed operations become mechanical. We are the funda-
nate the necessity for elementary thinking as much as possible, once
mental logic is made plain. This clears the way for more complicated processes
of reasoning.
copy-books and by
"It is a profoundly erroneous truism, repeated by all
eminent people when they are making speeches, that we should cultivatr the
habit of thinking of what we are doing. The precise opposite is the case.
Civilization advances by extending the number of important operations which
we can perform without thinking about them." [4]
of technique.
In music also, the preliminary training involves a learning
The aim here is to be able to read, or to write, or to translate into the appro .
priate physical actions, notes and combinations of them with such mechanical
perfection that the mind is free for the creation ;Ind the interpretation of more
profound musical ideas.
science is well
4. Logical Structure. The framework of a mathematical
known. We select a class of objects and a set of relations concerning them.
Some of these relations are assumed and others are deduced. In other words,
from our axioms and postulates we deduce theorems embracing important
properties of the objects involved.
Music likewise has its logical structure. The class of objects consists of
such musical elements as tones, intervals, progressions, and rests, and various
relations among these elements. In fact, the structure of music has been formally
procedure of mathe-
described as a set of postulates according to the customary
matical logic. [5]
In mat. ..matics a development is carried forward according to the axioms
in the mathematical
or postulates. If these are obeyed the results are correct, law
sense, although they may not be interesting or useful. Mere obedience to
does not create an original piece of mathematical work. This requires technical
skill, imagination, and usually a definite objective.
Music also has its axioms or laws. These may be as simple as the most
obvious things in elementary mathematics the whole equals the sum of all
they may be less obvious to
its parts if we are counting beats in a measure;
the layman, such as the canons of harmony or the structural laws of a classical
symphony. Here again we may follow the laws of music scrupulously without
Technical skill, imagination,
cvcr creating a worth-while bit of original music.
requh.ites for the crea-
the fortunate mood, and usually a definite objective are
musical lay s but
tion of a composition which not only exhibits obedience to
and
expresses significant ideas also. Occasionally the musician becomes bold first
violates the traditional musical axioms so that the resulting effects may at
sound strange or unpleasant. These may become as useful, provoking, and en-
joyable, as a non-Euclidean geometry or a non-Aristotelian logic. In such man-
ner did Wagner, Debussy, Stravinsky, and others extend the bounds of musical
thought. In mathematics as well as in music one may have to become accus-
tomed to novel developments before one learns to like them.

1
4
 Benjamin Peirce defined mathematics
sary conclusions." The operations from as "the science which draws neces-
order without logical hesitation hypothesis to theorem proceed in logical
tions flows swiftly and naturally or error. When the series of deductive opera-
to its inevitable conclusion, the
structure gives a sense of satisfaction, mathematical
acterizes the opening theme of beauty, and completeness. Sullivan
char-
mediately, in its ominous and Beethoven's Fifth Symphony as one which "im-
arresting quality, throws the mind into a certain
state of expectance, a st.-te where
a large number of happenings belonging
a certain class, can logically follow." to
phrase of the prelude to Tristtan [6) The same is true of the opening
and Isolde, or any really
masterpiece. great enduring
An interesting departure from
composition occurs in the Symphonicthe usual logical structure of a musical
Instead of the initial Variations, "Istar" by Vincent d'Indy.
announcement of the musical theme with its
variations, "the seven variations proceed subsequent
tation to the final stage of bare thematic from the point of complex ornamen-
simplicity." Philip
the following anecdote in the Hale, the eminent
Boston musical critic related
Bulletin of April 23, 1937. Boston Symphony
"M. Lambinet, a professor at
text 'Pro Musica' for his prize-day a Bordeaux public school, chose in 1905 the
the study of music would teach them speech. He told the boys that the
first thing
ment logic plays as great a part would be logic. In symphonic deveiop-
full of musical truth, whence as sentiment. The theme is a species of axiom,
sounds as the geometrician proceed deductions. The musician
with lines and the dialectitian with deals with
master went on to remark: 'A arguments.
has reversed the customary process great modern composer, M. Vincent
degrees unfolds from initial in his symphonic poem "Istar." &Indy, He by
therein and appears only atcomplexity
the
the simple idea which
was wrapped up
discovered and formulated.' The close, like Isis unveiled, like a scientific law
a musical work 'an inductive speaker found this happy definition for such
symphony.' "
5. Meaning. A mathematical formula
accurate representation of meaning which represents a peculiarly succinct and
means. It is concerned with the cannot be duplicated by any other
function concept. "A mathematicalphenomenon of variability; it
formula involves the
but only how it behaves." [7] can never tell us what a thing is,
How true this is of music! A theme of
small interval of space or time, great music compresses into a
inimitably
of meaning. Music is not fundamentally and accurately, a remarkable wealth
static physical objects, but with the concerned with the description of
Debussy's "La Met" is a fine example impressions they leave under varying
of this aspects.
is often not in the physical type of description. Music's interest
One of the sources of the man but in his changing moods, in his emotions.
greatness of "Die Walkiire" is
portraying vividly the conflicting Wagner's genius for
man. aspects of Wotan's nature
as god and as
The meaning of musical
motive grows with study. It is
or developed and from it are derived usually exploited
new figures of musical expression. A
good
6

I .?
 before its deep significance is
theme demands more than the casual hearing insignificant
completely appreciated. It is often worked up from an entirely symphony.
Mozart's G minor
motive as in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony or in which can
In mathematics a basic formula or equation may have implications
be almost trivial as in
be understood only after much study. It may appear to
the case of a + b = 6 + a or it may be less obvious and more elegant as in
the case of Laplace's equation,
Zati
+ viu 0.

gives expression to concepts

Music consists of abstractions, and at its best
Beethoven's music expresses
which represent the most universal features of life. tragedies of human exist-
powerfully the great aspirations, struggles, joys, and
ence. The Eroica symphony may have been composed with Napoleon in mind
single man. It is a portrayal of
but it portrays far more than the career of a application. It is well known
the heroic in man and as such is universal in its
different responses among
that a musical passage or composition may produce constitues one of the sources
people. The possibility of varying interpretation
It is an evidence of its uni-
of music's uniqueness and a reason for its power. between music and painting or
versality. Herein lies a fundamental difference emotional
sculpture. The effect of a musical episode is due to its wide potential
applicability; the effect of a painting or piece of sculpture
is due to its con-
been gen-
creteness. Attempts at abstract representations by painters have not
erally successful; attempts at stark realism in music have likewise failed. Music
defies ap-
in its most abstract form, as for example, Bach's or Mozart's, often
plication to the concrete. It seems to be above mundane things,
in the realm of
pure spirit. abstract, and universal
So it is with mathematics. Our conclusions are always
originated from a special prob-
in their application, although they may have
application of a given theorem or
lem. The possibilities of interpretation and said that even the same
formula are unlimited. Poincar6 is reported to have
mathematical theorem has not the same meaning for rwo different mathema-
Laplace's equation is set up
ticians. What differing reactions may ensue when
degrees of abstractness
before an audience of mathematicians! What differing
are suggested by the two equations previously written!
6. The Creative Process. "It is worth noting . .. that it is only in mathe-
the boy mathe-
matics and music that we have the creative infant prodigy; . .
utilizing a store of impressions,
matician or musician, unlike other artists, is not
emotional or other, drawn from experience or learning; he is utilizing inner
resources. ..." (8)
Statements of this type have led many to believe that mathematical talent
and musical talent have more than an accidental relation. Some feel that
mathematicians are more naturally drawn to music than musicians are to
mathematics. As far as the writer has been able to ascertain, no serious investi-
gations on the relation between the two talents have been published. A brief
the child prodigy
study of exceptionally gifted children yields no testimony that
7
 in music has more than the
prodigy in mathematics has average mathematical sense, or that the child
exceptional ability
in music.
In a recent article, Mind and
critic, Ernest Newman, discusses Music, [9] the inimitable English music
play in the creative the role that the subconscious
processes of music. Hampered by a dearth of mind might
mony on this subject, he attempts, reliable testi-
nevertheless,
and Wagner had written of their creative to estimate this role. Berlioz
self-analysis. So also had Mozart experiences without attempting any
Newman feels that the Memoirs of although Newman does not refer to him.
Hector Berlioz are not too reliable in this
respect Wagner's letters, however, seem to indicate that
ideas were the ..,sult of many of his musical
an upsurge from the unconscious depths of
ideas long hidden but suddenly his mind of
crystallizing. The activity of his conscious mind
was often displaced by the upward thrust
of these latent creative forces.
The interpretation thus suggested is strikingly
to that described by Jacques Hadamard similar in many respects
vention in the Mathematical Field. in his Essay on the Psychology of In-
the related experiences of (10] This noted mathematician draws on
Poincaré, Helmholtz, Gauss, and others
the origin of the inspiration to discuss
or sudden insight that contributes to, completes,
or initiates an original work. The role
cernible in the subcor cious, only to become,of thoughts that lie vague and undis-
after a period of unsuipected of a sudden, clear and discernible
incubation, is described in undogmatic
cannot affirm, of course, that these terms. One
are confined solely to music and opinions concerning the creative process
are voiced by two eminent scholars,mathematics, but it is interesting that they
one from each field.
The greatest works of music
as well as by their emotional appeal. are distinguished by their intellectual content
of Beethoven, or the operas of The sacred music of Bach, the
symphonies
sion, as well as opportunities for Wagner, offer subjects for analysis and
discus-
ideas to "work out," ideas emotional experience. Each composer had
to be developed and clarified by the
artifices of music, the object being forms and
to make their full significance felt
appreciative listener. by the
Mathemstical creativity involves
ment. Concepts must be clarified, very much the same general develop-
vealed. If these are significant and operations carried out, latent meanings re-
and a sense of completeness logically developed the result has a unity
which brings intellectual and
both author and reader. aesthetic satisfaction to
7. Aesthetic Considerations. To many, mathematics
bidding subject. Its form seems to be more
of a living, breathing, human like that of seems to be a for-
a skeleton than that
body. This idea, is, of course, derived from
abstract character and from the its
demands which it makes for sharply defined
concepts, terse methods of expression,
and precise rules of operation. In
sense, mathematics lacks richness, if by richness a
impurities which impart savor and color. These we mean the presence of those
of concrete examples, illustrations impurities may be in the
from, or applications to fields othernature
than
mathematics. They may represent departures
development, and may make no contributions from the normal abstract logical
whatsoever to the formal struc-
8
turc which constitutes mathematics. But if we subtract from the richness of
mathematics, we add also to its purity, for in mathematics the structure or form
is more important than its applications. We may apply the mathematics to
these applications are
many problems associated with human existence, but
they lie apart from it.
not essential parts of pure mathematics,
but because it is purest it is also
"In music the flavor of beauty is purest, form and its form is
least rich. . . . A melody is a pure form. Its content is its
its content. A change in one means a change in other. We can, of course, force
pictures. But when we do so
an external content upon it, read into it stories or music." [I I]
we know that they are extraneous and not inherent in the
for its fields are unlimited in
In a different sense mathematics is over-rich
extent and fertility.
multiple fields of modern
"But no one can traverse the realm of the in
Mathematics and not realize that it deals with a world of its own aeation,the
anything to be found in
which there are strangely beautiful flowers, unlike
life of their own, different
world of external entities, intricate structures with a
even new and fascinating laws
from anything in the realm of natural science, powerful than those we depend
of logic, methods of drawing conclusions more
different from those we cherish
upon, and ideal categories very widely
most." f 12)
unique
One needs here but to change a few words in order to describe the its own
and harmonies of music are
and lovely creations of music. The melodies incapable of description by
inventions. They are often mysteriously beautiful,
other means and without counterpart elsewhere in the world about us. A
simplicity or of the most intricate
musical composition may be of the utmost inexpressible." It is exactly this
character, yet it may "well-nigh express the mathematics and music
ability to convey the "inexpressible" ideas that give meaning or
much in common. The mathematics student who seeks always a
appreciate the power of that
picture of each new proposition often fails to
which defies representation.
those who love both music
8. Conclusion. There is much of interest tomathematicians on the bear-
and mathematics, and much has been written by written delightfully of some of
ings of one field on the other. Archibald has evalua-
their human aspects as well as the scientific. Birkhoff has attempted the have
methods. Miller and others
tion of musical aesthetics by quantitative problems of musical tone
brought the instruments of physics to bear upon the
and acoustics.
Success in music arid in mathematics also
depend upon very much the
same things fine technical equipment, unerring precision, and abundant
beauty.
imagination, a keen sense of values, and, above all, a love for truth and
 REFERENCES
1. WHITEHEAD, A. N., Science and the
Modern W orld,New York, 1925, p. 29.
2. ButscHoFF, G. D., Anthrtic
Maws, Cambridge, 1933, p. 209.
3. At a symphony concert given in honor of
the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, Boston, Mass., Dec. 27, 1933.
4. WHITEHEAD, A. N., As hstrodartiott to Mathematics, New
5. LANGER, S. K., A Set of Postulates
York, 1911, p. 61.
for the Logical Structure of Music, Monist,
1929, pp. 561-570. Vol. 39,
6. SULLIVAN, J. W. N., &peas of
Science, london, 1923, p. 167.
7. JEANS, J. H., The Mysterious Universs,Cambridge,
1930, pp. 151, 152.
8. See 6, p. 168.
9. NEWMAN, E,Mind mod Music, Sunday
Times ( London ), July 8, 1956.
10, HADAMARD, J., Ars Essay on the Psychology of
Princeton, 1945. Itivention us the Mathematical Field.
11. SCHOEN, M., Ars and Beauty, New
York, 1932, pp. 190-192.
12. SHAW, J. B., Cause, Purpose,
Creativity, Monist, VoL 33, 1923, p. 355.

10
 Mathematics of Music
ALI IL AMIR-MOEZ
Though music may seem far removed from what many think are the cold
logical aspects of mathematics, nevertheless, music, with its emotional appeal,
has a mathematical foundation. The following article will show how highly
mathematical are the sounds, the scales and the keys (the parts, so to speak)
of music.
1. Harmonics of a Sound: When a sound is made, for example, by
striking a string of a musical instrument, each particle of air next to the source
of the sound vibrates. We shall call the number of vibrations of that particle
of air in one second the number of vibrations of the sound. The larger this
number is, the higher the pitch of the sound becomes.
Suppose a sound is called C, and its number of vibrations is c. That is, if,
for example, the sound C, and its number of vibrations is C. That is, for ex-
ample, the sound C makes a particle of air vibrate five hundred times in one
second, we say c=500. It was discovered by Greek mathematicians that if after
the sound C is heard we make another sound S whose number of vibrations is
twice the number of vibrations of C, i.e., 2c, then S will be pleasant to heat.
As far as the history of mathematics shows, this idea is due to Pythagoras. The
sound T with three times as many vibrations, i.e., with 3c vibrations, is also
pleasant to hear after C. This fact is true for sounds with vibrations c, 2c, 3c, 4c,
5c, etc. Usually, if we play these sounds successively in some order with a certain
rhythm, we call it a melody. If we play a few of these sounds together, we call
it harmony.
We shall call the sounds with vibrations 2c, 3c, 4c, etc. harmonics of C.
2. A Primitive Scale: In the work of Omar Khayyani*, it is mentioned
that the study of the ratios of integers is essential for the science of music. That
was the only mathematics used in the Greek theory of music. To explain the
idea, we start with the sound C, and we suppose that C, is the name of the sound
with 2c vibrations. Let us call G, the sound whose number of vibrations is 3c.
( We shall explain why we have chosen these names. ) If a sound with twice as
many vibrations is a harmonic of a given sound, it is reasonable to believe that
the sound G with one-half as many vibrations as G, is a harmonic of C. Thus
we can say that the sounds C, G, and C, are harmonic of one another, and their
vibrations are, respectively, c, " and 2c. We can compare these sounds and
their vibrations by constructing the following table.

Sound C G C,
3
c I -,..--, 2
. 4

°Omar Khayyam. "Discussion of Difficuhies in Euclid," Scripm Aftobtaramica V. 24, pp. 275 303
(1959).
II
 The first line of the table shows the
line shows the corresponding number of name of each sound, and the second
vibrations. For example, under G we
see 3/2, which means that G has 2(.12 vibrations in a second.
The names chosen here are actually those chosen in the
natural C of the scale, then G has 3/2 scale. If C is the
as many vibrations as C. C, is the next
so-called C, which is usually called the octave of C.
In this scale we have only three sounds. If
we play C, G, and octave of C
on the piano, we can almost see how they sound. Of
much music with three course, we cannot make
sounds.
3. Oriental Scale: Let us extend the idea of section 2
the fifth and seventh further. We rake
harmonics of C, i.e., the sounds whose numbers of vibra-
tions are 5c and 7c. We call these souads,
respectively, E, and K. We shall
explain the choice of the subscripts shortly.
Let us compare these sounds with
C the octave of C, and with C2, the octave of C. Note that 2c is the
of vibrations of C and 4c is the number of vibrations of C,. Thus, ifnumber
sound with half as many vibrations as E then E, is a
we see that 'el: is the number of
vibrations of E. Similarly, we can choose a sound K, whose
tions is If we compare these sounds according number of vibra-
in the order C E K,, to their pitch, we get them
C. This is clear because
2 < 5 < 7 < 4.
2 2
Since these sounds are all harmonics of C, the sounds
E and K, which have
half as many vibrations as E, and K respectively, i.e., '".14
and 'ci are also
harmonics of C. As in section 2, we can make a table as follows:
Sound CEGK C1

c 7
-4- 2
.
These five sounds together approximately constitute the
oriental scale.
4. Middle-East Scale: If we proceed with what was done in section
we get more sounds in the scale. Since the sounds with 3,
etc. do not contribute vibrations 2c, 4c, 8c, 16c,
to the scale, we choose the sounds between them. In
particular, let us call D, the sound with 9c vibrations.
and B, with vibrations, respectively, 1 lc, 13c, and We also choose P H
15c. As before, we may
choose D2, P, H and B, with vibrations "" "`/2, ""
Then we choose D, H, and B with vibrations
and "" respectively.
tively. We shall construct a table as before.
""/, ", fr/, and '"/, respec-

Sound
- CD . E P GH K B C,
c
1
i
9
-11-
_
5
-4.1 I
11 3 13
T
7 15
T 2

A scale may be made out of these sounds with eight

names in the scale
instead of seven. Before we discuss this set of sounds, we make
the theoretical (physical ) sounds of the scale. a table using

12

13
 ,
ABC1 -
Sound

c
C
1
D E

jj
4
G
3 5
_
15
2

If we compare P and F, we see that that the ratio of the number of

vibrations of P to the number of vibrations of F denoted by
P 11 4 = 33
F 8 3 32
This shows that P is sharper than F. This is where the middle-east music is
different from the physical scale. The sound H with "" vibrations is not used
in the middle-east music. Thus, C, D, E, P. G, K, B, C, approximately con-
stitute the sounds of the middle-east scale. We see that
K 7 5 21
A 4 3 20
Therefore, K is also sharper than A.
5. Tones and half-tones: If we study the physical scale, we observe that
p 9 _E 10 F 16 ("i _9 A10 B_ 9 C16
C 8'D 9* E 15 ' F 8 9 A 8' B 15

This suggests the idea of small and large intervals or tones and half-tones. We
shall write this as follows:
Sound C D E F A B c
Tone
I
1
I
1.
1
i
I
1
.
1 I,
i
i
1
A

z-
I
I
I
I
L
1
,:l
i
l'-I ;
i
I
:
,
1 :

:
.

The above table indicates which interval is a tone and which is a half-tone.
For example, between E and F is a half-tone. But, we really should say large
and small intervals.
6. Geometric Progression: An ordered set of numbers is called a
geometric progression when the ratio of each one to its predecessor is always
the same. For example, the set
5, 10, 20, 40, 80, . . .

is a geometric progression. The ratio is 2, that is, the ratio

of each number to
the one before it is two. Indeed, we can produce as many members of this set
as we desire.
If one member of a set and the ratio are given, we can always produce
as many members as needed. For example, if 1/2 is a
member of the progression
and the ratio is VI, then we can write some of the members of this progression,
such as 1

2
-1
2
Ir2) ( V2) = 2 (VD)
2
(
' 2

of them
7. Geometric Means: For two numbers, the geometric mean
is the square root of the product of them. This is a sort of average, similar to
one-half of the sum, which is called the arithmetic mean. As for the arithmetic
of
average of a few numbers, we add them and divide the sum by the number
13
 them; for the geometric mean of a few numbers
the root of order equal to the number we multiply them and take
mean of of them. For example, the geometric
5, 7, 2, 6
is

=
'V(5)(7) (2) (6)
8. Modern Scale: Since two sounds are compared
of their number of vibrations in terms of the ratio
rather than the difference of the number of vi-
brations, in order to make all intervals
we need to take the geometric equal and call each one a "half tone,"
mean of twelve half-tones of the scale. Thus
number of vibrations of the sounds the
in the modern scale form a geometric
progression which has 1 as a member and "VI
scale can be shown in the as its ratio. Thus the modern
following table:
'Sound IC D E F G- A B
c 1 _(l V-2)2 J (uNri)' r VIY ("11/)' (" VI)' (I' V2)", 2

As we observe, the power of "V2

and it increases by one whenever increases by 2 whenever we have a tone:
we have a half-tone.
The modern scale is not really
but with slight training, the as natural to the ear as the old Greek scale;
ear gets used to it. The important fact is that
modulation from one key to another
becomes extremely easy.
There is one disadvantage in
monic of C, i.e., G, becomes the modern scale, namely, the third har-
slightly flat. The sound G is called
of the scale and, being flat, the dominant
makes the musk dull. We shall
mathematically. In the modern scale show this fact
G = = 1.498
But, in the natural scale
1.5
C 2
This mistake is always corrected in the violin. This
an orchestra with string instruments sounds is one of the reasons that
much better than a piano solo.
9. Major Keys: A sample of the scale of
section 8. This is called "C major" a major key is the one in
since it starts with C. C is also called the
tonic of the scale. In any major key,
the sound (notes) of the scale have the
same relation to one another as the
ones in C major. That is, the interval be-
tween the third and fourth elements is
the seventh and eighth elements is one half-tone; also the interval between
one tone. a half-tone, and the other intervals are all
The next major key is G major.
One is that the note G is the third This has been chosen for two reasons.
has a higher pitch. Note that harmonic of C; the other is that this key
going from C its second harmonic
change the scale. The table of the scale of thistokey does not
is as follows:

14
 - - B I Cs Di Es Fi* Gi
fa A
ea 1p2)" ("WZ"-'
C e vu : e v'ir' (-viz" 2 es V2)" (a VZ°
between the seventh and
We observe that in order to have the interval
have to use F (F, sharp)
eighth, i.e., subtonic and tonic, a half tone, we
with vibrations ( "N(7) " instead of F, with (
If we choose the fifth note of this scale as the first of a new scale, we get
the key of D major. This key needs two sharps.
tables for several major keys
The reader may try this idea and work out
which come after G major. pitch, it is also possible
As it was possible to get major keys with higher
to get major keys with lower pitch. for which
Suppose we look at the table in section 8 and consider a scale
the fifth note is C. This will have the followin,g table:
, D E
Sound I F. G. A. B.' IC
(13
(2 V2)-* (1' V-2)4 1 (1' 1,11? C3Nr2Y V2).
c C" V12)-*

between the
Here we have to use Bb, i.e., B flat, in order to have the interval
third and fourth notes be a half-tone. flat. We leave it
If we proceed in this way, each lower key has an extra
and write tables for the corresponding
to the reader to produce many major keys
scales.
1 a Minor Keys: To imitate the crying sound of middle-east music,
written in minor keys avoid
minor keys seem to be proper. Most older pieces
but we find this combination
the very large interval followed by a half-tone,
of sounds in recent pieces. only
Many forms of minor keys have been considered. We shall describe
one of the most recent pieces. third harmonic of C, we
To obtain a new scale, instead of going to the
the simplest minor key.
may go to the fifth harmonic of C. But, this key is not The table
Thus we move down to A, whose fifth harmonic is approximately C.
of the scale for A minor is the following:
E F 0-# A
B. C D
Sound c vly. (i, v2).
I (' v-2), es Iry (.1v2)
(u v.2).s (s 1.(2),

have a half-tone interval between

As the physical scale shows, it is desirable to As we see,
the subtonic and the tonic of a scale. This brings Qt into the scale.
the interval between F and G# is one and a half tones. similar to that by
Other minor keys are obtained from this in a manner
leave it to the reader to
which the major keys are obtained from C major. We
obtain them. his knowledge of music
It would be very interesting for one to compare
with what has been said here.

15
 Numbers and the Music of the East and West
ALI R. AMIR-MOEZ
Let C be a sound whose number of vibrations is c. Having heard C, any
sound with number of vibrations equal to kc, k 1, 2, ... , is pleasant to hear.
These sounds are called the harmonics of C. If we play a few of these sounds
successively with some rhythm, a pleasant melody is made. If we play a few
of these sounds together, a rich sound comes our and it is called harmony. A
sound C with vibrations 2c is called the octave of C.
Let us consider two octaves of C, say e and C", and construct the follow-
ing table.
Sound C G Ci G' C"

c l 1
2
2 3 4

As shown in the table let G' be the third harmonic of C. Since the sound
G' with 3c vibrations is pleasant to be heard with C, it is reasonable to think
that G with half as many vibrations, i. e., c, would also make harmony with
C. In fact this sound is called the dominant of the scale. This way we obtain
only three sounds in the scale. Now in order to get more sounds in the scale
let us consider three octaves of C, say C' C", and CH. Let us construct the fol-
lowing table.
Sound CE G KC Ei G' le C" E" G" K" 0"
5 3 7 2 i
5
3
7
4 5 6 7 8

As shown in the table the 5th harmonic of C is called E". Again it is

conceivable that since E" is a harmonic of C, also E' with vibrations c, and E

with vibrations c will be harmonic with C. A similar process can be used for
the 7th harmonic of C. called K", and K', K could be found accordingly. This
sound K is missing in the physical scale. If we consider only these five sounds.
the scaie will be as follows:
ODD=
Scund

MEI 111
An approximation of these sounds appears frequently in the music of the
Far East.
Now let us consider four octaves of C, say C, C", C8", and C".. In order to
get more sounds in the scale, we construct the following table by considering
the harmonics of orders 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 of C, and putting tones
with of these frequencies in the scale.
17
 Sound 3 D DOG EICKEilta cin Dm Ew GISICSIMIGIS
c
IIDOEMBEINIIIIIIIII 10
Now theoretically speaking the sounds of the scale stand
ell 13 11111 16
as follows:
Sound C D ma c am
1
IffilliKill
Comparing this table with the previous one we see that
1:F.= if. 4 33.
8 3
1. e., P is sharper than F. Some people
are of the opinion that half of a
half tone exists in the music of the middle east, but this
ence is actually the use of P instead of F. As is not true. The differ-
practical scale, F is slightly sharper in we shall show in the modern or
be equal to P. theoretical scale, but it is still too flat to
We see also that H and K are replaced by A. An experiment
of Science, University of Teheran, made it certain that H, at the School
tnonic of C does not exist in the music of the i. e., the 13th har-
instead of A. The ratio middle east. But K is also used
K:A po

shows that K is sharper than A.

Now if we look at the intervals in the theoretical
scale we see that

D:C=:,E:D=142,F:E=1,6:F=:.A:G=8:A=2,andC:B=
9 8 5
116.

This has suggested the idea of tones and half

at the preceding intervals we have approximatelytones for today's music. Looking
12 half tones between C and
C. In practical scale all half tones are at equal intervals, i.e., we have to have
the geometric mean of these half
tone intervals. Clearly the product of intervals,
i.e.,9 10 16 9 10 9 16 2.
8 9 15 8 9 8
Therefore the geometric mean, considering 12 half
tones, will be "Na. We can
really describe each half tone as a term in a geometric
term is 1 and its ratio is "1/2. progression whose first
Let us compute the ratio of the dominant and the tonique,
Clearly G is the 8th term of the progression and i. e.,
its frequency will be

18

23
 a 1.498 which is a little more flat than -; = 1.5. This is the place
that in violin is always corrected. The advantage of the modern scale is that
modulation from one key to another is very convenient. In fact musicians say:
"If the sensitive ear of a musician does not distinguish these slight differences of
sounds, the mathematiciins ear of course wouldn't distinguish them either."
But the musician's ear has been trained to appreciate the sounds of prac-
tical scale. However any simple melody of this sort sounds harsh to a Persian
tribesman.

19

2
 Sebastian and the Wolf
THEODORE C. RIDOUT
This is not another parody on Little Red Ridinghood. It is rather a tale
of how a musician battled a "wolf," and how a schoolteacher fought the same
fight in the classroom.
The "wolf" we are interested in is a beast that plagued the makers of
musical instrumentz for many centuries. Although many attacked him with
vigor, and Johann Sebastian Bach laid him fairly low, the ghost of the critter
still haunts our concert halls and keeps turning up in the physics laboratory.
Since he has a mathematical origin, it seems fitting that we should discuss him
in these pages.
The problem is something like this. You tune your violin by fifths, ad-
justing string tension until you hear a perfect fifth when two strings are
sounded together. The fifth is a basic unit in musical tuning.
But so, also, is the octave. Take a very simple one-stringed instrument,
Pythagoras' monochord. Every time we quadruple the tension on the string we
double the rate of vibration, and the tone goes up an octave. Starting at a
single vibration per second, the process of doubling the frequency of vibration
takes us up in geometric progression to frequencies of 2, 4, 8, 16, . .. until we
reach 256, where we pause for breath and call the tone "middle C." If we
double again we get "upper C," at a frequency of 512 per second, and so on,
until the pitch is too high for even your dog to hear.
According to the laws of physics, if C has a frequency of 256, the perfect
fifth above it, G, will have a frequency of 256 X 1.5, which is 384. Here C:G
1:1.15, or 4:6. Moreover the triad (or chord) C-E-G sounds best if the
frequencies of these notes have the exact ratio 4:5:6. These combinations are
pleasing to the ear because the harmonics, or overtones, as well as the funda-
mental topes, combine with a minimum of conflicts or undesirable beats.
Filling in, we have the following notes and their relative frequencies:
9 k) Ei 5 F( k )- G( 2 k )- A( 35- k B 8 k )-- C.,(2k)
C (frequency k)-- D 4 1

This is known as a pure scale, and its tones have exact harmonic relations to
the keynote. Music played on an instrument so runed sounds rich and ethereally
beautiful.
So much for theory. I will now retire to my workshop and construct a
piano. Starting at a very low C (about 32 vibrations per second) I go up bv
perfect fifths along the musical alphabet. The nores will be C, G, D, A, E, B, .

G$, Eb, Bj, F, and C. From bottom C to top C is just seven octaves. This
looks like the beginning and the end of a complete and perfect keyboard, and
I flatter myself I can fill in the other notes in proper ratios to make a shining
row of ivories. But first I had better check my fifths.
Going up from C to G, 1 increased my frequency by the correct factor,
1.5. From G up to D. I again multiplied by 1.5. In all, I multiplied twelve
21
 times b this factor, so that rny top C vibrates
times that of the bottom C, or 129.75 times the at a frequency that is (1.5)"
original.
But suppose I go up by octaves? Starting
doubling frequency until I have gone up seven octaves,at the same C as before and
I arrive at a frequency
that is 21, or 128, times the original.
I now have two top C's, and there is a
difference of about a quarter of a semitone
between them. What to do?
VariOLIS solutions have been offered.
known as the mean-tone scale was used. This For many centuric4 a compromise
can best be illustrated by arranging
the twelve fifths around the dial of
a clock, with C at twelve o'clock, G at one
o'clock, and so on. Instead of the fifths being
tuned in the
are tuned in the compromise ratio Y5, which equals correct ratio 1.5, they
very slight error. This error multiplied twelve times 1.49535, introducing a
Suppose I have the gap come after 11 leaves a gap somewhere.
on the clock, between F and top C on
my keyboard. Instead of a normal interval of 7
interval of 7.4 semitones. semitones here, I have an
A musical composition involving this
thing but harmonious, and might even howl overgrown interval would be any-
like a wolf in the forest; hence the
interval came to be known as the quinte-de-loup,
or wolf fifth. One could play
only in certain keys that did not run afoul of this beast.
Mathematicians of course came to the rescue, but their aid
appreciated. As far back as 1482 a Spaniard named was not always
an equalized tuning in which all semitones ..hould Bartolo Rames proposed
or 1.05946 times the note below. This divides the go up in the ratio of "VI,
error exactly between suc-
cessive intervals, slightly reducing each fifth, so that a complete
fifths can begin and end on exactly the sax_ set of twelve
With the intervening notes filled in, we have tones as a set of seven octaves.
useful tuning known as equal temperament. a slightly imperfect but very
This solution made little headway, in spite of
appearance of a mighty figure on the scene. This various advocates, until the
was none other than Johann
Sebastian Bach, who proposed equal temperament for all keyboard
and proceeded to rune his clavichord and instruments,
harpsichord
thus able to play in any one of the tweleve possible accordingly. He was
from one key to another without encountering keys, and could modulate
any wolves.
To demonstrate the system he composed a series of twenty-four
and fugues, making use of all twelve keys. This preludes
peated the process, giving us in all forty-eight was in 1722. He later re-
pieces under the title "The Well-
Tempered Clavichord." The term "well-tempered"
of course refers to equal
temperament. It is generally agreed that this work
for the present universal use of equal temperament. was chiefly responsible
It was many generations beiore the mean-tone scale
the tuning of pipe organs; and Bach was forced was abandoned in
at the car note. For this reason his organ compositions to compromise with the wolf
simpler kc are written only in the
My a :bra class was naturally interested in all
this. Plainly "Nr2 raised
to the twelfth power is 2, so that twelve semi-tones will fit perfectly into an

22
octave, forming a continuous chromatic scale. We checked the value of the
radical on a slide rule. The physics department demonstrated a sound disk for
us, proving to all the neighborhood that the frequencies under discussion pro-
duced a musical scale. The disk contained 8 rows of holes, corresponding to the
notes of the scale, as follows: C (24 holes), D (27 ), E (30), F (32 ), G (36 ),
A (40), B (45 ), C (48 ). When spun by an electric motor and played upon
with a jet of compressed air, such a disk gives off "musical" tones approach-
ing the power of a steam calliope, and in the exact harmonic ratios of the pure
scale.
My students wrote papers on such topics as the clavichord, pipe organs,
orchestration, electronic instruments, acoustics, and so on. One or two whose
musical background was stronger than the mathematical were somewhat
shocked to find figures encroaching on the province of the Muse. These dis-
senters wgre cheered, however, to know that Robert Smith in 1759 charac-
terized equal temperament as "extren-ely coarse and disagreeable," and that
Helmholtz in 1852 considered that it made every note on the piano sound
"false and disagreeable," and that on the organ it produced a "hellish row."
Helmholtz had used just intonation, as he called it, or pure tuning, for his
experimental harmonium, and like many a musical expert, became so con-
ditioned to perfect harmonies that he found those of equal temperament very
distasteful.
Thus, thanks to the Queen of Sciences, the "wolf" has now become a
thing of the past, though my young daughter tells me that one or two of his cubs
show up occasionally at the high-school band rehearsals.
 FOR FURTHER READING AND STUDY
The following references are not all equally significant. Some of them
are quite general, others are either mare scholarly or more technical. All of
them, however, are relevant Those that are probably most illuminating and
readily accessible have been indicated by. an astriisk. Not to have been so
labeled does not imply that the reference is any way unscholarly or without merit.
°ARCHIBALD, P.. C Mathematics and music Americas Mathematical Monthly 31:1-25;
192t
°BARBOUR...J. MURRAY. Musical logarithms. Scripta Mathernafica 7 :21-31; 1940.
Beabout, J. MURRAY. The persistence of Pythagorean tuning system. Scripta Maths-
viatica 1:286-304; June 1933.
HAMILTON, E. R. Music and mathematics. New Era 15: 33-36; January, 193t
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