Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support and effort in giving me the possibility to come
to Sweden to study and do my master thesis, and my friends for all their support.
Luleå in March 2014
Adolfo Martinez Diaz
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Abstract (English)
National codes have been used in bridge design as well as for the design of other type of strutures in
Sweden and other European countries. However, in the last years, the old codes have begun to give
way to new common European design standards: the Eurocodes.
All existing bridges, designed according to the earlier codes are gradually getting older, and eventually
they will have to be either repaired/strengthened or replaced.
The aim of this thesis is to provide useful standard designs for short railway concrete bridges. Further,
the aim is provide a manual for their design without getting lost in the huge amount of information
that the Eurocodes offer. The focus is on the most important parts and an effort has been made to
make the design process fluent. The designed bridges have lengths between 3 and 9 meters and the
Swedish National Annex to the Eurocode has been considered. There will be some limitations in the
calculations, for example, the bridges are supposed to have straight tracks.
The work is related to the European Project MAINLINE, which has the aim to help to improve the
management of the European railway infrastructure.
The results show, as can be expected, that as the length of the bridge increases, the amount of
reinforcement also increases and so does the thickness of the beams. In Appendix A, the calculations
for a 6 meters long bridge is given in detail, as an example. A table with reinforcement distribution
and dimensions is given for each length, as well as final drawings.
When the results obtained are compared to the ones obtained using the Spanish National Annex for
the Eurocode, it can be seen that the two designs are quite similar. The differences are due to some
safety factors and coefficients, but they do not make a big change when all the calculations are done.
Sometimes the crack width is the most determinant characteristic in the Spanish design because the
maximum crack width is lower. Moreover, the possible differences in the designs are almost evened
out after a fatigue verification for 120 years.
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Sammanfattning (Swedish)
För inte så länge sedan användes nationella normer vid dimensionering och byggande av broar i
Sverige. Under senare år har de dock ersatts av nya internationella regler: Europakoderna
Alla befintliga broar, som dimensionerats enligt tidigare normer, blir gradvis allt äldre och de behöver
med tiden repareras/förstärkas eller bytas ut
Syftet med detta examensarbete är att ta fram användbara standardritningar för korta järnvägsbroar
av betong. Vidare är målet att ta fram en vägledning för hur en bro konstrueras utan att gå vilse i den
enorma mängd information som finns i Eurokoderna. Fokus ligger på de viktigaste delarna och på att
göra designprocessen lättflytande. Broarna har längder mellan 3 och 9 meter. Vissa begränsningar
finns i beräkningarna, till exempel att endast broar med raka spår behandlas.
Metoderna som används förklaras. De omfattar permanenta och variabla laster, gränstillstånd,
böjmoment, tvärkraft och vridmoment, förankring, armeringsutformning, sprickbredder, krympning
och utmattning.
Arbetet anknyter till det europeiska projektet MAINLINE, vars mål är att bidra till att förbättra
underhåll och skötsel av europeisk järnvägsinfrastruktur.
Resultaten visar, som man kan vänta sig, att när brolängden ökar, ökar också mängden erforderlig
armering. Så gör också erforderlig väggtjocklek. I bilaga A redovisas beräkningarna i detalj för en 6
meter lång bro. Alla huvudresultat redovisas i en tabell med dimensioner och armeringsmängder, såväl
som tillhörande ritningar.
När resultat från beräkningar enligt den svenska nationella bilaga jämförs med de som erhållits med
enligt den spanska nationella bilagan, ser man att båda ger ganska likartade resultat. Skillnaden består
i vissa säkerhetsfaktorer och koefficienter, men de ger inga stora förändringar när alla beräkningar
genomförts. Dessa skillnader försvinner dessutom nästan helt när hänsyn tas till att broarna skall klara
utmattning under 120 år.
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Resumen (Español)
Hasta no hace mucho, se venía utilizando una normativa nacional para el diseño de puentes así como
para otros tipos de estructuras tanto en Suecia como en otros países europeos. Pero en los últimos
años, estos códigos están dando paso a una nueva normativa europea común: Los Eurocódigos.
Todos los puentes existentes diseñados según los estándares antiguos van gradualmente quedando
viejos y deben ser reparados/reforzados o reemplazados.
El objetivo de esta tesis es proporcionar a Trafikverket, la Administración de Transportes de Suecia,
unos diseños estándar para los puentes más comunes en Suecia y en Europa muy útiles para facilitar la
tarea de reemplazar los viejos. Además, se pretende proporcionar un manual de diseño de puentes
centrándose en las partes más importantes sin perderse entre la gran cantidad de información que
ofrecen los Eurocódigos para hacer el proceso de diseño más fluido y sencillo. Los puentes diseñados
tienen una longitud de entre 3 y 9 metros y será tenido en cuenta los anejos nacionales suecos del
Eurocódigo.
El método seguido será explicado, abarcando todos los aspectos necesarios del diseño como cargas
permanentes, cargas variables, Estados Límite, momentos flectores, cortadura, torsión, refuerzos,
anchos de grieta, desgaste y fatiga para 120 años de vida.
Este trabajo está relacionado con el proyecto europeo MAINLINE con el objetivo de ayudar a mejorar
la administración de la infraestructura ferroviaria europea.
Los resultados principales muestran que, como es de esperar, al incrementar la longitud del puente, lo
mismo ocurre con la cantidad de refuerzos necesarios y el ancho de las vigas. En el apéndice A se
muestran los cálculos en detalle para un puente de 6 metros como ejemplo. Se proporcionará también
una tabla con la distribución de los refuerzos para cada longitud así como planos finales.
Cuando comparamos los resultados obtenidos con los que proporcionan los anejos nacionales
españoles, podemos concluir que no hay grandes diferencias. Algunos coeficientes y factores de
seguridad cambian entre países pero el resultado final es muy similar. En ocasiones el ancho de grieta
es determinante en el diseño según los anejos españoles por ser más restrictivo. Además, cualquier
posible diferencia entre ambos diseños prácticamente desaparece tras la verificación a fatiga para 120
años de vida.
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Nomenclature
Latin upper case letters
Ac Concrete cross‐sectional area
Ac,eff Effective area of concrete in tension
Ak Area enclosed by the centre‐lines of the closed transverse torsional reinforcements
Aø Area of each bar
Aref,x Reference area
As Total reinforcement area
A'ρ Area of pre or post‐tensioned tendons
ALS Accidental Limit State
CD Drag coefficient
Cdev Allowance in design for deviation
Cdir Directional factor
Cdur,add Reduction of minimum cover for use of additional protection
Cdur,st Reduction of minimum cover for use of stainless steel
Cdur,γ Additive safety element
Cmin Minimum concrete cover
Cmin,b Minimum cover due to bond requirements
Cmin,dur Minimum cover due to environmental conditions
Cseason Season factor
Ec Design value of modulus of elasticity of concrete
Es Design value of modulus of elasticity of reinforcing steel
F Forces (kN/m)
FLS Fatigue Limit State
Gk Characteristic permanent action
I Second moment of inertia
L Length
M Bending moment
Mcrack Bending moment limit for cracking
Md Maximum design moment
MEd Design value of the applied internal bending moment
MSLS Serviceability Limit State bending moment
P Point load
Q Point load
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Qlak Traction force
Qlbk Braking force
Sk Characteristic value of snow on the ground at the relevant site (kN/m2)
Sr,max Maximum crack spacing
SLS Serviceability limit state
Te,max Maximum uniform bridge temperature
Te,min Minimum uniform bridge temperature
TEd Design value of the applied torsional moment
Tmax Maximum shade temperature
Tmin Minimum shade temperature
ULS Ultimate limit state
Vb Basic wind velocity
VEd Shear force
Vref Reference value of wind velocity
We Wind force (kN/m2)
Latin lower case letters
b Width
d Depth
f Natural frequency
fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength
fctk, 0,05 Characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete
fstd Design yield strength of reinforcement
fyd Design yield strength of reinforcement
fyk Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
h Height
h0 Notional size
lb,rqd Basic anchorage length
lbd Design anchorage length
n Number of reinforcement bars
q Distributed load
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s Spacing between reinforcement bars
t Age of the concrete at the moment considered, in days
u Perimeter of that part of the cross‐section which is exposed to drying
wk Crack width
Greek upper case letters
Φ Dynamic factor according to EN 1991‐2
Greek lower case letters
ø Diameter of reinforcing bars
α Classification coefficient
αc Coefficient taking into account long term effects on the compressive strength
γc Partial safety factor for concrete
γs Partial safety factor for steel
δ Deflection
εca Autogenous shrinkage strain
εcd Drying shrinkage strain
εcm Mean strain in the concrete between cracks
εcs Total shrinkage strain
εsm Mean strain in the reinforcement under the relevant load combination
θ Inclination angle of stirrups
μ Relative moment
ρ Density
σs Stress in tension reinforcement
τ Torsional shear stress
ψ Factors defining representative values of variable actions
ψ0 combination values
ψ1 frequent values
ψ2 quasi‐permanent values
ω Reinforcement ratio
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x
Table of Contents
PREFACE I
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) III
SAMMANFATTNING (SWEDISH) IV
RESUMEN (ESPAÑOL) V
NOMENCLATURE VII
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 TRAFIKVERKET 1
1.3 AIMS AND SCOPE 1
1.5 LIMITATIONS 2
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS 3
2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5
2.1 HOW CAN STANDARD RAILWAY BRIDGES BE DESIGNED ACCORDING TO THE NEW EUROCODES? 5
2.2 HOW DOES THE LENGTH OF A BRIDGE AFFECT THE CROSS‐SECTION GEOMETRY AND THE AMOUNT OF
REINFORCEMENT? 5
2.3 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE DESIGN IN SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN EUROPE? 5
3. LITERATURE STUDY 7
3.1 EUROCODES 7
3.2 MAINLINE 7
4. DESIGN PRINCIPLES 11
4.1 BRIDGE SPECIFICATIONS 11
4.2 DURABILITY AND COVER TO REINFORCEMENT 14
4.3 PERMANENT LOADS 15
4.4 VARIABLE LOADS 17
4.5 ULTIMATE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES 30
4.6 ANCHORAGE 39
4.7 REINFORCEMENT 40
4.8 FATIGUE 52
5. SOLUTIONS FOR STANDARD BRIDGES 59
5.1 THREE METERS LONG 59
5.2 FOUR METERS LONG 62
5.3 FIVE METERS LONG 65
5.4 SIX METERS LONG 68
5.5 SEVEN METERS LONG 71
5.6 EIGHT METERS LONG 74
5.7 NINE METERS LONG 77
6. COMPARISON WITH OTHER BRIDGES IN EUROPE 83
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 85
8. REFERENCES 91
APPENDIX A. CALCULATIONS FOR 6 METER LENGTH 93
BRIDGE SPECIFICATIONS 93
DURABILITY AND COVER TO REINFORCEMENT 94
PERMANENT LOADS 94
VARIABLE LOADS 98
ULTIMATE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES 102
ANCHORAGE 104
REINFORCEMENT 104
FATIGUE 116
FINAL DESIGN 119
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APPENDIX B. INTERESTING MAPS OF SWEDEN 121
B.1 MAP OF SWEDEN WITH ITS RIVERS AND LAKES 121
B.2 SCANDINAVIAN RAILWAY NETWORK 122
APPENDIX C. EXPOSURE CLASSES 123
APPENDIX D. ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES DESIGN VALUES 125
APPENDIX E. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 126
APPENDIX F. THERMAL ACTIONS 127
APPENDIX G. ANCHORAGE LENGTHS 129
APPENDIX H. MATERIAL PROPERTIES 131
APPENDIX I. FATIGUE 133
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 137
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1. Introduction
1.1 General background
Sweden has an extension of 450,295 square kilometres of which about 40 square kilometres are water
(around 9% of the total area).
It does not seem important but it is. This fact presents a challenge when planning a proper and
efficient transport network to allow the communication between different towns and cities.
Therefore, Sweden is one of the countries with the highest amount of bridges in the world. Bridges
between 3 and 9 meters are quite common in the country in order to overcome small rivers, streams,
canals or other roads. According to Mainline (2014), D3.1 "Benchmark of production and replacement
of railway infrastructure", in Europe, 80% of the bridges are short bridges between 2 and 10 meters.
In northern countries where winters are long and snow often hinders the proper functioning of
transport networks, a correct and proper design of the railway network becomes essential to maintain
communication in the country. A bridge is an important part of a transport network since it involves a
lot of money and effort. If its design is not correct or if there are mistakes done during the design or
construction, the losses can be really important. So it is worth spending time, money and effort on
optimizing the design of bridges to make the building process faster and easier without losing
reliability and safety.
All bridges are getting old sooner or later, and strengthening, repairing or replacing may be needed. To
have designed previously some kind of standard bridges is really useful and can make a difference
when a replacement is needed. The bridges could be built in a factory and replaced in some hours
without stopping the traffic for days.
1.2 Trafikverket
Trafikverket (the Swedish Transport Administration) is a government agency which is responsible for
long‐term planning of the transport system for all kinds of transport (road, railway, sea and flight) and
it is the owner and maintainer of most roads and railroads in Sweden. It is responsible for the
construction, operation and maintenance of all state owned roads.
As mentioned above, having a proper railway system in the transport network of a country like
Sweden is crucial and it is important to have a competent and adequate agency as Trafikverket to
carry out this task. The Swedish Transport Administration work on the design and maintenance of the
railway system is essential, and the amount of railway bridges that compose this system is about 4000.
Trafikverket (2014).
The Swedish Transport Administration is also responsible for administering the theoretical and driving
tests needed to receive a driving licence and taxi driver badge, as well as the theoretical test for the
professional know‐how needed for a transport licence and certificate of professional competence.
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The main aspects that affect the design of a bridge are the following:
- Ultimate Limit State (ULS):
Bending
Shear
Torsion
Punching (from an axle load)
- Fatigue Limit State (FLS):
Fatigue
- Serviceability Limit State (SLS):
Cracks
Stresses
Natural frequency
Deflection (comfort demands and clearance under bridge
Dynamic analysis
- Accidental Limit State (ALS):
Derailment
In this thesis, most of these aspects will be covered in the corresponding sections.
1.5 Limitations
In order to simplify the calculations, the slab is assumed to have a constant cross‐section along the
bridge and to have a linear behaviour in the Serviceability and Fatigue Limit States. A static analysis
will be used in the Ultimate and Fatigue Limit States. A dynamic analysis is not needed due to the
characteristics of the bridge and traffic. Bending moments and shear forces will be studied. By
choosing a specific location, it is possible to get more accurate results regarding wind and snow.
2
Rotation requirements are not going to be taken into account.
The amount of reinforcement could be optimized with a 3D‐model but it will not be performed in
order to keep the length of the thesis within limits.
It is necessary to check if the concrete is cracked or un‐cracked. This is done by comparing the applied
moment and the “cracking moment” of the concrete cross section. To calculate the crack moment
Mcrack of a concrete cross section the tensile stress σ has to be calculated with Navier’s formula:
M
M (1.1)
I y I y
1
f ctm b h 3
M crack 12 1 b h2 f (1.2)
h
ctm
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2
If the applied moment is larger than the cracking moment, the concrete is cracked and the crack width
should be calculated according to EN1992‐1‐1 §7.3 (EN1992‐2 §7.3)
The second chapter describes the research questions that have motivated the thesis.
The third chapter includes a literature study made to get the information needed to write the thesis.
The fourth chapter contains the calculations performed in the design.
The fifth chapter develops the solutions for design and distributions for all the different lengths.
The sixth chapter includes a comparison between the different national annexes in Europe.
The seventh chapter summarizes the results and contains the conclusions that were reached in this
thesis.
Finally, the Appendices provide additional data and results.
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2. Research questions
With this thesis, the following research questions will be answered:
3. Materials
4. Durability and cover to reinforcement
5. Structural analysis
6. Ultimate limit states
7. Serviceability limit states
8. Detailing of reinforcement and pre‐stressing tendons‐ General
9. Detailing of members and particular rules
10. Additional rules for precast concrete elements and structures
11. Lightweight aggregate concrete structures
12. Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures
13. Design of the execution stages
These Eurocodes determine the rules to follow in order to unify the design for all Europe.
2.3 What are the differences between the design in southern and
northern Europe?
The final results are going to be compared with the results obtained using the Spanish National
Annexes, García (2014), in order to be able to compare the differences between the design in northern
and southern Europe.
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3. Literature study
There are quite a lot of studies concerning railway bridge design. A small resume of the used literature
is presented in the following points.
3.1 Eurocodes
In 1975, the work with the Eurocode began. This was done in order to unify all the technical aspects,
as well as to minimize the obstacles that may appear in the trade between European countries.
Nowadays, there are 10 Eurocodes and 58 parts.
- Eurocode 0 – EN1990 Basis of Structural design
- Eurocode 1 – EN1991 Action on Structures
- Eurocode 2 – EN1992 Design of Concrete Structures
- Eurocode 3 – EN1993 Design of Steel Structures
- Eurocode 4 – EN1994 Design of Composite Steel And Concrete Structures
- Eurocode 5 – EN1995 Design of Timber Structures
- Eurocode 6 – EN1996 Design of Masonry Structures
- Eurocode 7 – EN1997 Geotechnical Design
- Eurocode 8 – EN1998 Design of Structures For Earthquake Resistance
- Eurocode 9 – EN1999 Design of Aluminium Structures
Eurocodes EC0, EC1, EC7 and EC8 would have no application if they weren’t referred to in the other
Eurocodes EC2, EC3, EC4, EC5, EC6 and EC9.
This implies that for the application of the Eurocodes, different packages of norms have been made.
These packages are made in order to group the norms that are necessary for a certain calculations.
3.2 MAINLINE
The project consortium includes leading railways, contractors, consultants and researchers from
across Europe, including from both Eastern Europe and the emerging economies. Partners also bring
experience on approaches used in other industry sectors which have relevance to the rail sector.
Project benefits will come from keeping existing infrastructure in service through the application of
technologies and interventions based on life cycle considerations. Although MAINLINE will focus on
certain asset types, the management tools developed will be applicable across a broader asset base.
The project is led by UIC, France, with Dr. Björn Paulsson as coordinator. Luleå University of
Technology, Sweden, acts as Scientific and Technical Coordinator. Other partners are: Network Rail
Infrastructure Limited, United Kingdom; COWI, Denmark; SKM, United Kingdom; University of Surrey,
United Kingdom; TWI, United Kingdom; University of Minho, Portugal; DB Netz AG, Germany; MÁV
Magyar Államvasutak Zrt, Hungary; Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain; Graz University of
Technology.
There are many books on bridge design and construction as e.g. Chen and Duan (2000), Brühwiler and
Menn (2003), Reis (2003), Ryal et al (2000), Scheer (2010), Taly (1998) and Xanthakos (1994).
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There are also many books on the history and development of bridges as e.g. Ahlberg and Spade
(2001), Brown (1998), Crickshank (2010), Fernández Troyano (2003) and Graf (2002).
They give detailed aspects on bridge design and also the basic principles to follow.
- Surface Finish variety: the use of concrete in building gives a great variety of surface finishes
that can be applied while the concrete is wet or once it is dry. Concrete is versatile.
- Shape and form flexibility: with a suitable formwork, concrete can be made into any shape, and
that helps out so that no extra fixings have to be made once the concrete is casted.
- Specification Variety: with different proportions in the composition of the concrete, it can be
made to full fill the requirements needed for each construction.
- Durability: concrete bridges can have a very long life, if the concrete is designed in order to
support large temperature changes and other external attacks.
- Environmentally Friendly: There are some carbon emissions during the production of concrete,
but after that it represents no harm for the environment.
- Resistance to Fire: concrete is naturally resistant to fire, so it doesn't need any extra protection.
There are many different types of concrete bridges:
- Arch bridges: Traditionally, this kind of bridges were made of stone, brick and concrete, which
are strong materials, able to cope with the compressive forces that appear in the arch.
Nowadays, pre‐stressing and reinforcing are used for this kind of bridges. Arch bridges are
strong due to the capacity to generate compressive forces in the arch from the vertical loads
acting on it. These compressive forces translate into inclined thrusts, which have to be
absorbed by the supports.
- Reinforced slab bridges: For short spans, the simplest design of this kind of bridges is a
reinforced slab cast in‐situ. These are simple and cheap solutions, due to the simplicity of the
framework, formwork and reinforcement. For longer spans, the solution is slightly more
complicated. The slab has to be thicker in order to cope with the increased loads, this also
increases the weight of the slab and it may become a problem. In order to solve this, either pre‐
stressing can be used or the deadweight can be reduced.
- Beam and slab bridges: This kind of bridges is very simple, cheap and quick to construct. The
construction is made in different steps. First, precast beams can be placed on rubber bearings
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that don't need any maintenance. Then, the permanent concrete slab can be casted directly on
the beams.
- Box girder bridges: This type of bridges is normally used for long spans (longer than 45 m). The
shape of the box isn't fixed, it varies between bridges, and it can also vary along the same
bridge, being deeper at the abutments and shallower in the spans. To build this type of bridges,
there are different construction methods, such as:
Span‐by‐span
Balanced cantilever
- Integral bridges: Bridges constructed without expansion joints and bearings are called integral
bridges. These can be built with any concrete deck. Where to locate the joints is a difficult step
of the design process. These are useful to allow the movement of the structure as it expands or
contracts due to temperature variations. On the other hand, these joints can also be a weak
point due to the leaks that may appear, resulting in the corrosion of the metallic components of
the bridge
- Cable‐stayed bridges: In this type of bridge, the loads are carried by the supporting cables that
are attached from the sides of a tower (or several of them) to the sides of the bridge. They are
used for very long spans.
- Suspension bridges: These bridges usually have decks made of concrete. For the construction, it
is very important to have huge foundations to support the weight of the whole bridge, as well
as the anchorages. The abutments and the superstructure can also be made in concrete, to be
able to support all the forces that may appear.
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4. Design principles
4.1 Bridge specifications
According to Trafikverket, the optimum design for very short span bridges (up to 2m length) would be
a thick reinforced slab, which copes with all the forces acting on the bridge, and non‐structural walls
without reinforcement, see Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Standard short bridge geometry
For bridges with lengths over 10 m, the geometry is different. In these cases a thinner slab is used,
with reinforced walls acting as structural beams, see Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Standard long bridge geometry
This particular case is somewhere in between, the lengths taken into account are between 3 and 9
metres. A good study case would be to find an optimized design for these intermediate lengths. In this
thesis, focus is on the typical design for longer bridges, with slight variations. The starting measures for
the standard bridge in the study are as shown in Table 4.1.
The height of the ballast is set to 600 mm in the Swedish National Annex.
In the following many references are made to the formulae, Figures and Tables in the Eurocodes.
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Length L meter
Width 5 meter
Wall’s height 1,1 meter
Slab thickness 0,4 meter
Wall thickness top 0,3 meter
Wall thickness bottom 0,4 meter
Rail width 1,435 meter
Ballast height 0,6 meter
Table 4.1: Bridge dimensions
Figure 4.3: Bridge geometry
For all the different lengths, the same materials will be used. All the specific characteristics for both
materials are found in Appendix H in this thesis.
- Concrete C40/50
The design compressive strength for concrete has to be calculated according to EN1992‐2
section 3.1.6:
fck
fcd cc (4.1)
c
where: c partial safety factor for concrete
cc coefficient taking into account long term effects on the
compressive strength ( 0,8 cc 1, 00 )
where: cc 1, 00 Swedish national annex
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The design tensile strength (also according to EN1992‐2 §3.1.6):
fctk,0,05
fctd ct (4.2)
c
where: c partial safety factor for concrete
c 1,5 from 1992‐1‐1 Table 2.1N
ct coefficient taking into account long term effects on the
compressive strength ( 0,8 ct 1, 00 )
ct 1,00 for Swedish national annex
- Steel B500B
It shall have adequate ductility as defined by the ratio tensile strength‐yield stress and the
elongation at maximum force.
The design tensile strength for steel according to EN1992‐1‐1 Figure 3.8:
f yk
f std f yd (4.3)
s
where: c partial safety factor for concrete
c 1,15 from 1992‐1‐1 Table 2.1N
- Ballast
From EN1991‐1‐1, table A.6, the density for ballast can be obtained.
To determine the upper and lower characteristic value of depth of ballast on railway bridges,
a deviation from the nominal depth of +/‐ 30% should be taken into account. This demand
can be changed by the National Annexes in the Eurocode. According to the Swedish national
annex, a deviation of +/‐ 10% shall be used.
Material Weight (kN/m3)
Concrete 25,0
Steel 77,0
Ballast 20,0
Table 4.2: Materials and weights
For the sidewalks, pierced steel plates will be used with the following characteristics:
Table 4.3: Sidewalks
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For the sleepers, UIC (Al‐40) are going to be used, see Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Sleepers
And for the rails, UIC60 will be used, see Figure 4.4 and Table 4.5.
H 172,00 mm
B 150,00 mm
C 72,00 mm
D 51,00 mm
E 16,50 mm
Section 76,70 cm2
Mass 60,21 kg/m
Table 4.5: Rails
Figure 4.4: Rails geometry
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C min maxC min, b ; C min,dur C dur, C dur,st C dur,add ;10 mm (4.4)
where:
Cmin,b minimum cover due to bond requirement [see 4.4.1.2(3)]
Cmin,dur minimum cover due to environmental conditions [see 4.4.1.2(5)]
Cdur, additive safety element [see 4.4.1.2(6)]
Cdur,st reduction of minimum cover for use of stainless steel [§4.4.1.2(7)]
Cdur,add reduction of minimum cover for use of additional protection [see
4.4.1.2(8)]
Cmin,b reinf
Cmin,dur 20 mm
- Exposure class: XC2 (No salt water and no de‐icing salt)
- Table 4.3N: Member with slab geometry, the class has to be reduced by 1
- Table 4.4N: The initial class is S4, and as it has to be reduced by one, the
final class to be used is S3.
where:
C dev allowance in design for deviation (EN1992‐1‐1 §4.4.1.3)
Cdev 10mm [National annex]
- Concrete protection, including moisture membrane between slab and ballast (the thickness of
the concrete protection is 60 mm, according to EN1991‐1‐1 Table A.6)
15
Due to the sleepers, the point loads are distributed through the ballast and act as a distributed load on
the surface of the slab. This characteristic is further explained later in the traffic load distribution
section. This load is not uniformly distributed along the surface because there is a sleeper every 0.9
metres in the longitudinal direction.
Figure 4.5: Sleeper weight distribution
In Figure 4.5, it is allowed to smear the load 1:1 from top of the slab to the centre of it.
Figure 4.6: Self‐weight distribution (Longitudinal)
In Figure 4.6, load q2 can probably be smeared as q1 but it will not be done in order to get more
accurate results.
In the transversal direction, the load distribution is taken as follows:
16
Figure 4.7: Self‐weight distribution (Transversal)
The dead load of every component of the bride is calculated with the following equation:
kN kN
q 3 A m2
m m
(4.6)
And the final value of the permanent load is obtained by adding up all the individual loads calculated
above (Table J.1).
- DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
From EN1991‐2 §6.4.4, the National Annex may specify the requirements for determining whether
a static or a dynamic analysis is required. According to Figure 6.9 [Figure K.1, Appendix K], even
though a bridge is not a continuous bridge, no dynamic analysis is required if the natural
frequency of the bridge is within the limits given in EN1991‐2 section 6.4.4, Figure 6.10, and the
maximum speed is lower than 200 km/h.
The natural frequency for almost all lengths is within the limits of the dynamic analysis
requirements. Just the 3 and 4 meters bridges are over the upper limit but the dynamic analysis
will not be performed in order to simplify the work.
The natural frequency for the bridge is calculated by:
EI
f
2 m L4 (4.8)
Ec 32[GPa] 32 10 9 [N / m2 ]
I I slab I beams [ m 4 ]
(4.9)
17
m m slab mbeams mballast [kg / m]
(4.10)
L length[m ]
In Sweden, 2 is used for all railway bridge according to BFS2013:10 EKS9.
1, 44
2 0,82
L 0, 2 (4.11)
where: L L Determinant length
1, 00 2 1, 67
- TRAFFIC LOADS
There are some different load models in the Eurocode to define rail traffic actions:
∙ Load Model 71 (and Load Model SW/0 for continuous bridges) representing normal rail traffic
on mainline railways.
∙ Load Model SW/2 for heavy loads
∙ Load Model HSLM for high speed passenger trains (over 200 km/h)
∙ Load Model “unloaded train” to represent the effect of an unloaded train.
This thesis is going to be focused on Load Model 71 for normal rail traffic but it could be an
interesting study case to check the differences in the reinforcement design by changing the
Load Model.
Load model 71 [EN 1991.2 section 6.3.2]: The static effect caused by the weight of the railroad
vehicles on a rail, shall be treated as a train from the Load Model 71, acting on the axis of the
rail. The specified train is defined by the following actions, occurring simultaneously:
Four axis of 250 kN each, separated 1,6 meters, located in the least favourable position for
the element and purpose of study.
A distributed load of 80 kN/m, distributed along the bridge, at both sides of the point loads.
Both type of actions will be multiplied by a classification coefficient, in this case of study, the
value to be used is 1.33, according to the Swedish Rail Administration.
0,75 – 0,83 – 0,91 – 1,00 – 1,10 – 1,21 – 1,33 – 1,46 [EN1991‐2 §6.3.2(3)]
The following actions have to be multiplied by the factor:
Traffic loads
Centrifugal forces according to §6.5.1
Nosing force according to §6.5.2
Traction and braking forces, according to §6.5.3
Derailment actions for accidental design situations, according to §6.5.4
18
Figure 4.8: Load model 71
Application rules: All the vertical loads exposed may act combined with each other if that shows
the most unfavourable situation.
Local distribution of the loads [EN1991‐2 section 6.3.6.1]: in rails located over ballast, vertical
loads can be distributed over three consecutive sleepers. The medium one will absorbs 50%
of the load, and the two adjacent ones will absorb 25% each.
The load on each sleeper can be distributed with a slope of 4:1 through the ballast height.
Figure 4.9: Longitudinal distribution of a point load on the sleepers
19
Figure 4.10: Longitudinal distribution of a point load on the rail, along the ballast
Pdim 250 2
q dim 80 2
(4.12)
- ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIONS
Wind loads [EN1991‐1‐4 §8]: These depend on the mean speed and the terrain category, and
they can vary depending on the country.
Generally, wind loads are assimilated to a static equivalent load. In order to calculate the
wind force, the force coefficients on the bridge and on the train have to be calculated.
Figure 4.11: Directions of wind actions on bridges
The specifications for location, type of terrain and elevation are given in the Swedish
National Annex.
The terrain category is supposed to be category 0 which will give the most unfavourable
20
exposure factor [EN1991‐1‐4 Annex A A.1]: Sea, coastal area exposed to the open sea.
The altitude of the bridge is taken as 100 meters to give the most unfavourable coefficient.
To calculate the depth to be used for the reference area Aref,x the following figure is used:
Figure 4.12: Depth to be used for Aref,x
Taking into account the road restraint system in the bridge, the total depth is obtained as
follows:
Table 4.6: Depth dtot
Open parapet on both sides are assumed for this thesis.
21
Figure 4.13: Force coefficient for bridges Cfx,0
Figure 4.14: Exposure factor for bridges Ce
22
V b C dir C season V ref 1,00 1,00 25 [ m / s ] 25 [ m / s ] (4.13)
where:
Vb Basic wind velocity, defined as the function of wind direction and time of
year at 10m above ground of terrain category II
Vref Reference value of wind velocity (National Annex)
Taken 25 m/s as general value (most unfavourable)
Cdir It is the directional factor, for various wind directions.
The recommended value is 1,00
Cseason It is the season factor, for various wind directions
The recommended value is 1,00.
1
We Vb2 C e ( z ) C f , x Aref , x (4.14)
2
where:
is the air density taken as 1, 25 [kg / m3 ]
C e (z ) is the exposure factor from Figure 4.14(z=100m, terrain category 0))
C e ( z ) 4,2
C f ,x is the force coefficient without free‐end flow
Aref , x is the reference area given in 8.3.1
Fwind W e z (4.15)
Wind force on the bridge:
Vb 25 [m / s]
1, 25 [kg / m3 ]
1
We1 Vb2 C e ( z ) C f Aref , x 2,68 kN / m 2
2
Fwind ,1 W e1 z1 2,68 1,70 4,55kN / m
Wind force on the train:
23
d 1,1 4 5,1 [m] b
0,98 C f , x 2,25
b 5 [ m] d tot
C e 4,2
Vb 25 [m / s]
1, 25 [kg / m3 ]
1
We2 Vb2 Ce (z) Cf 3, 69 [kN / m2 ]
2
Fwind,2 We2 z2 3, 69 3, 40 12, 55[kN / m]
Figure 4.15: Wind load
In longitudinal direction according to EN1991‐1‐4 §8.3.4, the National Annex may give the
values but, for Sweden, the recommended values are used:
In transversal direction (x‐direction) the results are:
In longitudinal direction (y‐direction) the results are:
Snow loads [EN1991‐1‐3]: The snow load will be obtained but it will not be taken into account
for the calculation of the design loads as there will not be snow loads acting at the same
24
time as traffic loads in the bridge.
The coefficients that determine the influence of the snow on the different regions in the
European countries is found in the national annex of the Eurocode.
Figure 4.16: Snow load
qk 0,8 S k (4.17)
kN
S k 4,5 2 (Swedish National Annex)
m
kN kN
q k 3,6 2 18
m m
kN kN
2 F 18 F 9
m m
Thermal actions [EN1991‐1‐5 section 6.1]: Depending on the support conditions of the bridge
deck, thermal actions shall be taken into account. If the bridge deck is supported by
bearings, free to move in the longitudinal direction and free to rotate, thermal actions can
be neglected, but if the studied bridge is a frame bridge, they must be considered. In this
case, the bridges have no restrictions to rotation and displacement, so thermal actions can
be neglected.
The thermal actions to consider should be the following:
o Uniform temperature variation, associated to the annual temperature variation at the
bridge location.
o Thermal gradient of the transversal section, associated to the daily temperature
variation and the solar radiation at the bridge location.
According to Table L.1 [Annex L], there are 3 different types of bridge decks. For the
purpose of this thesis, the type of deck will be Type 3.
The shade air temperature is obtained from the National Annexes (Tmin, Tmax).
The minimum and maximum uniform bridge temperature components Te,min and Te,max, have
to be determined according to Figure E.1
25
T
e,max Tmax 2
Type 3
Te,min Tmin 8
(4.18)
The initial bridge temperature (T0) at time that the structure is restrained is obtained form
EN1991‐1‐5, Annex A, in order to calculate the maximum contraction and expansion ranges
of the uniform bridge components (EN1991‐1‐5 §6.1.3.3).
TN,con T0 Te,min (4.19)
To calculate the vertical temperature differences in a bridge deck, Table L.2 [Annex E] has
the recommended values.
- ACCIDENTAL LOADS
These loads cannot be taken as design loads but the structure should be able to carry them.
Derailment [EN1991‐2 §6.7.1]
o Situation I: derailment of a train, keeping the two wheels lying on the ground. This
situation will only accept local damage, that will not compromise the structure’s
resistant capacity and that can be repaired without interrupting the traffic.
o
Figure 4.17: Situation I. Equivalent loads for LM71
26
o Situation II: derailment of a train, keeping just one wheel on the ground near the edge of
the platform.
Figure 4.18: Situation II. Equivalent loads for LM71
F1 F2 Q
1,33
Q 1,775 F1 2,25 F2 2,25 0
Q 1,4 250 465.5[kN ]
F1 49,14[ kN ]
q Q 1034,33[kN / m]
0,45 F2 416,36[ kN ]
P F
dim 2 2
Figure 4.19: Derailment load
27
- BRAKING AND TRACTION [EN1991‐2 §6.5.3]
The actions due to braking and traction can be assimilated to horizontal loads, parallel to the
rail, spread out uniformly along a determined length and applied at the top of the rail.
Braking: (4.21)
being the coefficient that was defined earlier for Load Model 71, with a value of 1,33.
Figure 4.20: Braking and traction force
- NOSING FORCE [EN1991‐2 §6.5.2]
The nosing force is a single point load applied at the top edge of the rail in the transverse
direction, simulating the train hitting the rail.
Figure 4.21: Nosing action
F1 16,58[kN ] 3,32[kN / m]
F2 16,58[kN ] 3,32[kN / m]
- NON‐RAILWAY LOADS [EN1991‐2 section 6.3.7]: Loads on sidewalks or service paths not
affected by the rail traffic. These loads will be considered as a uniformly distributed load with
value of 5 kN/m2 along the whole area of the bridge. But they are going to be neglected
because there will not be workers while a train is on the bridge.
28
Figure 4.22: Non‐railway loads
- CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
If the track is in a curve, centrifugal forces shall be taken into account according to EN1991‐2,
section 6.5.1. In this thesis, the track will be considered straight, so centrifugal forces are not
considered.
- SETTLEMENTS
Depending on the support conditions of the bridge deck, settlement shall be taken into
account, but they will be neglected because the soil under the structure should be already
settled as this is a replacement of an old bridge that has been there for years.
If the idea is to design a bridge to carry heavier loads, this should be taken into account.
- SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage, as creep, is a property of the concrete which is time‐dependent, and its effect has to
be taken into account in order to verify the Serviceability Limit State, according to EN1992‐1‐1
section 3.1.4. It is quite important when there are cracks.
Shrinkage depends on the ambient humidity, the dimension and the composition of the
concrete. It refers to a loss of properties over time. And some of the main effects that it causes
are:
∙ Reduction of the Young Modulus.
∙ Reduction of the stiffness.
∙ Reduction of the Natural frequency of the bridge.
∙ Higher crack widths.
∙ Higher deflection in the middle part.
The total shrinkage strain is calculated by:
cs cd ca (4.24)
29
cd drying shrinkage strain
ca autogenous shrinkage strain
It is assumed an 80% of relative humidity.
cd t ds t , t s k h cd , 0 (4.25)
Ac
h0 2 (4.26)
u
where Ac concrete cross‐sectional area
u perimeter of that part of the cross‐section which is exposed
to drying
t t s
ds t , t s (4.27)
t t s 0,04 h03
where t age of the concrete at the moment considered, in days
ts age of the concrete (days) at the beginning of drying
shrinkage (ts=28 days)
ca t as t ca
(4.28)
as t 1 e 0, 2 t
(4.30)
4.5 Ultimate and Serviceability limit states
Due to the deviation in the depth of the ballast mentioned in section 4.1, the most un‐favourable case
will be taken in order to calculate the design loads.
To calculate bending moments and shear force according to the Ultimate Limit State (ULS), equations
6.10, 6.10a and 6.10b [EN1990 §6.4.3.2] have to be used.
The limit states that will be verified are, according to the Eurocode EN1990 §6.4.1:
a. EQU: this takes into account the loss of static equilibrium of a structure or any part of it.
b. STR: internal failure or excessive failure of the structure or its components.
c. GEO: failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the strengths of soil or rocks are
significant in providing resistance.
The combination of actions may be expressed as:
30
G, j Gkj,sup "" P P"" Q,1Qk,1 "" Q,i 0,i Qk,i (4.31)
j1 i1
or, for STR and GEO limit states:
G, j Gkj,sup "" P P"" Q,1 0,1Qk,1 "" Q,i 0,i Qk,i (4.32)
j1 i1
The most unfavourable designing value is taken in order to be on the safe side.
To calculate bending moments and shear force according to the Serviceability Limit State (SLS),
equation 6.14b from EN1990 §6.5.3 is used for characteristic combination.
Table 4.7: Load factors [EN1990, Annex A.2. Table A2.3]
And the partial factors (γ) are taken from EN1990, Annex A.2. Table A2.4(B)
0,89
γ(ULS)
Self‐weight 1,35
Traffic 1,50
Wind 1,50 BFS2013:10 EKS9
Snow 1,50
Thermal 1,50
Traction/braking 1,50
Nosing 1,50
Other 1,35
Table 4.8: Partial factors [EN1990, Annex A.2. Table A2.4(B)]
31
The partial factors for safety class 3 bridges is also taken into account according to the Swedish
National Annex.
d 1,00
For the purpose of this thesis regarding the longitudinal direction, the actions that have been
combined are:
Self‐weight + Traffic + Wind + Thermal actions + Traction/braking
4.5.1 Ultimate Limit State
- Bending moments
And for the transversal direction, the nosing force is used instead of the traction and braking forces:
Self‐weight + Traffic + Wind + Thermal actions + Nosing
For the Ultimate Limit State (ULS), other important aspects to calculate are stresses, torsion and
punching:
32
- STRESSES
Figure 4.23. Strains and stresses in ULS
0,8 EN1992‐1‐1 §3.1.7 (Eq 3.19)
For Ultimate Limit State, plastic behaviour is taken into account (cracked section).
x
z d (4.37)
2
Equilibrium:
Fc Fs c b x s As
1
M c b x z s As z
2
M
c (4.38)
1 x
b x d
2 2
M
s (4.39)
x
As d
2
- TORSION
The relevant information for torsion can be found in EN1992‐1‐1 §6.3/EN1992‐2 §6.3.
Torsion generates a closed shear flow in the concrete cross‐section. This shear flow increases
the normal shear force in some points and decreases it in others.
33
Figure 4.24: Area for torsional reinforcement
It is a complex shape so it may be divided into series of sub‐sections. These sub‐sections are
modelled as equivalent thin‐walled sections.
The sum of the capacities of the individual elements determines the total torsional resistance.
Some loads such as nosing, wind and centrifugal loads may cause torsion.
The applied design torsion:
Tcentrifugal 0
And the shear flow can be obtained with Bredt’s formula from Eurocode:
TEd
q t ,i t ef ,i (4.41)
2 Ak
where Ak area enclosed by the centre‐lines of the closed transverse torsional
reinforcement
t,i torsional shear stress in wall i
t ef ,i effective wall thickness. It may be taken as A/u, but should not be
taken as less than twice the distance between edge and centre of
the longitudinal reinforcement.
Figure 4.25: Area for torsional reinforcement
The shear force due to torsion is given by:
VEd ,i q z t ,i t ef ,i z i (4.42)
34
where zi side length of wall i defined by the distance between the
intersection points with the adjacent walls
The design shear force due to torsion in vertical direction should be added to the normal shear
force.
- PUNCHING
The information for punching failure is found in EN1992‐1‐1 section 6.4. For this thesis,
punching will not be taken into account, because due to the sleepers and the ballast, the loads
are distributed along the whole bridge, so there will not be located loads as high as to have
punching failure.
4.5.2 Serviceability Limit State
- Bending moments
For Serviceability Limit State (SLS): stresses, cracks, natural frequency, deflection and the dynamic
analysis should also be calculated.
- STRESSES
Figure 4.26. Strains and stresses in SLS
For Serviceability Limit State, elastic considerations are taken into account (uncracked section).
x
z d (4.44)
3
Equilibrium:
1
Fc Fs c b x s As
2
35
1 x x
M c b x d s As d
2 3 3
M
c (4.45)
1 x
b x d
2 3
M
s (4.46)
x
As d
3
- CRACK WIDTH
In order to calculate the cracks the information in EN1992‐1‐1 §7.3/EN1992‐2 §7.3 has to be
followed. To calculate the crack width, the following equations have to be used
wk Sr,max sm cm
(4.47)
where
Sr,max maximum crack spacing (EN1992‐1‐1 §7.3.4)
sm mean strain in the reinforcement under the relevant combination of loads,
including the effect of imposed deformations and taking into account the
effects of tension stiffening. Only the additional tensile strain beyond the
state of zero strain of the concrete at the same level is considered
cm mean strain in the concrete between cracks
s kt
f ct ,eff
1 p ,eff
p ,eff s
e
sm cm 0,6
Es Es (4.48)
where
s stress in the tension reinforcement assuming a cracked section
e is the
ratio Es Ecm
As 1 A p'
p ,eff
Ac ,eff
(4.49)
Ac,eff effective area of concrete in tension surrounding the reinforcement or
prestressing tendons of depth
36
h x h
hc,eff min2,5h d ; ; (4.50)
3 2
1 adjusted ratio of bond strength taking into account the different diameters of
prestressing and reinforcing steel. But there are not prestressing cables.
øs
1 (4.51)
øp
where
ratio of bond strength of prestressing and reinforcing steel
øs largest bar diameter of reinforcing steel
øp equivalent diameter of tendon
kt factor dependent on the duration of the load
kt 0, 6 short term loading
kt 0, 4 long term loading
37
ø
Sr,max k3 c k1 k2 k4
p,eff (4.52)
where
ø bar diameter. If there is a mixture of bar diameters in the studied section, an
equivalent diameter is used
n1 ø12 n 2 ø 22
ø eq (4.53)
n1 ø1 n 2 ø 2
c cover to the longitudinal reinforcement
k1 coefficient that takes into account bond properties of bonded reinforcement
k1 0,8 high bond bars
k1 1, 6 bars with an effectively plain surface
k2 coefficient which takes into account the distribution of strain
k2 0, 5 bending
k2 1, 0 pure tension
1 2
k2 case of eccentric tension or local areas (4.54)
21
k3 Value found in the National Annex. The recommended value is 3,4
k4 Value found in the National Annex. The recommended value is 0,425
If the spacing exceeds 5 c ø 2 or where there isn’t bonded reinforcement in the tension
zone
- DEFLECTION
In order to calculate the allowed deflection, EN1992‐1‐1 §7.4 has to be followed.
The deformation of a structure can’t be such that it affects the appearance or function of the
structure.
The limiting values of deflection can be calculated taking into account the nature of the
structure. The aspect and general utility of the structure can be altered when the sag of a
beam, slab or cantilever, exposed to quasi‐permanent loads exceeds span/250. The sag is
assessed in relation to the supports.
Another limiting value can also be calculated according to the deviations that could damage the
adjacent parts of the structure. For the deflection after construction, an appropriate limit for
quasi‐permanent loads is span/500.
From EN1990 Annex A2.4.4.2.3, the maximum deflection for SLS is obtained by L/600. This is a
more restrictive limit, so it will be used in this thesis.
38
L
max (4.56)
600
And the maximum deflection in the mid‐span can be calculated with:
M SLS L2
(4.57)
16 EI
4.6 Anchorage
The calculations for the anchorage length are specified in the Eurocode EN1992‐1‐1 §8.4.
Basic Anchorage Length (EN1992‐1‐1 section 8.4.3)
In order to calculate the anchorage length, the type of steel and concrete used have to be
considered.
l b.rqd sd (4.58)
4 fbd
fy 500
sd f yd 435 [MPa]
s 1,15
where: sd
design stress of the reinforcement bars.
The value of the ultimate bond stress for ribbed bars is obtained from (EN1992‐1‐1 §8.4.2)
where: 1 0, 7 top reinforcement
1 1, 0 bottom reinforcement
2 1, 0
fctk 2, 5
fctd 435 [MPa]
c 1, 5
Design Anchorage Length (EN1992‐1‐1 section 8.4.4)
The design anchorage length (lbd) is obtained from equation 8.4 in the Eurocode (4.58), and the
coefficients are given in EN1992‐1‐1, §8.4.4, Table 8.2 (Table M.1).
The values of Cd are found in EN1992‐1‐1, §8.4.4, figure 8.3 (Figure M.1), and K in EN1992‐1‐1,
§8.4.4, figure 8.4 (Figure M.2).
39
l bd 1 2 3 4 5 l bd,rqd (4.60)
where: 1 4 5 1, 0
0,15 Cd 3
2 0, 7 1 1, 0
3 1 K
Iteration method (for each layer)
1. Assume an anchorage length: l’bd
2. Spacing for transversal reinforcement: s
Ast Ast,min
3.
As
(4.61)
long
2
As ; Ast,min 0, 25 As (4.62)
4
l trans
2
Ast bd 1 (4.63)
s 4
4. 3 1 K
(4.64)
5. l bd 1 2 3 4 5 l bd,rqd
6. Iterate to get l ' bd l bd
4.7 Reinforcement
Bending reinforcement design
Transversal
Figure 4.27: Bridge geometry
As it is known from the properties of the materials, the value of the design compressive
strength for concrete according to (4.2) is:
40
And the design tensile strength for steel according to (4.3):
Md
f cd b d 2 (4.65)
where: Md Maximum design moment
fcd design value of compressive strength for concrete
b width of the section
d effective depth of the section
1 1 2 (4.66)
The design moment is the moment obtained in the ULS for the transverse direction, and b = 1 m,
as width of the section in order to get the amount of reinforcement needed per meter of slab.
For the effective depth of the section:
Figure 4.28: Effective depth
Øtrans
d h cover (4.67)
2
For normal reinforced section where reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes, the
fcd
reinforced area is: As b d (4.68)
fyd
2
The area of each bar: A
4
As
And the number of bars needed per meter are: n (4.69)
A
41
1
with a spacing of: s (4.70)
n
Longitudinal
In order to design the longitudinal reinforcement, the following steps have to be followed.
Figure 4.29: Longitudinal reinforcement design
b beam width
0,8 EN1992‐1‐1 §3.1.7 (Eq 3.19)
Compression force in the concrete: Fc fcd x b (4.71)
Tension force in the reinforcement: Fs f yd As (4.72)
x
z d
2 (4.73)
Normal force and flexural equilibrium give:
x
cu (4.75)
d cu s
Now, the dimensionless values for the relative moment ( m ) and the mechanical reinforcement
contents ( ) can be calculated, taking into account that b=0,4m (wall thickness):
Md
m (4.76)
f cd b d 2
42
As s
(4.77)
fcd b d
Using force and flexural equilibrium relations:
m 1 (4.78)
2
1 1 2m (4.79)
For a cross‐section with balanced reinforcement:
c cu
s sy
Figure 4.30: Balanced reinforcement
1
bal (4.80)
1 sy
cu
mbal bal 1 bal (4.81)
2
The maximum number of bars that can fit in a beam is calculated by:
There may be two different situations, but for the purpose of this thesis, the first one will always
be used.
1.For a cross‐section with normal reinforcement, where the reinforcement yields before the
concrete crushes:
43
c cu
bal ; m m bal
s sy
fcd
As b d (4.84)
fyd
Ø2
AØ
4
As
The number of bars needed for the tension reinforcement is obtained from: n
AØ
2.For low height beams or high flexural moments, the options are:
bal ; m m bal
So double reinforcement is needed (in tension and in compression).
Figure 4.31: Double reinforcement design
f cd
a. M 1 M bal As1 bal b d (4.85)
f yd
M2
Fs2
d d'
b. M M M
F
2 bal As2 s2 (4.86)
fyd
F' F
s s2
As
c. Tension reinforcement: As As1 As 2 n
A
d. Compression reinforcement:
44
x d'
's cu (4.87)
x
f yd F 's
's sy yd A's
Es Es ' s A's
n (4.88)
F' A
's sy A's s As 2
f yd
Shear reinforcement design
Members not requiring shear reinforcement (EN1992‐1‐1 §6.2.2)
where:
0,18 0,18
CRd 0,12 Safety factor (4.90)
c 1, 5
200
k 1 (4.91)
d
long
2
n
Asl 4
l l 0, 02 (4.92)
b d b d
Mathematically, no shear reinforcement is needed for any of the lengths in the slab
V Ed V Rd ,C
, but it will be calculated in the beams, as they are the main structural part of the
bridge and the shear forces will be important in that section.
Members requiring design shear reinforcement (EN1992‐1‐1 section 6.2.3)
Figure 4.32: Shear reinforcement
45
The angle has to be limited according to the national annex. The Swedish national annex tells
to use the recommended values that appear in EN1992‐1‐1 §6.2.3 (eq 6.7N).
1 cotg 2, 5 (4.93)
The assumed value to use for the rest of the calculations will be:
cotg 1, 2
For the longitudinal direction in the walls, the method to be used is the following, taking into
account that inclined shear reinforcement is going to be used, in order to profit of the
longitudinal reinforcement, so a more efficient reinforcement is designed. The assumption made
is that the walls act as beams, carrying half of the total shear force each.
Asw
VRd , s z f ywd cot cot sin (4.94)
s
V Rd ,max cw bw z v1 f cd
cot cot (4.95)
1 cot 2
where:
Asw cross‐sectional area of shear reinforcement
s spacing of the stirrups
fywd design yield strength of shear reinforcement
v1 strength reduction factor for concrete
cracked in shear defined in (4.73 and 4.74)
cw coefficient taking account of the state of the stress in the
compression chord
is the angle between shear reinforcement and the beam
axis perpendicular to the shear force (measured positive
as shown in Figure 4.32)
is the angle between the concrete compression strut and
the beam axis perpendicular to the shear force
v1 and cw are obtained from the national annex. The Swedish/ Spanish national annex tells to
use the recommended value given in the Eurocode.
If not:
f
v1 0,61 ck (4.98)
250
46
cw 1 for non pre‐stressed structures
Ø2
Asw 2 2 bars in the cross‐section (4.99)
4
Using equation (4.94):
Asw
VEd VRd,s s z f ywd cotg cotg sin
VEd
The number of cut links (stirrups) is obtained from:
1. Calculate the design shear force at a distance equal to the effective depth [Vmax(x=d(m))]
2.The spacing for Vmax is calculated from (4.94)
Asw
S max,1
w,min b sin
(4.102)
z
V(Smax ) Asw fywd cotg +cotg sin
Smax
5.Once the spacing have been calculated, the shear forces obtained from the above equations
are compared to the shear forces on the different parts of the bridge in order to distribute the
reinforcement as efficiently as possible.
47
To obtain a more efficient distribution for the shear reinforcement in the transversal direction,
the following method has to be followed.
Figure 4.33: Shear reinforcement distribution
Torsion reinforcement
Vertical reinforcement [EN1992‐1‐1 section 6.2.3]
Asw
V Rd , s z f ywd cot
s (4.106)
where
Asw cross‐sectional area of shear reinforcement
f ywd design yield strength of the shear reinforcement
cot 1,2
Using equation (4.106):
Asw
s z f ywd cot
VRd,s
And the number of torsion bars needed in vertical direction are:
L
n
s
48
Longitudinal reinforcement [EN1992‐1‐1 §6.2.3]
A sl f yd
TEd
cot
uk 2 Ak (4.107)
where
uk perimeter of the area Ak
f yd design yield strength of the reinforcement
From equation (4.101):
uk TEd
A sl
f yd 2 Ak
cot
ø2
Asw 2
4
The number of bars can be obtained with:
n
A sl
(4.108)
Asw
And the spacing between them:
L
s
n
Minimum reinforcement
In the parts of the structure where no structural reinforcement is needed, a minimum
reinforcement has to be calculated.
Figure 4.34: Minimum reinforcement
long
de Cnom trans (4.109)
2
The distance between the centres of the bars:
cc a
where: a obtained from equation (4.83)
49
The maximum number of bars in the slab, fitted into one layer:
w 2 de
nmax (4.110)
cc
The minimum reinforcement needed in the field is calculated with the following equation
(EN1992‐1‐1 §9.2.1.1 (1)):
f f
0, 26 ctm if 0, 26 ctm 0, 0013 w d f
Asf ,min f yk f yk (4.111)
0, 0013 w d otherwise
f
The required number of bars is:
Asf ,min
nmin, f (4.112)
A
And the spacing between the bars is obtained from:
w
s sf , min (4.113)
n min, f
Minimum reinforcement should also be checked according to EN1992‐2 §7.3.2.
where
As,min minimum reinforcement area
s f yk
0,1 if h 300mm
k Values in between Interpolate
0, 65 if h 800mm
c
k c 0,4 1 1 (4.115)
h
k1 h * f ct ,eff
where
Compression
Fc
c (4.116)
b x
k1 1, 5
50
Tension
Fs
c (4.117)
b h x
2h *
k1 (4.118)
3h
*
h h if h 1, 0m
* (4.119)
h 1, 0 if h 1, 0m
Reinforcement distribution
Once the design is done, the reinforcement distribution has to be calculated.
- Shift rule for bending reinforcement (EN1992‐1‐1 §9.2)
For a certain section X, the reinforcement design has to be done for the highest moment found at
that section (X + al)
z cotg
al
2 (4.120)
Figure 4.35: Illustration of the curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement, taking into account the effect of
inclined cracks and the resistance of reinforcement within anchorage lengths
The maximum force in the longitudinal reinforcement (at yielding) is:
long
2
As nTOT (4.121)
4
51
Fsy As f yd (4.122)
n
Layer 1:n1 Fsy1 Fsy 1
n
n
Layer 2:n2 Fsy2 Fsy 2 Fsy Fsy1 Fsy2 Fsy3 (4.123)
n
n3
Layer 3:n3 Fsy3 Fsy
n
4.8 Fatigue
A fatigue verification should be carried out for structures and components which are subjected to
regular load cycles.
The verification of the resistance of structures to fatigue shall be performed separately for concrete and
steel.
Cumulative damage method
The cumulative damage method follows the Palmgren‐Miner’s rule. This is the most used method even
though its predictions may not be exact, but the facilities in the calculations make it the most suitable
one to make estimations.
Palmgren (1924) is based in two suppositions:
ni
1. It supposes that the application of ni cycles consumes a fraction of life that is equal to ,
Ni
where Ni is the number of cycles until breaking point in tests of constant amplitude, made in the
same conditions of medium tension and tension amplitude.
2. Considers that the failure to fatigue of the component will occur when the sum of all those life
fractions reaches the unit.
n
N
ni
1 (4.124)
i1 i
Later on, Miner did another formulation almost equal to the one from Palmgren. That is why it is known
as the Palmgren‐Miner’s rule.
In order to verify for fatigue, the method is based on the curve S‐N, which is used to obtain the number
of cycles that the material resists for each stress range. The figure found in the Eurocodes:
52
Figure 4.36: S‐N Curve
Fatigue verification:
n1 n2 n
...... i 1
N1 N2 Ni (4.125)
For a life length of 120 years, the number of cycles for each train type is calculated by:
cycles days
ni 365 120 years (4.126)
day year
According to EN1991‐2 §6.4.5.2 (4), the dynamic factor ( ) shall not be used with the loading due to
fatigue.
From EN1991‐2 Annex D, §D.3, the train types for fatigue are established. These train types show the
different configurations of trains and are distributed into three different traffic mixes (Annex I).
The standard traffic mix is assumed for this study case.
Mass of train Traffic volume
TRAIN TYPE Number of trains/day
[tons] [106 tons/year]
1 12 663 2,90
2 12 530 2,32
3 5 940 1,72
4 5 510 0,93
5 7 2160 5,52
6 12 1431 6,27
7 8 1035 3,02
8 6 1035 2,27
TOTAL 67 24,95
Table 4.10: Standard traffic mix with axles ≤ 22,5 ton
53
Sectional stress
Figure 4.37: Cross‐section forces
0,8
Fc c x b (4.127)
Fs E s s As s As (4.128)
To obtain the moment influence line for the middle of the beam, a point load P is moved along the
beam as shown in Figure 4.32, and the moment varies from 0 to Mmax, so
Figure 4.38: Moment influence line for a simply supported beam
The normal force and flexural equilibrium in Figure 4.37 gives:
Fc Fs M
Fc Fs
M Fc z Fs z z
(4.130)
And deformation compatibility loads to:
x cu cu
xd
d cu s cu s (4.131)
54
Fs M
s
As As z (4.132)
Fc M
c (2 beams) c (4.133)
x b 2 xb z
According to EN1992‐1‐1 §6.8.3, the combination of actions for the calculation of stress ranges shall be
divided into non‐cycling and fatigue inducing cyclic actions.
For the non‐cyclic actions the basic combination looks like follows:
G j 1
k, j "" P"" 1,1 Qk ,1 "" 2,i Qk ,i
i 1
(4.135)
The cyclic action shall be combined with the non‐cyclic action:
The combination of actions into the brackets can be expressed as:
G j 1
k, j "" P"" 1,1 Qk ,1 "" 2,i Qk ,i "" Q fat
i 1
(4.137)
where:
Qfat relevant fatigue load
The non‐cyclic actions taken into account are:
Permanent load
Wind load
Traction and braking
Fatigue verification for compressed concrete
In order to do the fatigue check, the Cumulative Damage Method is going to be used (EN1992‐2 §6.8.7).
This method is used for all kind of structures (reinforced concrete structures under tension, compression
and shear).
Miner’s rule has to be applied for the verification of concrete:
m
D
ni
1 (4.139)
i1 Ni
where:
m number of intervals with constant amplitude
55
ni actual number of constant amplitude cycles in interval “i”
Ni ultimate number of constant amplitude cycles in interval “i” that can be
carried before failure
1 E cd , max, i
14
1 R i
N i 10
(4.140)
where:
Ecd,max,i maximum compressive stress level, defined in (4.146)
Ri stress ratio, defined in (4.144)
Ecd,min,i
Ri (4.141)
Ecd,max,i
where:
Ecd,min,i minimum compressive stress level, defined in (4.145)
cd,min,i
Ecd,min,i (4.142)
fcd, fat
cd,max,i
Ecd,max,i (4.143)
fcd, fat
where:
cd,min,i lower stress in a cycle
cd,max,i upper stress in a cycle
fcd, fat design fatigue compressive strength, defined in (4.95)
f
fcd, fat k1 cc t0 fcd 1 ck (4.144)
250
where:
k1 coefficient depending on reference number of cycles until
failure from the damage equivalent stress spectrum with a
recommended value of 0,85. Other values may be found
in the National Annex.
cc t0 coefficient for concrete compressive strength at first load
application, defined in (4.96)
fcd design compressive concrete strength in [MPa]
fck characteristic compressive concrete strength in [MPa]
56
The coefficient for concrete compressive strength at first load application is done according to EN1992‐
1‐1 §3.1.2.
28
s1
t0
cc e
(4.145)
where:
s coefficient depending on the type of cement
t0 time of the start of the cyclic loading on concrete in days
Fatigue verification for reinforcement in tension and in compression
The fatigue verification for reinforcement is checked according to EN1992‐1‐1 §6.8.
As it is shown in 6.8.2 (1), the stress calculation shall be based on the assumptions of cracked cross
sections neglecting the tensile strength of concrete but satisfying compatibility of strains.
Stress Exponent (MPa) at
TYPE OF REINFORCEMENT N*
k1 k2 N* cycles
Figure 4.39: S‐N Curve for fy=500 MPa
57
As there are multiple cycles with variable amplitudes, Palmgren‐Miner’s rule is used to add the damage
of each cycle.
m
n i
DEd <1 (4.146)
i1 N i
where:
n i applied number of cycles for a stress range i
N i
ultimate number of cycles for a stress range i
58
5. Solutions for standard bridges
5.1 Three meters long
Figure 5.1. Shear forces in longitudinal direction for 3 meters bridge
Figure 5.2. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 3 meters bridge
59
Figure 5.3. Shear forces in transverse direction for 3 meters bridge
Figure 5.4. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 3 meters bridge
Here is a table with results for the 3 meters bridges using the Swedish National Annex.
MINIMUM CRACK
BEAM (m) TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FATIGUE
REINF. WIDTH (mm)
60
INFORMATION
A4
A2 A3
A1 REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A1
A STEEL B500B
1:10
A3 A4
A2
A1
1:30
61
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
Figure 5.6. Shear forces in longitudinal direction for 4 meters bridge
Figure 5.7. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 4 meters bridge
62
Figure 5.8. Shear forces in transverse direction for 4 meters bridge
Figure 5.9. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 4 meters bridge
Here is a table with results for the 4 meters bridges using the Swedish National Annex. In transverse
reinforcement, the first values are the ones before checking the crack width and the values below are
after the crack width verification. In longitudinal reinforcement, the first values are the ones without
verifying the crack width (c) and fatigue (f) for 120 years and the second ones are with the verifications.
MINIMUM CRACK
BEAM (m) TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FATIGUE
REINF. WIDTH (mm)
63
INFORMATION
A2
A2 A4
REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A A1 A1 A1 A1
A3 A1 STEEL B500B
1:10
A3
A3 A4
A2
A1
1:30
64
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
Figure 5.11. Shear forces in longitudinal direction for 5 meters bridge
Figure 5.12. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 5 meters bridge
65
Figure 5.13. Shear forces in transverse direction for 5 meters bridge
Figure 5.14. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 5 meters bridge
Here is a table with results for the 5 meters bridges using the Swedish National Annex. In transverse
reinforcement, the first values are the ones before checking the crack width and the values below are
after the crack width verification. In longitudinal reinforcement, the first values are the ones without
verifying the crack width (c) and fatigue (f) for 120 years and the second ones are with the verifications.
MINIMUM CRACK WIDTH
BEAM (m) TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FATIGUE
REINF. (mm)
66
INFORMATION
A4
A5
A3 REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A A1 A1 A1 A2 A1
A2 A1 STEEL B500B
1:10
A1
A3 A4 A5
A2
A1
1:30
67
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
Figure 5.16. Shear forces in longitudinal direction for 6 meters bridge
Figure 5.17. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 6 meters bridge
68
Figure 5.18. Shear forces in transverse direction for 6 meters bridge
Figure 5.19. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 6 meters bridge
Here is a table with results for the 6 meters bridges using the Swedish National Annex. In transverse
reinforcement, the first values are the ones before checking the crack width and the values below are
after the crack width verification. In longitudinal reinforcement, the first values are the ones without
verifying the crack width (c) and fatigue (f) for 120 years and the second ones are with the verifications.
MINIMUM CRACK WIDTH
BEAM (m) TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FATIGUE
REINF. (mm)
69
INFORMATION
A4 A5
A6
A3
REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam A1
CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A1
A1 A1 A1
A2 A1 STEEL B500B
1:10
A1
A
A3 A4 A5 A6
A2
A1
70
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
A
MADE BY: DATE:
Figure 5.21. Shear forces in longitudinal direction for 7 meters bridge
Figure 5.22. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 7 meters bridge
71
Figure 5.23. Shear forces in transverse direction for 7 meters bridge
Figure 5.24. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 7 meters bridge
Here is a table with results for the 7 meters bridges using the Swedish National Annex. In transverse
reinforcement, the first values are the ones before checking the crack width and the values below are
after the crack width verification. In longitudinal reinforcement, the first values are the ones without
verifying the crack width (c) and fatigue (f) for 120 years and the second ones are with the verifications.
MINIMUM CRACK
BEAM (m) TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FATIGUE
REINF. WIDTH (mm)
72
INFORMATION
A3
A5 A3
A5 A1
A4
REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam A1 A1
CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A1 A2 A1
A2 A1 STEEL B500B
A 1:10
A1
A3 A4 A5
A2
A1
73
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
Figure 5.26. Shear forces in longitudinal direction for 8 meters bridge
Figure 5.27. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 8 meters bridge
74
Figure 5.28. Shear forces in transverse direction for 8 meters bridge
Figure 5.29. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 8 meters bridge
Here is a table with results for the 8 meters bridges using the Swedish National Annex. In transverse
reinforcement, the first values are the ones before checking the crack width and the values below are
after the crack width verification. In longitudinal reinforcement, the first values are the ones without
verifying the crack width (c) and fatigue (f) for 120 years and the second ones are with the verifications.
MINIMUM CRACK
BEAM (m) TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FATIGUE
REINF. WIDTH (mm)
75
INFORMATION
A3
A3 A4
A2 A4
A2
REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam A1 A1
CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A1 A1 A1
A1 A2 STEEL B500B
A 1:10
A1 A2
A3 A4 A5
A2
A1
76
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
Figure 5.31. Shear forces in longitudinal direction for 9 meters bridge
Figure 5.32. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 9 meters bridge
77
Figure 5.33. Shear forces in transverse direction for 9 meters bridge
Figure 5.34. Moment distribution in longitudinal direction for 9 meters bridge
Here is a table with results for the 9 meters bridges using the Swedish National Annex. In transverse
reinforcement, the first values are the ones before checking the crack width and the values below are
after the crack width verification. In longitudinal reinforcement, the first values are the ones without
verifying the crack width (c) and fatigue (f) for 120 years and the second ones are with the verifications.
MINIMUM CRACK
BEAM (m) TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FATIGUE
REINF. WIDTH (mm)
78
INFORMATION
A4
A4
A3 A1
A1 A3
REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A A1 A1 A2 A1
A2 A1 STEEL B500B
1:10
A1
A3 A4
A2
A1
1:30
79
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
L LONGITU MINIMUM CRACK WIDTH
WALLS TRANSVERSE SHEAR FATIGUE
[m] DINAL REINF. [m]
The crack width and fatigue verification in both, transverse and longitudinal directions cause the
addition of bars. And the number of additional bars increases with the length. It is clearer in transverse
direction but the trend in longitudinal directions seem to be also the same.
Although the number of cases studied are not enough to study this, the following graphs and tables
show some interesting results that could be studied in the future and used to estimate the amount of
reinforcement needed according to the length of the bridge. The graph shows the area of the
reinforcement instead of the number of bars to make easier the comparison due to the different
diameter of bars taken.
80
TRANSVERSE
Figure 5.36. Trend in reinforcement area in longitudinal direction.
81
In transverse direction, area over length is taken to illustrate the differences.
Figure 5.37. Trend in reinforcement area in longitudinal direction.
82
6. Comparison with other bridges in Europe
If there is a common European standard for all Europe, how does the National Annexes affect the
design? Is there any difference between designing in northern or southern Europe?
Now is time to try to answer these questions by comparing the results using the Spanish National
Annexes to the Eurocode and the designs provided in this thesis using the Swedish National Annexes to
the Eurocode.
Here is a complete table with all the results from 3 to 9 meters bridges for both designs. In transverse
reinforcement, the first values are the ones before checking the crack width and the values below are
after the crack width verification. In longitudinal reinforcement, the first values are the ones without
verifying the crack width (c) and fatigue (f) for 120 years and the second ones are with the verifications.
SWEDEN SPAIN
45Ø16s66
3 42Ø16s71 18Ø10 19Ø10
56Ø16s53 (c)
52Ø16s75 56Ø16s71
4 10Ø16 12Ø16
58Ø16s68 (c) 74Ø16s54 (c)
As it is shown in the table, the Spanish design is always more conservative than the Swedish one. It
could be appreciated in the following chapter where all the results are summarized and some illustrative
diagrams are performed.
The Spanish National Annexes provide almost enough reinforcement in longitudinal direction to verify
fatigue at least until 8 meters long bridges and, in transverse direction, the number of bars before crack
control is always higher than the results from the Swedish National Annexes to the Eurocode. As the
maximum crack width for Spain is lower than the Swedish, it is necessary to add even more bars in
transverse direction so the final number of bars in this direction is always quite higher according to the
Spanish National Annexes to the Eurocode.
The Spanish designs seems to be a bit over‐reinforced comparing with the Swedish ones and the costs
83
for these bridges will be significantly higher.
These differences are mainly due to some different values of safety factors such as the ballast height
deviation (quite higher in the Spanish National Annex to the Eurocode), the safety factor for safety class
3, the classification coefficient for Load Model 71 and more.
In the case of the dynamic factor, in Sweden uses φ2 and Spain φ3. In Sweden, φ3 could be used. It is
conservatively always to use φ3 but not economical favourable.
The following table shows the main differences between the Swedish National Annex and the Spanish
National Annex to the Eurocode. These are not the only ones but they are the most significant.
The ballast height deviations seems to be the biggest difference but it only gives a different value of
Gk,sup for permanent loads. Some other values such as the classification coefficient or the dynamic factor
which are used in several calculations give the highest differences. The differences on the safety factor
are not too much between both countries but it is an important factor also and small differences in this
value give high differences in the results.
84
7. Summary and conclusions
Summary
L LONGITU MINIMUM CRACK WIDTH
WALLS TRANSVERSE SHEAR FATIGUE
[m] DINAL REINF. [m]
Figure 7.1. Trend in reinforcement area in longitudinal direction.
In transverse direction, area over length is taken to illustrate the differences.
85
Figure 7.2. Trend in reinforcement area in longitudinal direction.
SWEDEN SPAIN
45Ø16s66
3 42Ø16s71 18Ø10 19Ø10
56Ø16s53 (c)
52Ø16s75 56Ø16s71
4 10Ø16 12Ø16
58Ø16s68 (c) 74Ø16s54 (c)
65Ø16s75 16Ø16 70Ø16s71
5 18Ø16
74Ø16s67 (c) 17Ø16 (f) 94Ø16s53 (c)
78Ø16s75 14Ø20 84Ø16s71
6 16Ø20
92Ø16s65 (c) 15Ø20 (f) 112Ø16s53 (c)
84Ø16s83 18Ø20 98Ø16s71
7 20Ø20
110Ø16s63 (c) 20Ø20 (f) 132Ø16s53 (c)
96Ø16s83 15Ø25 104Ø16s76
8 17Ø25
126Ø16s63 (c) 17Ø25 (f) 152Ø16s52 (c)
108Ø16s83 18Ø25 117Ø16s76 20Ø25
9
144Ø16s62 (c) 21Ø25 (f) 172Ø16s52 (c) 21Ø25 (f)
Table 7.2. Comparison between Swedish and Spanish designs
The following diagrams show the differences between the reinforcement in both designs initially (just
bending moment capacity) and final design (after crack width and fatigue verifications).
86
Figure 7.3. Initial reinforcement area in transverse direction according to the Spanish (E), (Garcia, 2014)
and Swedish (S), (Martinez, 2014) National Annexes.
Figure 7.4. Final reinforcement area in transverse direction according to the Spanish (E), (Garcia, 2014)
and Swedish (S), (Martinez, 2014) National Annexes.
87
Figure 7.5. Initial reinforcement area in longitudinal direction according to the Spanish (E), (Garcia, 2014)
and Swedish (S), (Martinez, 2014) National Annexes.
Figure 7.6. Final reinforcement area in longitudinal direction according to the Spanish (E), (Garcia, 2014)
and Swedish (S), (Martinez, 2014) National Annexes.
88
Conclusions
A 3‐D model could be performed in the Ultimate Limit State analysis to optimize the amount of
reinforcement and it should be done if these standard drawings are going to be used in a future.
For this thesis, symmetric load had been taken in order to make the calculations easier but an
asymmetric load will provide higher shear forces and the results may vary a bit but the margin in these
designs are quite high and they should be able to carry higher shear forces.
The limit for fatigue verification in the concrete in compression for the shortest bridges is far away from
the results achieved. It could be adjusted by reducing the width of the beams but it is not possible with
this design because there will not be place for the longitudinal reinforcement so it could be more
efficient to have a different design for the bridges from 3 to 5 meters (even 6 meters) with small beams
just to contain the ballast and thicker slabs with all the reinforcement.
The differences in the designs from Spain and Sweden are due to several factors changing from one
country to the other. But not all of these factors affect in the same way. Some of them could me
neglected and some others are really significant such as the classification coefficient from LM71 or the
dynamic factor which are used in several calculations. The differences on the safety factor are not too
much between both countries but it is an important factor also and small differences in this value give
high differences in the results as it is multiplied at the end to calculate the final design load.
The design according to the Spanish National Annexes to the Eurocodes is more conservative than the
one provided by the Swedish National Annexes to the Eurocodes which make the Spanish design safer
but significantly more expensive.
In transverse direction, the crack width in both countries is the most determinant designing factor while
in longitudinal direction, the most important factor is the fatigue verification at least in the Swedish
design. For the Spanish one, the results obtained before fatigue verification are almost enough. Finally
both Annexes give almost the same design in longitudinal direction.
It can be difficult to design a standard bridge for all Europe due to the differences in the National
Annexes but the results at least in longitudinal direction seems to be almost the same for both designs
before fatigue verification. In transverse direction, the main difference is the maximum crack width but
with the same allowed crack width in both countries, the results should be also almost the same. It
should be possible to design a standard bridge for a single country, if conservatively assumptions are
made
89
90
8. References
Ahlberg, Sen Olof and Spade, Bengt (2001): Våra broar – en kulturskatt (Our bridges‐ A heritage. In
Swedish). Borlänge: Banverket och Vägverket. 446 pp, ISBN 91‐88250‐43‐1.
Brown, David, J. (1998): Bridges. Three thousand years of defying nature. London: Mitchel Beazley, 1993,
1998, 176 pp, ISBN 1‐840001‐38‐0
Brühwiler, Eugen and Menn, Christian (2003): Stahlbetonbrücken (Reinforced Concrete Bridges. In
German). 3rd Ed. Wien: Springer‐Verlag 2003, 351 pp, ISBN 3‐211‐83583‐0.
Burns Roe Worley & Heritage Assessment and History (2005): Concrete Beam Bridges Heritage Study of
Pre‐1948 Concrete Beam Bridges (Sydney, South West and Southern Regions). 100 pp.
http://www.rms.nsw.gov.au/environment/downloads/heritage/bridge‐types_historical‐
overviews_2006‐concretebeam.pdf
Chen, Wai‐Fah and Duan, Lian (2000): Bridge Engineering Handbook. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 2000,
1514 pp, ISBN 0‐8493‐7434‐0.
Crickshank, Dan (2010): Dan Criukshank´s Bridges. Heroic Designs that Changed the World. London:
Collins. 384 pp, ISBN 978‐0‐00‐731818‐6.
EC0 (2002): Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design, EN 1990;2002. The Eurocodes are issued by the
European Committee for Standardization or, in French, Comité Européen de Normalisation, CEN, and
the corresponding national Standard Associations as e.g. the Swedish Standards Institute, SIS.
EC2 (2004‐2006): Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, EN 1992. Part 1: General rules, Part 2(2005):
Concrete Bridges, Part 3 (2006): Liquid containment structures.
Fernández Troyano, Leonardo (2003): Bridge Engineering. A global perspective. London: Thomas Telford
2003, (First Spanish Ed 1999), 775 pp, ISBN 0‐7277‐3215‐3.
fib Model Code 2010 (2012): fib Model Code 2010, First Complete Draft – Volume 1 and 2. fib Bulletins
55 and 56, 2010. Final Draft ‐ Volume 1 and 2. fib Bulletins 65 and 66, 311 and 332 pp, 2012. Lausanne:
International Federation of Structural Concrete. ISBN 978‐2‐88394‐095‐6, 978‐2‐88394‐096‐3, 978‐2‐
88394‐105‐2, and 978‐2‐88394‐106‐9 respectively. Hardcover Edition 2013, 434 pp, 210 figures 76
tables, ISBN 978‐3‐433‐03061‐5.
Garcia Rodriguez, Aida (2014): Design of Concrete Railway Bridges with spans from 3 to 9 m. Design
according to the Eurocodes and the Spanish National Annex. MSc Thesis in Structural Engineering at
Luleå university of Technology, ca 150 pp, to be published at https://pure.ltu.se/
Graf, Bernhard (2002): Bridges that Changed the World. Munich: Prestel, 126 pp, ISBN 3‐7913‐3400‐X.
Mainline (2014): MAINtenance, renewaL and Improvement of rail transport iNfrastructure to reduce
Economic and environmental impacts (MAINLINE). A European Community 7th Frame‐work Program
research project 2011‐2014 with 19 partners. Grant agreement 285121, SST.2011.5.2‐6. Some 30 reports
and guidelines will be available at http//.mainline‐project.eu
Miner, M. A. (1945): Cumulative damage in fatigue. Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol 12, No 1, 1945,
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol 67, 1945, pp. A159 – A164.
91
Palmgren, Arvid (1924): Die Lebensdauer von Kugellagern. (The life length of roller bearings. In German)
Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI Zeitschrift), ISSN 0341‐7258, Vol 68, No 14, 5 April
1924, pp 339 – 341. Equation (11) in the paper reads: m1/n1 + m2/n2 + m3/n3 + …= 1. Here m1 is the
actual number of loadings for a specific load case and n1 is the number of loadings up to failure if only
that load case is applied.
Reis, J. S. (2003): Bridge design: Concepts and analysis. New York: Wiley, 2003. ISBN 0‐470‐84363‐2
Ryal, M.J., Parke, G.A.R., and Harding, J.E. (2000): Manual of Bridge Engineering. London: Thomas
Telford, 2000, 1012 pp, ISBN 0‐7277‐2774‐5.
Scheer, Joachim (2010): Failed Bridges. Case studies, Causes and Consequences. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn,
2010, 307 pp, ISBN 978‐3‐433‐02951‐0.
Taly, Narendra (1998): Design of modern highway bridges. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1998, 1352 pp, ISBN
0‐07‐062997‐8.
Trafikverket (2014): Some tatistical data are given at http://www.trafikverket.se/Privat/Vagar‐och‐
jarnvagar/Sveriges‐jarnvagsnat/Bandata/
Xanthakos, Petros P. (1994): Theory and design of bridges. New York: Wiley, 1994, 1443 pp, ISBN 0‐
471‐57097‐4
http://www.trafikverket.se
http://www.cbdg.org.uk
http://www.cement.org
92
Appendix A. Calculations for 6 meter length
Bridge specifications
Length 6 meter
Width 5 meter
Figure A.1: Bridge geometry
The design compressive strength for concrete C40/50:
f ck 40
f cd cc 1,00 26,67 MPa (4.1)
c 1,5
The design tensile strength for concrete:
f ctk , 0 , 05 2,5
f ctd ct 1,00 1,67 MPa
c 1,5 (4.2)
For the reinforcement bars:
Ø longitudinal bars 20 mm
Ø transversal bars 16 mm
Ø shear bars 16 mm
Ø minimum reinforcement 12 mm
Ø torsion reinforcement 10 mm
Table A.2: Reinforcement diameters
93
The design tensile strength for steel:
f yk
f std f yd 435 MPa (4.3)
s
More material properties can be found in Appendix N.
C min maxC min, b ; C min,dur C dur, C dur,st C dur,add ;10 mm (4.4)
Permanent loads
Due to the sleepers, the point loads are distributed through the ballast and act as a distributed load on
the surface of the slab. This load isn't uniformly distributed along the surface because there is a sleeper
every 0.9 metres.
Distributed loads:
94
Some extra loads due to electrical equipment and future supplementary dead load are taken into
account: G extra 3,00 kN / m
Point loads:
SLEEPERS
Section 0,072 m2
Volume 0,1872 m3
Weight 3,14 kN
Weight 10,46 kN/m
Number 7
b 0,6 m
LOAD 3,14 kN every 0.9 meters
LOAD 5,23 kN/m
Table A.4: Point loads
Permanent loads in longitudinal direction:
FROM [x (m)] TO [x (m)]
q1=‐122,75 kN/m 0 0,65
95
Figure A.2: Permanent load in longitudinal direction shear forces
Figure A.3: Permanent load in longitudinal direction moment diagram
Maximum shear force: 72,87 kN/m
Maximum moment: 109,18 kNm/m
Permanent loads in transversal direction:
Load
qsleepers 8,45 kN/m
qballast 79,20 kN/m
qrail 2,73 kN/m
qsbr 85,81 kN/m
qconcrete beam 105,00 kN/m
Table A.6: Permanent loads in transversal direction
96
FROM [x (m)] TO [x (m)]
105,00 kN/m 0 0,30
Figure A.4: Permanent load in transverse direction shear forces
Figure A.5: Permanent load in transverse direction moment diagram
Maximum shear force: 37,56 kN/m
Maximum moment: 44,92 kNm/m
97
Variable loads
- DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Assuming cracked section, the natural frequency is:
The Φ factor should be used with static analysis in accordance (EN1991‐2 §6.4.5.2).
1,44
2 0,82 1,46 (4.11)
L 0,2
- TRAFFIC LOADS
Figure A.6: Load model 71
The load distribution is quite complex due to the distribution of the point loads in the sleepers and
through the ballast and it has been done by programming in excel obtaining the following results.
In longitudinal direction:
98
Figure A.7: Traffic loads in longitudinal direction shear forces
Figure A.8Traffic load in longitudinal direction moment diagram
Maximum shear force: 36,82 kN/m
Maximum moment: 298,38 kNm/m
99
In transversal direction:
Figure A.9: Traffic loads in transversal direction shear forces
Figure A.10: Traffic loads in transversal direction moment diagram
Maximum shear force: 117,99 kN/m
Maximum moment: 166,65 kNm/m
- ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIONS
Wind loads [EN1991‐1‐4 §8]:
In transversal direction (x‐direction) the results are:
Reaction in the support: F 9,30 [ kN / m]
100
In longitudinal direction (y‐direction) the results are:
Reaction in the support: F 1,94 [ kN / m]
- BRAKING AND TRACTION [EN1991‐2 §6.5.3]
being the coefficient that was defined earlier for Load Model 71, with a value of 1,33.
As the traction force is bigger than braking force, we will design taking into account the first one.
- NOSING FORCE [EN1991‐2 §6.5.2]
618 mm
Ac
h0 2 (4.26)
u
k h 0,7
t t s
ds t , t s 0,986 (4.27)
t t s 0,04 h03
cd t ds t , t s k h cd , 0 0,166 (4.25)
ca 2,5 f ck 10 10 6 0,000019
(4.29)
as t 1 e 0 , 2 t
1
(4.30)
ca t as t ca 0.000019
(4.28)
cs cd ca 0,166 (4.24)
101
Ultimate and Serviceability limit states
γ(ULS) Ψ0 Ψ1 Ψ2
Self‐weight 1,35 - - -
0,89
The partial factors for safety class 3 bridges is also taken into account
d 1,0
LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSAL
LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSAL
According to the comments from COWI, in SLS an elastic analysis shall be done and it could be good to
make a 3D‐model of the bridge in order to get the correct fixed‐end moment between the slab and the
edge beam.
102
The amount of reinforcement could be also optimized by using the 3D‐model in the ULS analysis, getting
benefit from the transverse reinforcing bars in the top of the slab.
But a 3D‐model will not be performed in order not to extend the thesis too much and to simplify the
work.
- TORSION
The applied design torsion:
75,21 kN / m
TEd
q t ,i t ef ,i (4.41)
2 Ak
The shear force due to torsion is given by:
- CRACKED OR UNCRACKED SECTION
First of all a check should be done in order to verify whether the section is cracked or not.
The section is cracked.
- DEFLECTION
10 mm
L
max (4.56)
600
And the maximum deflection in the mid‐span can be calculated with:
M SLS L2
2,22 mm 3 mm (4.57)
16 EI
Taking into account shrinkage effects:
M SLS L2
2,56 mm 3 mm (4.57)
16 EI
The deflection is below the maximum allowed by SLS.
103
Anchorage
Basic Anchorage Length (EN1992‐1‐1 section 8.4.3)
Ø long sd 20 435
, rqd
l btop 829mm
4 f bd 4 2,63
(4.58)
Ølong sd 20 435
l bbottom
, rqd 580mm
4 f bd 4 3,75
Design Anchorage Length (EN1992‐1‐1 section 8.4.4)
l bd 1 2 3 4 5 l bd,rqd (4.60)
1 4 5 1, 0
0,15 Cd 3
2 0, 7 1 1, 0
Cd 12, 5mm
3 1 K
Reinforcement
Bending reinforcement design
Transversal
Figure A.11: Bridge geometry
The design moment is the moment obtained in the ULS for the transverse direction, and b = 1 m, as
width of the section in order to get the amount of reinforcement needed per meter of slab.
For the effective depth of the section:
Figure A.12: Effective depth
104
øtrans 16
d h cover 1,10 0, 30 0, 362[m]
2 2
(4.67)
Md 359,84
0,103 (4.65)
f cd b d 2
26,67 1 0,362 2
1 1 2 1 1 2 0,101 0,109
(4.66)
f cd 26,67
As b d 0,106 1 0,362 2418 [mm 2 ] (4.68)
f yd 435
ø2 16 2
The area of each bar: Aø 201 [mm 2 ]
4 4
As
And the number of bars needed per meter are: n 12,02 13 [bars / m] (4.63)
Aø
Total number of bars: nTOT 13 L 78 bars
1
with a spacing of: s 75 [ mm] (4.70)
n
Figure A.13: Transversal reinforcement
Longitudinal
To calculate the spacing of bars, the EN1992‐1‐1 §8.2 has to be followed:
3
d h cover Ø trans Ø long a 0,999 m
2
cu
x 0,583 m
x
(4.75)
d cu s
0,8
105
0,766 m
x
z d
2 (4.73)
Md 1648,16
m 0,206 (4.76)
f cd b d 2
26,67 0,3 0,999 2
where b=0,3m (wall thickness)
1 1 2m 0,234 (4.77)
1
bal 0,467 (4.80)
sy
1
cu
mbal bal 1 bal 0,358 (4.81)
2
The maximum number of bars that can fit in a beam is calculated by:
As b d
f cd
f yd
4297 mm 2 (4.84)
Ø2
As
4
314 mm 2
The number of bars needed for the tension reinforcement is obtained from:
13,29 14 bars
As
n
AØ
106
Figure A.14: Longitudinal reinforcement
When fatigue verification is done, 14 bars are not enough for 120 years. One more bar is needed in
longitudinal direction, so all the following results are done for 15 bars.
And the design anchorage length for them will be:
- Shift rule for bending reinforcement (EN1992‐1‐1 §9.2)
The maximum force in the longitudinal reinforcement (at yielding) is:
Ølong
2
As nTOT
4
4712 mm 2 (4.121)
Fsy As f yd 2048,86kN (4.122)
1092,73 kN
n1
Layer 1 : n1 8 bars Fsy1 Fsy (4.123)
n
682,95 kN
n2
Layer 2 : n 2 5 bars Fsy 2 Fsy
n
273,18 kN
n3
Layer 3 : n 2 2 bars Fsy 3 Fsy
n
107
Shear reinforcement design
Members requiring design shear reinforcement (EN1992‐1‐1 section 6.2.3)
The value cotg 1,2 is going to be used for the design.
Figure A.15: Longitudinal shear distribution in the wall
VEd 1275,06kN
Data to be used:
α 60 º
cot(θ) 1,2
ø 20 mm
d 999 mm
Asw
VRd,s z f ywd cot cot sin (4.94)
s
VRd,max cw bw z v1 fcd
cot cot (4.95)
1 cot 2
fck
1 0, 6 1 0, 598 (4.98)
250
Ø2
Asw 2 628 [mm 2 ] (4.99)
4
s 593 mm (4.94)
108
The number of cut links (stirrups) is obtained from:
z cot z cot
n 3 [ stirrups ] (4.100)
s
Figure A.16: Shear reinforcement
If a more efficient distribution for the shear reinforcement is calculated, the solution gives:
S max S (Vmax )
This could be fixed by taking lower values of the diameter. But if the same diameter as for the
longitudinal reinforcement is used, as not so many longitudinal reinforcements are needed on the
supports, some of the bars may be used as shear reinforcement.
In this case, the final solution is to have 2 stirrups near the supports, with a spacing of 940 mm in
between.
Torsion reinforcement
TEd 292,66 [kNm] (4.40)
Vertical reinforcement [EN1992‐1‐1 section 6.2.3]
ø 10 [mm]
ø2
Asw 2 157 [mm 2 ]
4
f ywd 435 [ MPa ]
Asw
s z f ywd cot 307,95 300 [mm]
V Rd , s (4.106)
n 20 [bars ]
Longitudinal reinforcement [EN1992‐1‐1 §6.2.3]
ø 10 [mm]
u k TEd
A sl
f yd 2 Ak
cot 0,0027 [m 2 ] (4.107)
109
ø2
Asw 2 0,000157 [m 2 ]
4
n
A sl
17,25 18 [bars ] (4.108)
Asw
L
s 333 [ mm ]
n
Minimum reinforcement
ølong
d e C nom øtrans 56 [mm] (4.109)
2
The distance between the centres of the bars: cc a ø 37 [ mm ]
w 2 de
The maximum number of bars in the slab: n max 203 [bars] (4.110)
cc
The minimum reinforcement needed in the field: Asf , min
2071 mm 2 (4.111)
Asf ,min
The required number of bars is: n min, f 19 [bars] (4.112)
Aø
w
And the spacing between the bars is obtained from: s sf , min 231 [mm] (4.113)
nmin, f
Minimum reinforcement should also be checked according to EN1992‐2 §7.3.2.
where
As,min minimum reinforcement area
s f yk
kslab 0, 93
k beams 0,65
Compression
Fc
c ,beams 7,462[ MPa ] (4.116)
b x
Fc
c , slab 135,344 [ MPa]
b x
k1 1,5
110
hbeam 1,00 m
*
(4.119)
c
k c 0,4 1 1 (4.115)
h
k1 h * f ct ,eff
Figure A.17: Minimum reinforcement
WALLS SLAB
n 6 4
layers 3 1
Table A.13: Minimum reinforcement according to EN1992‐2 §7.3.2
Reinforcement distribution
Transversal
Once the calculations have been done, the total amount of reinforcement needed is divided into two
different groups. Each of them is bent up through the wall. The spacing is doubled in each group, and
the number of bars is split in two.
The torsion reinforcement is located on the upper part of the slab and on the edge beams.
111
Figure A.18: Transversal reinforcement bars
Figure A.19: Transversal reinforcement distribution
Longitudinal
In order to obtain a more efficient distribution, instead of dividing the bars in layers, they can be
distributed in smaller groups of bars (2 bars/group)
bars 11 2 2
112
Figure A.20: Tensile force curve
Figure A.21: Longitudinal reinforcement distribution
Shear
In order to cope with shear, the excess longitudinal reinforcement in the surroundings of the
supports are used to improve the shear reinforcement.
Figure A.22: Shear reinforcement distribution
Longitudinal direction:
x 0,8 0,596
z d 1,022 0,783 m (4.37)
2 2
113
23,546 MPa
M ULS
c (4.38)
1 x
b x d
2 2
446,595 MPa
M ULS
s (4.39)
x
As d
2
Transversal direction:
x 0,8 0,203
z d 0,348 0,267 m (4.37)
2 2
13,288 MPa
M ULS
c (4.38)
1 x
b x d
2 2
516,007 MPa
M ULS
s (4.39)
x
As d
2
- STRESSES FROM SLS
Longitudinal direction:
x 0,596
z d 1,022 0,823 m (4.44)
3 3
13,912 MPa
M SLS
c (4.45)
1 x
b x d
2 3
263,865 MPa
M SLS
s (4.46)
x
As d
3
Transversal direction:
x 0,203
z d 0,348 0,280 m (4.44)
3 3
7,676 MPa
M SLS
c (4.45)
1 x
b x d
2 3
298,073 MPa
M SLS
s (4.46)
x
As d
3
114
- CRACK WIDTH
To calculate the crack width, the following equations have to be used. In longitudinal direction:
h x h
hc ,eff min2,5h d ; ; 168 mm
3 2 (4.50)
As 1 A p'
p ,eff 0,0911
Ac ,eff
(4.49)
1
f ct ,eff
s kt p ,eff
p ,eff s
e
25
S r ,max 5,00 35 1,6 0,5 0,425 214 mm (4.52)
0,097
And in transverse direction:
h x h
hc,eff min2,5h d ; ; 66 mm (4.50)
3 2
As 1 A p'
p ,eff 0,0199 (4.49)
Ac ,eff
s kt
f ct ,eff
1 p ,eff
p ,eff e
s
sm cm 0,6 0,00127 (4.48)
Es Es
20
S r ,max 5,00 30 1,6 0,5 0,425 413 mm (4.52)
0,0199
115
Figure A.23. Transverse reinforcement distribution
Fatigue
Cumulative damage method
Sectional stress
Fc c x b (4.127)
Fs Es s As s As (4.128)
Fs M
s
As As z (4.132)
Fc M
c (2 beams) c (4.133)
x b 2 xb z
M M self weight 1,traction/ braking M traction/ braking 2,wind M wind M fat
(4.138)
116
Fatigue verification for compressed concrete
m
D
ni
1 (4.139)
i1 Ni
1 E cd , max, i
14
1 R i
N i 10
(4.140)
Ecd,min,i
Ri (4.141)
Ecd,max,i
cd,min,i
Ecd,min,i (4.142)
fcd, fat
cd,max,i
Ecd,max,i (4.142)
fcd, fat
f
fcd, fat k1 cc t0 fcd 1 ck (4.144)
250
28
s1
t0
cc e
(4.145)
117
Fatigue verification for reinforcement in tension and in compression
For 9 reinforcement bars in each beam, the condition of D<1 is not satisfied for 120 years of life that the
bridge is designed for, so the number of reinforcement bars is increased to 10, obtaining the following
results:
Figure A.24: S‐N curve for reinforcement
As 0,011574 [ m 2 ]
TRAIN Moment
Fc =Fs (kN) ΔσRsk (MPa) Ni ni ni/Ni
TYPE (kNm)
118
INFORMATION
A4 A5
A6
A3
REGULATIONS
A- A
Beam A1
CONCRETE C40/50
1:40 A1
A1 A1 A1
A2 A1 STEEL B500B
1:10
A1
A
A3 A4 A5 A6
A2
A1
119
REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
A
MADE BY: DATE:
Figure B.1.1: Map of Sweden (http://www.map‐of‐sweden.co.uk/large‐physical‐sweden‐map.htm)
121
B.2 Scandinavian Railway Network
Figure B.2.1: Scandinavian railway network
(http://www.bueker.net/trainspotting/maps_scandinavian‐peninsulas.php)
122
Appendix C. Exposure classes
EN 1992‐1‐1, Table 4.1
Informative examples where exposure
Class designation Description of the environment
classes may occur
1 No risk of corrosion or attack
For concrete without reinforcement or
embedded metal: all exposures except
where there is freeze/thaw, abrasion Concrete inside buildings with very low
X0
or chemical attack. air humidity
For concrete with reinforcement or
embedded metal: very dry
2 Corrosion induced by carbonation
Concrete inside buildings with low air
XC1 Dry or permanently wet humidity Concrete permanently
submerged in water
Concrete surfaces subject to long‐term
XC2 Wet, rarely dry water contact
Many foundations
Concrete inside buildings with
XC3 Moderate humidity moderate or high air humidity External
concrete sheltered from rain
Concrete surfaces subject to water
XC4 Cyclic wet and dry
contact, not within exposure class XC2
3 Corrosion induced by chlorides
Concrete surfaces exposed to airborne
XD1 Moderate humidity
chlorides
Swimming pools Concrete
XD2 Wet, rarely dry components exposed to industrial
waters containing chlorides
Parts of bridges exposed to spray
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry containing chlorides Pavements Car
park slabs
4 Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
Exposed to airborne salt but not in
XS1 Structures near to or on the coast
direct contact with sea water
XS2 Permanently submerged Parts of marine structures
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones Parts of marine structures
5 Freeze/Thaw Attack
Moderate water saturation, without Vertical concrete surfaces exposed to
XF1
de‐icing agent rain and freezing
XF2 Moderate water saturation, with de‐ Vertical concrete surfaces of road
123
icing agent structures exposed to freezing and
airborne de‐icing agents
High water saturation, without de‐ Horizontal concrete surfaces exposed
XF3
icing agents to rain and freezing
Road and bridge decks exposed to de‐
icing agents.
Concrete surfaces exposed to direct
High water saturation with de‐icing
XF4 spray containing de‐icing agents and
agents or sea water
freezing
Splash zone of marine structures
exposed to freezing
6 Chemical attack
Slightly aggressive chemical
XA1 environment according to EN 206‐1, Natural soils and ground water
Table 2
Moderately aggressive chemical
XA2 environment according to EN 206‐1, Natural soils and ground water
Table 2
Highly aggressive chemical
XA3 environment according to EN 206‐1, Natural soils and ground water
Table 2
Table C.1: Exposure classes related to environmental conditions in accordance with EN 206‐1
124
Appendix D. Ultimate limit states design values
Table D.1: EN1990, Annex 2, Table A2.4(B) ‐ Design values of actions (STR/GEO) (Set B)
125
Appendix E. Dynamic Analysis
Figure E.1: Flow chart for determining whether a dynamic analysis is required (EN1991‐2 §6.4.4)
126
Appendix F. Thermal actions
According to the Eurocode (EN1991‐1‐5 §6.1.1), there are 3 different types of bridge decks:
Steel box girder
TYPE 1 Steel deck
Steel truss or plate girder
TYPE 2 Composite deck
Concrete slab
TYPE 3 Concrete deck Concrete beam
Concrete box girder
Table F.1: Bridge deck types
The maximum and minimum values of the uniform bridge temperatures are obtained from the following
figure (EN1991‐1‐5 §6.1.3.1).
Figure F.1: Correlation between minimum/maximum shade air temperature (Tmin/Tmax) and
minimum/maximum uniform bridge temperature component (Te.min/Te.max) (Figure 6.1)
127
To calculate the vertical temperature differences in a bridge deck, the following table from EN1991‐1‐5
§6.1.4.1.
The values given in the table are based on a depth of surfacing of 50 mm for road and railway bridges.
For other depths of surfacing these values should be multiplied by the factor ksur. The recommended
values for the factor ksur are given in Table L.3.
Top warmer than bottom Bottom warmer that top
TYPE OF DECK
TM,heat (oC) TM,cool (oC)
Type 1:
Steel deck 18 13
Type 2:
Composite deck 15 18
Type 3:
Concrete deck:
- concrete box girder 10 5
- concrete beam 15 8
- concrete slab 15 8
Table F.2: Recommended values of linear temperature difference component for different types of bridge
decks (Table 6.1)
Road, foot and railway bridges
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
Top Top Top
Surface Bottom Bottom Bottom
warmer warmer warmer
thickness warmer warmer warmer
than than than
than top than top than top
[mm] bottom bottom bottom
Water‐
1,6 0,6 1,1 0,9 1,5 1,0
proofed
Ballast
0,6 1,4 0,8 1,2 0,6 1,0
(750 mm)
Table F.3: Recommended values of linear temperature difference component for different types of bridge
decks (Table 6.2)
128
Appendix G. Anchorage lengths
Reinforcement bar
Influencing factor Type of anchorage
In tension In compression
Straight 1 1, 0 1 1, 0
1 0, 7 if C d 3
Other than straight
Shape of bars
(see Figure 8.1 (b),(c)
otherwise 1 1, 0 1 1, 0
and (d)) (see Figure 8.3 for values
of Cd)
2 1 0,15 Cd 3 /
Straight 0, 7 2 1, 0
1, 0
Concrete cover 2 1 0,15 Cd 3 /
Other than straight 0, 7
(see Figure 8.1 (b),(c) 1, 0 2 1, 0
and (d))
(see Figure 8.3 for values
of Cd)
Confinement by
transverse 3 1 K
reinforcement not All types 0, 7 3 1, 0
welded to main 1, 0
reinforcement
Confinement by All types, position and
welded transverse size as specified in 4 0, 7 4 0, 7
reinforcement* Figure 8.1(e)
5 1 0, 04 p
Confinement by
transverse pressure
All types 0, 7 ‐
1, 0
Ast Ast,min / As
Ast cross‐sectional area of the transverse reinforcement along the design
anchorage length
Ast,min cross‐sectional area of the minimum transverse reinforcement =0,25 As for
beams and 0 for slab
As area of a single anchored bar with maximum bar diameter
K values shown in Figure 8.4
p transverse pressure [MPa] at ultimate limit state along lbd
Table G.1: Values of 1, 2, , and coefficients (EN1992‐1‐1, §8.4.4, Table 8.2)
129
Figure G.1: Values of Cd for beams and slabs (EN1992‐1‐1, §8.4.4, figure 8.3)
Figure G.2: Values of K for beams and slabs (EN1992‐1‐1, §8.4.4, figure 8.4)
130
Appendix H. Material properties
CONCRETE C40/50
fck (MPa) 40
fck,cube (MPa) 50
fcm (MPa) 48
fctm (MPa) 3,5
fctk,0.05 (MPa) 2,5
fctk,0.95 (MPa) 4,6
Ecm (GPa) 35
EN 1992‐1‐1:2004 (E), table 3.1
Ɛct (‰) 2,3
Ɛcu1 (‰) 3,5
Ɛc2 (‰) 2
Ɛcu2 (‰) 3,5
ƞ 2
Ɛc3 (‰) 1,75
Ɛcu3 (‰) 3,5
αcc 1,0 National Annex
αct 1,0 National Annex
ϒc 1,5 EN 1992‐1‐1:2004 (E), table 2.1N
fcd (MPa)=αcc*fck/ϒc 26,67 EN 1992‐2 (Eq 3.15)
fctd (MPa)=αct*fctk,0.05/ϒc 1,67 EN 1992‐2 (Eq 3.16)
Ed (GPa)=αcc*Ecm/ϒc 23,33
PRICE (kr/m3) 1558
Table H.1: Concrete properties
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STEEL B500B
fy (MPa) 500
Tensile/Yield 1,08
fu (MPa) 540
Total elongation 0
Esk (GPa) 200
ϒs 1,15 EN 1992-1-1:2004 (E), table 2.1N
fst (MPa)=fyk/ϒs 435 EN 1992-1-1:2004 (E), Figure 3.8
Es=Esk/ϒs 173,9
Price (kr/ton) 3200
σsd=fyd 435
Table H.2: Steel properties
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Appendix I. Fatigue
Train types for fatigue (EN1991‐2 Annex D, D.3).
Standard and light traffic mixes:
Figure I.1: Type 1 trains. Locomotive‐hauled passenger train.
Q=6630kN, V=200km/h, L=262,10m, q=25,3kN/m
Figure I.2: Type 2 trains. Locomotive‐hauled passenger train.
Q=5300kN, V=160km/h, L=281,10m, q=18,9kN/m
Figure I.3: Type 3 trains. High speed passenger train.
Q=9400kN, V=250km/h, L=385,52m, q=24,4kN/m
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Figure I.4: Type 4 trains. High speed passenger train.
Q=5100kN, V=250km/h, L=237,60m, q=21,5kN/m
Figure I.5: Type 5 trains. Locomotive‐hauled freight train.
Q=21600kN, V=80km/h, L=270,30m, q=80,0kN/m
Figure I.6: Type 6 trains. Locomotive‐hauled freight train.
Q=14310kN, V=100km/h, L=333,10m, q=43,0kN/m
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Figure I.7: Type 7 trains. Locomotive‐hauled freight train.
Q=10350kN, V=120km/h, L=196,50m, q=52,7kN/m
Figure I.8: Type 8 trains. Locomotive‐hauled freight train.
Q=10350kN, V=100km/h, L=212,50m, q=48,7kN/m
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About the author
Adolfo Martínez Díaz was born in Oviedo, Spain, on November the 18th 1987.
Since he was a child, he was interested on engineering stuff, new technologies
and mechanics.
He attended primary and secondary schools in Oviedo, Spain. After that, he
studied industrial engineering at the School of Engineering at the University of
Oviedo. Then, he specialized in structural and construction engineering at
Luleå University of Technology, Sweden, during one year. He stayed in Sweden
for 8 more months performing this thesis in collaboration with Trafikverket.
He is also interested in mechanics and electronics. He wants to attend a
Master on Mechatronics as soon as possible.
Adolfo is now performing an internship at SAMOA INDUSTRIAL, S.A. in Spain at the Department of
Quality Engineering until July 2014, but he wants to come back to Sweden soon and start his
professional life there.
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