CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1GENERAL

Global attention has been focused on environmental preservation due to alarming

depletion of ozone layer as a result of pollution resulting from manufacturing
processes. It was reported by Mehta (2001) that “cement production, coarse aggregate
mining, processing and transportation operations accounts for about 7% of the global
loading of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere due to considerable amount of energy
consumed, thereby affecting the ecology of the forested areas and river beds.
In an attempt to reduce environmental degradation, close attention is now being paid to
material recycling and the use of agricultural and industrial wastes in concrete
production. In civil engineering practice and construction works, large volumes of fine
aggregates are usually used in the production of concrete.
Gambhir (2005) reported that fine aggregate constitutes about 75% to 85% of the
concrete matrix. Concrete being one of the major building materials that is used
virtually in all aspects of construction and could be delivered to the job site, and be
molded in situ or pre-cast to any form or shape, makes it a material of choice in
construction. Hence the significance and relevance of fine aggregate in concrete
production in all areas of civil engineering practice and building construction cannot
be ignored. The basic constituents of concrete are cement, fine aggregate (sand),
coarse aggregate (granite chipping) and water. India being a developing country is
faced with inadequate provision of physical infrastructure; shelter and related
amenities, which are typical factors of under development that need to be addressed
through provision of alternative, cheap and affordable materials. In these areas
development require the use of cement and other related materials such as fine
aggregate. Technologies which can provide means of upgrading shelter within the
scope of the socio economic and cultural environment need to be developed ( Elinwa,

1
2003) . Currently, research efforts have been geared towards sourcing, development
and the use of local alternative construction materials including the possibility of using
some agricultural wastes and residues as construction materials. Some investigations
made shown that it is possible to produce concrete using agricultural, urban and
industrial wastes material, (Gambhir, 2005). Hence the focus of this research is to
investigate the use of walnut shell as an aggregate in concrete through experimental
investigation.

1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

The use of wastes material as basic raw material in concrete production may provide
foreseeable solution to the challenges of waste management. However, records have
shown that industrial by-products such as sintered pulverized fuel ash (fly ash), formed
or expanded blast-furnace slag and other material of plant origin which are considered
as wastes have been used in concrete; these include wood saw dust, coconut pitch, rice
husk, wheat husk, groundnut husk, etc. coconut shell which is referred to as endocarp
may be useful as aggregate for concrete production.
(i) Can walnut shell be used in concrete production?

(ii) If yes, is it environmental friendly?

(iii) What positive or negative impact does it have on concrete production?

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The aim of this research is to investigate the use of coconut shell as coarse aggregate
in concrete,
through:
i. Characterization of the materials used for the works.

2
ii. Experimental determination of the mechanical properties of the concrete.

1.4 SCOPE OF WORK

The scope of this work is limited to the following:

i. To determine the optimum percentage replacement of the walnut shell in

concrete without compromising the strength.
ii. The mechanical properties of walnut shell.
iii. Test of the compressive strength of walnut shell concrete.
iv. The engineering properties of other aggregates used in the concrete (stone and
fine aggregate)
v. The chemical properties of the binder used (ordinary Portland cement)
vi. Test of compressive strength of cubes with partial replacement of normal
Stone aggregate with walnut shell.
vii. The analysis of the results obtained from the tests and drawing conclusions
from the results

1.5 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The availability and the cost of stone crushed fine aggregate in India varies from the
North to the South. The availability in the rural setting is a worrisome scenario.
Although, walnut shells are often dumped as agricultural wastes, it is not commonly
used in the construction industry. However, with the quest for affordable housing
system for both rural and urban population in India, locally available material will help
in cutting down spending on conventional building material. One of the forefront
suggestions has been the sourcing, development and use of available local materials
such as agricultural wastes and residues as construction materials. Therefore, the
research is designed to produce experimental results which can be used to establish the

3
properties of concrete produced from walnut shell aggregate. It will also help to
establish the level of percentage replacement of normal stone crush aggregate in
concrete. The experimental results will be useful in making appropriate
recommendation of the material in design and construction of concrete from walnut
shell aggregate concrete.

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The growing concern of resource depletion and global pollution has challenged many
engineers to seek and develop new materials relying on renewable resources (Teo et.
al, 2006). These include the use of by-products and waste materials in building
construction. In developing countries where abundant agricultural and industrial
wastes are discharged, these wastes can be used as potential material or replacement
material in the construction industry. This will have the double advantage of reduction
in the cost of construction material and also as a means of disposal of wastes. Many of
these by-products are used as aggregate for the production of concrete. Although, there
has been much research conducted on the structural performance of normal stone
aggregate concrete, these are mostly confined to naturally occurring aggregates,
manufactured aggregates, and aggregates from industrial by-products. Coarse
aggregate in concrete production will continue to play a significant role as a
construction material in long time to come.

Pravin V et al. (2014) .The prices of building materials are rising day by day. The
main ingredient of the concrete is coarse aggregate. Nowadays, many of the
researchers are researching the material which can reduce the cost of construction as
well as increase the cost. In developing countries, the possibility of using some
agricultural wastes as well as industrial by-products from different industries as
construction materials will be highly desirable & has found to have several practical
advantages. It was observed that the coconut shell has a great potential as a partial
replacement of the aggregate in the concrete. The present work is only an

5
accumulation of information about GFRGC and the research work which is already
carried out by other researchers.
.
Dr.A.S.Kanagalakshmi et al (2015) Advancement in concrete technology is
reducing the consumption of natural resources and energy sources and lessening the
burden of pollutants on environment. Hence the reuse of waste materials has been
emphasized. Presently large amount of agricultural wastes that are generated, are used
as a partial replacement of cement. Waste can be used to produce new products or can
be used as admixtures so that natural resources are used more efficiently and the
environment is protected from waste deposits. In recent years, the uses of these
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are not only improve the various
properties of concrete - both in its fresh and hardened states, but also can contribute to
economy in construction costs. Hence an experimental program is conducted to
develop new kinds of pozzolana from agricultural wastes as Peanut Shell Ash. The
production of beam using PSA ash as cement replacement is to be investigated. 4
number of beams are casted with PSA for each replacement levels (0%, 5%, 10%, and
15%).The compressive strength is increased than control mix with 5% PSA mix and
15% PSA mix for 7 days and 28 days curing the increased compressive strength is
only at 5% PSA (mix).The main aim of this paper is to discuss about the compressive
strength and tensile strength of the casted beam with PSA.

A. P. Adewuyi et al. (2008). This paper reports the exploratory study on the
suitability of the periwinkle shells as partial or full replacement for granite in concrete
works. Physical and mechanical properties of periwinkle shells and crushed granite
were determined and compared. A total of 300 concrete cubes of size 150 x 150 x 150
3
mm with different percentages by weight of crushed granite to periwinkle shells as
coarse aggregate in the order 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100 were cast, tested
and their physical and mechanical properties were determined. Compressive strength
tests showed that 35.4% and 42.5% of the periwinkle shells in replacement for granite
was quite satisfactory with no compromise in compressive strength requirements for

6
concrete mix ratios 1:2:4 and 1:3:6, respectively. This corresponds to savings of 14.8%
and 17.5% for 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 concrete mixes, respectively.

Olugbenga et.al (2010). Investigated the “Potentials of coconut shell and husk ash on
the geotechnical properties of lateritic soil for road works”. Soil samples were
collected from three barrows pits meant for road construction works, preliminary tests
were performed on them for identification and classification purposes. Engineering
properties tests such as compaction, California bearing ratio (CBR) and triaxial were
done on both the stabilized and unstabilized states with the additions of 2, 4, 6, and 8%
coconut shell and husk ash contents. The results show that the engineering properties
of the samples were further improved with the addition of 4% coconut shell husk ash
contents. The investigation revealed that there was a reduction in the plasticity index
of the samples A and C from 20.43 to 16.74% and 29.51 to 15.67% respectively and
reduction at 2% of C8HA in sample B. the maximum mixture dry density and shear
strengths at 4% CSHA stabilization. The subsequent addition of CSHA increased the
values of shear strengths to 136.32, 146. 91 and 127.96N/mm2, whereas MDD
increased to 1939.00, 1749.86 and 2080.25Kg/m2 respectively in samples A, B and C.
It was concluded that coconut shell and husk ash has a good potential for improving
the geotechnical properties of lateritic soils.

Amarnath Yerramala et al. (2014). Properties of concrete with coconut shells (CS)
as aggregate replacement were studied. Control concrete with normal aggregate and
CS concrete with 10 - 20% coarse aggregate replacement with CS were made. Two
mixes with CS and fly ash were also made to investigate fly ash effect on CS replaced
concretes. Constant water to cementitious ratio of 0.6 was maintained for all the
concretes. Properties like compressive strength, split tensile strength, water absorption
and moisture migration were investigated in the laboratory. The results showed that,
density of the concretes decreases with increase in CS percent. Workability decreased
with increase in CS replacement. Compressive and split tensile strengths of CS
concretes were lower than control concrete. Permeable voids, absorption and sorption

7
were higher for CS replaced concretes than control concrete. Coarse aggregate
replacement with equivalent weight of fly ash had no influence when compared with
properties of corresponding CS replaced concrete.

Miss. Anjali S et al (2015). The rising cost of construction material is a matter of

concern. The reason for increase in cost is high demand of concrete and scarcity of raw
material. Hence most of the researchers have focus on use of the waste materials in
concrete according to their properties. In this study, M 20 grade of concrete was
produced by replacing by coconut shell. 8 cubes and 8 cylinders were casted and their
compressive strength and tensile strength were evaluated at 28 days. The compressive
strength and tensile strength of concrete reduced as the percentage replacement
increased. Concrete produced by 0%, 10%, 15%, 20% replacement of coarse aggregate
by coconut shell attained 28 days compressive strength and split tensile strength. The
results showed that coconut shell concrete can be used in concrete construction. Its
utilization is cost effective and eco-friendly.

S.Revathi et al. (2015). This paper highlights the feasibility study on the utilization
of groundnut husk ash as an alternative material for conventional fine aggregate (river
sand). For the experimental investigation, mortar mixes were prepared by replacing
conventional fine aggregate with groundnut husk ash in percentages of 0, 10, 20, 30,
40, 50 and 60.Tests were carried out to find out the compressive strength, density,
water absorption and sorptivity of mortar specimens prepared by partial replacement of
natural river sand using groundnut husk ash and a comparison was also made with
conventional mortar specimens.

Kuan Gopal Charan Behera et al. (2013). Abundant availability of natural resources
has become a dream for present day engineering society due to large scale
consumptions. The unaccountable population growth rate makes problem of
availability of coarse aggregate for construction more severe. Due to rapid

8
Urbanization and industrialization, consumption of aggregates increased to manifold.
So, the researchers must find the alternatives for the coarse aggregate. The increase in
population also increases the industrial by- products, domestic wastes etc. It has been
noticed in India that coconut shell (CS) as an agricultural waste, requires high
dumping yards as well as an environmental polluting agent. If it can be utilized as a
coarse aggregate, then it should be a boon rather than a ban to the civil engineering
society. This study aims in development the mix design of lightweight aggregate
concrete using CS as coarse aggregate together with cement and river sand.
Experimental study is undertaken to investigate the effects of replacement of coarse
aggregate by different percentages of coconut shell on mechanical properties of this
composite concrete. The test values obtained from experiment was verified with
different codes from different countries.

Jnyanendra Kumar Prusty et al. (2015) Use of agricultural waste in construction

industry holds a high potential of reducing global environmental pollution. There are a
number of agricultural wastes used as a full or partial replacement of coarse aggregate.
This paper reviews some of the agro-wastes like date seed, rubber seed, coconut shell,
oil palm shell, corn cob, cockle shell, and periwinkle shell. Of the stated materials,
maximum experiments have been conducted by using the oil palm shell and coconut
shell as lightweight aggregates. However a grave necessity is felt to properly
understand and characterize other waste materials as aggregate replacement. This
paper compares different physical and mechanical properties of agro-waste and agro-
concrete, and also presents their reviews with comparative behaviors. Structural
behavior and thermal conductivity of these materials are also reviewed and compared
with controlled concrete. Reviews indicate that both the sea shell, that is cockle shell
and periwinkle shell show very good compressive strength, but low slump, and they
require more cement paste to become workable owing to their angular and flaky shape.
Coconut shell and oil palm shell shows good performance in structural members which
can be comparable to controlled concrete. It is felt that further detailed investigations

9
are required for date seed and rubber shield to firmly characterize them and understand
their behavior.

S.Revathi et al. (2010). This work studies the influence of using fly ash,
polypropylene fibers, and steel fibers on the abrasion resistance of concrete. The
different concrete mixtures considered contained 0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 45% fly ash
as cement replacement in mass basis. The volume fractions of steel fibers were varied
by 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 1.5% and that of polypropylene fiber were varied by 0.05, 0.1 and
0.2%. Water-binder ratio was kept constant at 0.35 for all concrete mixtures and the
Bohme surface abrasions of the concrete mixtures were measured at 28 days. The
experimental results showed that replacement of fly ash with cement reduced abrasion
resistance of concrete, whereas, the inclusion of the steel fiber improved the abrasion
resistance of concrete. In the case of compressive strength of concrete, addition of steel
fibers did not show much effect but the flexural tensile strength was found to
considerably increase with the increasing volume fraction of steel. The comparison
between the relation of abrasion to compressive strength and abrasion to flexural
tensile strength, made in terms of R2 of the linear regression on log scale, showed that
a stronger relation existed between abrasion and flexural tensile strength than between
abrasion and compressive strength of the concrete. Polypropylene fiber was not found
to improve the abrasion resistance of concrete made with or without fly ash.

Sreenivasulu Dandagala et al. (2016). The prices of building materials are rising day
by day and the rising cost of construction building materials plays a vital role in
construction industry. The coarse aggregates are one of the main ingredients of
concrete. Recently an increasing attraction has been paid by several researchers to find
alternate applications for such materials in civil engineering. In the present study an
attempt has been made to study the effect of coconut shell in concrete, as an alternative
low cost material in construction industry for the partial replacement of coarse
aggregate in concrete. The coconut shells used in the present study are collected from
different S.V. Agricultural University, Tirupati. In order to determine the engineering

10
properties for both normal concrete and coconut shell concrete, different laboratory
tests like specific gravity, Water absorption, and Crushing strength etc. are being
conducted at 7, 14 and 28 days on the collected samples and the basic properties are
thus determined as per IS codes 456:2000 and IS 10262:2009. The obtained results
reveal that the significant increase in different percentages of coconut shell increases
the Compressive strength value when compared to normal concrete. Hence, the
coconut shell can be used as a partial replacement and also full replacement for the
coarse aggregate in concrete based on the type of construction purpose. The present
investigation is carried out on implementation of coconut shell in concrete
successfully. Hence, in general bulk uses of coconut shell as lightweight aggregate are
found in many construction applications such as buildings, saving in energy, reduction
in land fill cost, and protecting environment from pollution effect for the sustainable
development of construction industry.

Jian-Shiuh Chenet al. (2008). The preferred management option for the municipal
solid waste bottom ash _MSW-BA_ around the world is utilization rather than land
filling, but the current environmental quality criteria for bottom ash to be utilized in
bulk quantities are rather strict. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the physical
and environmental properties of asphalt mixtures containing different amounts of
MSW-BA used as an aggregate substitute. The Marshall mix design method, water
sensitivity, and wheel track rutting tests were conducted on MSW BA asphalt mixtures
to evaluate the engineering properties of the mix. Leach tests were performed to
measure the concentration of heavy metals. The MSW-BA asphalt mixture had
relatively lower rutting resistance when compared with the conventional one. The
results of the water sensitivity test showed that the MSW-BA asphalt mixtures had a
lower tensile strength ratio compared with the conventional asphalt mixtures. It is
recommended that the use of the MSW-BA ash in asphalt concrete mixtures be limited
to be 20% ash, by total weight of the mix, in binder or base course and 10% in surface
mix to ensure satisfactory pavement performance. The test results obtained from the
toxicity characteristic leaching procedure testing indicated that, after being mixed with

11
asphalt binder, the concentration of heavy metals and the levels of toxicity were
significantly reduced. The concentrations of MSW-BA all along were below regulation
limits.

K. Gunasekaran et al (2013). In this study, coconut shell was used as recycled

lightweight aggregate in concrete. For coconut shell aggregate concrete (CSAC) to be
used in realistic situations, its strength, durability and its temperature resistance need
to be examined. Therefore, this study investigated the durability performance of CSAC
in three curing conditions and resistance at elevated temperatures. The durability
properties investigated include the absorption, volume of permeable voids, sorptivity,
rapid chloride penetration test, salt pounding test, and temperature resistance. The test
results showed that the durability properties of CSAC are comparable to that of other
conventional lightweight concretes (LWCs) and convenient curing is necessary for
CSAC to achieve better durability. Temperature resistance of CSAC at elevated
temperature, color changes; residual strength is comparable with LWCs.

Kalyanapu Venkateswara Rao et al. (2015). Concrete is the premier construction

material around the world and is most widely used in all types of construction works,
including infrastructure, low and high-rise buildings, and domestic developments. It is
a man-made product, essentially consisting of a mixture of cement, aggregates, water
and admixture(s). Inert granular materials such as sand, crushed stone or gravel form
the major part of the aggregates. Traditionally aggregates have been readily available
at economic prices and of qualities to suit all purposes. But, the continued extensive
extraction use of aggregates from natural resources has been questioned because of the
depletion of quality primary aggregates and greater awareness of environmental
protection. In light of this, the non-availability of natural resources to future
generations has also been realized. Different alternative waste materials and industrial
by products such as fly ash, bottom ash, recycled aggregates, foundry sand, china clay
sand, crumb rubber, glass were replaced with natural aggregate and investigated
properties of the concretes. Apart from above mentioned waste materials and industrial

12
by products, few studies identified that coconut shells, the agricultural by product can
also be used as aggregate in concrete.

Lopa M et al. (2015). This paper reviews the possible use of agricultural wastes as
aggregate in the concrete industry. Large volumes of natural resources and raw
materials are being used for concrete production around the world in laboratory. To
reduce or minimize the undesirable environmental effect of the concrete industry and
promote environmental sustainability of the industry, the use of wastes from industry
as materials for concrete construction is considered as an alternative solution for
preventing the excessive usage of raw materials. It aims to support the notion of using
these wastes by explaining their engineering properties. This review of existing
knowledge about the successful use of agricultural wastes in the concrete industry
helps to identify other existing waste products for use in concrete manufacturing.
Recycling of such wastes and using them in construction materials appears to be
feasible solution not only to the pollution problem but also an economical option in
construction. In this constructed environment, the intensifying cost of building
construction materials is the factor of immense concern. In this paper, the use of
coconut shell as a coarse aggregate has been discussed based on the results obtained
from wide-ranging review of literature. The coconut shell is a material which can be a
replacement of aggregates. The intension of this paper is to increase knowledge about
the use of coconut shell as a construction material in civil engineering.

Dr. Ndefo Okigbor et al. (2013). The properties of concrete produced with cement
mixed with ground nut shell ash are reported in this paper. These properties were
investigated using ground nut shell ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete
production. The qualities of the cement and aggregates were assured by checking their
compliance with the provisions of the relevant British standards. The compressive
strength of the ash –cement concrete increased with age, but decreased with the
increase in the proportion of the ash to cement. The setting time and workability of the
ash cement concrete decreased as the replacement level of the ground nut shell ash to

13
cement increased. From a 10% replacement level to 30%, the initial setting time
decreased from 103 minutes to 87 minutes and the slump of the concrete decreased
from 22.4 mm to 16.0 mm at a water cement ratio of 0.6. At 0.35 water cement ratio
there was zero slump. The average compressive strength of the ash cement concrete at
0.6 water cement ratio and 10% replacement level was 21.48N/mm2 at 28 days. This is
lower than the control value of 29.70N/mm2 at 28 days. For the 0.35 water cement
ratio, the average compressive strength at 10% replacement level was 25.26N/mm2 at
28 days. This is greater than the control value which was 16.81N/mm2 at 28 days.

T.C. Nwofor, et al. (2012). This study investigates the use of considerable volume of
groundnut shell ash as the partial replacement for cement in concrete production. A
total of 100 specimens of the GSA/OPC concrete were cured in cubes of 100mm
dimension for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days and the compressive strength and density
determined. The percentage replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) varies to
the control (0% replacement) about 40%. The results generally show a decrease in
density and compressive strength as the percentage replacement with GSA increases
suggesting less hydration with cement. Based on a general analysis of the results as
well as the logical comparison to the acceptable standard, a percentage replacement of
10% is suggested for sustainable construction, especially in mass concrete
constructions.

Owolabi Aebayo et al. (2012). Palm kernel shells were assessed as aggregate in
concrete and laterite blocks. Results showed that laterite blocks reinforced with kernel
shells at the optimum proportion of 1:4 (kernel shells: laterite) by volume were about
15% stronger than plain laterite blocks.The strength of laterite blocks reinforced with
kernel shells also compared favourably with strength of sand crate blocks which are
popularly used as partitions in buildings. However, replacement of crushed stone
aggregate with kernel shells in concrete blocks resulted in a strength reduction of about
50%. Therefore, palm kernel shells are not good substitutes for crushed stone
aggregates in concrete.

14
Vishwas P et al. (2013). Aggregates provide volume at low cost, comprising 66
percent to 78 percent of the concrete. Conventional coarse aggregate namely gravel
and fine aggregate is sand in concrete will be used as control. While natural material is
coconut shell as course aggregate will be investigate to replace the aggregate in
concrete. In this studies, three different concrete mixes with different the combination
of natural material content namely 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%.Three sample specimen will
be prepared for each concrete mixes. The aim behind this is to use low cost material
like coconut shell and thus taking close to the concept of low cost housing. All
precaution is taken to maintain serviceability, strength and durability of the members.
Thus it will be helpful for civil engineers and society to adopt this concept to fulfill the
basic need of human that is housing.

Payam et al. (2014). Concrete is the most widely used construction material. With the
ever-increasing industrialization and urbanization, huge amounts of natural resources
are required to make concrete. This, in turn, means that large volumes of natural
resources and raw materials are being used for concrete production around the world.
To eliminate or minimize the negative environmental impact of the concrete industry
and promote environmental sustainability of the industry, the use of wastes from
industry as materials for concrete making is considered as an alternative solution for
preventing the excessive usage of raw materials. The wide availability of agricultural
wastes make them a suitable and dependable alternative for aggregate in concrete,
wherever available. This paper reviews the possible use of agricultural wastes as
aggregate in the concrete industry. It aims to promote the idea of using these wastes by
elaborating upon their engineering properties. This summary of existing knowledge
about the successful use of agricultural wastes in the concrete industry helps to identify
other existing waste products for use in concrete making. From this identification by
agricultural and civil engineers, significant achievements can be attained.

S.Revathi et al. (2015) Use of concrete Paver Blocks in road pavements is more
common nowadays. Concrete Paver Block is a better option in road construction when

15
compared to the conventional road which is made by bitumen and gravel from the
point of view of cost and better suitability. As India is a developing country,
construction of roadways and buildings plays an important role. In the present
investigation paver blocks were prepared using M40 mix using 10 mm Coarse
aggregates, Portland Pozzolana Cement and Fine Aggregates .The dimension of the
paver block is 215 x 170 x 55 mm. The fine aggregates were partially replaced using
Groundnut husk ash in percentage of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60. Tests were carried
out to find out the Compressive Strength, Water Absorption and Density. The main
objective of this paper is to use waste products like groundnut husk ash for the
production of Paver Blocks which will useful in construction.

B.H. Sada et al. (2013). The suitability of groundnut shell as a constituent material in
concrete was investigated by re-placing proportions by volume of _ne aggregate (river
sand) with groundnut shells. Physical properties of cement, groundnut shells and
aggregates were determined. Concrete cubes measuring 150x150x150mm were cast.
Groundnut shells were used to replace aggregate at 0%, 5%, 15%, 25%, 50% and 75%
replacement levels. The effects of the groundnut shells on the workability of fresh
concrete were determined by the slump and compacting factor value tests.
Compressive strengths and density values of the concrete cubes were evaluated at 28
days at different percentage replacement levels obtaining a range of values of 34.37,
40.59, 21.33, 17.78, 12.44, 7.56N/mm2 and 2402.96, 2533.33, 2349.62, 2215.30,
2121.48, and 1854.81Kg/m3 respectively. Increase in percentage of groundnut shells
in the cubes led to a corresponding reduction in densities of the cubes and compressive
strength values. At a replacement value of 25% and above, of the aggregate with
groundnut shells; lightweight concrete was produced which could be used where low
stress is required. Hence groundnut shells can be used for the production of
lightweight concrete.

Sreenivasulu Dandagala et al. (2014). The prices of building materials are rising day
by day and the rising cost of construction building materials plays a vital role in

16
construction industry. The coarse aggregates are one of the main ingredients of
concrete. Recently an increasing attraction has been paid by several researchers to find
alternate applications for such materials in civil engineering. In the present study an
attempt has been made to study the effect of coconut shell in concrete, as an alternative
low cost material in construction industry for the partial replacement of coarse
aggregate in concrete. The coconut shells used in the present study are collected from
different S.V. Agricultural University, Tirupati. In order to determine the engineering
properties for both normal concrete and coconut shell concrete, different laboratory
tests like specific gravity, Water absorption, and Crushing strength etc. are being
conducted at 7, 14 and 28 days on the collected samples and the basic properties are
thus determined as per IS codes 456:2000 and IS 10262:2009. The obtained results
reveal that the significant increase in different percentages of coconut shell increases
the Compressive strength value when compared to normal concrete. Hence, the
coconut shell can be used as a partial replacement and also full replacement for the
coarse aggregate in concrete based on the type of construction purpose. The present
investigation is carried out on implementation of coconut shell in concrete
successfully. Hence, in general bulk uses of coconut shell as lightweight aggregate are
found in many construction applications such as buildings, saving in energy, reduction
in land fill cost, and protecting environment from pollution effect for the sustainable
development of construction industry.

T.Subramani et al. (1980). Properties of concrete with coconut shells (CS) as

aggregate replacement were studied. Control concrete with normal aggregate and CS
concrete with 0 - 20% coarse aggregate replacement with CS were made. Two mixes
with CS and fly ash were also made to investigate fly ash effect on CS replaced
concretes. Constant water to cementious ratio of 0.6 was maintained for all concretes.
Properties like compressive strength, split tensile strength, water absorption and
moisture migration were investigated in the laboratory. The results showed that,
density of the concretes decreases with increase in CS percent. Workability decreased
with increase in CS replacement. Compressive and split tensile strengths of CS

17
concretes were lower than control concrete. Permeable voids, absorption and sorption
were higher for CS replaced concretes than control concrete. Coarse aggregate
replacement with equivalent weight of fly ash had no influence when compared with
properties of corresponding CS replaced concrete .The high cost of conventional
building materials is a major factor affecting housing delivery in the world. This has
necessitated research into alternative materials of construction. In this study, coconut
shell is used as light weight aggregate in concrete. The properties of coconut shell and
coconut shell aggregate concrete is examined and the use of coconut shell aggregate in
construction is tested. The project paper aims at analyzing flexural and compressive
strength characteristics of with partial replacement using M25 grade concrete. The
project also aims to show that Coconut shell aggregate is a potential construction
material and simultaneously reduces the environment problem of solid..Beams are
casted, tested and their physical and mechanical properties are determined. The main
objective is to encourage the use of these „seemingly„ waste products as construction
materials in low-cost housing.

Imani Yusuf Taherali et al. (2009). In this constructed environment, the rising cost
of building construction materials is the factor of great concern. The prices of building
materials are rising day by day. The coarse aggregates are the main ingredients of
concrete. In this study, coconut shell is used as lightweight aggregate in concrete. The
properties of coconut shell and coconut shell aggregate concrete is examined and the
use of coconut shell aggregate in construction is tested. Coconut shell exhibits more
resistance against crushing compared to conventional aggregate. Density of coconut
shell is 521.5 kg /m3 and these is within the specified limits for lightweight aggregate.
There is no need to treat the coconut shell before use as an aggregate. A water cement
ratio of 0.5 has been used throughout the project. Properties of coconut shell
aggregate concrete were studied and compared with the control concrete. Compressive
and tensile tests on hardened concrete were performed. Use of coconut shell aggregate
concrete as structural lightweight concrete is recommended. Coconut shell aggregate is

18
a potential construction material and simultaneously reduces the environmental
problem of solid waste and is readily available at a lower cost than normal aggregates.

Sanjay Sen Ghosh et al. (2015). Concrete is the construction material which is
obtained by mixing of cement, water and aggregate in required proportions. The day
by day the cost of cement is increasing, yet the need for building and other
construction requiring this material keep growing with an increase in the population,
thus the need to find alternative binding materials that can be used solely or in partial
replacement of cement. Agricultural waste material, In this case coconut fibre ash,
which is an environmental pollutant. Coconut fibres are collected and the fibre are
properly dried and burnt in the open air with a temperature range of 6000 c to 7000 c.
when the fibres turned into ash. The ash was collected and made to pass through 150
micron sieve. This work presents the results of laboratory test carried out using
coconut fibre ash (CFA) as a partial replacement for cement in concrete production.
Concrete cubes are cast and tested at curing aging of 7, 28, 60, & 90 days using 0, 5,
10, 15, 20, & 25 percent replacement levels. The slump test results show that the
workability of the concrete decreased as the CFA content increased & the compressive
strength of CFA concrete increased with curing aging but decrease with increasing the
percentage of coconut fibre ash. The percentage strength gained at 90 days for 5% and
10% for the control of 0% is 96.22% & 86.12% respectively. The optimum
compressive strength of 59.25N/mm2 was obtained at 5% replacement at 90 days of
ages. The percentage strength at this optimum point of the control is 96.22%.

Tomas U et al. (2013). This study focuses on generating product using agricultural
waste as well develop an alternative construction material that will lessen the social
and environmental issues. It also paved the way to the recognition of using coconut
shells and fiber as substitute for aggregates in developing concrete hollow blocks. This
paper presents the result on the workability and compressive strength of concrete
containing various percentage of coconut shell content as partial aggregate

19
replacement. Workability test and compressive strength test were conducted in
accordance to ASTM C136 and ASTM C137 respectively. Results show that
replacement of appropriate coconut shell content able to produce workable concrete
with satisfactory strength. Integration of coconut shell enhanced the strength of
concrete making it to be the highest as compared to conventional concrete mixture.

Mangesh V et al. (2013). The rapid urbanization is creating a shortfall of conventional

building construction materials due to limited availability of natural resources. On the
other hand energy consumed for the production of conventional building construction
materials pollutes air, water and land. In order to meet the ever increasing demand for
the energy efficient building construction materials there is a need to adopt cost
effective, environmentally appropriate technologies and upgrade traditional techniques
with available local materials. Agro-industrial and other solid waste disposal is another
serious issue of concern in developing countries. The present paper explores the
potential application of agro-waste as the ingredient for alternate sustainable
construction materials. Based on the availability of agro-waste materials, sustainable
construction materials are evaluated for their physic-mechanical properties, methods of
production and environmental impact. The application of agro-waste for sustainable
construction materials provides a solution which offers reduction in natural resource
use as well as energy.

U. Johnson et al (2013). This paper reviews previous research carried out on the use
of oil palm kernel shell (OPKS) as lightweight aggregate (LWA). OPKS is a waste
material obtained during the extraction of palm oil by crushing of the palm nut in the
palm oil mills. It is one of the most abundantly produced waste materials in South East
and Africa; OPKS has been experimented in research as lightweight aggregates
(LWAs) to produce lightweight concrete (LWC) since 1984 and today there are many
researchers working in this area. In this paper the physical and mechanical properties
of OPKS are summarized along with mechanical, durability and functional properties

20
and structural behavior of OPKS concrete (OPKSC). Recent papers on foamed and
fiber reinforced OPKSC are also included. It is seen from the results that OPKSC has
comparable mechanical properties and structural behavior to normal weight concrete
(NWC). Recent investigation on the use of crushed OPKS shows that OPKSC can be
produced to medium and high strength concrete. Sustainability issues combined with
higher ductility and aggregate interlock characteristics of OPKSC compared to NCW
has resulted in many researchers conducting further investigation on the use of OPKS
as LWA.

Ishtiyaq Gull et al. (2011).. This paper gives results of studies undertaken to assess
suitability of construction demolition as coarse aggregate in new concrete production.
Three sets of concrete materials considered are fresh concrete _FCM_, waste concrete
_WCM_, and waste concrete strengthened with admixtures _SWCM_. Various mixes
were prepared for carrying out the research by varying the proportions of cement,
sand, and aggregates. All mixes were designed for characteristic strength _fck_ of
M20. The compressive strength of concretes was tested in laboratory after 3, 7, and 28
days. The specimens used for testing include cubes, cylinders, and flexural beams. The
influence of admixtures on the strength of waste concrete was examined. The
compressive strengths of FCM, WCM, and SWCM are compared and the results show
that there is not much difference in the strengths of FCM and SWCM after 28 days.
For this reason, this study recommends the recycling of waste concrete as an aggregate
material in the production of new concrete

Sang Ahn et al (2014). Tire derived aggregate (TDA) is a recycled fill material
produced by cutting scrap tires into pieces ranging in size from 12 to 305 mm. For the
last two decades, TDA has been successfully used in various projects such as
embankments, bridge abutments, subgrade insulation for roads, vibration mitigation
for rail lines, and landfill daily cover. The material properties of TDA are necessary
for the planning and design of such projects; however, there is limited information
available, especially for large-size TDA (maximum particle size ≥75 mm). Large-size

21
TDA is typically used as lightweight fill material for embankments, foundations, and
retaining walls. In this paper, the material properties of large-size TDA, as collected
from published sources and recently completed material tests, are presented and
discussed. These properties include unit weight, shear strength, compressibility, and
lateral earth pressure coefficient. In addition, several civil engineering projects are
discussed and compared to highlight the use of TDA in state-of-the-art applications.

Damre Shraddha et al (2014). A common feature of sustainable buildings is that they

drastically reduce emissions, material use and water use and with involvement of
economic vitality, environmental, health, and social equity in it. As a whole, the study
main concern is the environment and the construction and building ethnology to
enhance natural world as well as building materials. In view to provide new
knowledge to the contractors and developers on how to improve the construction
industry methods and services by using coconut shells and to sustain good product
performance and meet recycling goals, there is need to design a technical specification
of concrete using coconut shell as aggregates that will meet the Indian standard
requirements in order to help contribute to the industry in saving the environment, to
encourage the government to find solutions regarding the disposal to landfills of waste
materials and save the environment. The use of coconut by products has been a long
time source of income for some people. Recycling of the disposed material is one
method of treating the agricultural waste. The used of coconut shell could be a
valuable substitute in the formation of composite material that can be used as a
housing construction, such as concrete.

Gambhir et al.(2005). Stated that the forms in which waste materials are used are
wide and varied, they may be used as binder material and as partial replacement of
conventional Portland Cement that waste materials generated from industrial and
agricultural activities can be recycled into new building materials, because they reduce
carbon dioxide (CO2) emission and used less energy consumption in processing or
they can be used directly as aggregate in their natural or processed states.

22
Mehta et al. (2001). The ordinary concrete typically contains about 12% cement and
80% aggregate by mass. This means that globally for concrete making sand, gravel and
crushed stone are being consumed at the rate of 10 to 11 billion tons every year. He
further said that the mining, processing, and the transportation operations involving
such large quantities of aggregates consume considerable amounts of energy and
adversely affects the ecology of forested areas and river beds. This large amount of
energy consumption in aggregate production contributes to the global loading of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and subsequently the 6 green house effect.
Therefore, the use of alternative materials to normal aggregate in concrete is of
paramount importance. Hence the agricultural and industrial wastes which constitutes
nuisances both to our health and environment can be converted into useful materials by
either burning them into ashes, converting them from the original state and used in
various proportions with cement, and thus reduce the cost for concrete works.

Chanap et al.(2012).On the mechanical and flexural properties of coconut shell ash
reinforced epoxy composites. Carbonization method was used to prepare the coconut
shell ash by heat-treating the crushed coconut shell at a temperature of 600 and 800oc,
density, particle size and X – Ray diffract meter methods were used for the
characterization of coconut ash shell. The coconut shell ash epoxy composites were
prepared by different filler concentration using hard layup technique. It was observed
that at 20% of filler content, coconut shell ash which was heat treated at 800oc gives
the best results for micro hardness, flexural strength and tensile strength properties of
the composite under consideration.

Agunsoye et. al (2012).Studied the mechanical behavior of coconut shell reinforced

polymer matrix composite. The focus of the study was the evaluation of the
morphology and mechanical properties of coconut shell reinforced polyethylene
composite to establish the possibility of using it as a new material for engineering
applications. Coconut shell reinforced composite was prepared by compacting low

23
density polyethylene matrix with 5% - 25% volume fraction coconut shell particles
and the effect of the particles on the mechanical properties of the composite produced
was investigated. The result shows that the hardness of the composite increased with
increase in coconut shell content though the tensile strength, modulus of elasticity
impact energy and ductility of the composite decreased with increase in the particle
content, while the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of the composites (with 0% -
25% particles) surfaces indicates poor interfacial interaction between the coconut shell
particles and the low density polyethylene matrix. It was concluded that coconut shell
particles improved the hardness property of the polyethylene matrix composite, which
is an added requirement for automobile interior.

Faisalet al. (2010). Presents research reports on the “Effect of Acetic acid on
properties of coconut shell filled low density polyethylene composites. He referred to
coconut shell as the lingo cello sic material. In the study coconut shell was used as
fillers in Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) composites. The effects of surface
treatment of coconut shell with acetic acid (acetylation) on mechanical properties,
thermal properties and morphology were studied. It was reported that acetylation
treatment has improved the tensile strength, elongation at break and Young modules of
LDPE/CS composites. The thermogravimetric analysis (IGA) results show that the
acetylated composites has better thermal stability compared to untreated composites at
6000C. Differential scanning calorimetric analysis showed that the esterification
treatment increases the crystalline of LDPE/CS composites. It was also found that
coconut shell acts as a nucleation agent in the presence of acetylic acid. The scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) study of the tensile fracture surface of acetylated
composites indicates that the presence of acetic acid increased the interfacial
interaction.

Okenyi et al (2004). On the use of Coconut shell fibers in Cement/Concrete

composites. Coir is position beneath the outer covering of the fruit and envelops the
kernel or coconut shell. Coir is obtained from the husk or monocarp, which is removed
in the preparation of copra. The husk are broken by hand or by the use of a bursting

24
machine. The extraction of the fibres involves retting at the edges and also in the pits
or in modern operations in concrete tanks. The retted husks are beaten with sticks to
remove extraneous matter and the dried fibre is suitable for spinning. Rougher fibre
require less retting and the fibres are extracted from the husks mechanically. In his
findings coconut husk fiber has an average length of 103mm, average diameter of
0.029mm and relative density of 0.9 as shown in Appendix I (a). He also observed that
the composite plates produced shows that flexural and tensile strength of concrete can
be improved by twice of its value when reinforced with coconut shell fiber as indicated
in Appendix I (b). And the impact resistance of the composite plates improves with the
coconut husk fibre as shown in Appendix I (c). He concluded that coconut fiber is a
suitable vegetable fiber for the reinforcement of concrete for various concrete uses like
roofing tiles, reinforcement in structural members in kerbs and chutes and
underground concrete pipes for water distribution.

2.2 INFERENCES

1. Increase in percentage replacement by walnut shell reduces compressive

strength and split tensile strength of concrete.

2. The reduction in compression strength is less in comparison with the split

tensile strength with the replacement of conventional material.

3. Using the walnut shell as fine aggregate in concrete can reduce the material
cost in construction because of the low cost.

4. The water absorption and sorptivity values increase as the percentage of walnut
shell powder is increased.

5. The flexural strength decreases with increase in percentage of walnut shell

aggregates.

25
6. The slump value decreases with increasing the percentage of walnut shell. This
indicates that the concrete became less workable as the walnut shell content
increased.

26
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL AND METHOD

3.1 GENERAL

This chapter outlined the tests and results of experiments performed on the materials
used in this work. The materials are ordinary Portland cement, river sand as fine
aggregate, stone crushed aggregate and walnut shell powder aggregate.

3.2 MATERIAL TESTS

The tests carried out on these materials are presented below.

3.3 CEMENT: ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

The cement used in this experimental work is 43 grades Ordinary Portland Cement.
All properties of cement are tested by referring IS 12269 - 1987 Specification for 43
Grade Ordinary Portland cement. The specific gravity of the cement is 3.15. The initial
and final setting times were found as 90 minutes and 180 minutes respectively.

.
3.3.1 Experiments

3.3.2 Soundness of cement paste;

The soundness test for the brand of ordinary Portland cement used was conducted
using the Le Chatelier method of measuring expansion in accordance to IS 12269-
1987 and BS 4550 (1978).

27
3.3.3 Setting times of cement paste

The tests for determination of initial and final setting times of the OPC used were done
using Vicat apparatus in accordance with IS 12269.

3.3.4 Fineness Test;

The test was carried out in accordance with BS 12 (1991) and IS 12269. The test was
performed using the Blaine air permeability in accordance with IS 12269 which
provides an alternative test for fineness.

3.4 AGGREGATES
3.4.1 Fine aggregate

The fine aggregate (sand) was obtained from naturally occurring clean sand from
River. The tests carried out gave 2.66 as specific gravity, 1600 Kg/m3 bulk density and
the particle size distribution analysis shows that it is within Zone II. The material,
which is passed through IS test sieve No. 4.75 mm is termed as a fine aggregate. Fine
aggregate is of angular grains, clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matters.

3.4.2 Coarse aggregate

The material which is retained on IS test sieve No. 12.5 mm -10 mm is termed as a
coarse aggregate. The coarse aggregate used in pavement block generally hard, durable
and of acceptable shape, free from flaxy elongated particles.

3.4.3 Walnut shell

The walnut shell aggregate was obtained from Delhi fruit market (popularly known as
“Azadpur Sabzi Mandi”) in the central market area, Delhi, located within latitude 10°
30´ N and longitude 7° 27´E. It was sun dried for two months before being crushed in
the quarry. The crushed walnut shell material was later transported to the laboratory

28
where they were thoroughly cleaned and washed, then allowed to dry under ambient
temperature. The walnut shells were available in various shapes, such as curved, flaky,
elongated, roughly parabolic and other irregular shapes as shown in Plate VI and VII.
The sizes shown below were obtained 62 before crushing. In order to ascertain the
properties of coconut shell aggregate the following tests was carried out which
includes the specific gravity, bulk density, particle size distribution, aggregate impact
value, aggregate crushing value, aggregate abrasion value, , porosity/water absorption
capacity, elongation index and flakiness index.

Figure 3.1: Walnut shell before crushing

Table 3.1 Walnut shell aggregate specific gravity value

Samples Nominal aggregate Aggregate Specific Average specific
size (mm) gravity gravity
A1 6.5mm 1.35
A2 6.5mm 1.33 1.35
A3 6.5mm 1.37
B1 6.5mm 1.31
B2 6.5mm 1.30 1.30
B3 6.5mm 1.29
C1 6.5mm 1.29
C2 6.5mm 1.31 1.29
C3 6.5mm 1.27

29
Table 3.2 Walnut shell aggregate bulk density
Samples Nominal aggregate Bulk density Average bulk
size (mm) Kg/m3 density
Kg/m3
A1 6.5mm 639.45
A2 6.5mm 639.48 639.45
A3 6.5mm 625.00
B1 6.5mm 622.00
B2 6.5mm 628.00 625.00
B3 6.5mm 629.00
C1 6.5mm 623.00
C2 6.5mm 626.00 626.00
C3 6.5mm 639.42

Table 3.3 Walnut shell aggregate impact value

Samples Aggregate impact Average impact value
value %
A1 1.32
A2 1.31 1.32
A3 1.31
B1 1.29
B2 1.30 1.29
B3 1.29
C1 1.31
C2 1.30 1.30
C3 1.29

Table 3.4 Walnut shell abrasion value

Samples Aggregate abrasion Average abrasion
value % value
A1 2.26
A2 2.25 2.26
A3 2.27
B1 2.24
B2 2.26 2.24
B3 2.22
C1 2.19
C2 2.16 2.24
C3 2.22

30
 Table 3.5 Walnut shell aggregate absorption capacity
Samples Aggregate absorption Average absorption
capacity % capacity %
A1 23.72
A2 23.69 23.72
A3 23.75
B1 23.78
B2 23.80 23.78
B3 23.76
C1 23.67
C2 23.65 23.67
C3 23.69

Table 3.6 Physical characteristics of the fine and walnut aggregate

Physical characteristics Fine aggregates Walnut aggregates
Specific gravity 2.64 1.31
Bulk density 1200 630.15
Impact value 19.23 1.30
Abrasion value % 27.67 2.23
Absorption capacity % 1.8 23.72

3.4.4 Walnut shell powder

Walnut shell powder is one of the residues generated in combustion, and comprises
the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. Walnut shell powder which does not
rise is temperature. In an industrial context, walnut shell powder usually refers to
waste product of household. Walnut shell powder is generally captured
by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the
grinding, and makes it to the size of sand.

31
 Figure 3.2: Walnut shell powder

3.5 WATER

Portable tap water has been used for the concrete preparation and curing of specimen
Water is an imperative element of cement as it effectively takes an interest in synthetic
response with cement. Water conforming IS 456- 2000 was used, the water used in the
preparation of motor should not necessary be distilled water, but must be free of all
acids, bases and other distilled salts.

3.6 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES:

3.6.1 Air Entrainment

Air entrainment is the purposeful production of minor air rises in cement. A solid
producer acquaints the rises by including with the blend an air entraining specialist, a
surfactant. The air pockets are made amid blending of the plastic cement, and a large
portion of them get by to be a piece of the solidified cement. The basic role of air
entrainment is to build the sturdiness of the solidified cement, particularly in

32
atmospheres subject to stop defrost; the auxiliary intention is to expand workability of
the solid while in a plastic state.

3.6.2 Super plasticizer

Super plasticizers, otherwise called high range water reducers, are synthetic
admixtures utilized where all around scattered molecule suspension is required. These
polymers are utilized as dispersants to stay away from molecule isolation (rock, coarse
and fine sands), and to enhance the stream qualities of suspensions, for Journal of
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences ISSN: 0974-2115 examples, in solid
applications. Their expansion to cement or mortar permits the decrease of the water to
bond proportion, not influencing the workability of the blend, and empowers the
creation of self- combining concrete and superior cement. This impact radically
enhances the execution of the solidifying crisp glue. The quality of solid increments
when the water to bond proportion diminishes.

3.6.3 Alccofine (AF)

Alccofine performs in superior manner than all other mineral admixtures used in
concrete within India. Alccofine also consumes by product calcium hydroxide from
the hydration of cement to form additional C-S-H gel, similar to pozzolans. The
computed blain value based on PSD is around 12000 cm2/g and is truly ultra-fine.

3.6.4 Micro silica fume (SF)

Silica fume (SF) is a mineral admixture, ultrafine material with spherical particles less
than 1 μm in diameter. The bulk density of silica fume depends on the degree of
densification in the silo and varies from 130 (unidentified) to 600 kg/m3. When
pozzolanic materials are incorporated to concrete, the silica present in these materials
react with the calcium hydroxide released during the hydration of cement and forms
additional calcium silicate hydrate (C – S – H), which improve durability and the
mechanical properties of concrete.

33
 CHAPTER 4

MIX DESIGN

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Mix design is known as the selection of mix ingredients and their proportions required
in a concrete mix. In the present study method for mix design is the Indian Standard
Method. The mix design involves the calculation of the amount of cement, fine
aggregate and coarse aggregate in addition to other related parameters dependent on
the properties of constituent material.
The modifications are made and quantities of constituent materials used to cast walnut
shell powder concrete. The proportions for normal mix of M20 Normal Mix are as
follows: - Cement: Sand: Coarse Aggregate: Water (1:1.5:3).

Test Data of Material

Specific gravity of cement =3.15
Specific gravity of course aggregate =2.68
Specific gravity of fine aggregate =2.62
Fineness modulus of course aggregate =6.82
Fineness modulus of fine aggregate =2.62

Table 4.1-The Proportions for Normal Mix of M20

MATERIAL CEMENT FINE AGGREGATE COARSE

AGGREGATE

PROPORTION 1 1.5 3

4.2 Calculation of Mix Proportion

Step -1: To Determine the Target Strength.

fc’ = fc +ks ...

34
 =20 + 1.65 X 5
=28.25 Mpa

f'c’ = specified characteristic strength

s = standard deviation =5

k = constant depending on the defective level associated with the specified

strength.

ks is termed the margin.

Step-2: To Determine the w/c Ratio from Curve.

Maximum water cement ratio =0.45

Step -3: To Determine the Water Content for 50mm Slump.

Maximum water content = 186 liters (for 25mm – 50mm slump range and for 20 mm aggregates)

Estimated water content for 75 mm slump = 186 + 3/100 x186 = 191.6 liters.

As superplacticizer is used, the water content can be reducing up 20 percent and above.

Based on trail with superplasticzer with water content reduction of 29 percent has been achieved

Hence, the arrived water content =191x0.71 =140L

Step -4 : To Determine the Cement Content.

W/C Ratio = 0.45

Cement Content = 140/0.45=425.73 Kg/m3

Step -5: Coarse Aggregate and Fine Aggregate.

Considering Zone-1

= 0.6 + (0.5 - 0.4) X 2

= 0.6 + 0.02

= 0.62

35
Fine Aggregate = 1 - 0.62

= 0.38

Step – 6: Volume of Water.

= 0.191m3

Step – 7: Volume of Cement.

Weight of cement /sp. gravity of cement = 492.28/3.15

= 156.34kg/m3

= 0.156 m3

Step – 8: Volume of Aggregate.

= 1 - 0.191 - 0.156

= 0.653 m3

Step -9: Volume of Course Aggregate.

= 0.653 X 0.62 = 0.404.

Step -10: Volume of Fine Aggregate.

= 0.65 X 0.38 = 0.24814.

Step -11: Weight of Aggregate.

COARSE = 2.85 X 0.404 = 1151.4 Kg

FINE = 2.675 X 0.248 = 663.4 Kg

36
 Table 4.2: Mix Design for M20 Grade Concrete

Target Mean Strength 27.85Mpa

Water cement ratio (w/c ratio) 0.45

Water content 140 L

Cement content 340 kg/m³

Fine aggregate content 663 kg/m³

Coarse aggregate content 1551.4 kg/m³

4.3 BATCHING, MIXING AND CASTING

The Concrete mixture was prepared by hand mixing on a watertight platform. The
walnut shell powder and Cement was mixed dry to uniform colour separately. On the
watertight platform, the coarse and fine aggregates were mixed thoroughly.. Then
water was added carefully so that no water was lost during mixing.
Walnut shell powder (10%, 20%&30% by weight of fine aggregate). Vibration was
given to the cube moulds using table vibrator. The top surface of the specimen was
levelled and finished. After 24 hours the specimens were de moulded and were
transferred to curing tank where in they were allowed to cure for 7,21& 28 days.

37
 CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

5.1 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

The behavior of green or fresh concrete from mixing up to compaction depends mainly
on the property called “workability of concrete”. Workability of concrete is a term
which consists of the following four partial properties of concrete namely, Mix ability,
Transportability, Mould ability and Compatibility.
In general terms, workability represents the amount of work which is to be done to
compact the compact the concrete in a given mould. The desired workability for a
particular mix depends upon the type of compaction adopted and the complicated
nature of reinforcement used in reinforced concrete. A workable mix should not
segregate. The partial properties of workability are discussed below:

5.1.1 Mix ability

It is the ability of the mix to produce a homogeneous green concrete from the
constituent materials of the batch, under the action of the mixing forces. A less
mixable concrete mix requires more time of mixing to produce a homogeneous and
uniform mix.

5.1.2 Transportability
Transportability is the capacity of the concrete mix to keep the homogeneous concrete
mix to keep the homogeneous concrete mix from segregating during a limited time
period of transportation of concrete, when forces due to handling operations of limited
nature act.

38
5.1.3 Mould ability
It is the ability of the fresh concrete mix to fill completely the forms or moulds without
losing continuity or homogeneity under the available techniques of placing the
concrete at a particular job/ this property is complex, since the behavior of concrete is
to be considered under dynamic conditions.

5.1.4 Compatibility
Compatibility is the ability of concrete mix to be compacted into a dense, compact
concrete, with minimum voids, under the existing means of compaction at the site. The
best mix from the point of view of compatibility should close the voids to an extent of
99% of the original voids present, when the concrete was placed in the moulds.

5.2 FACTORS AFFECTING WORKABILITY

Workable concrete is the one which exhibits very little internal friction between
particle and particle or which overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the
formwork surface or reinforcement contained in the concrete with just the amount of
compacting efforts forth coming. The factors helping concrete to have more
lubricating effect to reduce internal friction for helping easy compaction are given
below:
a. Water content
b. Size of aggregates
c. Surface texture of aggregate
d. Use of admixtures
e. Mix proportions
f. Shape of aggregates
g. Grading of aggregates

39
5.2.1 Water Content
Water content in a given volume of concrete, will have significant influences on the
workability. The higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will
be the fluidity of concrete, which is one of the important factors affecting workability.
At the work site, supervisors who are not well versed with the practice of making good
concrete resort to adding more water for increasing workability. This practice is often
resorted to because this is one of the easiest corrective measures that can be taken at
the site. It should be noted that from the desirability point of view, increase of water
content is the last recourse to be taken for improving the workability even in the case
of uncontrolled concrete. For controlled concrete one cannot arbitrarily increase the
water content. In case all other steps to improve workability fail, only as last recourse
the addition of more water can be considered. More water can be added, provided a
correspondingly higher quantity of cement is also added to keep the water/cement ratio
constant, so that the strength remains the same.

5.2.2 Mix Proportions

Aggregate/ cement ratio is an important factor influencing workability. The higher the
aggregate/cement ratio, the leaner is the concrete. In lean concrete, less quantity of
paste is available for providing lubrication, per unit surface area of aggregate and
hence the mobility of aggregate is restrained. On the other hand, in case of rich
concrete with lower aggregate/cement ratio, more paste is available to make the mix
cohesive and fatty to give better workability.

5.2.3 Size of aggregate

The bigger the size of the aggregate, the less the surface area and hence less amount of
water is required for wetting the surface and less matrix or paste is required for
lubricating the surface to reduce internal friction. For a given quantity of water and
paste, bigger size of aggregates will give higher workability. The above of course will
be true within certain limits.

40
5.2.4 Shape of aggregates
The shape of the aggregate influences the workability in good measure. Angular,
elongated or flaky aggregate makes the concrete very harsh when compared to
rounded aggregates or cubical shaped aggregates. Contribution to better workability to
rounded aggregate will come from the fact that for the given volume or weight it will
have less surface area and less voids than angular or flaky aggregate. Not only that,
being round in shape, the frictional resistance is also greatly reduced. This explains the
reason why river sand and gravel provide greater workability to concrete than crushed
sand and aggregate. The importance of shape of the aggregate will be of great
significance in the case of present day high strength and high performance concrete
when we use very low w/c in the order of about 0.25. We have already talked about
that in years to come natural sand will be exhausted or costly. One has to go for
manufactured sand. Shape of crushed sand as available today is unsuitable but the
modern crushers are designed to yield well shaped and well graded aggregates.

5.2.5 Surface texture

The influence of surface texture on workability is again due to the fact that the total
surface area of rough textured aggregate is more than the surface area of smooth
rounded aggregate of same volume. From the earlier discussions it can be inferred that
rough textured aggregate will show poor workability and smooth or glassy textured
aggregate will give better workability. A reduction of inter particle frictional resistance
offered by smooth aggregates also contributes to higher workability.

5.2.6 Grading of aggregates

This is one of the factors which will have maximum influence on workability. A well
graded aggregate is the one which has least amount of voids in a given volume. Other
factors being constant, when the total voids are less, excess paste is available to give
better lubricating effect. With excess amount of paste, the mixture becomes cohesive
and fatty which prevents segregation of particles. Aggregate particles will slide past
each other with the least amount of compacting efforts. The better the grading, the less

41
is the void content and higher the workability. The above is true for the given amount
of paste volume.

5.2.7 Use of admixtures

Of all the factors mentioned above, the most important factor which affects the
workability is the use of admixtures. It is to be noted that initial slump of concrete mix
or what is called slump of reference mix should be about 2 – 3 cm to enhance the
slump many fold at a minimum doze. Without initial slump of 2-3 cm, the workability
can be increased to higher level but it requires higher dosage.

5.3 MEASUREMENT OF WORKABILITY

5.3.1 Slump Test
5.3.2 Objective
To determine the consistency of concrete mix of given proportions.

5.3.3 Scope and Significance

Unsupported fresh concrete flows to the sides and a sinking in height takes place. This
vertical settlement is known as slump. In this test fresh concrete is filled into a mould
of specified shape and dimensions, and the settlement or slump is measured when
supporting mould is removed. Slump increases as water-content is increased. The
slump is a measure indicating the consistency or workability of cement concrete. It
gives an idea of water content needed for concrete to be used for different works. A
concrete is said to be workable if it can be easily mixed, placed, compacted and
finished. A workable concrete should not shown any segregation or bleeding.
Segregation is said to occur when coarse aggregate tries to separate out from the finer
material and a concentration of coarse aggregate at one place occurs. This results in
large voids, less durability and strength. Bleeding of concrete is said to occur when
excess water comes up at the surface of concrete. This causes small pores through the
mass of concrete and is undesirable.

42
By this test we can determine the water content to give specified slump value. In this
test water content is varied and in each case slump value is measured till we arrive at
water content giving the required slump value.

5.3.4 Apparatus
Iron pan to mix concrete, slump cone, spatula, trowels, tamping rod and graduated.

Figure 5.1: Slump test apparatus

43
 Figure 5.2:.Slump: true, shear and collapse

5.3.6 Procedure
Four mixes are to be prepared with water-cement ratio (by mass) of 0.50, 0.60, 0.70
and0.80, respectively, and for each mix take 10 kg of coarse aggregates, 5kg of sand
and 2.5kgof cement with each mix proceed as follows
1) Mix the dry constituents thoroughly to get a uniform colour and then add water
2) Place the mixed concrete in the cleaned slump cone mould in 4 layers, each layer

44
approximately ¼ of the height of the mould. Tamp each layer 25 times with tamping
rod distributing the strokes in a uniform manner over the cross-section of the mould.
For the second and subsequent layers the tamping rod should penetrate in to the
underlying layer.
3) Strike off the top with a trowel or tamping rod so that the mould is exactly filled.
4) Remove the cone immediately, raising it slowly and carefully in the vertical
direction.
5) As soon as the concrete settlement comes to a stop, measure the subsidence of
concrete in mm which will give the slump.

Note: Slump test is adopted in the laboratory or during the progress of work in the
field for determining consistency of concrete where nominal maximum size of
aggregate does not exceed40mm

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

5.4.1 Objective

The tests are required to determine the strength of concrete and therefore its suitability
for the job.

5.4.2 Equipment& Apparatus

 Compression testing machine (1000 KN)

 Curing tank/Accelerated curing tank
 Balance (0-10 Kg)

45
 Figure 5.3: Compressive Strength Test on Cube (UTM)

5.4.3 Procedure

1. Representative samples of concrete shall be taken and used for casting cubes 15 cm
x 15 cm x 15 cm.
2. The concrete shall be filled into the moulds in layers approximately 5 cm deep. It
would be distributed evenly and compacted either by vibration or by hand tamping.
After the top layer has been compacted, the surface of concrete shall be finished level
with the top of the mould using a trowel; and covered with a glass plate to prevent
evaporation.

46
3. The specimen shall be stored at site for 24+ ½ h under damp matting or sack. After
that, the samples shall be stored in clean water at 27+20C; until the time of test. The
ends of all cylindrical specimens that are not plane within 0.05 mm shall be capped.
4. Just prior to testing, the cylindrical specimen shall be capped with sulphur mixture
comprising 3 parts sulphur to 1 part of inert filler such as fire clay.
5. Specimen shall be tested immediately on removal from water and while they are
still in wet condition.
6. The bearing surface of the testing specimen shall be wiped clean and any loose
material removed from the surface. In the case of cubes, the specimen shall be placed
in the machine in such a manner that the load cube as cast, that is, not to the top and
bottom.
7. Align the axis of the specimen with the steel plates, do not use any packing.
8. The load shall be applied slowly without shock and increased continuously at a rate
of approximately 140 kg/sq.cm/min until the resistance of the specimen to the
increased load breaks down and no greater load can be sustained. The maximum load
applied to the specimen shall then be recorded and any unusual features noted at the
time of failure brought out in the report.

5.4.4 Calculation

Compressive strength is calculate using the following formula

Compressive strength (kg/cm2) = Wf / Ap

Where

Wf = Maximum applied load just before load, (kg)

Ap = Plan area of cube mould, (mm2)

47
5.5 DESCRIPTIONS OF ACTIVITIES

5.5.1 Moulding

 Moulds of size (15x15x15) cm3

 Greasing of insides of moulds is done

 Concrete mix is filled inside moulds

 Moulds are marked by current date

 Moulds are kept aside for 24 hours

5.5.2 Demoulding

 Moulds are demoulded

 Cubes are marked by respective date are kept in water for curing

 Curing is done for 28 days

 And then remove for testing

5.6 CURING
Curing is the maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in
concrete for a period of time immediately following placing and finishing so that the
desired properties may develop. The need for adequate curing of concrete cannot be
overemphasized. Curing has a strong influence on the properties of hardened concrete;
proper curing will increase durability, strength, water tightness, abrasion resistance,
volume stability, and resistance to freezing and thawing and dicers. Exposed slab
surfaces are especially sensitive to curing as strength development and freeze-thaw
resistance of the top surface of a slab can be reduced significantly when curing is
defective. When ordinary Portland cement is mixed with water, a chemical reaction

48
called hydration takes place. The hydration is relatively rapid the first few days after
concrete is placed; however, it is important for water to be retained in the concrete
during this period, that is, for evaporation to be prevented or substantially reduced.
extent to which this reaction is completed influences the strength and durability of the
concrete. Freshly mixed concrete normally contains more water than is required for
hydration of the cement; however, excessive loss of water by evaporation can delay or
prevent adequate hydration. The surface is particularly susceptible to insufficient
hydration because it dries first. If temperatures are favorable,

5.6.1 Curing Methods

Concrete can be kept moist (and in some cases at a favorable temperature) by three
curing methods: include pounding or immersion, spraying or fogging, and saturated
wet coverings. These methods afford some cooling through evaporation, which is
beneficial in hot weather.

1. Methods that maintain the presence of mixing water in the concrete during the
early hardening period.
2. Methods that reduce the loss of mixing water from the surface of the concrete.
This can be done by covering the concrete with impervious paper or plastic
sheets, or by applying membrane-forming curing compounds.

3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and additional

moisture to the concrete. This is usually accomplished with live steam, heating
coils, or electrically heated forms or pads. The method or combination of
methods chosen

49
 Figure 5.4: Curing

5.7 SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

 Use hand gloves, safety shoes & apron at the time of test.
 After test switch off the machine.
 Keep all the exposed metal parts greased.
 Keep the guide rods firmly fixed to the base & top plate.
 Equipment should be cleaned thoroughly before testing & after testing

5.8 PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF NORMAL AGGREGATE

WITH WALNUT SHELL AGGREGATE.

Having established the fact only a mix ratio of 1:1.5:3 are the only possible ratios for
walnut shell concrete an experiment of partial replacement was embarked upon, using
zero percentage as a control for the aggregate replacement. The normal aggregate was

50
replaced with walnut shell in the following percentages, 10%, 20% and 30%. These
percentages were mixed and cured for various ages as the results are shown in tables 1
to 4 For each percentage, 4 cubes were tested and the average values as shown in the
tables mentioned below.

51
 CHAPTER 6

RESULTS

6.1 TEST RESULTS

Table 6. 1: Testing of Concrete 4 Cube with 0% walnut shell powder as Size of

Cube (150x150x150) M20 (1:1.5:3)
Design mix no Cement Walnut (0%) Fine aggregate Course
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) aggregate
(kg/m3)
A0 9 0 15 24.6
B0 9 0 15 24.6
C0 9 0 15 24.6
D0 9 0 15 24.6

Table 6.2: Testing of Concrete 4 Cube with 10% walnut shell power as Size of
Cube (150x150x150) mm M20 (1:1.5:3).
Design mix no Cement Walnut (10%) Fine aggregate Course
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) aggregate
(kg/m3)
A1 9 1.5 13.5 24.6
B1 9 1.5 13.5 24.6
C1 9 1.5 13.5 24.6
D1 9 1.5 13.5 24.6

Table 6.3: Testing of Concrete 4 Cube With 20% Walnut shell powder as size of
cube (150x150x150) mm M20 (1:1.5:3)
Design mix no Cement Walnut (20%) Fine aggregate Course
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) aggregate
(kg/m3)
A2 9 3 12 24.6
B2 9 3 12 24.3
C2 9 3 12 24.3
D2 9 3 12 24.3

52
Table-6.4: Testing of Concrete 4 Cube with 30% Walnut shell powder M20.
Design mix no Cement (kg/m3) Walnut (30%) Fine aggregate Course
(kg/m3) aggregate
(kg/m3)
A2 9 4.5 10.5 24.6
B2 9 4.5 10.5 24.6
C2 9 4.5 10.5 24.6
D2 9 4.5 10.5 24.6

6.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

After performing the above test the target mean strength was achieved by 27.65 Mpa
replacing the different amount of fine aggregate with walnut shell power by10%,
20%and30% replacing the fine aggregate by 20%, then we are getting result when
mixing by replacing 10% of fine aggregate with walnut shell power. But as
economical point of view we should have to use mix and replacement 20% fine
aggregate with walnut shell power achieved the target mean strength.
By making a mixture of M20 grade in this mixture, we are replacing fine aggregate
with walnut shell power by 10%, 20%, and 30% to increase the strength of the
mixture. Now we have a mould size (150 x150x150) mm3.mixture of M20 grade of
concrete i.e. cement, sand, and course aggregate, fine aggregate and walnut shell
power. Now we have cube ready for 7 day, 21 and 28 days after curing. Now we have
to test it on universal testing machine (UTM).
So we have calculated strength of cube on different days and we are also achieving
same target mean strength by mixing fine aggregate with walnut shell power by using
this method. And we can also achieving the same target mean strength.

53
Table-6.5: Compressive Strength of Concrete after 28 Days of Curing M20
Walnut shell Strength Average strength (Mpa)
powder %
29.43
00 31.63 30.19
30.20
2 9.45
28.07
10 30.45 28.87
27.86
28.03
26.72
20 30.90 27.56
29.90
26.93
28.39
30 26.80 26.34
27.76
2 7.87

54
Graph-6.1: Graphical Representation strength and percent of walnut shell
powder

STRENGTH (MPA) VS %WALNUT SHELL

POWDER
31

30

29
STRENGTH (M PA)

28

27
STRENGTH (Mpa)
26

25

24
0 10 20 30
% OF WALNUT SHELL POWDER

6.3 COST ANALYSIS

The cost was analyzed for the entire sample taken which was achieving the target
mean strength. The details were given in graph: 6.2 and .Table:6, fine aggregate with
walnut shell power the cost was reduced effectively. Thus achieved the target by
replacing the cement and make the concrete cost effective.

Providing and laying in position machine batched and machine mixed design mix M-
20 grade cement concrete for reinforced cement concrete work, using cement content
as per approved design mix, including pumping of concrete to site of laying but
excluding the cost of centering, shuttering, finishing and reinforcement, including fly
ash and steel fiber in variable proportions to accelerate, retard setting of concrete,
improve strength and durability.

55
Details of cost 0% walnut shell 10% walnut shell 20% walnut shell 30% walnut shell

Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount Quantity Rate Amount Quantity Rate Amount Quantity Rate Amount
(Rs) (Rs) (Rs) (Rs)

COARSE Cft 11.30 46.00 519.60 11.30 46.00 519.60 11.30 46.00 519.60 11.30 46.00 519.60
AGGREGATE(SI
ZE 20MM)
Coarse sand (zone Cft 22.81 44.00 1003.20 20.52 44.00 909.80 18.24 44.00 802.66 15.96 44.00 702.24
III)
opc cement Kg 360.00 7.20 2592.00 360.00 7.20 2529.00 360.00 7.20 2526.00 360.00 7.00 2592.00
Beldar day 2.00 329.00 658.00 2.00 329.00 658.00 2.00 329.00 658.00 2.00 329.00 658.00
Bhisti day 0.90 363.00 326.70 0.90 363.00 326.00 0.90 326.00 363.00 0.90 326.00 363.00
Vibrator (Needle day 0.07 350.00 24.50 0.07 350.00 24.50 0.07 350.00 24.50 0.07 350.00 24.50
type 40 mm)
TOTAL 6080.00 5956.00 5885.00 5829.00
Add misslanious 60.80 59.56 58.85 58.29
& Water Charges
@ 1%
Total Amount 6015.00 6015.00 5943.85 5887.95
add 15% of 921.00 902.00 891.45 883.19
contractor profit
SUB TOTAL 7062.00 6917.00 6835.00 6771.14
COST FOR 1 7062.00 6917.00 6835.00 6771.14
CUM

Table-6.6: Cost Analysis for 1 m3

56
Graph 6.2: Graphical representation cost and percent of walnut shell powder

7100
7050
7000
6950
Cost(Rs)

6900
6850
6800 Cost
6750
6700
6650
6600
0 10 20 30

percent of walnut shell

Graph-6.3: Graphical representation cost and percent of walnut shell powder

COMPARING GRAPH
7200

7100 STRENGTH (Mpa) COST (RS)

30.19
7062.15
7000
COST (RS)

28.87
6900 6917
27.89
6835
6800 26.56
6771.14
6700

6600
0 10 20 30
% OF WALNUT SHELL POWER

57
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 CONCLUSION
The experiment on compressive test on different walnut shell it has been found that by
replacement of walnut shells in place of aggregates, 10%, 20% &30% replacement will
have been decreased marginally the strength properties of concrete compared to the
normal concrete. The optimum replacement of fine aggregate with walnut is obtained at
20%. It can very well serve as a light weight concrete in construction industry. By using
these materials the reuse of agricultural waste material and reduce the cost of
construction material in construction industry. The 28-day compressive strength of the
concrete using walnut shell aggregate was found to be 27.83 N/mm2 under full water
curing and it satisfies the requirement for structural lightweight concrete. It should,
however, further investigations are required before it can be used as a building material.

6.2 RECOMMENDATION

• The concrete should not be used in areas exposed to water and water logging
since moisture acts the weight and strength.

• Experiments on impact value, crushing value etc can be done in order to analyze
the strength properties of walnut shells.

• When is used along with reinforcement, the surface bonding between walnut
shell aggregates and steel comes into play. Therefore study about bond properties
of these can be useful.

• Furthermore the action of walnut shell powder aggregates in cement matrix is

also an area requiring future research.

58
• We can also study about the use of walnut shell powder aggregates along with
other non-conventional aggregates like palm kernel shells, coir pith, volcanic
debris, etc.

59
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