BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

The psychological model that focuses on the overt, observable, behavior. The model grew out
of the rejection of psychology’s early emphasis on the inner working of the mind, suggesting
instead that observable behavior should be the focus of the field. John B. Watson was the first
person that advocated the behavioral approach. This is a psychological approach that considers
the relationship between behavior and environmental stimuli as the focus of study; observable
behavior is what psychology should be studying, understanding, and explaining.This approach
dominated psychology for most of the 20th century

What do the Behaviorists Study?

They specifically study:
• Observable/ overt behavior
• Specific measurable responses
• How particular types of behaviors are controlled by particular types of environmental stimuli
Method of investigation: Data are typically collected under controlled laboratory conditions,
employing technological assistance

What the Behaviorists Are Not Interested in:

They are not interested in:
• Unconscious
• Inner motivation
• Biochemical processes
• These and all other states, which are not being observed with the naked eye or cannot be
evaluated.

Behaviorist Analysis
Behaviorist Analysis is done for seeing and establishing the relationship between the stimulus
and response/behavior.
Three step approach
• The antecedent environmental conditions: are analyzed. i.e., the conditions preceding the
action/ response/ behavior, and that lay a ground for it.
• The behavioral response is studied: study of the action or behavior that is to be understood,
described, predicted, and controlled.
• Observable consequences are explored: the impact resulting from the target behavior i.e.
how it affects the environment or other people.

Basic Terminology
• Stimulus: A physical energy source that has an effect on a sense organ, thus producing a
response.
• Response: The action, behavior, or reaction triggered by a stimulus.
• Environment: External factors, variables, conditions, influences, or circumstance affecting
one’s development or behavior.
• Variable: A behavior, factor, setting, or event that can change / vary in amount or kind.
• Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior that takes place as a result of practice
and/or experience.

Early Behaviorism
John.B.Watson: (1878- 1958): The founder of the behavioristic school of thought.
•American psychologist with a remarkable career.
• Initially trained in introspection at the University of Chicago but found it extremely vague and
mentalistic.
• He became interested in experimental research with animals.
• He completed his Ph.D. on that in three years, being the youngest such graduate.
• Taught at the University of Chicago for four years, joined John Hopkins as full professor and
soon became chairperson of the psychology department.
• Gave a revolutionary, pragmatic approach often known as ‘Radical Behaviorism’.
• He and his followers believed and advocated that psychology should depart from the study of
unconscious and the mind because they could not be verified or tested scientifically.
• Observable behavior is all that psychology should be looking at.
• Environment and external world (environmental stimuli) is what shapes and determines
behavior.
• Learning is what matters in what a person is, and not the inborn instincts, impulses, drive, id,
or unconscious motivation. An understanding of learning will encompass all aspects of
personality.
• Mentalist concepts, not grounded in reality, should be rejected.
Impact of Learning Experience

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up
in, and
I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I
might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors”. (Watson, 1924)

Learned Fear: The Case of “Little Albert”

1920: Developing Fear; Watson and Rosalie Rayne Eleven month old Albert who enjoyed
playing with a cute white rat was made afraid of it by linking a loud frightening sound with the
appearance of the rat. The experiment was further expanded and Watson and Rayner
demonstrated that the fear of the rat could be generalized to all sorts of stimuli: a dog, a cotton
ball and a Santa Clause.
Watson and Rayner could not get a chance to undo the learning as the child’s mother removed
him from the hospital.
Issues stemming from Little Albert’s Experiment
• Unethical treatment of Albert, that too without the advised consent of his mother.
• Watson contradicted his own earlier assertion that early childhood emotional
experiences can affect a person for a lifetime.

Little Albert’s Case

Little Albert was a 9-month-old infant who was tested on his reactions to various stimuli. He
was shown a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey and various masks. Albert described as "on the
whole stolid and unemotional" showed no fear of any of these stimuli. However, what did
startle him and cause him to be afraid was if a hammer was struck against a steel bar behind his
head. The sudden loud noise would cause "little Albert to burst into tears.

When Little Albert was just over 11 months old, the white rat was presented, and seconds later
the hammer was struck against the steel bar. This was done seven times over the next seven
weeks, and each time Little Albert burst into tears. By now little Albert only had to see the rat
and he immediately showed every sign of fear. He would cry (whether or not the hammer was
hit against the steel bar) and he would attempt to crawl away.

Classical Conditioning: The Theory

Is a type of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus starts eliciting a response that
was originally attached to a natural stimulus, because the neutral stimulus has been closely
associated with the other stimulus.
Basic Terminology in Classical Conditioning
•Reflex
An automatic, unlearned response resulting from a specific stimulus.

•Un-Conditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a response reflexively and reliably.

•Un-Conditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, reflexive, reliable, response of the UCS.

•Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A primarily neutral stimulus which, when paired with the UCS, starts evoking a response
(different from its natural response) and the same as UCR.

•Conditioned Response (CR)

After conditioning, the CS begins to elicit a new, learned response. i.e. CR.

Pavlovian Classical Conditioning

The following diagram explains the classical conditioning model:
Stage 1: Before Conditioning:
In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in
an organism.

In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior /
response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has
not been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet.

This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called
the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc.

The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with
the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus
(CS).
For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur before the
unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or during the same time. Thus, the conditioned
stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
to create a new conditioned response (CR).

Applications of Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

•Negative emotional responses: fears, phobias-----fear of lizards, dark places, school phobia
•Positive emotional responses: Feelings of relaxation, and happiness --- thinking of going on a
holiday
• Advertising: Associating model with the product

Operant Conditioning
• Type of learning in which a voluntary response becomes stronger or weaker, depending
on its positive or negative consequences

B.F.Skinner (1904-1990)
• American Psychologist and the founder of Operant Conditioning.
• 1931: Received his Ph.D. from Harvard.

BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Conditioning The Behaviour By Rewarding and punishment.
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of
behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response

Positive Reinforcement
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box.
The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally
knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the
lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the
box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would
repeat the action again and again.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds

rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework
(i.e. a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening
the behavior of completing your homework.

Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant reinforce can also strengthen behavior. This is known as
negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to
the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or
removes an unpleasant experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will
complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing
your homework.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and
then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat
moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric
current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that
they would repeat the action again and again.

In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before
the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on
because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on.
These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.

Punishment (weakens behavior)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior
that it follows deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

For Example: we give the rat shock when he touches the liver. Giving shocks after every time he
touches the liver will decrease his behaviour.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

 Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is
no longer present.

 Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

 Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.

 Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do,
punishment only tells you what not to do.

Extinction
If reinforcement is withheld the response rate decreases and finally no response is shown. This
is extinction.
If rat touches the lever and nothing happen not positive and not negative then the rat’s
behaviour of touching the lever is weakened.
Acquisition: Initially the response rate following reinforcement may be slow but at one stage it
increases to the maximum. This is acquisition.

Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g.
compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest
response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g. praise)
occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less
frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced.

For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they
should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually
the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only
exceptional answers will be praised.