8.

RADIOGRAPHY TESTING AND FILM

INTERPRETATION (RTFI)

1. Introduction

RTFI is the study about the radiographs quality, acceptable criteria and
inspection records.

2. Key topics of RTFI

A. Radiographs quality
B. Indication identification & Acceptable criteria
C. Inspection records

A. Radiographs quality

1. Density
2. Sensitivity
3. Retakes / Re shoots

1. Density

The density limitation on the Any Project is minimum 1.8 and maximum
4.0. the density of the film is measured by using Densitometer.

Li is indirectly proportional to the Lt. (Li - Light incidence, Lt - Light

transmitted).
2. Sensitivity

 Sensitivity in general refers to the size of the smallest detail that can be seen
in a radiograph.
 2% is the minimum required sensitivity on the any Project.
 % IQI Sensitivity = (Thickness of wire visible×100) ÷ joint thickness.
3. Re-takes / Re-shoots

In principle area of interest of all RT films shall be free from mechanical,

chemical, or other blemishes to the extent that they are not confused with the image of
any discontinuity.
1. Fogging

2. Process marks

3. Water marks

4. Chemical strains

5. Scratches

6. Finger marks

7. Dirtiness

8. Static marks

9. Tears
B. Indication identification & Acceptable critria

Relevant indication

Only those indications which exceed the following shall be considered as

relevant indications.

0.4mm for thickness 3mm to 6mm

0.8mm for thickness 6mm to 50mm

1.6mm for thickness > 50mm

1. Cracks
A fracture in the weld metal running across the weld.

Radiographic image

Feathery, twisting line of darker density running across the width of the weld
image.

Acceptance Criteria

Cracks are not accepted.

A. Transverse Crack

B. Longitudinal Crack

C. Solidification Crack

2. Lack of fusion

Elongated voids between the weld passes or between base metal and weld
metal surfaces to be welded.
Radiographic Image

Elongated parallel, or single, darker density lines sometimes with darker

density spots dispersed along the LOF lines which are very straight in the lengthwise
direction and not winding like elongated slag lines.

Lack of side wall fusion Lack of root Fusion

Acceptance Criteria

Lack of Fusion is not accepted

3. Lack of penetration

The edges of the pieces have not been welded together, usually at the
bottom of single V-groove welds.

Radiographic image

An abrupt density change of the weld image with a straight longitudinal

darker density line at the centre of the width of the weld image or along the edge of
the root with density change.
Acceptance Criteria

LOP is accepted for the welds line class where flange rating is 600lb and
below as stated here under.

1. Depth of lack of penetration - ≤ 1 mm (1/32 inch) and ≤ 0.27Tw

2. Cumulative length of lack of penetration - ≤ 38 mm (1.5 inch) in any 150
(6inch) weld width.

4. Excess Penetration

Extra metal at the bottom ( root ) of the weld or at the capping of the weld.

Radiographic image

A lighter density in the centre of the width of the weld image, either
extended along the weld or in isolated circular drops.

Acceptance Criteria

Height of reinforcement or internal protrusion in any plane through the

weld shall be within limits of applicable height value as specified here under.

 3mm to 6mm = t/2

 7 to 13mm = 3mm
 14mm to 25mm = 4mm
 26 & above = 5mm
5. Internal / Root concavity ( Suck Back )

A depression in the centre of the surface of the root pass.

Radiographic image

An elongated irregular darker density with fuzzy edges, in the centre of the
width of the weld image.

Acceptance Criteria

1. Root concavity of any length can be accepted provided the thickness of weld
deposit (including acceptable weld reinforcement) is equal to or grater than
adjacent base metal thickness.
2. Flat root or Root concavity of a minor nature can generally be ignored.
3. Very minor root concavity (e.g.: less than 1mm deep) will nearly always be
acceptable and can be ignored.
4. More severe root concavity .Measure the depth of concavity and external
reinforcement using a cam gauge.
5. Acceptable if external reinforcement is within acceptable limits but exceeds in
height the depth of the concavity.
6. External / Face Concavity

A depression in the top of the weld, or cover pass, indicating a thinner than
normal section thickness.

Radiographic image

A weld density darker that the density of the pieces being welded and
extending across the full width of the weld image

Acceptance Criteria

External/Face Concavity is not permitted.

7. External / Internal undercut

A gouging out of the piece to be welded, alongside the edge of the top or “
external “ surface of the weld, alongside the edge of the bottom or “internal” surface
of the weld .
Radiographic image
An irregular darker density along the edge of the weld image or near the
centre of the width of the weld image (and along the edge of the root pass image). The
density will always be darker than the density of the pieces being welded.
Acceptance Criteria

For piping class 600lb and less there is no limit on the length of any
undercut if the depth of undercut is less than or equal to 1mm deep. For piping class
900lb or greater & all piping classes where 100% RT is required undercut is not
permitted.

8. Surface porosity

 If the weld thickness is 5mm or less no surface porosity is permitted.

 If the weld thickness is greater than 5mm isolated surface pores of diameter
1mm or less are considered as non-relevant.

Radiographic image

Acceptable criteria

Surface pores diameters is more than 1mm are not permitted.

9. Internal porosity

Rounded voids random in size and location or slightly elongated voids

grouped together.

Radiographic image

Rounded spots of darker densities random in size and location or slightly

elongated darker density spots in cluster with the clusters randomly spaced.

Acceptance Criteria

For wall thickness less than or equal to 6 mm same as ASME VIII Division 1
Appendix 4 Table 4.1 For wall thickness greater than 6mm it is 1.5 times the values
specified in ASME VIII Division 1 Appendix 4 Table 4.1.

10. Slag inclusion / Tungsten inclusion

Slag inclusion

Usual non-metallic impurities that solidified on the weld surface and were
not removed between weld passes.

Tungsten inclusion

Random bits of tungsten fused into but not melted into the weld metal.
Radiographic image

Slag inclusion

An irregularly-shaped darker density spot (slightly elongated ) or

Elongated, parallel or single darker density lines, irregular in width and slightly
winding in the lengthwise direction of the weld.

Tungsten inclusion

Irregular shaped lower density spots randomly located in the weld image.

Acceptance Criteria

1. The individual width of each indication is lesser of ≤ 3mm or 0.5Tw.

2. The accumulated length in any 150mm of weld length is ≤ 4Tw.

11. Spatter and arc strikes

Acceptable Criteria

The welding spatter and the arc strikes are not permitted.
C. Inspection records

Store all the films for future uses. These records are the permanent records
than the other methods.

3. The Stages in the Production of the Radiograph

Many dentists who utilize manual processing, intentionally over expose
patients and under process the radiograph in an attempt to save time resulting in
radiographs that are inferior in diagnostic quality because of incomplete developing.
When an X-ray film has been exposed, it must be processed in order to produce a
permanent visible radiographic image that can be kept without deterioration for a
number of years. Processing transforms the latent image into a visible image. The term
for the several procedures that collectively produce the visible, permanent image is
processing and consists of developing, rinsing, fixing, washing and drying procedures
1. Exposure - Latent image created.
2. Development - Converts latent image to black metallic silver.
3. Wash [stop bath] - Removes excess developer.
4. Fixing and Hardening - Dissolves out unexposed silver halide crystals.
5. Washing - Removes products of processing.
6. Dry - Removes water.
For manual processing a floating thermometer, a timer and the time -
temperature chart are essential.
1. Latent image formation
The latent (invisible) image formation is the ionization of the exposed silver
bromide crystals (by photon energy that emerges from the patient) occurring in the
emulsion layer before processing occurs. The primary interaction with the bromide
crystals is by Compton and photoelectric interactions, thereby knocking out electrons.
Thus, a physical change occurs when the radiograph is exposed. When X-ray photons
[or light photons] strike the silver bromide crystals in the emulsion, minute amounts of
silver ions are formed on the surface of the crystal and bromine is liberated and is
absorbed by the gelatin. Crystals are purposely constructed with electron traps
(sensitivity specks) consisting of sulfur impurities but also because of the addition of
silver iodide. Electrons are trapped by the sulphur in the sensitivity specks giving it a
negative charge. When this situation is created a latent image is produced in the film
emulsion.
AgBr + X-ray photons = Ag+ + Br-
Silver bromide Silver ions + Bromine ions
The latent image is formed by deposits of free (ionized) silver ions that
cannot be seen or detected by any physical test devised as yet. It remains in the
emulsion of the X-ray film until it is changed into a visible silver image by chemical
processing procedures. The free electrons move through the crystal until they are
attracted to a sensitivity site where they become trapped and impart a negative charge
to the site.
2. Processing the exposed film
Exposed radiographs that contain a latent image should be processed as
soon as possible as they are more sensitive to energy. Film packets are only to be
opened in the darkroom or under safe-light conditions. (in a daylight loader). The
developer solution is the first solution into which the films are placed. The developer
chemically reduces the energized ionized silver bromide crystals by donating
electrons, removing the halides and precipitating metallic silver in the emulsion layer.
The negative charge attracts positively charged free silver ions and is reduced to black
metallic atoms.
This precipitation corresponds to the black (radiolucent) areas on the
radiograph. The concentration of the developer slowly weakens due to the number of
films processed, [a chemical reaction] and with time by oxidation of the developer by
exposure to air. Traditionally, the developer tank is placed on the left side of the other
chemicals solutions.
3. Rinsing process / Stop path (Washing)
When the film is removed from the developer the gelatine emulsion is soft
and swollen and contains chemicals which are removed by placing the film in a water
bath. By rinsing the film in the water the soluble chemicals are removed, the
development reaction is stopped, and the alkalinity of the residual developer is
reduced. The unexposed silver halide crystals are not water soluble and will not be
washed away.
The film should be rinsed for 10-15 seconds in a bath of fresh, running
water. The temperature of the water must be as close as possible to the temperature of
the developer and fixer to avoid reticulation - uneven expansion and contractions of
the emulsion layer. If this step were omitted, the alkaline developer retained by the
film would soon neutralize the acid of the fixer. The fixing and hardening action of the
fixer would be impaired and as a result, brown stains will be produced on the
radiograph within a few weeks. Because the emulsion layer (gelatine) is soft when
wet, the film scratches easily. Safe-light conditions must be maintained when
transferring the film from the developer to the wash tank and then to the fixing tank to
avoid fogging. For automatic processing there are "squeegy" rollers that remove the
chemicals and thus the film goes from the developer solution straight into the fixer.
4. Fixing
The acidic fixing solution removes the unexposed and undeveloped silver
bromide crystals from the film emulsion and re-hardens the emulsion that has softened
during the development process. For manual processing, if the film is placed in the
developer solution for X amount of time it should be placed in the fixer for 2X and in
the final rinse for 3X amount of time. "X" is determined by the time-temperature chart.
The ideal time to process radiographs in the developer is 680 F for 5 minutes.
However, films may be removed from the fixing solution after five minutes
for viewing only in cases of emergency - this procedure is known as wet reading /
viewing. The film must then be placed back in the fixer. If these unwanted silver
bromide crystals are not removed, the resultant film will discolour after a few months.
If the film is only partially fixed the film will turn brown in colour with age. The
gelatine protective coating is hardened by the potassium alum so the film will resist
abrasion / scratching.
5. Final Wash
The purpose of the final wash is to remove residual fixer chemicals i.e. acid,
thiosulfate and silver salts from the film. Insufficient washing results in the film
turning brown as all the chemicals have not been washed away. If the temperature
difference between developer and / OR fixer and water exceeds 15 F, there is a
possibility of unequal swelling and shrinkage of the emulsion layer, commonly
referred to as reticulation. Also, prolonged washing tends to make the emulsion soft,
and it then scratches more easily.
6. Drying
In most offices, films are dried merely by hanging them on a rack in the
darkroom above a drip tray designed to catch the run-off excess water. Others use a
fan to dry the film. The fan should not blow directly on the films. Cabinet dryers are
available which are equipped with a fan and heating elements. Wet films are subject to
damage from scratching and abrasion if not handled properly. If there is dust in the air,
dirt will become easily embedded within the emulsion. Do not remove wet
radiographs from their hangers until they are completely dry in most darkrooms the
developer will be in the left-hand tank as you face the tank, the water bath in the
centre and the fixing solution in the right-hand tank. The developer can be identified
by its soapy feel, (alkali) the fixer by its vinegary odor when fresh and acid taste. An
area of less density, say the pulp, will allow greater penetration of X-rays, therefore
more X rays will reach that part of the film.
Thus more silver bromide crystals will be energized and more silver will
precipitate to give a black or radiolucent outline to the pulp chamber. Areas that have
received smaller amounts of radiation will have correspondingly less silver
precipitated and will appear grey. Individually if a crystal is energized the whole
crystal turns black. The silver bromide behind a gold crown will precipitate no or very
little silver as there was minimal energy reaching that area, and will appear white, or
radiopaque on the radiograph. Gold and amalgam have high z values. The X-ray film
is a delicate product, sensitive to many things, e.g. light photons, X-rays and gamma
rays, pressure, to various gases and fumes, to heat and moisture and even aging causes
a gradual change in it, known as fogging.
4. Steps for RTFI (After Developing)
1. Check the film defects
2. Check the contrast of the film
3. IQI (Image Quality Indicator) checking
4. Component Identification (Date and Name of the job)
5. Defect identification.