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Copyright © July 2008 by Food & Water Watch. All rights reserved. This report can be viewed or downloaded at
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What’s Behind the
Global Food Crisis?
How Trade Policy Undermined Africa’s Food
Self-Sufficiency
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................1
Recommendations...............................................................................................................................................................8
Emergency Response......................................................................................................................................................8
Endnotes..........................................................................................................................................................10
T he 2008 global food crisis is compromising the survival of 860 million undernour-
ished people and threatens to push a hundred million people into extreme poverty,
erasing all of the gains made in eradicating poverty in the last decade. Record high
prices have put food out of reach for the poorest people in the developing world, many
of whom already spend more than half their income on food. Growing food insecurity
is undermining tenuous civil stability in at least 33 countries, about one sixth of United
Nations member countries.1
Real food prices are at near-record highs — and are ap- switch from growing food for domestic markets to growing
proaching the levels of the food crisis of the early 1970s. The cash crops for export to industrial countries. Traditional
UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization reports that grain African food crops like sorghum, cassava, yams and mil-
prices jumped 88 percent between March 2007 and March let are not traded internationally, so they typically were
2008. Currently, high agricultural production costs, tight ignored by international agribusinesses and globaliza-
commodity supplies and increased demand have all con- tion proponents. Instead, farmers were encouraged to
tributed to food price escalation. All-time high oil prices in- grow crops like coffee, sugar, cocoa beans, tea and cotton
crease fuel costs for freighters and farm equipment. Unusu- and then use the export earnings to purchase food, often
ally poor weather conditions have undercut rice and grain low-priced imports from industrial countries. Globaliza-
production in Australia, Northern Europe, Central Asia tion cheerleaders viewed food self-sufficiency as obsolete.
and America’s wheat belt. The growing diversion of food Although imported food benefited consumers in the devel-
crops to produce biofuel and increased demand in booming oping world when prices were low, local farmers were often
economies have helped drive up commodity prices. displaced by low-priced imports. Now that imported food
prices are rising, consumers cannot afford sustenance and
But rising production costs are not the only culprits in the there is too little local production to provide food for local
food crisis. The globalization model that prioritizes cash markets in many countries.
crop exports over food self-sufficiency has helped make
Africa and other developing regions vulnerable to volatile While the WTO ostensibly offered “carrots” to entice
global food prices. countries to transition to export-oriented agriculture, the
World Bank used its power as a stick. The WTO promised
In the last dozen years, the World Bank and the World increased access to markets in rich countries, encourag-
Trade Organization encouraged developing countries to ing farmers in the developing world to shift to tradeable
What’s Behind the Global Food Crisis?
agricultural commodities instead of local food staples. At grown rapidly while food staple cultivation has slowed.
the same time, the World Bank invested in cash-crop enter- Although African agriculture is not monolithic, the over-
prises in the developing world while it pressed developing emphasis on cash crops is widespread on the continent and
countries to eliminate government programs supporting has accelerated over the past decade. This shift from food
domestic agriculture, ultimately reducing the productivity production to cash crop production has compromised Af-
of the food staple sector. rica’s food security. For example, since 1995, Africa added
twice as many acres of new cotton production as new acres
The shift to export-oriented agriculture has contributed to of corn and nearly fifty percent more new acres of cocoa
developing country dependence on imports of staple crops beans than new acres of millet.3 Other key findings include:
like corn, wheat and rice. Africa is at ground zero in the
global food crisis in no small part because resources were Cash Crop Acres Exceed Staple Food Crops: Com-
diverted from food crop production to cash crop invest- bined, Africa cultivated 37.3 million acres of coffee, cocoa,
ments. About half (40 of 82) of the countries designated sugar, cotton, rubber, tobacco and tea (the key traditional
low-income food deficit countries by the FAO are in Africa.2 cash crops) in 2006, a considerably larger area than was
Africa is now more reliant on food imports than before the planted with most key food staples. There were twice
WTO went into effect, and food imports are more expensive as many acres planted in cash crops as yams and sweet
than ever. potatoes combined (18.6 million acres); 42 percent fewer
rice acres (21.8 million acres) than cash crop acres; a third
Food & Water Watch analyzed African crop production fewer wheat acres (25.1 million) than cash crop acres; and
over the past quarter century and found that since the WTO 20 percent fewer cassava acres (29.9 million acres) than
went into effect in 1995, African cash crop cultivation has cash crop acres.
Growth in Staple Food Acreage in Africa
Cash Crop Cultivation Grew Rapidly After WTO:
48.9% In the dozen years before the WTO went into effect (1983
to 1994), the cultivated acreage for cash crops was nearly
constant, declining by 0.2 percent from 28.8 million acres
in 1983 to 28.7 million acres in 1994. After the WTO went
into effect, cash crop acreage jumped by 17.7 percent from
31.7 million acres in 1995 to 37.3 million acres in 2006.
2
Food & Water Watch
3
What’s Behind the Global Food Crisis?
A Tanzanian plantation worker sorts through harvested coffee beans as they dry. Photo by Bruce Block/iStockphoto.com.
Food price escalation threatens to erode the slow improve- Most analysts attribute the bulk of the food price increase
ments in the global efforts to reduce poverty over the past to a decline in farm production and higher oil prices.
decade.18 In the developing world, many families spend Weather disruptions, including drought in Australia and
more than half their income on food; the poorest fami- America’s wheat region, West African floods, late frosts in
lies spend nearly three quarters of their income on food.19 China and unusually hot weather in Europe, have led to
These households cannot afford to shift more of their lim- lower global supplies.22 The poor 2007 weather reduced
ited earnings to continually increasing food prices. World crop yields for the second year in a row.23 These lower sup-
food price escalation is projected to drive an additional 105 plies were compounded by historically low grain reserves,
million people below $1-a-day poverty levels, erasing the as countries encouraged by trade liberalization turned to
modest gains against poverty in the last decade.20 imports to make up for any shortfalls rather than maintain-
ing their own crop reserves.24
Short Term Causes of Skyrocketing Higher demand from consumers in rapidly expanding
Global Food Prices economies as well as the diversion of food crops to biofuel
refineries is also increasing global food prices. Strong
The immediate cause of rising food prices has been a short- economic growth in China and India has increased global
term supply disruption (due to shortages) along with sus- demand for agricultural commodities.25 The larger middle
tained growth in demand. Additionally, surging petroleum classes in these countries are demanding more meat and
prices have increased the cost of both agricultural produc- dairy products, which drives up global demand for grains
tion and global transportation costs, which the World Bank such as corn and soybeans that are used to feed livestock.26
estimates has pushed up food prices by 15 percent.21 Over
the longer term, chronic disinvestment in food crop pro- The recent emphasis on increasing the use of biofuels by
duction in the developing world and an over-emphasis and governments, investors and farmers has contributed to the
reliance on trade in agricultural cash crops has undermined increased demand for corn and soybeans. In the United
food security worldwide. States, the push for corn-based ethanol has increased
demand for corn and cultivated land, which has created
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Food & Water Watch
a rippling demand for all U.S. commodities. In 2008, an front operating costs like seeds, fertilizer and tools. When
estimated 4 billion bushels — a third of the U.S. corn crop African governments stopped supporting farm lending,
— are expected to be diverted to ethanol refineries.27 The credit evaporated and investments in productivity largely
U.S. Council of Economic Advisors estimates that global disappeared.33
corn-based ethanol production caused a third of the 37
percent increase in the cost of corn.28 The Carnegie Endow- Seed and Fertilizer Supports Slashed: The elimina-
ment estimates biofuel crop demand has only had a modest tion of seed and fertilizer subsidies was a keystone of World
impact on food prices to date, but that long-term effects are Bank fiscal austerity policy.34 Developing countries had
likely to rise.29 subsidized these high-value inputs to encourage farmers
who could not afford seeds and fertilizer to adopt more pro-
ductive practices. When African countries cut this support,
Globalization Model A Significant farmers abandoned higher-yield seeds and crop yields and
Contributor to Global Food Crisis production declined. Eliminating fertilizer price controls
and credit programs in Africa made fertilizer unaffordable
The globalization model that prioritizes cash crop exports for farmers, lowered production, and effectively deterred
over food self-sufficiency has helped make Africa and other private investment in the farm sector.35 For example, when
developing countries vulnerable to volatile global food prices. Zambia eliminated corn seed and fertilizer programs, corn
acreage and fertilizer application both declined sharply.36
World Bank Forces African Countries Elimination of Storage and Distribution Programs:
to Eliminate Farm Programs The World Bank required that governments stop provid-
1,000,000
Credit Programs Cut: The World Bank mandated that
developing countries end programs that ensured access 500,000
to agricultural loans for farmers. Small farmers rely on
loans to make productivity-enhancing investments such 0 Sugar Cane Maize Millet Cotton Cocoa Beans
as irrigation systems or new equipment and finance up- Source: UN FAO
5
What’s Behind the Global Food Crisis?
ing distribution, storage, transportation and marketing Developing countries reduced their agricultural import
programs that served farmers in remote areas. The lack barriers at the same time that global commodity prices
of roads connecting rural farm communities to ports and collapsed. Global agricultural commodity prices declined
cities isolates farmers from markets and can increase urban steeply and steadily after the WTO AoA went into effect. By
food prices.37 Some African governments operated regional 2001, the global export price of rice was 46 percent lower
storage silos where farmers could sell their crops and than in 1995, wheat export prices were 28 percent lower
delivery networks to get crops to market. Without reliable and corn prices were 27 percent lower.42 Many industrial-
distribution from more remote rural areas, farmers had no ized countries increased payments to farmers during this
incentive to produce more food than local communities can period, which allowed commodities to be exported to the
eat.38 When trucking subsidies were cut in Malawi, signifi- developing world below the cost of production, a practice
cant distribution gaps quickly emerged that private truck- referred to as “dumping.” In 2002, the U.S. exported wheat
ing companies did not serve.39 at 43 percent below the cost of production, soybeans at 25
percent below the cost of production, corn at 13 percent
At the same time that African governments reduced spend- below the cost of production and rice at 35 percent below
ing on agricultural programs, overall World Bank invest- the cost of production.43
ment in agriculture projects was declining. The World
Bank made 30 percent of its lending to agriculture projects The flood of cheap farm imports made subsistence produc-
in 1980 but only 12 percent in 2007.40 Chronic underin- tion in the developing world uncompetitive and financially
vestment in agriculture — both by donors like the World untenable. Many farmers in the developing world migrated
Bank and the governments of developing countries — to cities or emigrated to other countries.44 When farmers
eroded the ability of many developing countries to main- leave the land, the farm sector contracts and agricultural
tain agricultural production and contributed to reliance on production declines, making developing countries more
imported food.41 dependent on food imports. The erosion of domestic
agricultural production in the developing world allowed
industrialized agricultural powers to essentially capture the
Reducing Agricultural Trade Barriers markets in developing countries.
Increased Agricultural Dumping
Growth in African Food Acres Faltered After WTO:
The World Bank and WTO advocates also promoted liberal- Food & Water Watch examined the growth in food crop
izing global agricultural trade as an opportunity for farmers cultivation in Africa before and after the WTO went into
in the developing world. Lower agricultural tariffs were ex- effect and found that the growth in staple food acreage
pected to increase global integration, generate export earn- slowed after the WTO. In the dozen years before the WTO
ings for developing country cash crops and make imported went into effect, cultivated acres planted in African food
food cheaper for consumers. Rich countries would reduce staples (corn, millet, sorghum, cassava, wheat, rice, yams
import taxes (tariffs) on agricultural goods, which would and sweet potatoes) grew by half, rising 48.9 percent from
allow developing countries to export their agricultural 165.8 million acres in 1983 to 246.8 million acres in 1994.
products. In exchange, developing countries were required After the WTO went into effect, food staple cultivation grew
to lower import restrictions to bulk agricultural commodi- by only 13.3 percent from 238.3 million acres in 1995 to
ties and food from the industrial world. 270.1 million acres in 2006. For some key staples produced
by the industrialized world, the decline in cultivated acres
Prior to the establishment of the WTO Agreement on was stark. Between 1983 and 1994, 18.7 million new acres
Agriculture (AoA) in 1995, most countries had a range of of corn were brought into production, but between 1995
policies to govern the flow of imported agricultural prod- and 2006 Africa added only 1.2 million new acres, a 94
ucts into their markets. The WTO’s precursor, the General percent reduction. Demand for food staples continued to
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, largely focused on indus- mount during this period, along with growth in population.
trial products and did little to meddle in agricultural trade And this demand is projected to continue to rise. Accord-
restrictions. The AoA prohibited countries from maintain- ing to the World Bank, Africa’s demand for staple foods is
ing limits on the volume of agricultural imports through expected to double between 2000 and 2015.45
bans or quotas (such as prohibiting rice imports altogether
or limiting the tonnage of imported rice) and directed coun- As the growth in staple crop production slowed, low-
tries to lower tariffs on imports. Lowering import barriers priced imports made up the difference.46 Many developing
left developing countries more vulnerable to low-priced countries that once produced their own food became net
agricultural goods that undercut domestic markets. food importers when agricultural tariffs were reduced and
agricultural programs were eliminated.47 Grain imports by
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Food & Water Watch
low-income food deficit African countries increased by 30 ucts has been declining, the Bank did make investments in
percent between 2003 and 2006, even before food prices many cash crop projects in Africa. Since 1980, the World
surged.48 Cereal imports are projected to double from $8.4 Bank invested at least $757 million in 30 African projects
billion in the 2006 to an estimated $17.9 billion in 2008. promoting cocoa, cotton, coffee, sugar, rubber and tea.52
Africa is expected to import more than one fifth (22 per- These investments have contributed to the global oversup-
cent) of global cereal exports in 2008.49 Now that import ply of these crops, which has helped drive down world pric-
prices have exploded, the reliance on imports has put the es.53 The World Bank estimates that the global overcapacity
cost of food beyond the reach of many African families.50 in cash crop production will exceed global demand for the
foreseeable future, keeping prices and export earnings for
these crops low for years.54 Food & Water Watch analysis of
Cash Crop Mirage Undermined Food FAO data demonstrates that Africa has shifted agricultural
Security in Africa capacity into cash crops since the WTO went into effect at
the expense of food security.
The promise of the WTO AoA was that lowered agriculture
tariffs in the industrial world would allow developing coun- Cash Crop Acres Exceed Staple Food Crops: Com-
tries to increase their agricultural exports and provide des- bined, Africa cultivated 37.3 million acres of coffee, cocoa,
perately needed hard currency. Developing countries were sugar, cotton, rubber, tobacco and tea (the key traditional
expected to use their competitive advantage in producing cash crops) in 2006, a considerably larger area than was
tropical products to expand agricultural export earnings. planted with most key food staples. There were twice
Export earnings from these cash crops could be used to as many acres planted in cash crops as yams and sweet
purchase corn, wheat and rice on the international market. potatoes combined (18.6 million acres); 42 percent fewer
rice acres (21.8 million acres) than cash crop acres; a third
Many African food staples like millet, cassava, yams, sweet fewer wheat acres (25.1 million) than cash crop acres; and
potatoes and sorghum are not traded internationally or on 20 percent fewer cassava acres (29.9 million acres) than
the commodity futures markets. Liberalization of trade and cash crop acres.
the erosion of developing country farm programs created
incentives for farmers to shift from staple food production Cash Crop Cultivation Grew Rapidly After WTO:
to more tradeable cash crops like cotton, coffee and cocoa.51 In the dozen years before the WTO went into effect (1983
Although total World Bank investment in agricultural prod- to 1994), the cultivated acreage for cash crops was nearly
An Ethiopian famiy removes the chaff from their grain. Photo by Niall Crotty.
7
What’s Behind the Global Food Crisis?
Recommendations
Emergency Response
Provide Emergency Assistance: The UN estimates
that an additional $15 to $20 billion is needed annually to
overcome the food crisis in the short term.55 Industrialized
countries must commit to meeting this need, and stick to
their promises once the stories of food shortages fade from
the headlines. The aid should be in cash wherever possible,
to avoid disrupting local markets, but where shortages ex-
ist, emergency food aid should be delivered.
A Congolese woman prepares foufou, a traditional West African dish made
with maize. Photo by Stock.Xchng.
Shift Food Aid to Local Food Purchases: When
donor countries purchase food in local and regional mar-
kets where food aid is needed rather than shipping com- many industrial countries, such as those in the EU, have
modities, the food aid can not only maximize the donation banned GM crops, developing countries would be forced to
but also foster local food production. Local and regional adopt expensive crop segregation management protocols
procurement allows food aid to be delivered more quickly to ensure they could export non-GM crops to markets with
and at lower cost, reducing the overhead costs of shipping GM bans. The UN estimates that nearly 100 countries in
food over long distances. Transportation costs consumed the developing world are unable to manage GM crops suf-
65 percent of U.S. emergency food assistance even before ficiently to ensure against biosafety threats or export.58 It is
oil prices jumped.56 The UN World Food Program has had inappropriate for agribusinesses or governments to use the
successfully used local purchasing strategies to deliver aid. current food crisis as leverage to force GM crops on unwill-
In the recently passed 2008 Farm Bill, a pilot project was ing communities in much of the developing world.
established that uses a small proportion of the U.S. food aid
budget in cash instead of commodities. This percentage Impose a Biofuel Moratorium: Industrialized coun-
should be increased immediately, rather than waiting until tries should take a strategic pause in government programs
the next Farm Bill. that accelerate biofuel development. Renewable fuel
targets that ratchet up the amount of transportation fuel
Do Not Tie Food Aid to Acceptance of Genetically derived from biofuels should be put on hold for the dura-
Modified Crops: Some of the emergency food aid pro- tion of the current food crisis. National governments need
posed by the Bush administration was targeted to develop to reassess the impact government biofuel policies have
agricultural production with GM crops.57 Farmers in the on global and national food prices, as well as the extent to
developing world cannot afford the linked-technologies which ever expanding biofuel development is sustainable
that accompany most GM varieties, like, for example, buy- for the long term.
ing herbicide to treat herbicide-resistant GM crops. Since
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Food & Water Watch
Allow Developing Countries to Exempt Special between 2004 and 2007, and the price of rice in Uganda in
Products from Tariff Cuts: Developing countries need 2008 has remained stable while the rest of the world has
to be able to promote food self-sufficiency and re-develop faced skyrocketing prices.
stagnant agricultural production by exempting some farm
products (known in trade jargon as “special products”) Allow the Use of Special Safeguard Mechanisms to
from further WTO tariff reductions during the Doha Protect Food Sovereignty: Developing countries are
Round. Many developing countries had promoted the right also seeking a Special Safeguard Mechanism to prevent do-
to exempt some agricultural product lines from tariff reduc- mestic producers from being dislocated by sudden surges of
tions before the current steep rise in agricultural commod- low-priced food imports. These SSMs should be able to be
ity prices. As more countries recognize the importance of deployed swiftly and simply to ensure that domestic produc-
improving domestic food self-sufficiency as a hedge against tive capacity is not rapidly eroded while complex economic
market volatility and high prices, special product protec- modeling studies are completed and debated in Geneva.
tions are even more necessary to protect investments in the
agricultural sector and promote farmer investments.
Reforming Global Agriculture Policy
Uganda adopted policies similar to special product exemp-
tions to help stimulate a domestic rice market to ensure Remove Agriculture from the Doha Round WTO
food security and conserve the hard currency with export Negotiations: Access to food is too vital to survival to be
sales for international purchases other than food, like left to the whims of commodity traders and multinational
oil.59 The Ugandan government promoted a new variety of agribusiness corporations. The WTO’s Agreement on Agri-
upland rice that requires less water than paddy-raised rice culture should be abandoned. Instead, governments must
and raised the import duty on imported rice to 75 percent. return to a focus on food sovereignty, the principle that
The special product protection created an opportunity for people have the right to define their own food and agri-
Uganda’s rice production to grow by nearly 80 percent culture system. The promise of exporting raw agricultural
between 2005 and 2008, and encouraged rice-importing material from developing countries to industrial countries
firms to shift to milling operations for domestic crops. has provided neither prosperity nor alleviated hunger in the
Consumption of imported rice has fallen by three quarters developing world. Development strategies should focus on
developing local food production and consumption from
sustainable smallholders.
9
What’s Behind the Global Food Crisis?
Endnotes 10
UN FAO, “Crop Prospects and Food Situation,” No. 2, April 2008.
11
Ibid. at 13.
1
“As Food Prices Soar, U.N. Calls for International Help.” NewsHour 12
UN FAO, “Crop Prospects and Food Situation,” No. 2, April 2008 at 9.
with Jim Lehrer, April 23, 2008; there were 192 UN members after 13
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and UN
Montenegro joined in 2006. FAO, “OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2008-2017,” May 2008.
2
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Country Profiles 14
Sanders, Edmund and Tracy Wilkinson, “U.N. Food Aid Costlier as Need
and Mapping Information System, “Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries Soars,” Los Angeles Times, April 1, 2008.
(LIFDC),” as of November 2006, available at http://www.fao.org/ 15
Sheeran, Josette, Executive Director, UN World Food Programme,
countryprofiles/lifdc.asp?lang=en. Testimony submitted to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,
3
Food & Water Watch examined cultivated acreage and production data May 14, 2008 at 7.
for seven cash crops (cocoa beans, coffee, sugar, cotton, tea, rubber, and 16
UN FAO, “State of Food Insecurity in the World 2006,” 2007 at 23; Von
tobacco) and eight food crops (wheat, corn, rice, millet, sorghum, cassava, Braun, Joachim, International Food Policy Research Institute, “The World
yams and sweet potatoes) that are the most common in Africa. Food Situation: New Driving Forces and Required Actions,” December
4
“Southeast Asia Urges Cooperation Over Rice,” Associated Press, May 3, 2007 at 11.
2008. 17
Sheeran, Josette, Executive Director, UN World Food Programme,
5
Report by the Chairman of the Trade Negotiations Committee to WTO Testimony submitted to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,
General Council, Pascal Lamy, “Lamy Says Food Crisis Adds Urgency to May 14, 2008 at 20.
Concluding the Round,” May 7, 2008. 18
World Bank, “Rising Food Prices: Policy Options and World Bank
6
Freedman, Jennifer M. and Rebecca McLaughlin-Duane, “WTO Deal Response,” April 2008 at 3.
Critical to Ease Food Crisis, Mandelson Says,” Bloomberg, May 19, 2008. 19
Ivanic, Maros and Will Martin, “Implications of Higher Global Food
7
“Factbox: Food Price Rises Spark Protests, Hoarding,” Reuters, May 2, Prices for Poverty in Low-Income Countries,” World Bank Development
2008. Research Group Trade Team, Policy Research Working Paper 4594, April
8
Walt, Vivienne, “The World’s Growing Food-Price Crisis,” Time, February 2008 at 2.
27, 2008; “Factbox: Food Price Rises Spark Protests, Hoarding,” Reuters, 20
Ivanic, Maros and Will Martin, “Implications of Higher Global Food
May 2, 2008. Prices for Poverty in Low-Income Countries,” World Bank Development
9
UN FAO, “High-Level Conference on World Food Security: The Research Group Trade Team, Policy Research Working Paper 4594, April
Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy,” HLC/08/INF/1, April 2008 2008 at 19-20.
at 3-4.
10
Food & Water Watch
21
World Bank, “Rising Food Prices: Policy Options and World Bank 40
World Bank, “Rising Food Prices: Policy Options and World Bank
Response,” April 2008 at 1. Response,” April 2008 at 8.
22
Walt, Vivienne, “The World’s Growing Food-Price Crisis,” Time, 41
Polaski, Sandra, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, “Rising
February 27, 2008. Food Prices, Poverty, and the Doha Round,” May 2008 at 4.
23
Trostle, Ronald, USDA Economic Research Service, “Global Agriculture 42
World Trade Organization, “International Trade Statistics 2006,” Table
Supply and Demand: Factors Contributing to the Recent Increase in Food A26 at 242; “International Trade Statistics 2007,” Table A29 at 228.
Commodity Prices,” WRS-0801, May 2008 at 21. 43
Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, “United States Dumping on
24
Von Braun, Joachim, International Food Policy Research Institute, World Agricultural Markets,” Cancun Series Paper No. 1, February 2004
“The World Food Situation: New Driving Forces and Required Actions,” at 3.
December 2007 at 2; Trostle, Ronald, USDA Economic Research Service, 44
See World Bank, World Development Report 2008.
“Global Agriculture Supply and Demand: Factors Contributing to the 45
World Bank, World Development Report 2008, at 34.
Recent Increase in Food Commodity Prices,” WRS-0801, May 2008 at 13. 46
UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Trade and Markets and
25
Remarks by John Lipsky, First Deputy Managing Director, International Agricultural Development Economics Divisions, Paper presented to
Monetary Fund, at the Council on Foreign Relations, “Commodity Prices Thirty-first Session of FAO’s IFAD Governing Council, “Growing Demand
and Global Inflation,” May 8, 2008. on Agriculture and Rising Prices of Commodities,” February 14, 2008 at
26
Osnos, Evan and Laurie Goering, “World’s Giants to Alter Food 11.
Equation,” Chicago Tribune, May 11, 2008. 47
De Schutter, Olivier, UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food,
27
Testimony of Jeffrey Harris, Chief Economist and John Fenton, “Background Note: Analysis of the World Food Crisis,” May 2, 2008 at 6.
Director of Market Surveillance, before the Subcommittee on General 48
UN FAO, “Crop Prospects and Food Situation,” No. 2, April 2008 at 15.
Farm Commodities and Risk Management, U.S. House Committee on 49
UN FAO, “High-Level Conference on World Food Security: The
Agriculture, May 15, 2008 at 8. Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy,” HLC/08/INF/1, April 2008
28
Lazear, Edward P., Chairman, Council of Economic Advisors, Testimony at 18.
before U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, May 14, 2008 at 3. 50
Faiola, Anthony, “Where Every Meal is a Sacrifice,” Washington Post,
29
Polaski, Sandra, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, “Rising April 28, 2008.
Food Prices, Poverty, and the Doha Round,” May 2008 at 3-4. 51
See Structural Adjustment Participation Review International Network,
30
UN Conference on Trade and Development, “Debt Sustainability: Oasis “The Policy Roots of Economic Crisis and Poverty,” April 2006, Chapter 6.
or Mirage?,” 2004 at 5. 52
Food & Water Watch analysis of World Bank project database, available
31
World Bank, World Development Report 2008, at 40. at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/0,,men
32
Commission of the European Communities, “Agricultural Commodity uPK:115635~pagePK:64020917~piPK:64021009~theSitePK:40941,00.
Trade, Dependence and Poverty, An Analysis of Challenges Facing html, accessed June 1, 2008.
Developing Countries,” SEC(2003)908, Aug. 13, 2003, at 16. 53
Pimbert, Michel P., John Thompson, and William T. Vorley,
33
See Deininger, Klaus and Pedro Olinto, World Bank, “Why Liberalization International Institute for Environment and Development, “Global
Alone Has Not Improved Agricultural Productivity in Zambia,” WPS 2302, Restructuring, Agri-Food Systems and Livelihoods,” Gatekeeper Series No.
at 2; Oxfam, “Death on the Doorstep of the Summit,” Oxfam Briefing 100, 2001 at 9.
Paper 29, Aug. 2002, at 6; and World Development Movement, “Structural 54
World Bank, World Development Report 2008, at 122-3.
Damage,” Oct. 2002, at 23. 55
Brown, Stephen and Robin Pomeroy, “Food Summit Blames Trade
34
Cleaver, Kevin M. and W. Graeme Donovan, World Bank, “Agriculture, Barriers for High Prices,” Reuters, June 3, 2008.
Poverty, and Policy Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa,” World Bank 56
Melito, Thomas, Director Government Accountability Office, Director
Discussion Paper No. 280, 1995 at 8. of International Affairs and Trade, Testimony before the Subcommittee
35
Bello, Walden, “How ‘Free Trade’ is Destroying Third World Agriculture on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration
– And Who’s Fighting Back,” The Nation, June 2, 2008. and Related Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. House of
36
World Bank, “Implementation Completion Report on a Credit in the Representatives, October 2, 2007 at introduction.
Amount of SDR 41.2 to the Republic of Zambia for an Agricultural Sector 57
Hedges, Stephen J., “U.S. Using Food Crisis to Boost Bio-Engineered
Investment Program,” Report No. 24444, Jun. 30, 2002, at 9; Deininger Crops,” Chicago Tribune, May 14, 2008.
and Olinto, WPS 2302, at 4 and 7. 58
Clapp, Stephen, “Developing Countries Found Unable to Manage
37
Cleaver and Donovan, 1995 at 5; Resnick, Danielle, International Food Biosafety Threats,” Food Chemical News, June 2, 2008.
Policy Research Institute, “Smallholder African Agriculture: Progress and 59
See Zachary, G. Pascal, “Africa Plays the Rice Card,” Foreign Policy, May
Problems in Confronting Hunger and Poverty,” Development Strategy and 2008.
Governance Division Discussion Paper No. 9, Jul. 2004, at 11. 60
Altman, Daniel, “Dealing with the Global Food Crisis,” International
38
Ahmed, Ismail I. with Michael Lipton, Institute of Development Studies Herald Tribune, May 6, 2008.
and Poverty Research Unit, University of Sussex, “Impact of Structural 61
Remarks by John Lipsky, First Deputy Managing Director, International
Adjustment on Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Review of the Literature,” Monetary Fund, at the Council on Foreign Relations, “Commodity Prices
IDS Working Paper 62, 2004, at 10, 20. and Global Inflation,” May 8, 2008.
39
Ahmed with Lipton, 2004 at 17.
11
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