Applications of Op Amps cs ov Figure 2.13. Triangle Wave Input toa Differentiator and Square Wave Output inverse of integration, as we mentioned earlier Integration produces a triangle output with a square wave input. Thus. the differentiator pro- duces a squire Wave output with a triangle input The input-output rekitionship with a practical differentiator is shown in Figure 2.13. The slope of the input from 4 to B and C to D is a constant positive value, The output at those times is a con- stant negative voltage. This output value changes only if the input slope changes. To determine the amplitude of the output square wave of Figure 2.13, we use the following equation: (2.20) 2 ve 29 ‘The change in input voltage with respect to time (AF, At) is the slope of the input waveform, The verification of the equations in the dif- ferentiator section is left for you to do. Logarithmic Amplifier A circuit frequently seen in analog computers is the logarithmic amplifier (log amp). In a log amp, the output is proportional to the logarithm of the input. The log amp takes advantage of the logarith- mic relationship between the current through a semiconductor device and the voltage across it. Two such nonlinear devices are the semiconductor diode and the BJT. The circuit configurations for these log amps are illustrated in Figures 2.184 and. 2148. In the circuit shown in Figure 2.14A, the voltage across the diode (Vp) is logarithmically related to the current through the diode (I) by the following relationship: Vp = A logy 2 221) where logy = logarithm to a specified base (B) A = constant of proportionality, which depends on the base of the loga- rithm theoretical reverse leakage current of diode Figure 2.14 Ideal Log Amp [A With Semiconduetor Diode uF 18. With Transistor30 Likewise, in Figure 2.14B, the collector current (I) divided’ by its reverse leakage current (Ic,) is logarithmically related to the voltage from base to emitter (Vg) by the following relationship Vae= Alves 7! (222) Practical Log Amp In actual use of the log amp, a more practical ‘circuit such as the one in Figure 2.15A would be utilized. Here, the more practical equation is as follows: for = A logy) + K Yaa (2.23) where V,, = output of log amp voltage from base to emitter of tran- sistor A= constant of proportionality K = offset value The value of resistance for both R,'s in Figure 2.ISA is given by the following expression: c-01yF A Circuit CHAPTER 2 (24) where Vig = Maximum input voltage ninimum input voltage Temas) = Maximum collector current of transistor used 1y = input bias current of op amp For the 741, f, is approximately 80 nA. For evaluation of A and K in Equation 2.23, the following equations may be used: Yon = Vou logt¥.2) — loxt¥.) 1 = A togtl,) (225) 2.26) where Vj, = first applied input voltage ¥,, = second applied input voltage output voltage of log amp due to Vy V2 = output voltage of log amp due to 1.3 An example might be helpful at this point to demonstrate the evaluation of 4 and K. Assume the input voltage applied will range over three Meotured g cleaned Slope ot measured curve ‘without minus B. Graph of Curpur Figure 2.18 Practical Log Amp'~ Applications of Op Amps Fe Figure 2.16 Amp. Ideal Antilog different values: 1V, 2 V, and 3 V. For these three inputs. three output voltages (V, in Figure 2.158) result: 0.60 V, 0.62 V, and 0.64 V (hypothetically) In Equation 2.25, ¥,, is 0.60 V, Ye: is 0.62 V, Vj, is LV, and Vj is 2V. (Notice that the negative signs were dropped from the output voltage mea- surements.) Substituting these values into Equa- tion 225 results in a value of 0.0664 for 4. In Equation 2.26, Vay is 0.60 V, A is 0.0664, and Vj, is 1 V. Substituting these values into Equation 2.26 results in a value of 0.60 for K. Now, the procedure will be repeated for the second group of values for ¥, and V,, For Equation 2.25 and the second group of values, Ya, is now 062 V, Vip is 0.64 V, My is 2V, and Mi, is 3V. Substituting these values into Equation 2.25 results in a value of 0.114 for 4. In Equation 2.26, Vay is now 0.62 V, 4 is 0.114, and Vi, is 2 V. Substituting these values into Equation 2.26 results in a value of 0.586 for K. After all values for A and K have been calculated, they can be averaged in order to obtain values that can be used in the amplifier circuit following the log amp in Figure 2.15A. ‘Alter A and K are determined, they are used with the second amplifier (B amplifier) in Figure 215A. The noninverting terminal of amplifier B is set to the value of K, and the gain of amplifier B is set to the reciprocal of A. When a voltage is input at Vj, the logarithm of that voltage is now output at Ver ‘As a precaution for the circuit of Figure 2.154, be sure to use only positive input voltages in the |A. With Semiconductor Diode 31 in OFT : im 8. With Transistor range for which you determined the R, value in Equation 2.24. In addition, the transistor in the feedback circuit of the log amp (2N2222 in Figure 215A) can be. any small-signal, high-speed tran- sistor. If the transistor's response is a straight line on the graph in Figure 2.15B, the circuit of Figure 215A should produce an accurate logarithmic output. Whichever transistor you choose, though, will be heat-sensitive, For best results, either keep the transistor at a constant temperature or use a temperature-stabilized circuit. The bibliography for this chapter given at the back of the text lists ‘good sources for such designs. Antilog Amp ‘The antilog amplifier performs the inverse function of the log amp. This operation is done by simply reversing the position of the semiconductor and the input resistor. The antilog amp is shown in Figures 216A and 2.16B. Designing and working with log amps can be a tedious and exacting job. For this reason, several manufacturers have designed and built log amps within a single IC chip. Applications Applications of log amps are numerous. For example, they are used for compressing large voltage ranges into smaller ones. Also, since many