Topics missed are stir and sqeese casting, machining and welding of composites

D. Filament Winding:

This process is an automated process. This process is used in the fabrication of components or
structures made with flexible fibers. This process is primarily used for hollow, generally circular or
oval sectioned components. Fibre tows are passed through a resin bath before being wound onto
a mandrel in a variety of orientations, controlled by the fibre feeding mechanism, and rate of rotation
of the mandrel. The wound component is then cured in an oven or autoclave.

One can use resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic along with any fibre. The fibre
can be directly from creel, non-woven or stitched into a fabric form.

The filament winding process is shown in Figure 1.17.

Advantages:

o Resin content is controlled by nips or dies.

o The process can be very fast.
o The process is economic.
o Complex fibre patterns can be attained for better load bearing of the structure.

Disadvantages:

o Resins with low viscosity are needed.

o The process is limited to convex shaped components.
o Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
o Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
o The external surface of the component is not smoothly finished.

Figure 1.17: Filament winding

 Applications:

Pressure bottles, rocket motor casing, chemical storage tanks, pipelines, gas cylinders, fire-
fighters, breathing tanks etc.

E. Pultrusion:

It is a continuous process in which composites in the form of fibers and fabrics are pulled through
a bath of liquid resin. Then the fibres wetted with resin are pulled through a heated die. The die
plays important roles like completing the impregnation and controlling the resin. Further, the
material is cured to its final shape. The die shape used in this process is nothing the replica of the
final product. Finally, the finished product is cut to length.

The resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used with any fibre.

The pultrusion process is shown in Figure 1.18.

Advantages:

o The process is suitable for mass production.

o The process is fast and economic.
o Resin content can be accurately controlled.
o Fibre cost is minimized as it can be taken directly from a creel.
o The surface finish of the product is good.
o Structural properties of product can be very good as the profiles have very straight fibres.

Disadvantages:

o Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.

o Heated die costs can be high.
o Products with small cross-sections alone can be fabricated.

Applications:

Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks

 Figure 1.18: Pultrusion

Autoclave molding
Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding method
with some modifications. This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to
the composite product during curing. In this method, prepregs are stacked in a mold in a
definite sequence and then spot welded to avoid any relative movement in between the
prepreg sheets. After stacking the prepregs, the whole assembly is vacuum bagged to remove
any air entrapped in between the layers. The schematic of autoclave molding process is
shown in figure 2. After a definite period of time when it is ensured that all air is removed,
the entire assembly is transferred to autoclave. Here, heat and pressure is applied for a
definite interval of time. In this process, matrix is uniformly distributed and intimate contact
is achieved through proper bonding between fibers and matrix. After the processing, the
assembly is cooled to a definite rate and then vacuum bag is removed. The composite part is
taken out from the mold. Initially, a release gel is applied onto the mold surface to avoid
sticking of polymer to the mold surface. The raw materials used in these techniques are given
in the table 1.
 Figure 2 Autoclave molding process.

Table 1: Raw materials used in autoclave molding process

Materials used
Matrix Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, Unsaturated polyester,
polyurethane resin and thermoplastic resins,

Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber

(all these fibers may be in the form of unidirectional mat, bidirectional
(woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers)
Application:
The process is mainly used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio components
such as aircraft parts, marine, military, space craft and missiles.
Advantages
1. This composite processing method allows high volume fraction of reinforcement
in the composite part.
2. This method is applicable for both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer
composites.
3. High degree of uniformity in part consolidation, better adhesion characteristics
between layers and good control over resin and reinforcement is achieved.
4. No void content in the finished part due to removing entrapped air through
vacuum.
5. If cores and inserts are used, there is better bonding of these attachments due to
vacuum bag processing.
 6. Complete wetting of fibers is achieved.

Disadvantages
1. There is limitation on part size which depends upon autoclave size.
2. It is a costly technique for composite processing.
3. Rate of production is low and skilled labour is required in this process.
Lecture 5.4: Hand Lay-up and Spray Lay-up

Hand lay-up technique

Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The infrastructural
requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are quite simple. First of all, a
release gel is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the sticking of polymer to the surface. Thin plastic
sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mold plate to get good surface finish of the product.
Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand mats are cut as per the mold size and
placed at the surface of mold after perspex sheet. Then thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed
thoroughly in suitable proportion with a prescribed hardner (curing agent) and poured onto the
surface of mat already placed in the mold. The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush.
Second layer of mat is then placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure
on the mat-polymer layer to remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present. The
process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked. After placing
the plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the top mold plate which is then kept
on the stacked layers and the pressure is applied. After curing either at room temperature or at some
specific temperature, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and further
processed. The schematic of hand lay-up is shown in figure 1. The time of curing depends on type of
polymer used for composite processing. For example, for epoxy based system, normal curing time at
room temperatur is 24-48 hours. This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting polymer based
composites. Capital and infrastructural reuirement is less as compared to other methods. Production
rate is less and high volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to achieve in the processed
composites. Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft components, automotive
parts, boat hulls, diase board, deck etc. Generally, the materials used to develop composites through
hand lay-up method are given in table 1.

Table 1 Raw materials used in hand lay-up method

 Materials used

Matrix
Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, unsaturated polyester,
polyurethane resin

Reinforcement
Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana,
nettle, hemp, flax etc.)

(all these fibers are in the form of unidirectional mat, bidirectional (woven)
mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers)

Figure 1 Hand lay-up method.

Lecture 5.6: Compression molding

Compression molding is a well known technique to develop variety of composite products. It is a

closed molding process with high pressure application. In this method, as shown in figure 1, two
matched metal molds are used to fabricate composite product. In compression molder, base plate is
stationary while upper plate is movable. Reinforcement and matrix are placed in the metallic mold
and the whole assembly is kept in between the compression molder. Heat and pressure is applied as
per the requirement of composite for a definite period of time. The material placed in between the
molding plates flows due to application of pressure and heat and acquires the shape of the mold cavity
with high dimensional accuracy which depends upon mold design. Curing of the composite may
carried out either at room temperature or at some elevated temperature. After curing, mold is opened
and composite product is removed for further processing. In principle, a compression molding
machine is a kind of press which is oriented vertically with two molding halves (top and bottom
halves). Generally, hydraulic mechanism is used for pressure application in compression molding.
The controlling parameters in compression molding method to develop superior and desired
properties of the composite are shown in figure 2. All the three dimensions of the model (pressure,
temperature and time of application) are critical and have to be optimized effectively to achieve
tailored composite product as every dimension of the model is equally important to other one. If
applied pressure is not sufficient, it will lead to poor interfacial adhesion of fiber and matrix. If
pressure is too high, it may cause fiber breakage, expulsion of enough resin from the composite
system. If temperature is too high, properties of fibers and matrix may get changed. If temperature is
low than desired, fibers may not get properly wetted due to high viscosity of polymers especially for
thermoplastics. If time of application of these factors (pressure and temperature) is not sufficient (high
or low), it may cause any of defects associated with insufficient pressure or temperature. The other
manufacturing factors such as mold wall heating, closing rate of two matched plates of the plates and
de-molding time also affect the production process. Generally, the raw materials used to fabricate
composites through compression molding process are given in table 1.
Figure 1 compression molding method
 Figure 2 Critical process parameters of compression molding method

Application:

1. Method is equally applicable for both thermosetting and thermoplastic polymer based
composites.
2. A very wide application spectrum ranging from kitchen goods to automobiles, toys, electrical
items and aeroplane parts.
3. Typical products include automobile panels, roof, life gates, battery trays, fenders, hoods,
bumpers, spoilers, air deflectors furniture kitchen bowls and trays, dinnerware, buttons, large
containers, recreational vehicle body panels, medical equipments (ultrasound equipments).
Table 1: Raw materials used in compression molding process
Materials used

Matrix Thermosetting: Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin,

Unsaturated polyester, polyurethane resin, Urea formaldehyde.
Thermoplastic: polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), nylon,
polycarbonate (PC), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cellulose acetate,
polyetherether ketone (PEEK), Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS),
polystyrene (PS) biodegradable polymers such as poly lactic acid (PLA), poly
vinyl alcohol (PVA), soy based plastic, starch based polymers etc.

Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana,
nettle, hemp, flax etc.)
(all these fibers may be in the form of unidirectional mat, bidirectional
(woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers,
short fibers, chopped fibers)

Advantages of the Compression Molding Process

1. Production rate is high as the mold cycle time is in few minutes.
2. Good surface finish with different texture and styling can be achieved.
3. High part uniformity is achieved with compression molding process.
4. Good flexibility in part design is possible.
5. Extra features like inserts, bosses and attachment can be molded in during the processing.
6. Raw material wastage is minimum.
7. Maintenance cost is low.
8. Residual stresses are absent or negligible in the molded component.
 9. Twisting and shrinkage in product is reduced therefore dimensional accuracy is good.
Disadvantages of compression molding process
1. Due to expensive machinery and parts, the initial capital investment associated with
compression molding is high.
2. The process is suitable for high production volume. It is not economical for making a
small number of parts or for prototyping applications.
3. It is a labour intensive process.
4. Sometimes secondary processing (trimming, machining) of product is required after
compression molding.
5. Sometimes uneven parting lines are there.
6. There is limitation on mold depth.

Pre-pregging
Sometimes, fibers are initially saturated with resinous materials (thermosetting) which keep the fibers
in place. These pre-impregnated layups of the fibers are known as prepregs. Prepregs are further used
in composite processing. Depending upon the fiber positions, prepregs are known as uni-directional,
bi-directional prepregs etc. In case of uni-directional prepregs, all the prepregs can be stacked in one
orientation to achieve a composite laminate whose properties will be good in a particular direction.
To process a composite laminate, whose properties will be almost same in all directions, prepregs are
stacked in various directions. These preprega are available as tapes, cross-plied sheets and fabrics.
Curing is carried out during or after shaping. Prepregs are fabricated with continuous filaments rather
than chopped random fibers which increases strength and modulus. When pre-pregs are stored for
further processing, a removable backing support is provided to avoid sticking of layers. These
backings also provide an additional means to keep the fibers in place. These prepregs can be
developed from synthetic fibers (glass, carbon, aramid) and natural fibers (Curaua, flax, hemp etc.).
Polyesters, phenolics, poly vinyl esters, polyamides and epoxy resins are used as resinous material
for pre-preging. Some of the thermoplastics such as Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS),
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), and Polyethyleneimine (PI) are also used for specific applications.
Carbon fibers are used in aircraft parts, sport goods etc. Aramid fibers are used in making bulletproof
vest application. Glass fiber prepregs are commonly used in electrical circuit boards.

The processing of prepregs involves simple steps which are as follows:

 1. The fibers are drawn from the fiber creel onto a belt through a fiber guide where fiber are
flattened and aligned.
2. After the fiber positioning, two top and bottom backing sheets (usually polyethylene sheets)
coated with resin of sufficient thickness are brought together with fibers. A release gel is used
on the surface of backing sheets for smooth removal of these sheets after processing.
3. The coated resin on the backing sheets may contain fillers, additives and catalyst as per the
requirement.
4. Now, all these layers of backing sheet and fibers are compacted with rollers repeatedly.

5. Controlled heating may be provided to slightly cure the resin but too much heating will cause
too stiff prepregs.
6. The sheet is trimmed and stored as a prepreg in a cool dry place.
7. If resin is in solid form instead of liquid at room temperature, then a solvent is used to dissolve
the resin. Dissolved resin is applied on the fibers and the most of the solvent is removed during
heating stage.
Application
Prepregs are used in wide variety of application such as aerospace goods, interiors, sporting items,
medical application, rocket nozzles, automotive body parts, fishing poles etc.
Advantages of Prepregs
1. Porosity and void content is low.
2. There is better control over fiber weight fraction in the composite.
3. Processing cost is low.
4. Better control over the thickness of the laminate.
5. High strength to weight ratio due to application of long fibers.
6. Part uniformity is high.

Disadvantages of Prepregs
1. Extreme care is required during packing and storage of prepregs.
2. Refrigeration is required for storage of prepregs.
 Lecture 5.8: Injection molding process

Injection molding process is a closed molding process. The process is suitable for both thermoplastic
and thermosetting polymer based short fiber reinforced composites. The schematic diagram of
injection molding process is shown in figure 1. Fibers and polymer are either preblended or mixed
manually and fed into the hooper. The mixture goes into the heated barrel where softening of the
material takes place due to heating from the barrel. As the screw rotates, mixing of fiber and resin
takes place and at the same time the blend is pushed towards the converging section of barrel where it
is injected through nozzle into the mold cavity with high pressure. If natural fibers are used as
reinforcement instead of synthetic fibers, sometimes, a separate hooper to feed the natural fibers into
the barrel may be provided near the injection end of screw. Because, if natural fibers are mixed with
resin and fed to the barrel, fibers have to travel the whole distance of the barrel and extensive fiber
damage may take place due to high heating and shearing action for long time. Providing separate
hooper, natural fibers will mix with soft resin and readily injected into the mold cavity. The raw
materials used in injection molding are given in the table 1.

Figure 1 Injection molding process.

Table 1: Raw materials used in injection molding process

Materials used

Matrix Thermosetting: Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin,

Unsaturated polyester, polyurethane resin, Urea formaldehyde,
Thermoplastic: polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), nylon,
polycarbonate (PC), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cellulose acetate,
polyetherether ketone (PEEK), Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS),
polystyrene (PS) biodegradable polymers such as poly lactic acid (PLA), poly
vinyl

alcohol (PVA), soy based plastic, starch based polymers etc.

Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, Mica, natural plant fibers (sisal,
banana, nettle, hemp, flax etc.)
(all these fibers are used in the form of short fibers, flacks, chopped fibers
and fillers)

Sheet molding compounds

Sheet molding compounds (SMC) process is one of the main processing methods for fiber reinforced
polymer composites. Initially, continuous SMC sheets are fabricated with short fibers impregnated
with resin system. Continuous fiber roving is chopped into short fibers which fall at uncured resin
poured onto a continuously moving belt. The schematic of sheet molding compound process is shown
in figure 1. Sometimes, catalyst and additives are mixed with resin and the mixture is poured onto
the moving belt. The fibers are distributed in completely randomly oriented fashion on the belt. These
SMC sheets are stored for a definite period of time to achieve dimensional stability and consistency.
SMC sheets are cut as per the structure of the product to be produced to the rough dimensions. These
sheets are placed in a heated mold at a specific constant temperature. Due to heating, polymer losses
its viscosity and fills the mold completely. Curing of the component is done at some specified
temperature. After certain period of time, component is taken out from the mold and finished through
trimming for end product. Most commonly, continuous glass fiber roving is chopped and
incorporated with resin. Carbon and other fibers can also be used depending upon the part to be
produced from SMC sheets. The most commonly used resin materials are polyesters, poly vinyl
esters with cross linking agents such as styrene and acrylic resin material. Some filler materials such
as clay, calcium carbonate and other low cost or wastes are incorporated in the resin to reduce overall
cost and to increase dimensional stability. Generally, peroxides are used in the resin as a catalyst to
enhance the curing properties of the resin. Sometimes, thickening agents are also used to increase the
viscosity of resin. Sheet molding compounds are more common raw materials for compression
molding process. Commonly available SMC sheets contain either randomly oriented short fibers,
combination of unidirectional fibers with randomly oriented short fibers and mixture of randomly
oriented short fibers with continuous fibers in specific orientation.
 Figure 1 Sheet molding compound manufacturing process.

APPPLICATION

This technique is used for many application areas like automotive, electrical, electronics, sanitary
ware, furniture and other structural components.

Advantage:

1. SMC method is used to produce near net shape.

2. Rate of production is high.
3. It is a low cost high volume production technique with moderate strength.
4. Part reproducibility is excellent.

Disadvantage

1. High Fiber-volume fraction in the composite is not achieved.

Liquid infiltration
It is used for the processing of polymer matrix composites. The preform is kept in a closed chamber
which is surrounded by the heating coils to attain the desired temperature for the infiltration to
take place .The infiltrant infiltrates into the preform under pressure with the help of a piston . The
schematic of liquid infiltration process is shown in figure 2.
The three major issues to be considered in the liquid infiltration process are:
a) Chemical reactivity: The process is done at an elevated temperature and at high
temperatures; the reinforcement and the matrix may react resulting in unnecessary reaction
which deteriorates the bonding between the reinforcement phase and the matrix phase.
b) Melt viscosity: The melt viscosity of the ceramics is high compared to that of
metals, which can result in the inability of the ceramic infiltrant to infiltrate into the fibrous
ceramic preform.
c) Wettability of the reinforcement: The infiltrant may not be able to wet the
reinforcement resulting in improper bonding which further leads to the failure of the
product at the interface of reinforcement and the matrix.

Figure 2 Liquid Infiltration Process

The preform is kept in a closed chamber which is surrounded by the heating coils to attain the
desired temperature for the infiltration to take place as shown in the figure 2. The infiltrant
infiltrates into the preform under pressure with the help of a piston as shown in figure. 2.

Advantages
 Matrix of homogeneous structure can be processed.
 The matrix can be formed in a single processing step.
 Fiber preform in any form (fiber, whisker or particle) can be infiltrated by
this process.

Disadvantages
 Infiltration of performs is a complicated task as the ceramics have higher melt
viscosities than metals.
 The differential shrinkage between the matrix and reinforcing phase causes crack
formation during solidification.
 High melting points of ceramics results in greater possibility of reaction between
the liquid matrix and the reinforcement.

Lecture 7.3: Joining of Polymer Matrix Composites

Introduction
Joining of fiber reinforced composites (FRPs) leads to a new dimension of concern among the
researcher. The joining becomes an imperative and necessary domain to join individually
processed composite parts into a usable assembly. Joining of FRP composites seems to be simple
but it is much more than that. The design of joint in FRP composites is a very critical issue. The
joint is a source of stress concentration and improper design may lead to increase in stress
concentration and may become a cause of failure during in service of the product. Joint add
manufacturing time and labor cost to the product. Different joining methods can be used depending
upon the complexity of the structure or product and its application area.
Types of joining methods
There are two types of joints in FRP composites: - Adhesive joints (Permanent Joint) and
Mechanical joints (Temporary Joint). These two types of joining are generally independent from
each other but some time combined in a product to get additional benefit. Adhesive bonding is the
most common type of joint used in composites joining. In adhesive bonding, two substrate
materials are joined by an adhesive. In mechanical joints, rivets bolts, and/or screws are used to
form the joint.

Adhesive Joints
The adhesive joint is made between two substrate (Adherends) material with the help of an
adhesive (e.g., epoxy, methyl acrylate cyanoacrylates, anaerobics, silicones, or phenolics). From
the large variety of adhesives, the optimum selection of the adhesive material is very important.
The selection of the adhesive material depends upon type of composites, applications, the service
environment and the most importantly the cost. The adhesive materials are classified as: structural,
pressure sensitive, hot melt, water based and radiation cured. Structural adhesives are the most
commonly used when joining of fiber reinforced composites is required. Various types of adhesive
joints (figure 1) are made with the help of adhesive bonding, for example, single lap, tapered lap,
scarf, butt, strap, double strap, tapered double strap, double lap and stepped lap. There are
generally two type of failure in adhesive joints: Adhesive failure and cohesive failure. Adhesive
failure is a failure at the interface between the adherend and the adhesive. Cohesive failure occurs
in the adhesive or in the substrate material. Cohesive failure of the adhesive or substrate material
occurs when the joint between the adhesive and the substrate material is stronger than the inherent
strength of the adhesive or substrate material.

Figure 1 Types of adhesive joints

 Single Lap Joint Double Lap Joint

Butt Joint

Mechanical Joints
Mechanical joints are made in fiber reinforced plastics composites by drilling a hole and placing
a mechanical fastener between two joining members. Examples for mechanical joints are bolting,
riveting, screw and pin joints. For most of the mechanical joints, an overlap is required in two
mating members. The mechanical joints (figure 2) can be a single lap joint, double lap joint or butt
joint. The failure under various types of loading in mechanical joint may be caused by shearing of
the substrate, tensile failure of the substrate, crushing failure of the substrate or shearing of the
fastener (bolt or rivet).

Figure 2 Various types of mechanical joints

Difference between Adhesive and Mechanical Joint

 • In adhesively bonded joint, the load is distributed over an area rather than
concentrated at a point. This results in more uniform distribution of stresses.
• Adhesively bonded joint are more resistant to flexural, fatigue and vibrational
stresses than mechanical joints because of uniform stress distribution.
• The weight penalty is negligible with adhesive bonding compared to mechanical
joints.
• Adhesive not only bonds the two surfaces but also seals the joint. The seal prevents
galvanic corrosion between dissimilar adherend materials.
• Adhesive bonding provides smooth contours and creates virtually no change in part
dimension. This is very important in designing aerodynamic shapes and in creating
good part aesthetics.
• Adhesive bonding is often less expensive and faster than mechanical joining.
Mechanical joining allows repeated assembly and disassembly for repair and
maintenance without destroying the parent materials.
• Mechanical joints offer easy inspection and quality control.
• Mechanical joint require little or no surface preparation than adhesively bonded
joint.

Factors influencing the failure of adhesively bonded joints

• Type of adhesive
• Mechanical properties of adhesive
• Mechanical properties of adherend
• Bonding between adhesive and adherend
• Wettability of adhesive
• Surface properties of joint surface
• Types of loading

Factors influencing the failure of Mechanical joints

• Type of loading

• Stress concentration
 • Method of hole making
• Drilling induced damage (Delamination, fiber pull Out, matrix burning) •
Mechanical properties of fasteners

Issues and challenges in adhesive bonding and bolting/fastening

With the increase in the use of composites materials, there is variation in the properties of
composites materials and its production processes. These variations cause multiple adhesive
challenges during adhesive joining of composites. The brief issues and challenges during
adhesive joining of composites materials are as follows:

• A thin coating may be applied prior to joining that completely changes the
chemistry of the part surface. The physical and chemical characteristics of the bond
surface have a significant effect on the bond strength.
• An adhesive must be able to fully “wet” the substrate surface. This occurs
when the adhesive is lower in surface energy than the substrate.
• Heat and pressure may be required during the bonding operation. This may
limit the part size if curing in an oven or autoclave is required
• With some adhesives, a long curing time may be required.
• Adhesive bonding requires more training and rigid process control than
mechanical joints.

Disadvantages of Adhesive joints

• Adhesive bonding usually requires extensive surface preparation before bonding.
• Pressure may be required during the bonding operation.
• With some adhesives, a long cure time may be needed.
• Health and safety could be an issue.
• Inspection of a bonded joint is difficult.
• Surface treatments used for adhesive bonding are generally hard to control in an
industrial environment and affect directly the strength and durability of bonded joints
Disadvantages of Mechanical joints
• Stress concentrations created by the presence of holes and cut-outs which is
worsened by the lack of plasticity limiting stress redistribution.
• Delamination originating during drilling of composites laminates.
• Differential thermal expansion of fasteners relative to composites.
• Mechanical joints add weight to the structure and thus minimize the weight-saving
potential of composite structures.
• The fasteners create potential of galvanic corrosion problems because of the
presence of dissimilar materials.
• They create fiber discontinuity at the location where a hole is drilled and expose
fibers to chemicals and other damaging environments.
•

1.7 POWDER METALLURGY METHOD

Powder metallurgy is the process of compacting metal powder in a die through the application of high
pressures. Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool forming the bottom
of the cavity. The powder is then compacted into a shape and then ejected from the die cavity. In a
number of these applications the parts may require very little additional work for their intended use;
making for very cost efficient manufacturing

Powder metallurgy is defined as mixing different metal powders to form finished and semifinished

components by compressing it After compressing subsequent heating at elevated temperature in

a furnace under a progressive atmosphere is done so as to obtain satisfactory strength, density without

losing essential shape.

1.7.3 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF POWDER METALLUGY

Advantages

 Freedom to start with raw materials of high purity having characteristics of consistent uniformity.

 Maintaining this purity to end use by the control of fabricating step.

 Cleaner quieter operation and longer life.

 Control of grain size and relatively much uniform structure.

 Excellent reproducibility.
 Improved physical properties

 No requirement of high qualified or skilled personnel.

 Possibility of producing new materials, composition of metals and non-metals which are quite
impossible to prepare by normal methods.

 Greater freedom of design in the case of production of machined part.

Limitations

 It is difficult to secure exceptionally high purity power with satisfactory quality, without which it is
impossible to prepare the parts with optimum physical properties.

 It is unprofitable to manufacture articles in very small quantity because of the great expense of
suitable tooling and equipment.

 High investment is needed in heavy presses for making large part.

 Porous materials are liable to oxidize at the surface as well as throughout the whole body due to its
porosity

Applications:

Automotive Application:-

The powder metallurgy components are use in motor car industry like porous bearing include all
starters, screen wipers, sliding roofs, vehicle dynamos, clutches brake. Electrical contacts, crankshaft,
drive or cam shaft sprocket, piston rings and rocker shaft brackets, door mechanism, connecting rod and
brake linings are other powder metallurgy part for automotive applications.

Aerospace Applications:-

Powder metallurgy is playing an important role in rocket, missile, satellites and space vehicles. Example-
Silver-infiltrated tungsten are use in nozzles for rockets and missiles, metal powder such as beryllium,
aluminium, magnesium and zirconium in the form of solid fuels are used in rockets and missiles.