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TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Little known facts about insulation


power factor testing
Information from Megger

With an increasing failure rate of substation electrical equipment, utilities and heavy industry must focus on preventive and predictive
maintenance to ensure power system integrity and stability.

Electrical insulation is a common cause of Negative power factor values this surface loss makes the measured test
electrical equipment failures and power current (I T) phase angle greater than 90º,
For perfect insulation, the PF should be
factor (PF) testing is a popular way of and this results in negative PF values.
zero. In practice, any value close to
diagnosing and estimating the condition zero is considered to indicate a good It is important to understand where negative
of insulation as it ages. There are, however, insulation system. PF test sets always try PF values come from. For some specimens
a number of issues relating to PF testing to measure a single capacitor, but if the it is just a result of design – for example,
that are not nearly as widely understood test object has some phantom circuits the presence of electrostatic grounded
as they should be. PF testing is widely used along with that single capacitance, shield between the inter-windings of a
on electrical equipment such as power the results look strange. For example, transformer. In other cases, where negative
transformers, circuit breakers, generators w h e n p e r f o r m i n g t e s t s o n b u s h i n g s, values are encountered users should
and cables. PF values, trended over three-winding transformers or inter-phase consider eliminating all external effects
time, can help in detecting problems like insulation of rotating machinery, the PF by following best testing practices such
contamination, high moisture content values will sometimes be negative. PF is as verifying proper grounding circuits,
and the presence of voids in insulation. a measure of watts lost in the insulation. cleaning external bushing sur faces,
Excitation current tests, along with PF Negative PF therefore corresponds to avoiding unfavourable weather conditions
watts generation. Obviously, insulation and using guard circuits effectively.
tests, performed on power transformers,
cannot generate power, which shows that Repeated negative values after taking
can also help in detecting turn-to-turn
negative PF values are not real. these precautions could point toward
insulation failure.
contamination or a bad insulation system.
Negative values also appear with some
Power factor vs. voltage
specimens that have high sur face Excitation current vs. voltage
PF tests are usually performed at leakage. As shown in Fig. 1, phantom Excitation current testing is commonly
10 kV or the readings are converted to circuits introduce a current Is which performed along with PF testing. It is a
10 kV equivalent. The best voltage for changes the phase angle of the measured voltage dependent test and is always
PF tests is a frequently debated topic as test current (I T). The surface loss current (I s) performed in UST mode. Like PF tests, the
instruments are now available that allow is predominantly resistive (R s) and has a excitation current readings are normalised
the tests to be performed at voltages very small phase angle with respect to the to 10 kV equivalent values, using a
from 27 to 12 kV. What test voltage is applied voltage. Capacitive coupling (Cc) linear approximation. When dealing with
“good enough” for accurate and reliable may be present as a result of this parallel specimens that are highly inductive, such
path of Rs to main insulation under test. as power transformers, the relationship
measurements? The answer depends on
the type of test specimen and the test Smaller phase angles for sur face loss between voltage and current is, however,
conditions. Most power transformers have current (I s) can lead to negative PF values. not linear. Assuming a linear relation to
oil-paper type insulating systems that Measured test current (I T ) is the vector determine 10 kV equivalent excitation
exhibit a flat response when PF is measured difference of total current (I s) and surface gives only very approximate values. It is,
as a function of test voltage. However, loss current (Is). In UST or GST configurations, therefore, important to perform tests at the
motors and generators typically have dry
or solid insulation whose PF values may
var y with test voltage. Values increase
with increasing test voltage due to the
voids that are almost invariably present in
solid insulation. The increase in PF value
as a function of voltage corresponds to
increasing ionisation in the voids.

One reason that industry has standardized


on a 10 kV test voltage is for immunity
against electrostatic interference; power
transformers operating in HV substations
are subject to a lot of electrical noise
and interference. A HV test signal provides
better signal to noise ratio, giving more
accurate measurements. Test instruments
with very high noise suppression capability
are required for measurements in HV
substations as the test current is very low
in insulation tests and noise levels can be
as high as 20 times the test current. Fig. 1: Specimen in UST mode with surface loss components.

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TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Fig. 2: Vector diagrams with different Is phase angles and different magnitude of INET. Fig. 3: Excitation current measurement on a Delta winding
with third leg grounded.

same voltage if excitation current historical However, temperature correction data is [5-50°C] and then corrected to 20°C
data needs to be trended. Tests performed based upon the average values. Since accurately and precisely.
at different voltages and then corrected each test object is unique, using these
to 10 kV may not be comparable. This average corrections introduces errors. Conclusion
is important as trending data is critical Electric apparatus has failed and will
when evaluating problems with turn-to-turn New transformers have relatively weak
continue to fail because of insulation
insulation. temperature dependence and the use
deterioration. A proactive approach is
of standard tables overcompensates. As
When per forming excitation current the key to monitoring the integrity of the
the object ages, same average correction
measurements on delta windings, it is insulation system and preventing or at least
factors would under compensate and anticipating such failures. Power factor
important to ground the third leg of the
error predominates in the other direction. diagnostic testing is an important tool in
delta configuration as shown in Fig. 3.
Trending of PF values becomes more determining the quality of the insulation
Since excitation current is a UST test,
critical in the second half of the life and estimating its remaining healthy life.
grounding the third leg eliminates the
current flowing in the other two windings cycle. In this second half, correction
factors should be larger because of the PF readings are dependent on various
from the measurement circuit. Depending
factors and it is important to be aware
on the inductance and resistance of each increased effect of temperature on the
o f t h e s e. Te s t v o l t a g e, e l e c t r o s t a t i c
winding, if third leg is not grounded the insulation. Using average factors can
inter ference, temperature, humidity,
results would be approximately 30 to 50% lead to incorrect trending and inaccurate
sur face losses and other parameters
higher than true readings. estimation of the remaining healthy life of
can greatly influence PF measurements.
the object.
A transformer with magnetised core A better understanding of the impact of
can exhibit higher excitation current IEEE Std. 62-1995 states, “ Testing at these parameters will help in obtaining
measurements than normal. IEEE 62-1995 temperatures below freezing should be accurate measurements that can be
section 6.1.3.4 states, “If a significant avoided, since this could significantly relied upon in the decision making
change in the test results is observed, process.
affect the measurement. Among the
the only reliable method of excluding
primary reasons for performing this test Contact Marius Pitzer, Megger,
the effect of residual magnetism is to
is the capability of detecting moisture in Tel 031 564-6578,
demagnetise the transformer core.”
The factors discussed here that affect insulation. The electrical characteristics marius.pitzer@megger.com 
excitation current measurements should of ice and water are quite different and
be borne in mind before performing the it is much more difficult to detect the
test. presence of ice than it is to detect water;
sometimes it is impossible.”
Temperature correction factors for PF
Measuring PF at too high or too low a
readings
temperature can introduce errors, and
PF values are highly dependent on the IEEE recommends performing PF tests
temperature. IEEE C57.12.90 section at or near 20°C. However, it's not always
10.10.4 Note 3 (b) states that “Experience
practical to cool down or heat up the test
has shown that the variation in power
specimen to 20°C.
factor with temperature is substantial and
erratic so that no single correction curve Fortunately, new technology makes it
will fit all cases.” Nevertheless, correction possible to accurately correct PF values
factor tables have traditionally been used to 20°C without resorting to correction
to bring all data to a common base of factor tables based on averages. Using
20°C.It is imperative only to compare a dielectric frequency response (DFR), the
specimen's PF values that are taken at a unique temperature correction factor of
similar temperature or corrected to the each test object can be determined. This
same temperature accurately. For different is possible because a PF measurement
specimens, changes in temperature at a certain temperature and frequency
affect PF values in different ways. And corresponds to a PF measurement made
even the same specimen will become at different temperature and frequency.
more temperature dependent as it ages. Therefore by measuring PF at different
Temperature correction factors are highly frequencies, it is possible to determine the
dependent on insulating material, its supply frequency PF at any temperature
structure, ageing, presence of moisture [5-50°C]. With this technique, PF can be
or contamination and other influences. measured at any insulation temperature

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