Monday 27 February 2017

Answer Key - Ecology & Environmental Studies A1504

B Arch V Sem examination 2016 - CUSAT

SHORT NOTES 1

- ENVIRONMENT & ECOSYSTEM

i) Definitions of Environment : Some important definitions of environment are as
under:
1. Boring: ‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation
which he receives from his conception until his death.’ It can be concluded from the above definition that
Environment comprises various types of forces such as physical, intellectual, economic, political, cultural,
social, moral and emotional. Environment is the sum total of all the external forces, influences and
conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturation of living
organisms.
2. Douglas and Holland: ‘The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the external
forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development
and maturity of living organisms.

- RELEVANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Importance of Environment Studies: The environment studies enlighten us, about the
importance of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.
At present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and complexity day by day,
threatening the survival of mankind on earth. We study about these issues besides and effective
suggestions in the Environment Studies. Environment studies have become significant for the following
reasons:
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance
It has been well recognised that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain,
marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence must be
tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems,
Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The North, to
cleanse their own environment has, fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories of South. When the West
developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a
path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India. Evidently with 16 per
cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the
natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency
of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative
goal. We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound
and sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.
(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from exinction. Consequent to our activities constricting the
environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development

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Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have all to
by synchronised with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions should be planned
ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.
- R & K SELECTION
-
- ECOTYPES & ECOPHENES
Ecophene
These are otherwise called ecads or morphologically-changed forms. When a species is transported to a
new environment, it’s first response will be to develop abilities to survive there. For example, when a
European comes to the tropics, the immediate response is increased production of melanin-his skin
becomes darker. Such changes are quite common in plants. For example, a species of grass called
Euphorbia hirta has two different ecophenes; one that has adapted to grow in dry, hard soils and the other
that grows in places that have been heavily trampled You can see examples of this in humans as well; an
American living in Africa, and one living in northern Europe will have differences in the features.
These differences among ecophenes and not permanent. They are just temporary variations to survive the
new conditions. The body of the organism assumes that it is going to be in these new conditions for a
short while only. Therefore, ecophenes from different habitats, when brought together, become similar. If
that American from Africa was to move to northern Europe, he would start to grow fairer.
This reversibility is because there has been no change in the genetics of the two separate ecophenes.
Ecotype
However, if two of these ecophenes were to remain in their new habitat for too long, these morphological
(physical) changes will start becoming permanent. The body figures that if I’m going to be here
permanently, might as well make these adaptations permanent!
That’s why, if that American spends too long in Africa, he is going to develop a permanent tan. It will not go
if he returns to America or goes to Northern Europe (Ok, I tried to Google “American with tan” for a picture
here, and I got results with pictures of Donald Trump. Not kidding!)
Likewise, the grass Euphorbia hirta has two ecotypes as well. One that has permanently adapted to
surviving in moist conditions, and the other adapted to surviving in dry conditions (within this dry, you have
the two ecophenes explained above).

- GRAZING & DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN

Grazing food chain

 1. In this food chain, energy is derived from the Sun.
2. It begins with producers, present at the first trophic level. The plant biomass is then eaten by
herbivores, which in turn are consumed by a variety of carnivores.
3. This food chain is usually large.

Detritus food chain

1.In this food chain, energy comes from organic matter (or detritus) generated in trophic levels of the
grazing food chain.
2. It begins with detritus such as dead bodies of animals or fallen leaves, which are then eaten by
decomposers or detritivores. These detritivores are in turn consumed by their predators.
3. It is usually smaller as compared to the grazing food chain.

Food chain is defined as the series of organisms which are responsible for production of food, energy and
their passage. There are two types of food chains, Grazing food chain and Detritus food chain. A food
chain consist of producers, consumers and decomposers. The main difference between grazing food
chain and detritus is, grazing food chain starts with green plants which are actually the producers. On the
other hand, detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter which is eaten away by animals and then
these animals are ultimately eaten away by other animals.

- ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

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An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid, eltonian pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food
pyramid) is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or bio productivity at each trophic
level in a given ecosystem.

- An energy pyramid is a presentation of the trophic

levels in an ecosystem. Energy from the sun is
transferred through the ecosystem by passing through
various trophic levels. Roughly 10% of the energy is transferred
from one trophic level to the next, thus preventing a large number of
trophic levels. There must be higher amounts of biomass
at the bottom of the pyramid to support the energy and
biomass requirements of the higher trophic levels.

- A numbers pyramid shows the relevant number of

organisms that each trophic level occupies in an
ecosystem. Often, there are more producers than
consumers, however, it can also be seen in many
ecosystems that there are more primary consumers than
producers.

A biomass pyramid shows the total mass of the organisms that each trophic
level occupies in an ecosystem. Usually, producers have a higher biomass than any other trophic level,
but there can be lower amounts of biomass at the bottom of the pyramid if the rate of primary production
per unit biomass is very fast

- NUTRIENT CYCLE
A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter
back into the production of living matter. The process is regulated by food web pathways that decompose
matter into mineral nutrients. Nutrient cycles occur within ecosystems. The nutrient cycle describes how
nutrients move from the physical environment into living organisms, and subsequently are recycled back
to the physical environment. This movement of nutrients, essential for life, from the environment into
plants and animals and back again, is a vital function of the ecology of any region. In any particular
environment, the nutrient cycle must be balanced and stable if the organisms that live in that environment
are to flourish and be maintained in a constant population (MARTIN 2010). Currently, large parts of
humankind influence the nutrient cycle in such a way that we remove nutrients from the land and

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discharge them into aquatic environments. On the one hand, this leads to soil depletion on the land, and
on the other hand, an overabundance of nutrients and pollution of water sources.

- SEDIMENTARY CYCLES
sedimentary cycle A cycle which comprises the weathering of an existing rock, followed by the erosion of
minerals, their transport and deposition, then burial. First-cycle sediments are characterized by the
presence of less resistant minerals and rock fragments. If this material is reworked through a second
cycle, the less resistant minerals will be eliminated, or altered to more stable products. The more
sedimentary cycles that a sediment has passed through, the more mature it will become and it will be
dominated by well-rounded, resistant minerals

II. WHAT IS MEANT BY ECOLOGY . EXPLAIN IN DETAIL AND ITS RELATION TO ECOSYSTEM

Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house", or "environment"; -λογία, "study of"[A]) is the scientific analysis and
study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes
biology, geography, and Earth science. Ecology includes the study of interactions organisms have with
each other, other organisms, and with abiotic components of their environment. Topics of interest to
ecologists include the diversity, distribution, amount (biomass), and number (population) of particular
organisms, as well as cooperation and competition between organisms, both within and among
ecosystems. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the
communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes,
such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and various niche construction activities,
regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by
organisms with specific life history traits, and the variety of organisms is called biodiversity. Biodiversity,
which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services.
Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, natural history, or environmental science.
It is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to
improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function. Ecologists seek to explain:
• Life processes, interactions, and adaptations
• The movement of materials and energy through living communities
• The successional development of ecosystems
• The abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the environment.
Ecology is a human science as well.

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of
ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how
ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and
animals.
Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structures and examines how these ecosystem
characteristics interact with each other. Ultimately, this helps us understand how to maintain high quality
water and economically viable commodity production. A major focus of ecosystem ecology is on functional
processes, ecological mechanisms that maintain the structure and services produced by ecosystems.
These include primary productivity (production of biomass), decomposition, and trophic interactions.
Studies of ecosystem function have greatly improved human understanding of sustainable production of
forage, fiber, fuel, and provision of water. Functional processes are mediated by regional-to-local level
climate, disturbance, and management. Thus ecosystem ecology provides a powerful framework for
identifying ecological mechanisms that interact with global environmental problems, especially global
warming and degradation of surface water.
An ecosystem can be described simply as the collection of all living and non-living components in a
particular area. The living components of the environment are known as biotic factors. Biotic factors
include plants, animals, and micro-organisms. The non-living components of the environment are known
as abiotic factors. Abiotic factors include things such as rocks and water.
The idea of the ecosystem relates to the idea that all organisms in the environment are engaged in
relationships with every other aspect (like resources and other organisms) in that environment.

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Ecosystems deal with energy and nutrient flow through a system/community. For example, a household or
a university could be described as an ecosystem, and a city or a state could be described as a larger
ecosystem.
While ecosystems may be bound and individually discussed, they do not exist independently, but interact
in a complex web. The ecological relationships connecting all ecosystems make up the biosphere.
Because virtually no surface on the Earth is free of human contact, all ecosystems can be accurately
classified as human ecosystems.
Ecosystems vary in diversity. Some ecosystems may be very diverse with many plants and animals;
whereas other ecosystems may be less diverse with fewer animals and plants. For example, tropical rain
forests could be classified as an ecosystem that has high diversity; whereas temperate rain forests could
be classified as an ecosystem that has lower diversity as compared to tropical rain forests

III. EXPLAIN WITH RELEVANCE TO THE STATE OF KERALA, THE TYPE OF NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT PRESENT IN THE STATE AND THE VARIOUS ECOSYSTEM
Kerala state is having rich biodiversity  with different types of unique ecosystems viz. Forest ecosystem,
 Wetland  ecosystem, Mangrove ecosystem, Marine ecosystem etc
The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Hills , is a mountain chain running from the north to the
South and is isolated by the Arabian Sea to the West, the arid Deccan Plateau to the East, and the
Vindhya-Satpura ranges to the North. They have different vegetation types: scrub jungles and grasslands
at low altitudes, dry and moist deciduous forests, montane grasslands and shoals, and the precious
tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forests. Complex topography, high rainfall and relative
inaccessibility have helped the region retain its biodiversity. Of the 15,000 flowering plant species in India ,
there are an estimated 4,780 species in the Western Ghats region. There is also a great diversity of
traditional crop plants and an equal diversity of animal life. A large number of amphibians, freshwater
fishes and invertebrate groups are endemic to Western Ghats .
The Protected areas of Kerala include a wide range of biomes, extending east from the coral reefs,
estuaries, salt marshes, mangroves and beaches of the Arabian Sea through the tropical moist broadleaf
forests of the Malabar Coast moist forests to the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests and South
Western Ghats moist deciduous forests to South Western Ghats montane rain forests on the western
border of Tamilnadu in the Western Ghats
Man-Animal Conflict:A major problem associated with the conservation of wild animals especially the
herbivores like elephants in India is that of crop depredation and man-slaughter. Animals such as
elephants, gaur, sambar, wild boar and birds like peacock, cause extensive damage to the crops. This
phenomenon has registered significant increase in recent years due to habitat fragmentation and
degradation of natural forests and corridors. Almost all the Protected Areas and Non-Protected Areas of
Kerala contain a large number of settlements either inside or on the periphery. This leads to degradation of
surrounding habitats. The traditional tolerance among the people who live inside the forests or its adjacent
areas are fast disappearing and people have become increasingly antagonistic. As a result, the people
tend to kill the animals either by poisoning or by other means, like keeping crackers in fruits, etc.. This
problem is very severe in northern Kerala where cultivation of paddy is extensive. At present Kerala Forest
Department provides compensation for the crop and property damage, human causalities and cattle loss
caused by the scheduled animals like elephant, tiger, leopard, gaur, etc. Providing compensation is not a
long –term solution. In some areas where conflict is rampant, physical and psychological barriers are
being provided. However, these efforts are found to be effective for only a certain period and become
ineffective in due course.

IV. WHAT IS MEANT BY POPULATION DYNAMICS & POPULATION FLUCTUATION? EXPLAIN HOW
THESE ARE RELEVANT TO EXAMINING ITS IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT.
Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies the size and age composition of
populations as dynamical systems, and the biological and environmental processes driving them (such as
birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration). Example scenarios are ageing populations,
population growth, or population decline.
. Populations of plants and animals typically fluctuate because of the combined effects of density-
dependent and density-independent processes. The study of these processes is complicated by the fact
that population sizes are typically not known exactly, because population counts are subject to sampling

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variance. Although the existence of sampling variance is broadly acknowledged, relatively few studies on
time-series data have accounted for it, which can result in wrong inferences about population processes.
Population fluctuations are undoubtedly one of the most fascinating phenomena in ecology. Some of the
earliest writings known to man describe outbreaks of pests, such as the fabled locust plagues in Egypt.
Some species, such as the snowshoe hare or larch budmoth, cycle through changes in abundance as
regular as clockwork. Many other species exhibit more irregular patterns of oscillation, and some have
even been shown to fluctuate in truly chaotic fashion
the relationship between population and environmental change, the forces that mediate this relationship,
and how population dynamics specifically affect climate change and land-use change. The author outlines
both sides of the policy debate that have emerged — those who would limit fertility and population growth
in the developing world and those who call for reduced consumption in the developed world

V. WHAT IS THE CURRENT POPULATION DENSITY IN THE STATE OF KERALA ? HOW HAS
POPULATION DISPERSION AND NEGATIVE POPULATION AFFECTED THE STATE OF KERALA WITH
REGARD TO THE ENVIRONMENT?

"The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for
man. Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an
arithmetical ratio" (Malthus, 1798). These are the words of Thomas Robert Malthus made in late 18th
century. It was a time when revolutions in agriculture, industry or technology were not even thought of. It
was a time when man's existence was limited by the available resources. It was a time when the modern
contraceptive methods were not available to limit the birth rate. Thus Malthus reasoned that unchecked
population growth can be checked only by hunger, disease or war which will raise the death rate (positive
checks) or by postponement of marriage or celibacy which will lower the birth rate (preventative checks).
His was the first notable warning about the problems that can arise due to unchecked population increase.

Kerala state, which accounts for a mere 1.18 per cent of the total land area of India, accommodates 3.1
per cent of the Indian population. In 1961, the state's population was 16.9 million which increased to 31.8
million in 2001, an addition of 14.9 million population over the 40 year period. The contribution made by
the four decades towards this increase of 14.9 million is noteworthy. In percentage terms, there is a
consistent decline in the contribution made by each decade: from 29.8 per cent during 1961-1971 to 27.5
per cent in 1971-1981 to 24.4 per cent in 1981-1991 to 18.4 per cent during 1991-2001

according to all the projections the population of Kerala will start declining latest by 2041. This is inevitable
considering the change in the age structure of the population in the state where the percent share of older
people (age sixty years and above) is increasing very fast and that of child population is declining
simultaneously (See Figure 3). Whereas in 1961 there was only 6 per cent of the population aged at least
60 years of age, the share of this category is expected to reach almost 27 per cent by 2051.

Kerala, which has a share of 1.2 per cent of the land area of the country, accommodates 3.1 per cent of
the Indian population. Kerala has the third highest population density of 819 persons per square kilometre
in 2001 among the states in India following West Bengal (903) and Bihar (880). Only seven countries in
the world have a density of population more than that of Kerala of which all but one viz., Bangladesh have
smaller area and lesser population13.

the chances of extension of agriculture is negligible in Kerala where the human settlement pattern is such
that each family has separate homesteads with relatively bigger houses often surrounded by a small area
of land14.

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VI. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL WHAT IS MEANT BY ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEM

Ans - 7
Energy flow though ecosystems
• Gross primary productivity = the rate at which the primary producers capture and store energy per unit
time since the primary producers expend energy during respiration the net primary productivity is
considerably lower than the gross productivity
• Productivity is usually measured as biomass (dry weight of organic matter) per unit area per a specified
time interval, e.g. kg/m2/yr
• The trophic structure of an ecosystem is often represented by an ecological pyramid, with the primary
producers at the base and the other levels above
• Most of the food eaten by organisms is converted to biomass, or used to maintain metabolic functions, or
lost as heat, only about 10% of the energy makes it to the next level
• This massive energy loss between trophic levels explains why food chains can't contain more than a few
levels It takes billions of primary producers (plants) to support millions of primary consumers, which
support a few secondary consumers. This is why there are so few large carnivores on earth
• An energy pyramid is a more useful way to depict an ecosystem's trophic structure
• Each block of the pyramid is proportional to the amount of energy it contains
• Pyramids may also represent biomass or numbers of individuals
• The energy pyramid concept helps explain the phenomenon of biological magnification - the tendency
for toxic substances to increase in concentration at progressively higher levels of the food chain

VII. WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHEN THE FOOD CHAIN CYCLE IS AFFECTED BY MAN MADE
INTRUSIONS? WHAT IMPACT WILL IT HAVE ON THE ECOSYSTEM. EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLES.
A loss of species at the top of the food chain could have far-reaching effects on the environment,
according to a study in the Journal Science.
Hunting not only affects the animal species that is killed, but it can also have a significant negative impact
on other animals that depend on their survival. If the animal is pregnant or a mother, their young are left to
dead. Hunting can also be stressful. Hunting has taken a toll in making species go extinct. There are laws
preventing them from killing the animals on the endangered species list but, there are law breakers.
Population Growth
Our new houses and buildings can affect the animals the we know by destorying their homes and habitats.
As we grow, theirs depreciate. It is believed that some of our actions have affected the climate, making it
warmer in some parts of the world. That makes the ice melt leaving their ecosystem to suffer.
Accidental
Technology has affected the way that people think and drive. Thousands of animals die every day,
because of driving accidents. The smallest of animals matter in the food webs. When we destroy the
smallest home, the food web has to find another producer. We tame the animals, take them in and think
they'll make good pets for awhile. All we're really doing is secretly killing them. Wild animals are made for
the wild and bringing them into the home and changing their eating habits and lifestyle is setting them up
for failure when they're released back into the wild.
Hunting
Most humans do not understand the impact they have to the food chains and animals all over the world.
One consequence can be that the species will die out. Every food chain could go extinct. There could be
no more animals left in the world, by the time humans actually see the damage we are making it would be
too late.
Humans interfere in the food web's of different ecosystems, but animals can't always adapt and evolve
fast enough to survive.
Human impact on the environment is inevitable. We may never truly destroy Earth. The planet will always
remain and its nature will change and adapt to the conditions. If we destroy the Earth we know as home, it
will be rebuilt by nature -- slowly, but surely.
Extinction
If humans don't realize their mistakes before it's too late, then life on earth could diminish. Animals, one
after another, could go extinct. My evidence for this is that is has happened before. Dinosaurs and woolly
mammoths used to roam Earth, and now their extinct.

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Human activities have affected our food webs and ecosystems by knocking out some big competitors out
in the biosphere. Humans have killed many species off.
“Throughout human existence we have relied on the oceans – for food, as a waste dump, for recreation,
for economic opportunities and so on. However, it’s not only our activities in the marine environment that
affect life in the sea – it’s also the things we do on land.
With more than half the world’s population now living within 100 kilometres of the coast, it’s not surprising
that our activities are taking their toll. Human impacts have increased along with our rapid population
growth, substantial developments in technology and significant changes in land use. Over-fishing, pollution
and introduced species are affecting life in the sea.”
Human Impact

VIII. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL NUTIRENT CYCLE IN ECOSYSTEM. WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF MAN ON THE
NUTRIENT CYCLE.
Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse. Agricultural and industrial nitrogen (N) inputs to the
environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation.[1] As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs,
the global nitrogen cycle (Fig. 1) has been significantly altered over the past century. Global atmospheric
nitrous oxide (N2O) mole fractions have increased from a pre-industrial value of ~270 nmol/mol to ~319
nmol/mol in 2005.[2] Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions, most of which are due
to the agricultural sector.
Human activities that are known to be environmentally unfriendly, such as deforestation and fossil fuel
burning, have directly and indirectly changed the biogeochemical and physical processes which affects the
earth’s climate. These modifications to the processes in the atmosphere affects and disturbs a variety of
beneficial effects of the ecosystem. The beneficial effects of the ecosystem include helping to maintain
relative climate stability, protecting the earth’s living organisms from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation,
mediating runoff and evapotranspiration, and regulating nutrient cycling.
Nutrient cycles always involve the achievement of equilibrium states, a balance in the cycling of the
element between spheres. However, achieving these equilibrium states requires overall balance which
usually involves elements being distributed on a global scale. Hence, a disruption in one cycle would result
in the disruption in all other cycles. Below are some ways how human activities have contributed to the
disruption of nutrient cycles.
Use of Phosphorus fertilisers: 
This excessive run-off of phosphate eventually end up in streams or other water bodies which results in
the changes of habitats and their equilibrium, and is eventually precipitated as sediments at the bottom of
the water bodies.

Usage of Fossil Fuels and Reduction of Carbon Sinks:

This excessive release of carbon dioxide has led to carbon dioxide being one of the highest green house
gas contributing to global warming and climate change nowadays.

vehicle emissions etc

IX. WHAT ARE THE MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WORLD. EXPLAIN ABOUT DESERT, WETLANDS
AND FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM

Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include lakes and ponds,
rivers, streams, springs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a
larger salt content. Freshwater habitats can be classified by different factors, including temperature, light
penetration, and vegetation.
Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into lentic ecosystems (still water) and lotic ecosystems (flowing
water).
Limnology (and its branch freshwater biology) is a study about freshwater ecosystems. It is a part of
hydrobiology.
Original attempts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by threats to human
health (ex. Cholera outbreaks due to sewage contamination). Early monitoring focussed on chemical

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indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and protozoa. A new type of monitoring involves differing
groups of organisms (macroinvertebrates, macrophytes and fish) and the stream conditions associated
with them.
Current biomonitoring techniques focus mainly on community structure or biochemical oxygen demand.
Responses are measured by behavioural changes, altered rates of growth, reproduction or mortality.
Macroinvertebrates are most often used in these models because of well known taxonomy, ease of
collection, sensitivity to a range of stressors, and their overall value to the ecosystem. Most of these
measurements are difficult to extrapolate on a large scale, however.
The use of reference sites is common when assessing what a healthy freshwater ecosystem should “look
like”. Reference sites are easier to reconstruct in standing water than moving water. Preserved indicators
such as diatom valves, macrophyte pollen, insect chitin and fish scales can be used to establish a
reference ecosystem representative of a time before large scale human disturbance.
Common chemical stresses on freshwater ecosystem health include acidification, eutrophication and
copper and pesticide contamination.

In ecology, desert ecology is the sum of the interactions between both biotic and abiotic processes in arid
regions, and it includes the interactions of plant, animal, and bacterial populations in a desert habitat,
ecosystem, and community. Some of the abiotic factors also include latitude and longitude, soil, and
climate. Each of these factors have caused adaptations to the particular environment of the region. The
biotic processes include animals and plants and the way they interact. Although deserts have severe
climates, some plants still manage to grow. In hot deserts plants are called xerophytic meaning they are
able to survive long dry periods. They may close their pores in daytime; they store water in their stems and
leaves. Some of these plants include popcorn flower, barrel cactus and Saguaro cactus.
Deserts are most notable for their dry climates resulting from rain-blocking mountain ranges and
remoteness from oceanic moisture. Deserts occupy one-fifth of the Earth's land surface and occur in two
belts: between 15° and 35° latitude in both the southern and northern hemispheres.[1] These bands are
associated with the high solar intensities that all areas in the tropics receive, and being too far from the
equator to receive rain from the Intertropical Convergence Zone.
Deserts support diverse communities of plant and animals that have evolved resistance to and methods of
circumventing the extreme temperatures and arid conditions. Desert ecology is characterized by dry,
alkaline soils, low net production and opportunistic feeding patterns by herbivores and carnivores.

A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes
on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem.[2] The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other
land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants,[3][4] adapted to the unique
hydric soil. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control,
carbon sink and shoreline stability. Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all
ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life.[5]
Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica,[6] the largest including the Amazon River
basin, the West Siberian Plain,[7] and the Pantanal in South America.[8] The water found in wetlands can be
freshwater, brackish, or saltwater.[4] The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens;[9]
and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, and varzea.
The UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent
within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth.[10] International conservation efforts are being
used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to inform people about wetland
issues.[citation needed]
Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater
runoff. They may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design.