Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Soil Mechanics
Harianto RAHARDJO
College of Engineering
Civil and Environmental Engineering
College of Engineering
Civil and Environmental Engineering
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Civil and Environmental Engineering
Poor soil conditions for bearing capacity
(Photograph from Bradly, 1996)
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Good soil conditions for bearing capacity
(Photograph from Holtz & Kovacs, 1981)
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References:
n Bradly, N.C and Weil, R.R. (1996), “The Nature and
Properties of Soils”, Prentice Hall Inc.
n Hamblin, W.K. (1985), “The Earth’s Dynamic Systems”,
Macmillan.
n Holtz, R.D and Kovacs, W.D. (1981), “An Introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering”, Prentice Hall Inc.
n Geotechnical Control Office (1988), “Guide to Rock and
Soil Descriptions”, Government of Hong Kong.
n Lambe, T.W. (1951), “Soil Testing for Engineers”, John
Wiley & Son, Inc.
n Active Army, USAR, and ARNG (1994), Field Manual (FM)
5-430, US Army Engineer School
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Historical Development
n Soil has been used as foundation or
construction materials (dikes) since
the ancient of Egyptians, Babylonians,
Chinese and Indians
n During the middle ages, the
Scandinavians used timber piles to
support houses and wharf on their soft
clays
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Historical Development (cont)
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Historical Development (cont)
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Historical Development (cont)
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Residual soil formed from
the in-place weathering of igneous rock
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Soil Formation
n Weathering:
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Physical weathering:
n Unloading
n Frostaction
n Organism growth
n Temperature changes
n Crystal growth
n Abrasion
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Ice wedging
(occurs when water seeps into fractures and expands as it freezes)
(Photograph from Hamblin, 1985)
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Chemical weathering:
n Oxidation : chemical union with
oxygen
n Hydration : chemical union with
water
n Hydrolysis : dissociation of water
n Carbonation : chemical union with
carbon dioxide
n Solution : carbon dioxide
dissolves in water
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Pathways of weathering that occur under moderately
acid conditions common in humid temperate regions
(Bradly, 1996)
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Controlling factors:
n Discontinuities:
joints and faults to allow air
and water to enter rock mass
n Climate:
chemical weathering is
dominant in tropical climate
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Effect of temperature and moisture on weathering depth
(Bradly, 1996)
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Soil types
Soil can be divided into two groups:
n Residual soil
n formed from weathered rock in place
n chemical weathering is dominant
n Transported soil
n formed from materials that have been
transported and deposited at a new
place
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Rock Mass Exposed
(located at Chai Wan, Hong Kong Island)
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Sample of Residual Soil
(from Chai Wan, Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong)
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Sample of Completely Decomposed Granite
(from Ho Man Tin, Kowloon, Hong Kong)
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Soil profile
A HORIZON
Highly weathered and normally leached.
Undistrubed soils have a thin organic layer in the surface and in the upper portion.
B HORIZON
Highly of accumulation.
Normally more clayey and compact than A HORIZON. Sometimes cemented to hardpan.
C HORIZON
Partly weathered.
A and B HORIZONs are fromed from material of this type.
Unaltered Bedrock
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Exposure of Layered Fill
(from Peak Road, Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong)
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Transported soils
n Glacial – deposited by ice
n Alluvial – deposited along streams
n Lacustrine – deposited in quiet lakes
n Marine – deposited in the sea
n Aeolian – deposited by wind
n Colluvial – movement by gravity
(e.g. landslide)
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Transported and Deposited Soils
(from Bradly, 1996)
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Illustration of floodplain development
(a) a stream is at flood stage (b) after the flood
(from Bradly, 1996)
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Contrasting
layers of
sand, silt,
and clay
characterize
the alluvial
floodplain
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Sample of Marine Sand
(from Castle Peak Road, New Territories, Hong Kong)
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Formation
Kallang Marine Clay
Old Alluvium
Jurong Sedimentary Residual Soils
N Bukit Timah Granitic Residual Soils
Gombak Norite
Sajahat
0 5 10 km
NTU Campus
Harianto RAHARDJO
College of Engineering
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Soil skeleton
n Solid particles (S)
n Water (W) W
n Air (A)
S
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Phase Diagram
Volume Mass
Va Air Ma= 0
Vv
W
Vw Water Mw
Vt
Vs Solid Ms
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Void ratio, e
Vv
e=
Vs
n Expressed as a decimal
n Possible range: 0 - ∞
n Typical Value:
n Sands : 0.4 – 1.0
n Clays : 0.3 – 1.5
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Porosity, n
Vv
n= x 100 (%)
Vt
n Expressed as a percentage
n Relationship with e
Vv Vv e Vs e n
n= = = = OR e=
Vt Vs + Vv Vs + e Vs 1 + e 1− n
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Degree of saturation, S
Vw
S= x 100 (%)
Vv
n Percentage of void volume
containing water
n Fully saturated, S = 100%
n Unsaturated, S < 100%
n Dry, S = 0%
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Water content, w
Mw
w= x 100 (%)
Ms
n Expressed as a percentage
n Ms = mass of water
n Mw = dry mass of the soil
n Possible range: 0 – 500%
Marine and
organic soils
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Density, ρ
Mass
ρ= [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
Volume
• Density of Solids, ρs
Ms
ρs = [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vs
Typical values of ρs:
n 2.5 – 2.8 Mg/m3 for common soils
n 2.65 Mg/m3 for Quartz mineral
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• Density of Water, ρw
Mw
ρw= [ kg/m 3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vw
At 40C, ρw = 1.0 Mg/m3
• Submerged density, ρ’
ρ’ = ρsat - ρw [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
It is also called buoyant density
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• Dry density, ρd
Ms
ρd = [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vt
( Mw is not included )
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Specific Gravity, Gs
ρs
Gs = ρ
w
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Typical values of density
3
Density ( Mg/m )
Soil Type
ρ sat ρd ρ'
Hansbo (1975)
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Example
n Given : ρ = 1.76 Mg/m3; w = 10%
n Required : ρd , e, n, S, ρsat
n Solution :
Assume Vs = 1 m3 and ρs = 2.7 Mg/m3
→ Ms = 1 x 2.7 = 2.7 Mg
Mw = w x Ms = 0.1 x 2.7 = 0.27 Mg
Mt = Ms + Mw = 2.7 + 0.27 = 2.97 Mg
Vw = Mw / ρw = 0.27 / 1 = 0.27 m3
Vt = Mt / ρ = 2.97 / 1.76 = 1.688 m3
Va = Vt - Vw - Vs
= 1.688 - 0.27 - 1 = 0.418 m3
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From phase diagram
ρd = Ms / Vt = 2.7 / 1.688
3
Volume (m) Mass (Mg) = 1.6 Mg/m3
V=0.418 Air Ma= 0
e = Vv / Vs = (Va + Vw) / Vs
a
= (0.418 + 0.27) / 1 = 0.688
n = Vv / Vt = (Va + Vw) / Vs x 100%
V=0.270
w
Water M=w 0.27
= (0.418 + 0.27) / 1.688 x 100%
Mt=2.97
Vt=1.688
= 40.8%
S = Vw / Vv = 0.27 / 0.688 x 100%
V=1
s
Solid M=s 2.70 = 39.2%
(assume) ρsat = Ms + Mw / Vt (at S = 100%)
= 2.7 + (0.27 + 0.418) / 1.688
= 2.01 Mg/m3
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Important Relationship:
ρs + ρ w Se
n ρ =
1+e
nρ = ρd (1 + w)
nS e = w (ρs / ρw)
nS e = w Gs
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Summary:
n Soil composition:
solid, water, air
n Phase diagram:
mass - volume relationship
n Basic definitions:
e, n, S, w, Gs
ρs, ρw, ρ, ρd, ρsat, ρ’
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Soil Texture (Appearance):
n Relative sizes of the particles
n Coarse grained : gravels, sands
n Fine-textured : silts, clays
n Particle shape
n Rounded
n Angular
n Distribution of particle sizes
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Texture & characteristics
of soils
Soil Name: Gravels, Sands Silts Clays
Grain size: Coarse grained Fine grained Fine grained
(can see individual (can not see (can not see
grains by eye) individual grains) individual grains)
Characteristic: Cohesionless Cohesionless Cohesive
Nonplastic Nonplastic Plastic
Granular Granular -
Effect of water Relatively unimportant Important Very important
on engineering (exception: loose
behavior: saturated materials
and dynamic loadings
Effect of grain size Important Relatively unimportant Relatively unimportant
distribution on
eng. behavior:
Holtz & Kovacs (1981)
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Grain Size Distribution (GSD)
Wide range of possible particle
sizes in soils:
n Boulders : few metres in diameter
n Clay : micro metres in size
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Grain size (mm)
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
10 100
U.S. Standard Sieve No
4 40 200
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How to obtain GSD
n For coarse particles (gravel, sand):
n Sieving of dry soil through a series of
sieves with successively smaller
openings
n Percentage passing each size sieve
can than be determined
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Hydrometer Test:
n Mixing the fines with water to form a
suspension
n The density of the suspension can
be measured using a hydrometer
n The percentage of particles of a
certain equivalent diameter can be
calculated from the measured
density using Stoke’s Law
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Hydrometer
test
apparatus
(Photograph from Lambe, 1951)
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Characteristics of GSD
n Well graded:
n good representation of particle size over a wide
range
n the curve is smooth and generally concave
upward
n Poorly graded:
n excess or deficiency of certain sizes
n most of particles are about the same size
n Uniform:
n about the same size
n Gap graded:
n certain particle sizes are very low
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Typical grain size
distribution curves
No 200 No 4
Fines (silt, clay) Sand Gravel
100 0
Uniform
80 20
60 40
Well graded
40 60
Gap graded
20 80
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain diameter (mm)
(from Holts and Kovacs, 1981)
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Characteristics of GSD (cont)
n D60 = 1.200 mm 20 80
D30
n Therefore: D10 D60
100
0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain diameter (mm)
n Cu = D60 / D10
= 1.2 / 0.022 = 55
n Cc = (D30)2 / (D10)x(D60) Poorly
= (0.052)2 / (0.022)x(1.2) Graded
= 0.1
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Particle Shape:
n Determined by visual
classification
n Particle shape affects soil
properties:
n Friction angle of sand increases
with the increasing angularity of
the particles
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Typical shapes of
coarse-grained particles
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Atterberg Limit &
Consistency Indices
n The engineering behavior (e.g.
strength and compressibility) of
fine-grained soils is significantly
affected by the water content in
the soil
n Atterberg (1911) defined certain
limiting or critical stages in soil
behavior using soil water content
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Three important
limiting conditions:
n Liquid limit (LL or wL):
the water content above which the soil
behaves as a liquid
n Plastic limit (PL or wP):
the water content above which the soil
behaves as a plastic solid
n Shrinkage limit (SL or wS):
the water content below which the soil does
not change in volume with further drying
These limits are written without the
percentage sign
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Soil test to determine LL & PL
Casagrande
grooving
tool
Remolded 8
Soil sample 11
2
8 Brass cup
10
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Typical values:
n Liquid limit (LL) : 0 – 1000 (usually < 100)
n Plastic limit (PL) : 0 – 100 (usually < 40)
Other Indices:
n Plasticity Index
n PI = LL – PL
n the water content range for the plastic condition
n PI is used to differentiate clay from silt
n Liquidity Index
wn - PL
n LI =
PI
n wn = natural water content
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Brittle Semi Plastic Liquid
Solid Solid Solid
0 SL PL LL w (%)
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τ x
τ τ
w = PL
w < PL
w = LL
γ γ w > LL γ
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Sensitive soil:
n same water
content
n undisturbed:
σver = 100 kPa
n remolded:
behave like liquid
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Summary :
n Grain Size Distribution:
gravel, sand, fines (silt + clay)
n Well and Poorly Graded:
D10, Cu, Cc
n Atterberg Limits:
SL < PL < LL
n Consistency:
PI and LI
n GDS is important in coarse-grained soils and
Atterberg Limits are important for fine-grained
soils
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RANJITH, P.G.
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Soil Classification
z Introduction
z Field identification
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Soil Classification System:
n The main purpose of any classification
system is to facilitate the transfer of
information between interested parties
n A systematic method of categorizing
soils according to their probable
engineering behavior
n Accumulated experience of other
engineers is included
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Soil Classification System:
(Contd.)
Classification System
( “language” )
Engineering Properties
( permeability, compressibility, shrink-swell, shear strength )
Engineering Purpose
( highways, airfields, foundation, dams, etc.)
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Soil Classification Systems
n USCS – Unified Soil Classification
System
n MIT – Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
n AASHTO – American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials
n USDA – US Dept. of Agriculture
n BS – British Soil Classification System
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Grain size (mm)
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
10 100
U.S. Standard Sieve No
4 40 200
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Soil Classification System
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Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
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Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
Soil
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Highly Organic soil
A soil classified as highly organic if it is
composed primarily of:
Organic material,
Is dark brown, dark gray in color,
Has an organic odour and a soft
consistency.
Fibrous material (remnents of stems,
leaves, roots etc) are often evident.
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USCS
n Procedure:
n Oversize materials are noted on the data
sheet
n Boulder : particles > 300 mm
n Cobbles : particles 75 – 300 mm
n Classification is performed on the materials
passing the 75 mm sieve
Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand
USCS ders bles
Fines (Silt, Clay)
C F C M F
300 75 4.75 2 0.475 0.075 Sieve opening size (mm)
10 40 120
U.S. Standard Sieve No
4 20 60 200
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Sieve Analysis-Previous section
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Sieve analysis test data
%
Passing Particle Size Distribution
curve (PSD)
60%
30%
10%
Particle size (mm)
D60 D30 D10 (in log scale)
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Sieve Analysis - PSD Curve
D
Coefficient of Uniformity, C = u
60
D 10
2
(D )
Coefficient of Curvature, C = c
30
( D xD ) 60 10
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Particle size distribution
curve (PSD)
• Percentage of Gravel,
sand, fines, and so on
• Cu
• Cc
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USCS
n Procedure:
n Determine if the soil is Coarse Grained, Fine
Grained or Highly Organic by:
n Visual inspection
n Percent retained by the 0.075 mm sieve (No. 200)
n Retained on the 0.075 mm sieve (No. 200):
n > 50% x Coarse Grained
n < 50% x Fine Grained
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n Coarse Grained
n Clean Gravel or Sands can be further
subdivided by examining the GSD curve
(Cu and Cc)
n Well graded, W x GW, SW
n Poorly graded, P x GP, SP
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n Coarse Grained (contd.)
n Gravel and sand with fines can be further
subdivided by examining the Atterberg
Limits
n Limit plot are below the A – line x
the fines are silt, M :
n silty gravels x GM
n silty sand x SM
n Limit plot are above the A – line x
the fines are clay, C :
n clayey gravels x GC
n clayed sand x SC
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Casagrande Plasticity Chart
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n Fine Grained
n Atterberg Limits and the Plasticity
Chart are used to differentiate between
Silts, Clay and Organics
n Two important lines on
the Plasticity Chart
(1) A – line x
separate clay from silt and organics
n Limit above A – Line x Clay, C
n Limit below A – Line x Silt, S or Organics, O
Organic can be identified by color (dark),
odor, and changes in LL and PL after
oven – drying
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n Fine Grained (contd.)
n Two important lines on
the Plasticity Chart (cont)
(2) LL = 50 – line x
separate the relatively low (L)
and high (H) liquid limit soils
n LL < 50 x low, L
n LL > 50 x high, H
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n Fine Grained (contd.)
n Based on this two lines, we can
obtain the following combinations:
n Clay : CL and CH
n Silt : ML and MH
n Organics : OL and OH
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n Fine Grained (contd.)
n Border line cases:
n Between Coarse and Fine Grained Soils:
45% < [retained on the 0.075 mm sieve] < 55%
x use dual symbols: GM – ML, GM – MH
SC – CL , SC – CH
n Between ‘Clean’ and ‘with Fines’
Coarse Soil:
5% < [retained on the 0.075 mm sieve] < 12%
x use dual symbols: GW – GC, GP – GM
SW – SC , SP – SM
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Field Identification
(a) Dilatancy Test (reaction to shaking)
• Use moist soil of about 5cm3 in volume.
• Add water to make the soil soft.
• Place the pat of soil in the open palm of one
hand and shake vigorously against the other
hand several times.
• The moderately quick appearance of water
during shaking and its disappearance during
squeezing identifies the soil as an inorganic
silt, whereas a clay has no reaction
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Field Identification (contd.)
(b) Dry Strength Test (reaction to crushing)
•Dry a small ball of soil in the sun, oven or air
•Test its strength by breaking and crumbling
between the fingers.
•High dry strength is characteristic of clay of
the CH group.
•A typical inorganic silt possesses only very
slight dry strength.
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Example: Classify the soil -
see (PSD)
• Estimate Cu, Cc, percentages of
gravel, sand and fine from PSD
curve
% of Gravel = 20% % of coarse
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Given: %G = 35% Sieve PI = 30
Atterberg
%S = 50% Analysis
LL = 80 Limit test
(PSD)
% Fines = 15 %
LL
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Given: %G = 26%
Sieve
C u = 1.6 Sieve
Analysis
%S = 66%
Analysis Cc = 1.25 (PSD)
(PSD)
% Fines = 8 % LL = 30 Atterberg
PI = 18 Limit test
Classification is SP-SC
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Soil Description
n Coarse – grained:
Typical name, % of fine, sand and gravel,
maximum size, angularity, insitu density (loose /
dense), wetness, symbol
Example:
Silty sand, gravelly, about 20% hard, angular
gravel particles of 12 mm maximum size, rounded
and sub angular sand grains coarse to fine, about
15% nonplastic fines with low dry strength, well
compacted and moist in place, alluvial sand, (SM)
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Soil Description (cont)
n Fine – grained:
Typical name, plasticity, amount of and
maximum size of coarse grains, color,
odor, consistency (soft, stiff, firm, hard),
symbol
Example:
Clayey silt, brouwn, slightly plastic, small
percentage of fine sand, numerous
vertical root holes, firm and dry in place,
loess, (ML)
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Summary :
n Soil classification based on USCS:
n Sieve No. 200 : Coarse
Fine
n Coarse, Sieve No. 4 : Gravels
Sands
n Fine, Plasticity Chart (LI, PI) : Silt
Clay
n Soil description:
n Silty Clay
n Clayey Silt
n Sandy Clay
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