Heat Transfer Manual PDF

Chemical Engineering Department
Faculty of Materials and Chemical Engineering

Lab Manual
Chemical Lab IV (Semester VI)
Heat Transfer and Reaction Kinetics (CH 352L)
2018
GIK INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES &

TECHNOLOGY, TOPI, DISTT. SWABI.
Preface
This manual deals with the laboratory experiments, exercises and demonstrations related to the
sixth semester chemical engineering courses CH311 and CH322 taught to the students.
Instructions and information

Come to the laboratory well prepared and in time.
Please read through the sheets for the particular experiment from this manual.
Observe strictly the safety precautions for handling chemicals/materials and equipment, as well as
any instructions given by the supervisors.
The worksheet joined with each exercise should be initialled by one of the instructors during
the class, and handed in as instructed: either at the end of the class, or at the start of the next.
Only worksheets signed by the instructors will be considered for assessment. And please fill
in your names, reg # etc. legibly - we can't award marks anonymously.
Grading Policy
Lab tasks and reports 50%
Mid Term 20%
Final Term 30%
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Safety Information -Chemical Lab IV (CH352L)
Safety Precautions
Observance of Safety Rules and the use of common sense are essential in any Laboratory.
Instructions on the manipulation of chemicals or the use of instruments should be read, or
obtained from an instructor, and strictly observed.
As apprentices in a laboratory environment you should pay particular attention to the following
rules:
No food / drinks / smoking in the Lab.
Elementary discipline -- no running, observance of instructions from the instructors, no
manipulation of instruments before being instructed, attention (without interference) to others
working in the same area -- are mandatory.
Care should be taken when using compressed air and particulate materials.
Mechanical testing: keep well clear (and make sure that others are clear) of any operating machine.
Manual adjustments must never be attempted during a test.
Complement to the Safety Instructions
Dealing with Electrical Systems

Don’t ever stand on or try to pinch high power cables. This may destroy their insulation and cause
electrical shock.
Don’t switch on or off the power supply of any machine without prior permission from a lab
instructor. Don’t try to remove the casing or cover of any electrical circuitry, even if it is not
in operation.
In case of electrical shock immediately inform the lab instructor and/or precede according to the
first aid measures.
Working with Mechanical Systems
Never touch the moving parts of any machine when in operation.
Before operating any machine, first inquire about the emergency stop button of that particular
machine
Never cross the safety-clearance distance of any machine (particularly important for the impact
testing machine)
Never try to move and/or lift any machine by yourself, it may cause physical injury to you.
Whenever you are near any moving part of machine make sure you don’t have any loose
clothes in your dress, Fire hazards and prevention
1. In case of fire, immediately call for help/instructor and inform the fire brigade at 2333 2. If
help is not available immediately reach for nearest fire extinguisher, remove its lock/pin and
use it to extinguish fire.
3. Smoking is strictly prohibited in lab premises as it can cause fire.
4. Never use lighter or match near gas equipment (e.g. oxygen, hydrogen cylinders.) as it can cause
a serious accident in form of explosion.
5. Never use water to extinguish a fire in electrical apparatus.
6. Ensure that all additions to a bath of molten metal are completely dry
3
Safe laboratory practice is based on understanding and respect, not fear. Your instructors will
discuss specific safety precautions relevant to each experiment during laboratory lecture. Your
laboratory manual will point out specific hazards and precautions. Before beginning an
experiment, be sure you have this information at hand and that you understand it.
When you have read the following information carefully and feel you understand it, please
read and sign the Chemical Lab IV (CH352L) Safety Regulations Agreement. At the start of
your first lab session you will submit the signed Safety Agreement to the instructor. Only then
will you be permitted to begin laboratory work.
Safety Rules
1. Working alone in the laboratory is strictly forbidden.
2. Approved safety goggles and lab coats must be worn at all times when in a laboratory.
3. Students may only perform authorized experiments and then only at the assigned time.
4. Use every precaution to keep all chemicals off your skin and clothing, out of your nose,
mouth and eyes, and away from flames. It is strictly forbidden to eat or drink anything
(including water) in the laboratory.
5. Long hair and billowy clothing must be confined when in the laboratory. Shoes are mandatory;
sandals or open-toed shoes are not allowed. Shorts are not allowed.
6. All laboratory workers must know the location and proper use of all laboratory safety
equipment.
7. All accidents, including contact with chemicals, cuts, burns, or inhalation of fumes must be
reported to an instructor immediately.
8. It is your responsibility to read and abide by the "Laboratory Safety" section of the lab manual
and to keep it with you in the laboratory.
9. Laboratory equipment and work area must be cleaned after finishing work.
10. Failure to observe laboratory safety rules and procedures may result in injury to you or to fellow
students. For a first violation, you may be asked to leave the laboratory for the day, while for
repeated violations; you may be dropped from the course with a grade of F, at the discretion of
the instructor.
11. It is in your own best interest to stay alert and to be aware of possible hazards in the laboratory.
Do not hesitate to call unsafe practices by your colleagues to the attention of the instructors.
Important phone numbers in case of emergency
FIRE SECTION 2333 MEDICAL CENTRE 2434
Chemical Lab IV (CH 352L) Safety Regulations Agreement
1. I have received and read the "Safety Information" document for the “Chemical Lab IV (CH
352L)” course I am taking this semester.
2. I agree to abide by these laboratory regulations and safety procedures at all times while working
in the lab.
3. I agree not to begin an experiment until I have studied and understood the purpose of the
experiment, the procedures involved, and any particular hazards associated with the equipment
and chemicals.
4
4. I agree that I will not work alone in the lab and will only perform experiments if the laboratory
instructor or another member of the Chemical Engineering faculty is present.
5. I understand that if I violate the laboratory regulations I may be asked to leave the laboratory
and (for repeated violations) dropped from the course with a grade of F.
Name: _________________________
Reg. #: _________________________
Group: ________________________
Signature: ______________________
Date: _________________________
5
Lab Equipments
Preface
Safety information’s
Chemical Lab IV Safety Regulations Agreement
Part I- Heat Transfer:

Equipments:
1) Free and Forced Convection Unit
2) Thermal Radiation Unit
3) Heat Transfer by Conduction
4) Heat Exchanger with Service Unit
 Tubular Heat Exchanger
 Plate Heat Exchanger
 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger
 Jacketed Vessel with Stirrer and Coil unit
5) Flow Boiling Demonstrator
6) Condensation Unit
Part II- Chemical Reaction Kinetics
Equipments:
1) Supply Unit for Chemical Reactors
 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
 Tubular Reactor.
 Plug flow reactor
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Heat Transfer and Chemical Reaction Kinetics
Preface ...............................................................................................................................................2
Safety Precautions ..............................................................................................................................3
Chemical Lab IV (CH 352L) Safety Regulations Agreement ....................................................4
1. Conduction Heat Transfer ............................................................................................................8
2. Thermal Conductivity of Fluids ..................................................................................................18
3. Convection Heat Transfer ..........................................................................................................26
4. Radiation Heat Transfer .............................................................................................................32
5. Parallel and Counter Flow Heat Exchanger ............................................................................41
6. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger ...............................................................................................51
7. Plate Heat Exchanger ...............................................................................................................59
8. Tubular Heat Exchanger ..........................................................................................................63
9. Jacketed Vessel with Stirrer and Coil Unit ..............................................................................67
10. Film-wise and Drop-wise Condensation ..................................................................................70
12. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor .................................................................................................85
13- Tubular Reactor .........................................................................................................................89
14- Temperature Measurement Unit .............................................................................................94
15-Absorpption Refrigeration Unit.................................................................................................102
16-Steam power plant with steam engine.....................................................................................111
17- Fundamentals of Temperature Control ……………………………………………………………………………. 121
7
Experiment # 1
1. Conduction Heat Transfer

Problem
On a number of occasions, the exact composition of a given material is not known, that is
why we cannot find various physical and thermal properties of such materials from available
data usually provided in tabulated form. In such conditions, it becomes necessary that their
physical and thermal properties be experimentally determined.
A Company at Islamabad, engaged in manufacturing of split air-conditioners, has problem of
smaller heat transfer than designed for condenser and evaporator. The plant engineer
suspects that the materials they are receiving are not of the recommended grade and hence
may have smaller thermal conductivity. So, he decided to experimentally determine the
thermal conductivity of materials, to find out the cause of smaller rate of heat transfer.
Objectives
Part I: To determine the thermal conductivity of brass and steel samples.

Part II: To study the conduction of heat along a composite bar of steel and brass, and
evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Part III: To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of heat transfer
resulting from the radial steady conduction through the wall of a cylinder.
Theory
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity k is a thermo-physical property of the conducting medium that
represents the rate of conduction heat transfer per unit area for a temperature gradient of
1˚C/m. The units for k are W/m˚C. The thermal conductivities of various common substances
are listed in Table 2.1 for standard atmospheric conditions.
8
Table 2.1: Thermal conductivity of various substances at room temperature1
K
Substance W/(m Btu/(h ft
C) F)
Metals
Silver 420 240
Cpper 390 230
Gold Brass 320 180
Aluminum 200 120

Silicon 150 87
Nickel 91 53
Iron (pure) 80 46
Germanium 60 35
Carbon Steel 54 31
(0.5% C)
Nonmetallic
Solids
Diamond, type 2A 2300 1300
Diamond, type 1 900 520
Limestone 1.5 0.87

Glass (Pyrex 1.0 0.58
7740)
Teflon (Duroid 0.40 0.23
5600)
Brick, building 0.69 0.399
Plaster 0.13 0.075
Cork Liquids 0.040 0.023
Mercury 8.7 5.0

Water 0.6 0.35
Freon F-12 Gases 0.08 0.046
Hydrogen 0.18 0.10

Air 0.026 0.015
Nitrogen 0.026 0.015
Steam 0.018 0.01
Freon F-12 0.0097 0.0056
At room temperature, k ranges from values in the hundreds for good conductors of heat
such as diamonds and various metals to less than 0.01 W/m C for some gases. Materials
with values of k less than 1 W/m C are classified as insulators. As a rule of thumb, metals
with good electrical conducting properties have higher thermal conductivities than do
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dielectric nonmetals or semiconductors. This is because the movement of free electrons
enhances the molecular interaction in good electrical conductors.
Conduction Heat Transfer

From the thermodynamic view, temperature T is a property that is an index of the kinetic
energy possessed by the building-block Particles of a substance (i.e., molecules, atoms, and
electrons); greater the agitation of these Particles, higher the temperature. So, conduction
heat transfer is the transfer of energy caused by physical interaction among molecular,
atomic, and subatomic Particles of a substance at different temperatures (level of kinetic
energy). To expand upon this point, conduction in gases involves the collision and exchange
of energy and momentum among molecules in continuous random motion. This same
molecular transport mechanism occurs in liquids, but is complicated by the effects of
molecular force fields, and can be augmented by the transport of free electrons in liquids
that are good electrical conductors. On the other hand, conduction in solids occurs as a
result of the movement of free electrons and the vibrational energy in the atomic lattice
structure of the material.
Fourier Law of Conduction

On the basis of experimental observation, the rate of heat transferred by conduction in the x
direction through a finite area A, for the situation in which T is a function only of x can be
expressed by
q =- kA dt/dx
where A is normal to the direction of transfer x, and k is the thermal conductivity.

Heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. For situations in which the
temperature is a function of time t and one space variable, such as x, the Fourier law of
conduction is written as
Q(t)= - KA ɚT(t)/ ɚx
where, heat transfer also is function of t and x.

Composite Walls
Now consider the interfacial condition associated with conduction heat transfer within a wall
that is composed of several layers of different materials. This situation is illustrated in the
figures 2.1 and 2.2 for two types of joints. We designate the temperature distributions in
these two materials by TI and TII. Because this composite actually involves two systems,
material I and II, we must write two boundary conditions for each material. Consequently,
because the interface is Part of both materials, two interfacial boundary conditions are
prescribed. Hence, for composite solids with perfect thermal contact, one interfacial
boundary condition is
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T I (0) =T II (0)
The second boundary condition is written on the basis of first law of thermodynamics, which
states that the rate of energy conducted into the interface must be equal to the rate of
energy conducted out: that is,
qI =qII
dTI kII A /dx=dT II kI A /dx
For situations in which an imperfect mechanical joint is made because of surface roughness,
a discontinuity occurs in temperature distribution at the interface, as shown in figure 2.2(a).
For such cases, the interfacial temperatures in material I and II are related empirically
through an equation of the form
q =htc A[TI - TII ]
Where htc is called the thermal contact coefficient.

The thermal contact coefficient is dependent upon the material, surface roughness, contact
pressure, and temperature. A practical means of increasing the thermal contact coefficient is
to insert a material of good thermal conductivity between the two surfaces. Thermal greases
containing silicon have been developed for this purpose. Thin soft metal can also be used for
certain applications.
Conduction Heat Transfer in Radial Systems
For one-dimensional steady state radial conduction heat transfer in a hollow cylinder, the
Fourier law of conduction takes the form dT
q(r)= - kA r dT/ dr
where Ar = 2πrL.
Because q(r) = q(r+dr) for this problem, so by performing integration from inner to outer
radius (i.e. R1 to R2) and from inner surface temperature T1 to outer surface temperature T2,
we get
q(r)= 2πLk(T1 -T2)

R
1
ln( )
R2
11
Thus, the thermal resistance to radial conduction in a hollow cylinder
R1
Rk = R2
2πLk
The temperature distribution in this hollow cylinder can be obtained by integrating from R1 to
R and from T1 to T. The resulting expression for T is given by
(T - T1 ) ln (R/R 1 )
=
(T2 - T1 ) ln(R 2 /R 1 )
Procedure
Part I
1. Place the brass sample between the heater and cooler.
2. Select 10W-heater power using the heater power control.
3. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state system conditions.
4. Record the temperature for all the nine sensor points.
5. Change the heat input to the next value given in table 2.1.
6. Repeat the above procedure.
7. Complete table 2.1.
Note: After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state conditions.
Part II
Replace the brass sample with steel sample between the heater and cooler, and
repeat the procedure of Part I to complete Table 2.2. Part III
1. Select an intermediate position for the heater power control.

2. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state system condition.
3. Note the reading of Wattmeter and record in the Table 2.3.
4. Record the temperature for all six-sensor points in the Table 2.3.
5. Adjust the heater power control knob at some other position and record the temperature at all
the six sensing points by repeating the above procedure.
12
6. Repeat the procedure as many times as asked.
Figure 2.1: Composite with perfect thermal contact
Figure 2.2: Composite with imperfect thermal contact
Figure 2.3: One dimensional radial heat transfer in a hollow cylinder
13
Figure 2.4: Heat Conduction apparatus interconnection (left), Heat Conduction apparatus
(right)
Legend Fig. 2.4
1.)Heat Input section
2.)Electrical Heater
3.)Thermistor temperature sensors
4.)Heat sink section
5.)The end being cooled with running water
6.)Thermistor temperature sensors
7.)Brass sample
8.)Thermistor sensors
9.)A material sample
10.) A material sample
11.) Heat resistant casing
12.) Enclosed air space
13.) Casing piece
14.) Casing piece
15.) Casing piece
16.) Miniature plug
17.) Brass disc
18.) Electrical heater
19.) Circumferential copper tube
20.) Thermistor temperature sensor
21.) Air gap
22.) Heat resistant casing
23.) Casing
Results:
Table 2.1
# q T1, T 2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T 9, k, W/ m2K
(watts) ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C
1 10
2 15
3 20
4 25
Table 2.2
# q (watts) T1, ˚C T2, ˚C T3, ˚C T7, ˚C T8, ˚C T9, ˚C U, W/mK
1 10
14
2 15
3 20
4 25
Table 2.3
# q (watts) T1, ˚C T2˚C T3, ˚C T7˚C T8, ˚C T9, ˚C k, W/m2K
1
2
3
4
Data Analysis
Part I
Plot the temperature along the length of the bar. This will result in a set of straight lines with
the slope . The slope now can be used to determine the thermal conductivity of the
sample. The resulting set of straight lines should have approximately the same slope .
Using this slope, thermal conductivity of brass is determined by the formula
Part II
Plot the temperature profiles in the heater and cooler for all the three readings on. These plots
should be extrapolated to determine the respective outer surface temperature (THS and TCS).
Values of THS and TCS are used to determine the overall heat transfer coefficient ‘U’ using the
following equation.
Part III
Plot the temperature profile along the radial length. Determine the temperature at the outer
radius of the disc from the curve. Use this data to calculate the rate of radial heat transfer due
to conduction using the equation as given below.
Use following data in your calculations:
For axial flow-one dimensional heat transfer:

Diameter of the cylinder = Cross Sectional Area of the
15
cylinder =
Conductivity of the Heater Length of the heater element =

Conductivity of the Cooler Length of the cooler element =
Conductivity of the Steel Material Length of the steel element =
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Heater side temperature
Cooler side temperature
For radial flow- two dimensional heat transfer:

Thickness of the Disc = External Radius of the Disc =
Inner Radius of the Disc = External Side temperature

Inner Side temperature
Exercise
1. Compare the results of Part I with the typical values of thermal conductivity of brass given
in tables, and decide whether brass is responsible for reduced heat transfer in condensers
and evaporators.
2. Compare the value heat transfer coefficient of Part II with the value calculated using the
following equation and decide whether the composite of brass and steel is responsible for
reduced heat transfer.
16
3. Compare the results of Part III to the measured heat input ‘q’ from the Wattmeter.
4. How is conduction heat transfer important in our daily life? Give a detailed view.
17
Experiment # 2
2. Thermal Conductivity of Fluids

Problem
Fluids, although have much smaller thermal conductivity than solids but have a big
advantage for being easily transportable within the system. Heat is mostly transferred to the
fluids by conduction but within the fluid heat transfer is by convection. Thermal conductivity
of the fluid is very important when designing a system because a high value of fluid
conductivity ensures a uniform distribution of heat within the fluid, which of course
increases the rate of heat transfer. That is why, whenever a fluid is to be used as a heat
transport medium, it is the thermal conductivity other than its specific heat, viscosity and
density that plays the critical role for that fluid for being selected for a specific application.
One of the major roles of engine oil in automobiles is cooling by assisting in the
removal of excess heat from the engine mechanism. Viscosity can be regarded as the most
important single property of engine oil, since the ability of oil to provide adequate lubricant
films between the working Parts depends on it. Viscosity of a lubricant may change with a
change in operating temperature. For the proper functioning of the engine, it is necessary
that viscosity of the lubricant does not change considerably with the engine temperature.
With a decrease in viscosity caused by increased temperature, the oil consumption
increases, external oil leakage is more likely, engine becomes noisier and overheats more
frequently, and running wear increases due to an inadequately maintained oil films.
One of the major oil refining company in the country has developed a lubricant for
automobiles. Major purpose to achieve with this new engine oil was the increased thermal
conductivity of the oil so as to achieve a uniform distribution of heat and to increase the rate
of heat transfer, in the oil pan. Before commencing its commercial production, they want to
experimentally determine the thermal conductivity of this oil.
Objectives
PAR I: To determine the extent of incidental heat transfer.

Part II: To determine the thermal conductivity of the given sample of fluid.
Theory
Detailed theory about “conduction” has been given in the experiment no. 2 titled
“Conduction Heat Transfer”.
Incidental Heat Transfer
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Before determining the thermal conductivity of the sample oil, it is necessary to
determine the extent of incidental heat transfer. Incidental heat includes all heat transfers
from the element in the plug other than that transferred by conduction through the fluid
under test. The indicated heat transfer includes,
1. Heat conducted from the plug to the jacket by the -ring seals.
2. Heat radiated from the plug to the jacket.
3. Heat losses to the surroundings from the exposed ends of the plug.
Procedure
Part I
Calibration is most conveniently carried out using air (whose thermal conductivity is well
known) in the radial space:
1. Prepare the unit as under “operation”, with air in the radial clearance.
2. Adjust the variable transformer to about 20V.
3. Observe the plug and jacket surface temperature and when these are stable, record these
values Table 3.1, along with voltage.
4. Increase the electrical input to about 35V and when stable repeat the observations.
5. Repeat at other voltages up to maximum.
19
Part II
Repeat above procedure and complete table 3.2

Figures
Figure 3.1: Thermal Conductivity of Fluids Apparatus
20
Figure 3.2: Thermal Conductivity of Fluids Apparatus Interconnections
Technical Details
1. R, Nominal resistance of heating element = 53.61

2. Nominal radial clearance between plug and jacket = 0.3 mm.
3. A, Effective area of conducting path through fluid = 0.0133 m2
4. Ri , Inner radius of the heated surface = 19.51 mm 5.Ro, Outer radius of jacket = 19.51 + 0.3 =
19.81 mm.
6.L, Length = 110 mm.
Note: The actual values to be used are engraved on the head of the plug.
Results
V = Electrical voltage
T1 = Plug surface temperature
T2 = Jacket surface temperature
ΔT = Temperature difference = T1 – T2
Δr = Radial clearance = Ro – Ri
qc = Heat conducted through air
T
=kA
Δx
V2
qe = Electrical heat input = R

k = Thermal conductivity
qi = Incidental heat transfer = qe – qc
21
Data Analysis:
Use following equations and data for calculations:
= Electrical Voltage = Radial Clearance =
= Plug Surface Temperature = Electrical Heat Input
= Jacket Surface Temperature = Incidental Heat Transfer
= Temperature Difference = = Total length of the cylinder
= Heat Conducted through the testing fluid = Thermal conductivity of the fluid
= Resistance of the heating element Cross Sectional area of the fluid film
And
or
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Results:
Table 3.1: Measurements for AIR
# V, volts T 1, C T 2, C T, C qi, W qe, W qc, W k, W/m2K
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 3.2: Measurements for WATER

# V, volts T 1, C T 2, C T, C qi, W qe, W qc, W k, W/m2K
1
2
3
4
5
6
Exercise:
1. Using the conductivity equations given above find the thermal conductivity of each fluid
for all the readings recorded during experiment.
2. Plot the thermal conductivity of each fluid against the plug surface temperature .
3. Write your comments on the plots.
4. What is the effect of plug surface temperature on thermal conductivity of these fluids?
23
5. Draw a simple labeled cross sectional view of plug / jacket assembly. And explain how
heat is transferred through the cross section?
6. Why does the thermal conductivity of gases increase with the increase in temperature?
What happens to the conductivity if the pressure is increased keeping the temperature
constant?
7. Compare the experimentally determined values of thermal conductivity with the values
available in various textbooks and handbooks, and account for any differences.
24
8. Give examples where thermal conductivity of fluids plays a major role in heat transfer
applications.
25
Experiment # 3
3. Convection Heat Transfer
Problem
The HVAC plant at G. I. K. Institute, Topi, provides chilled water in summer as well as hot
water in winter to more than 12 sub-units for the air-conditioning of faculties, student
hostels, auditorium and administrative offices.
The plant has two typical shell-and-tube heat exchangers (boilers) containing tube banks
without fins. To increase the rate of heat transfer so as to reduce the fuel cost, concerned
people plan to replace the tube banks with finned tube banks. Before implementing their
plan, they want to exactly know how much more heat using the finned tube banks would
transfer. Two models of such tube banks have been obtained; one with fins and other with
spines. We have to decide, whether the plan is feasible (efficiency increases) or not, and if
feasible then what type of tube bank (finned or spined) should be used.
Objectives
Part I: To demonstrate the relationship between rate of heat transfer and surface temperature in
free convection and forced convection
Part II: To demonstrate use of extended surface fins to improve the heat transfer from a surface.
Theory
Convection
Convection is transfer of heat from a surface to a moving fluid. The conduction-
heattransfer always plays a primary role in convection. In addition to the transfer of energy
via the basic heat-transfer-mechanisms, convection heat transfer also involves the transfer
of energy by macroscopic fluid motion. The process by which energy (or mass) is transferred
by bulk-fluid motion is known as advection.
Newton’s Law of Cooling
An engineer is generally primarily concerned about the rate of convection heat
transfer rather than the temperature distribution within the fluid. Therefore, a practical
approach to the analysis of convection heat transfer from surfaces such as the flat plate
shown in figure 4.1, is an equation of the form
qc = hAS (TS – TF)
26
where qc is the rate of heat transferred from a surface at uniform temperature TS to a fluid
with reference temperature TF, AS is the surface area, and h is the mean coefficient of heat
transfer. Above equation is often referred to as the Newton law of cooling.
The Newton’s law of cooling in its simple or general form has been found to be very useful
in the analysis of heat transfer processes involving convection combined with conduction
and radiation, and in evaluation and design of convection-heat-transfer systems.
Free Convection
Fluid in contact with the hot surface is heated and rises due to a reduction in density.
The heated fluid is replaced by cooler fluid, which in turn is heated by the surface and rises. This
convective heat transfer is classified as free-convection.
Forced Convection
In free convection, the small movements of fluid due to density gradients limit the
heat transfer rate from the surface. More heat can be transferred, if the fluid velocity is
increased over the heated surface. This process of assisting the movement of fluid over the
heated surface is called forced convection. Therefore, a heated surface experiencing forced
convection will have a lower surface temperature than that of the same surface in forced
convection, for the same heat input.
Coefficient of Heat Transfer

Approximate ranges of ‘h’ are shown in table 4.1 for forced and natural convection in
air and water. For forced convection, the fluid motion is caused by mechanical means such
as pumps and fans. On the other hand, natural convection is caused by temperatureinduced
density gradient within the fluid. The actual value of ‘h’ depends upon the hydrodynamic
conditions as well as on the thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties of the fluid.
Table 4.1: Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients, range for representative applications1
h
W/(m2 C)
Natural Convection
Air 5 - 30
Water 200 - 600
Forced Convection
Air 10 - 500
Water 100 – 2 x 104
Oil 60 – 2 x 103
Boiling Water at 1atm 2 x 103 – 5 x 104
Condensation of steam 5 x 103 - 105
27
Extended Surfaces
Situation often arises in which means are sought for increasing the heat convected from a surface. A
consideration of the Newton law of cooling, suggests that qc can be increased by increasing h, Ts
– TF, or As. As already indicated, h is a function of geometry, fluid properties, and flow rate.
The modulation of these factors provides a means by which q c can be increased or
decreased. With regards to the effect of Ts – TF on the rate of heat transfer, difficulties are
often encountered in automobile cooling systems in very hot weather because TF is too high.
Concerning the third factor, the area of a surface that is exposed to the fluid is often
“extended” by the use of fins or spines. Familiar applications of such extended surface heat-
transfer devices include automobile radiators, power transistors, and high voltage electrical
transformers.
Procedure
Part I
1. Place the finned heat exchanger in the test duct.
2. Record the ambient air temperature in Table 4.1
3. Set the heater power control to 20W and allow sufficient time to achieve steady state
conditions.
4. Record the heated plate temperature Th in the Table 4.1.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for 40, 60 and 80W heater power and complete Table 4.1.
6. Set the heater power control to 50 watts and allow sufficient time to achieve steady state
condition.
7. Set the fan speed control to get a reading of 0.5m/s on the thermal anemometer and give
enough time to reach steady state.
8. Record the heated plate temperature in Table 4.2.
9. Repeat the steps 7 and 8 for speeds of 1.0m/S and 1.5m/S, and complete the Table4.2.
Part II
1. Place the flat plate heat exchanger into the test duct.
2. Record the ambient air temperature in Table 4.3.
3. Set the heater power control to 70 W to rapidly achieve 60 C plate temperature.
4. Adjust the heater power control to 15W until a steady 60 C plate temperature is obtained.
5. Record the heated plate temperature in the Table 4.3.
6. Repeat step 4 at fan speeds of 1, 1.5 and 2.0 m/s and record plate temperature in Table
4.3.
7. Replace flat plate with finned plate and repeat steps 3 to 6. Record temperatures in Table 4.3.
8. Replace finned plate with pinned plate and repeat steps 3 to 6. Record temperatures in Table
4.3.
28
Fig. 4.1: Convection Heat Transfer Apparatus
Results
Ambient Air Temperature, TA = __________ΔC

Table 4.1
# q, watts Heated Plate Temp. TH, C Surface to Air Temperature
Difference, TH - TA, C
1 20
2 40
3 60
4 80
Ambient Air Temperature, TA = _______ C Heater Power Input, q = 50 Watts
29
Table 4.2
# Air Velocity Heated Plate Temp. TH, C Surface to Air Temperature
m/S Difference, TH - TA, C
1 0
2 0.5
3 1.0
4 1.5
Ambient Air Temperature, TA = ____ C Heater Power Input, q = _______Watts
Table 4.3
# Type of Plate Heated Plate Heated Plate Heated Plate Heated Plate
Temp. TH, C Temp. TH, C Temp. TH, C Temp. TH, C
0m/s Velocity 0.5m/S 1.0m/S Velocity 1.5m/S Velocity

Velocity
1 Flat Plate
2 Finned Plate
3 Pinned Plate
Data Analysis
1. Plot power against the surface temperature, for the data recorded in Table 4.1.
2. Plot air velocity against heated plate temperature for the data recorded in Table 4.2.
3. Plot velocity against heated plate temperature, for each type of the plate, using the data recorded
in table 4.3.
Exercise
1. What is the effect of forced convection on surface temperature, as shown by your plots?
30
2. What is the effect of extended surfaces on surface temperature (indirectly on rate of heat
transfer), as shown by your plots?
3. What type of heat exchanger, you think, will be suitable to achieve highest heat transfer rate?
4. Give the practical examples where flat plate or finned heat exchangers are used.
31
Experiment # 4
4. Radiation Heat Transfer

Introduction
Of all the renewable energy sources, solar energy received the greatest attention in
the decade of the 1970s and has been the hub of much emotion and pressure. Solar energy,
in sheer size, does have the potential to supply all energy needs: electrical, thermal, process,
chemical, and even transportation fuels. It is, however, very diffuse, cyclic, and often
undependable.
Solar energy may be converted to electricity by one of two means: solar thermal
conversion or photovoltaic conversion.
In solar-thermal method, solar radiation is converted to heat that in turn is added to
a thermodynamic cycle to produce mechanical work and electricity. For this to be efficient
and hence economical, it is necessary to collect and concentrate the diffuse solar radiation in
an efficient manner to arrive at a reasonably high temperature heat source. The collectors
gather the sun’s energy and direct it onto receivers that contain the working fluid of the
thermodynamic cycle.
Photovoltaic systems consist of direct-conversion devices in the form of cells that
convert the solar radiant-energy photons to electricity without involving a thermodynamic
cycle or working fluid.
The solar energy falling on the surface of earth is called terrestrial radiation.
Terrestrial radiation varies significantly, both daily because of the earth’s rotation and
seasonally because of sun’s declination angle. Before any type of solar system is designed for
a specific application, it is necessary that the terrestrial radiation data incident on earth at
that location must be known for at least 1-2 years. In this experiment, we shall demonstrate
how to measure the solar radiation falling on earth as well as measure the radiation heat
transfer due to temperature difference.
The WL 362 Thermal Radiation Unit is intended for the investigation of radiation laws using thermal
and optical radiation as examples. The unit has a heat source, in the form of a blackbody radiator,
and a thermopile that measures the intensity of the radiation. It also has a light source, a luxmeter
to measure luminance, and thermocouples to measure temperatures. Furthermore, color filters
and an aperture are supplied for observing the effect of colored light on the luminance. In order to
be able to study Kirchhoff’s laws, various absorption plates complete with thermocouples are also
provided. All the components can be easily mounted on a frame. With the aid of the data
acquisition card and software provided (only WL 362) , the values measured can be fed to a PC (not
supplied) and evaluated.
The following topics can be addressed with the unit:
32
• Lambert’s Direction Law (Cosine Law)
• Lambert’s Distance Law
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s Laws (absorption, reflection, emission)
• Investigations on the wavelengths of light
Objectives
Part I: To show that the intensity of radiation varies as the fourth power of the source temperature.
Part II: To determine the emissivity of different samples.
Part III: To determine that the exchange of radiant energy from one surface to another is dependent
upon their interconnecting geometry, i.e. a function of the amount that each surface can see of the
other.
Part IV: To show that light passing through non- opaque matter is reduced in intensity in proportion to
the thickness and absorptive of the material.
Theory
Radiation
Radiation heat transfer is defined as the transfer of energy across a system boundary
by means of an electromagnetic mechanism, which is caused solely by the temperature
difference. This mechanism of heat transfer involves the transfer of electromagnetic
radiation emitted from a body as a result of vibrational and rotational movements of
molecules, atoms, and electrons. Temperature is an index of the level of agitation of these
microscopic Particles. Because molecules and their components are continuously in motion,
physical matter always emits thermal radiation. Furthermore, the rate at which internal
energy associated with the motion of molecules, atoms, and subatomic Particles is converted
into thermal radiation increases with temperature.
A body continuously emits radiations in an amount that is related to its temperature
and nature of its surface. An object that absorbs all the radiant energy reaching its surface is
called a black body. Such ideal absorbers emit radiant energy at a rate that is proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the surface.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law for black body thermal radiations is given by,
qb = Δ (T4S – T4A)
Where
qb= Energy emitted by unit area of black body surface.
=Stefan-Boltzmann constant whose value is 5.67 X10—8 W /m2 K4

TS= Source (Block body) temperature in K TA
=Ambient temperature in K.
33
Emissivity
Emissivity ‘ ’ is defined as the ratio of the total energy emitted by a surface to the
total energy emitted by a black surface at the same temperature. For real bodies, ‘ ’ is a
function of the radiation wavelength, the angle of incidence, the surface temperature and
even the surface finish but it is generally practical to assume averaged values when making
calculations. Tabulated values of typical emissivities for various materials are to be found in
published tests dealing with this subject. Usually, the emissivity is introduced as a
multiplication constant in heat transfer calculations, as for example in Stefan-Boltzmann law.
i. e.,
qb =ϵσ (T4S – T4A)
qb = α R
Where,
Α is the ratio of the radiation emitted by the heated surface to the radiation received
by the radiometer. (Value will be taken from PART I.) R is the radiometer reading.
Radiation Heat Transfer Rate

The rate of radiation heat transfer between two bodies is equal to the net rate of
exchange of thermal radiation. For two infinite parallel black body plates that are separated
by a vacuum or a non-Participating gas all the thermal radiation emitted by one surface
reaches and is absorbed by the other body. The rate of thermal radiation emitted by the one
body is equal to the rate of radiant energy absorbed by the other body. Following relation
gives the radiation heat transfer rate.
Q12 = A1 F12 (T41 – T42)

where
Q12 is the radiation heat transfer rate,
A1 is the area of surface one,
F12 is the shape factor and is the fraction of energy leaving surface 1 which reaches surface 2, T1
is the temperature of surface 1, and T2 is the temperature of surface 2.
Light Passing through Non-opaque Matter
The intensity of light emitting from a light source varies depending upon the medium
through which it passes. Major factors that are very vital regarding the intensity of light may
be:
1. Transparency of medium.
34
2. The drovers of the medium.
So it will be very interesting to know that how the light will be affected by thin, thick,
transparent, opaque medium.
The luminous intensity (I) after having penetrated the symbol material to a distance (X)
is given by the following relation.
I = Io e- X
where,
α is the absorptivity of the material,

X is the thickness of the material, Io
is the original luminous intensity,
I is the luminous intensity after traverse.
Apparatus
Thermal Radiation Apparatus: consists of a pair of electrically heated radiant heat

and light sources together with a comprehensive range if targets and measuring
instrumentation. The apparatus has been designed to demonstrate the fundamental laws
relating to radiation. By performing a series of simple experiments, the student may verify
the relevant equations and appreciate the behaviour of radiation.
Description
The apparatus consists of a horizontal bench-mounted track (1) fitted with a heat
radiation source at one end and a light source at the other end. Between the two sources
may be placed either a heat radiation detector (13) or a light meter (16). In addition, a
number of accessories can be fitted for experimental purposes. These include metal plates
with thermocouples attached (5, 6), two vertically oriented metal plates (14) to form an
aperture and a number of acrylic filters (10, 11, 12). The radiation detectors and accessories
are clamped to stands (7, 8, 9, 15), which enable them to be positioned at different distances
from the appropriate source. Distances are measured with a reversible scale (17) mounted
on the front of the track.
Electrical power for the two radiation sources is supplied from an instrument console (3)
and is controlled by a solid-state regulator. A step down transformer (2) provides a low
voltage supply for the heat source. Temperature of the two metal plates used in conjunction
with the heat radiation source is displayed on the digital readout, either reading being
selected by a changeover switch. Output from the heat radiation detector is amplified and
displayed on a second digital readout. The light meter is self-contained.
35
Procedure
Part I
1. Record the ambient temperature in table 5.1
2. Record the radiometer reading at ambient temperature in table 5.1
3. Give an increment to the heater power and allow sufficient time to stabilize.
4. Note the source temperature and radiometer simultaneously and record in table 5.1.
5. Repeat above procedure for selected increments.
Part II
1. Install the polished plate on the carrier.
2. Vary the power to the heat source and allow sufficient time to stabilize.
3. Record the temperature of the metal plate (Ts) in table 5.2.
4. Record the radiometer reading in table 5.2.
5. Repeat the above procedure at various temperature settings.
6. Replace the polished plate with the silver anodized plate and repeat the above procedure.
Part III
1. Place the aperture plate such that the insulation faces the radiometer and the silvered surface
faces the heat source.
2. Set the power control on the instrument console to maximum.
3. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state system conditions.
4. Set the aperture hole to 60 mm.
5. When the temperature of the black palate becomes steady, record this value in Table
5.3.
6. Record the radiometer readings down to zero in steps of 5 mm.
Note:
 The black plate should be placed in the stand and moved close to the heat source,
approximately 50mm.
 Care should be taken when setting the apertures to ensure that the plates are equally
disposed either side of the track centerline.
 Ensure the plates are both vertical and securely clamped before taking a radiometer
reading.
Part IV
1. Record the light meter reading with no filters in positions, in Table 5.4.
2. Replace the filter with one having higher optical density and record the reading in Table
36
5.4.
3. Record the values with the filters of increasing optical density in succession.
4. Repeat the procedure by increasing the thickness of filters having the same optical density and
complete the Table 5.5. Note: Use medium density material.
It is necessary to set up the equipment in darkened room in order to eliminate the influence
of ambient light conditions.
Figures
1. Horizental Bench Mount

2. Step Down Transformer
3. Instrument Console
5,6 Thermocouple attached
7,8,9,15 Clamped Stand
37
Fig 5.1: Thermal-radiation Apparatus
Results
Initial distance from radiometer to heat source, X = 110mm Initial

distance from heat source to metal plate, Y = 50mm
Table 5.1
# TS, TA, W R, TS, K TA, K qb =σ(Ts 4 TA4), W2 qb
˚C ˚C m2 m σ=
R
1
2
3
4
5
Initial distance from radiometer to heat source, X = 110mm Initial

distance from heat source to metal plate, Y = 50mm
Table 5.2
# TS, ˚ TA, W TS, K TA, K W = qb / σ (T4S – T4A )
C ˚C R, 2m ,
qb =σ×R m2
1
2
3
4
5
Initial distance from radiometer to heat source, X = 300mm

Initial distance from aperture plate to heat source, Y = 200mm
Black plate temperature, T = ______ C
Table 5.3
Aperture 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
mm
38
R
Radiometer
Reading
W/ m2
Initial distance from light source to filter plate, X = 100mm

Initial distance from light source to light meter, Y = 200
Data Analysis
Compare the calculated values for in Part I. If the Stefan-Boltzmann relationship
holds true, then the calculated values of should be the same irrespective of temperature.
Note: The average value of obtained in Part I will be used in Part II
Exercise
1. Explain absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity.
2. What is the effect of air present between the emitting and receiving surfaces, on the
measured radiation?
39
3. How does thermal radiation differ from other types of electromagnetic radiation?
4. Why do surfaces absorb solar radiation differently?
40
Experiment # 5
5. Parallel and Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

Problem
Turbocharger is a centrifugal air pump driven by the engine exhaust gas. It
compresses air or air-fuel mixture and forces an additional amount of charge into the engine.
This increases the combustion pressure and power of an engine.
On the other hand when air is compressed, it becomes hot and resists to be compressed. To
overcome this problem, air must be cooled during the compression process.
To cool the air and increase its density, an intercooler is to be designed for
turbocharged engines. This intercooler will be a heat exchanger that cools the air after it has
been pressurized. It has to be decided whether the intercooler should be designed as a
parallel flow, counter flow, or cross flow heat exchanger?
Objectives
Part I:
To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of a concentric tube heat exchanger
operating under parallel and counter flow conditions, and compare the results.
Part II:
To demonstrate the effect of hot temperature variation on the performance characteristics
of a concentric tube heat exchanger.
Part III:
To demonstrate the effect of flow rate variation on the performance characteristics of
a concentric tube heat exchanger operating under counter flow conditions.
Theory
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices that transfer heat between fluids at different
temperatures. Heat exchangers are used in a wide range of industrial and commercial
applications. Examples are found in power, air-conditioning, refrigeration, cryogenics, heat
recovery, process, aircraft, marine, and manufacturing industries, as well as many products
available in the marketplace.
41
Types of Heat Exchangers
The various types of heat exchangers that are commercially available may be
categorized according to the geometric configuration of the heat transfer surface and flow
arrangement as well as certain other considerations.
Different types of heat exchangers according to the geometric configuration are

double-pipe heat exchanger, shell-and-tube heat exchanger, water-tube heat exchanger etc.
On basis of flow arrangement the heat exchangers are classified as parallel flow, counter
flow and cross flow heat exchangers. Since we, in this experiment are more concerned about
the flow arrangement of heat exchangers, so following is given a brief description of these
heat exchangers.
Parallel flow: In this type of arrangement the hot and cold fluid enter at the same end, flow in
the same direction and exit at the same end as shown in figure 6.1.
Counter flow:In counter-flow arrangement, the fluid enters at the opposite ends, flow in opposite
directions and exit at opposite ends as shown in figure 6.2.
Cross flow:In this type, one fluid runs through tubes and other fluid passes over the tubes making
a 90 angle with respect to the fluid inside the tubes as shown in figure 6.3.
Certain formulae to find out various quantities related to heat exchangers, specifically for this
experiment are given below.
ΔT1 = TH, in – TH, out

Where TH, in is hot water temp. at inlet
TH, out is the hot water temp. at outlet
and T1 is the difference in temperature of hot water between inlet and outlet
ΔsT2 = TC, in – TC, out

where TC, in is cold water temp. at inlet
TC, out is cold water temp. at outlet
and ΔT2 is the difference in temperature of cold water between inlet and outlet
qH = mH CPH T1
42
where qH is heat rejected from hot water
mH is mass flow rate of hot water and
CPH is the specific heat of hot water
qC = mC CPCΔT2
where qC is heat absorbed by cold water
mC is mass flow rate of cold water
CPC is specific heat of cold water
Heat lost = heat rejected – heat absorbed
Efficiency = (Heat absorbed/Heat rejected) x100%
Log mean temperature difference
(∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2)
∆𝑇 = 𝛥𝑇1
ln(𝛥𝑇2)
Overall heat transfer coefficient,
Heat Absorbed
U=
(Heat Transfer Area x Δ)
Temperature efficiencies of the heat exchanger are:
for the cold medium

(TC, out - TC, in ) x 100
ἠc =
(TH, in - TC, out )
for the hot medium
ἠH = (TH,in - TH, out ) x 100
(TH, in - TC, in )
43
Mean temperature efficiency
(ἠc -ἠh)
ἠmax =
2
Temperature efficiency is an indicator of the actual heat transfer taking place in the
heat exchanger as a percentage of the maximum possible heat transfer that would take
place if infinite surface area were available.
Apparatus
Armfield Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger:

The apparatushas been designed specifically to demonstrate the working principles of
industrial heat exchangers. The equipment consists of a concentric tube exchanger in the
form of a ‘U’ mounted on a support frame. The external surface of the exchanger is
insulated. Three temperature measuring devices are installed in both the inside and outside
tubes, to measure the fluid temperatures accurately. To minimize losses in the system, the
hot water is fed through the inner pipe, with the cooling water in the outer annulus.
Control valves are incorporated in each of the two streams to regulate the flow. The flow
rates are measured using independent flow meters installed in each line.
The hot water system is totally self-contained. A hot storage tank is equipped with an
immersion type heater and an adjustable temperature controller, which can maintain a
temperature to within approximately 1 C. Circulation to the heat ex-changer is provided
by a pump, and water returns to the storage tank via a baffle arrangement to ensure
adequate mixing. The cold water required for the exchanger is taken from the laboratory
main supply.
A detailed diagram of the apparatus is given as Figure 6.4.
Procedure
Part I
1. Check that the drain valve on the water storage tank is fully closed (Clockwise).
2. Remove the cover from the storage tank & fill the tank with clean water to within 75mm from
the top.
3. Replace the cover on the storage tank.
4. Close the air bleed valves at the top of the heat exchanger.
5. Connect the cold water inlet to a source of cold water using flexible tubing.
6. Connect the cold water outlet to a suitable drain.
44
7. Having connected the exchanger to the electrical supply correct operation should be checked
as follows:
(i) Close the hot water flow control valve.
(ii) Set the selector switch on the side of the pump motor to the maximum setting.
(iii) Set the temperature controller to zero using the decade switches on the front panel.
(iv) Set the electrical supply switch ON and observe operation of the pump. The top red light
on the temperature controller should be illuminated.
8. Raise the cover on the storage tank & observe circulation of the water through the tank.
9. Open the hot water flow control valve and allow water to flow through the exchanger until a
steady flow of water is indicated on the hot water flow meter.
10. Open the cold water flow control valve. Set the selector switch valves to parallel and counter
exchanger until a steady flow of water is indicated on the cold water flow meter.
11. Close the hot and cold water flow control valves.
12. Attach a length of flexible tubing to each of the air bleed valves at the top of the exchanger.
Open each bleed valve and allow water to flow until all air is expelled.
13. Close both bleed valves and remove the flexible tubing.
14. Set the temperature controller to an elevated temperature i.e. 60oC using the decade switch.
Observe the lower red light is illuminated indicating power output to the heating element.
FIGURES
Check the water in the storage tank is heated.

15. Note the hot and cold-water temperature at inlet, midpoint, outlet once conditions have
stabilized and complete Tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4.
Part II
Same as in Part I and complete the Tables 6.5 and 6.6 for counter-flow.
Part III
Same as in Part I. Complete Tables 6.7 and 6.8 for counter-flow.
Figure 6.1: Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger Figure 6.2: Counter Flow Heat Exchanger
45
Figure 6.3: Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger
Results
Controlled hot water temperature = 60oC
Hot water flow rate = 2000 cc/min
Cold water flow rate = 1000 cc/min
Table 6.1: Parallel-flow heat exchanger (observations)

TH, in, oC TH, mid,oC TH, out,oC TC, in, oC TC, mid,oC TC, out, oC
Re
adi
ngs
Table 6.2: Parallel-flow heat exchanger (calculations)

46
Heat Heat Heat Lost, Efficiency, Tm, C U,
Cal
Rejected, Absorbed, W % (W/m2 C)
cul
W W
ati
ons
Table 6.3: Counter-flow heat exchanger (observations)

Re TH, in, oC TH, mid, oC TH, out, oC TC, in, oC TC, mid, oC TC, out, oC
adi
ngs
Table 6.4: Counter-flow heat exchanger (calculations)

Heat Heat Heat Lost, Efficiency, Tm, C U,
Cal
Emitted, Absorbed, W % (W/m2 C)
cul
W W
ati
ons
Hot water flow rate = 2000 cc/min

Table 6.5: Effect of hot water temperature (observations)
Control TH, in, oC TH, mid, oC TH, out, oC TC, in, oC TC, mid, oC TC, out, oC
Set, oC
Re 50
adi
ngs 55
60
65
Table 6.6: Effect of hot water temperature (calculations)

Cal Control Heat Heat Heat Lost, Efficiency , Tm, U,
cul Set, oC Rejected, Absorbed, W % C (W/m2
ati W W
C)
ons
50
55
47
60
65
Controlled Hot Water Temperature = 60 C

Table 6.7: Effect of hot water flow rate (observations)
Hot Water Flow TH, in, TH, mid, oC TH, out, oC TC, in, oC TC, mid, oC TC, out, oC
o
Rate, cc/min C
Re 1000
adi
ngs 2000
3000
4000
Table 6.8: Effect of hot water flow rate (calculations)

Hot Water Heat Heat Heat Efficiency , Tm, U,
Flow Rate, Rejected, Absorbed, Lost, % C (W/m2
cc/min W W W
C)
Cal
cul
1000
ati
ons 2000
3000
4000
Data Analysis
1. Plot TH against inlet, middle, and outlet positions in case of case of parallel-flow heat
exchanger, using the data recorded in table 6.1. Also Plot TC against inlet, middle, and
outlet positions in case of case of parallel flow heat exchanger, using the data recorded
in table 6.1.
2. Plot TH against inlet, middle, and outlet positions in case of case of counter-flow heat
exchanger, using the data recorded in table 6.3. Also Plot TC against inlet, middle, and
outlet positions in case of case of parallel flow heat exchanger, using the data recorded
in table 6.3.
3. Plot efficiency against hot water temperature, using data calculated in table 6.6.
4. Plot efficiency against hot water flow rate, using data calculated in table 6.8.
Exercise
48
5.Comment on your graphs.
1. Compare the efficiencies of parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers.
2. Briefly explain the types of heat exchangers according to their construction.
49
3. Radiator in your car is a type of heat exchanger. Discuss different modes of heat transfer
through it.
4. Give the examples of daily uses/ applications of heat exchangers.
50
Experiment # 6
6. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Objectives
To determine how the characteristics of a shell and tube heat exchanger change with:
• flow rate of hot water i.e. varying the pump speed

• temperature of hot water
Theory
Shell and Tube heat exchangers are most commonly used in heating or cooling process
fluids and gases. Typically found in applications where a need to heat or cool large
volumes exists; however small volume applications are also very common. Shell and tube
heat exchangers are frequently selected for such applications as:
• liquid or gas cooling

• Process or refrigerant vapor or steam condensing
• Process liquid, or refrigerant evaporation
• Preheating of feed water in power plants
• Thermal energy conservation efforts, heat recovery
• Compressor, turbine and engine cooling
• Hydraulic oil cooling
Shell and tube heat exchangers have been around for over 150 years. Their thermal technology
and manufacturing methods are well defined and applied by the modern manufacturers.
The hot and cold fluid move through separate passages i.e.:
1. Tube side
2. Shell Side
The fluid moving through the shell side comes in contact with the outer walls of the
tubes. On the inside of the tubes the other fluid is passing. Heat is transferred between
the two fluids across the tube walls. Normally hot fluid is on the tube side while cold fluid
is on the shell side. The shell and tube heat exchangers come in a variety of designs e.g.
the shell side may be divided into two, three or four passes however the heat exchanger
we have is a single pass.
51
Figure 7. 1: One pass shell and tube heat exchanger
Formulae
Certain formulae to find out various quantities related to heat exchangers, specifically for this
experiment are given below.
∆𝑇ℎ= 𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛−𝑇ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 (K) ……………………………………………… 7.1
∆𝑇𝑐= 𝑇𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛 (K) ……………………………………………… 7.2

(W) ……………………………………………… 7.3
(W) ……………………………………………… 7.4
Where
𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛= 𝐻𝑜𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑚̇𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡= 𝐻𝑜𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑚̇𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
∆𝑇ℎ= 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑚̇𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛=
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑚̇𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑒
𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑄̇
Global Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)
52
Global Heat Transfer Coefficient U is defined as a factor that, for a given geometric and
hydrodynamic configuration, provides the total amount of transferred heat rate when
multiplying it by the heat exchange area and by the temperature difference between hot
and cold medium. The temperature difference between hot and cold fluid varies along
the length of exchanger. Thus, defining an average value, ∆T𝑎𝑣𝑔 is required for the
calculation of total heat rate exchanged:
(W) ……………………………………………… 7.6
From the analysis developed in most of the text books dealing with heat transfer, we may
find that the appropriate average temperature difference is a logarithmic mean
temperature difference, ∆T𝑙𝑚̇ i.e. Log mean temperature difference given below:
(K) ……………………………………………… 7.7
Where
∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ,−𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛 (𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
∆𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ,−𝑇𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ,−𝑇𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
∆𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ,−𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛 (𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
We may see that for equal input and output temperatures ∆T𝑙𝑚̇ is greater for
countercurrent than for parallel flow. Thus the area required for a specific q heat transfer
rate is smaller for countercurrent than for parallel flow, assuming the same U value.
Overall/Global heat transfer coefficient,
(W/m2-K) ……………………………… 7.8
Effectiveness of the Heat Exchanger

First we may define effectiveness as the coefficient between the actual heat exchanged and the
maximum that may be transferred in an infinite area exchanger in countercurrent flow.
(%) ……………………………………………… 7.9
where
53
To calculate 𝑄̇𝑚̇𝑎𝑥 we have two different cases:
1 If because the hot fluid experience

the highest change in temperature
2 If because the cold fluid experience
the highest temperature change, being (𝑇ℎ,−𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛) the highest possible difference
in temperature that may experience one of the two fluids.
Therefore, effectiveness may be:
(1) …………………………………………… 7.10
(1) …………………………………………… 7.11
NTU Effectiveness method

What if we don’t know outlet temperatures of the hot and cold medium and we need to
know the effectiveness of a heat exchanger? The answer is explained below:
The number of transmission units (NTU) is non-dimensional parameter widely used for heat
exchanger analysis being defined as:
……………………………………………… 7.12
We may define capacity coefficient as:
……………………………………………… 7.13
Now ε can be expressed as a function of NTU and CR as:
For parallel flow …………………………… 7.14
For counter flow …………………………… 7.15
54
Once the effectiveness has been calculated, the temperatures at the outlet of the exchanger will
be:
If
𝑇ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡= 𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛−𝜀(𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛−𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛) (K) ……..………………………… 7.16
𝑇𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡= 𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛+ 𝐶𝑅(𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛−𝑇ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡) (K) ………………………………… 7.17
If
𝑐,= 𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛+ 𝜀(𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛−𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛) (K) …………………………………… 7.18

𝑇ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡= 𝑇ℎ,𝑖𝑛−𝐶𝑅(𝑇𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑇𝑐,𝑖𝑛) (K) ……………………………… 7.19
Apparatus
The Gunt Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger allows the study of heat transfer between hot
water flowing through an internal tube and cold water flowing in the annular area lying
between the internal and external tube.
Figure 7.1: Service Unit
Figure 7.2: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Procedure for Experiment:
1. Verify that the valves are opened and desired flow configuration is set
55
2. Verify that the heating tank is filled with water over the level switch
3. Turn on the cold water supply and control the valve so that the flow rate is at desired level.
4. Set the tank temperature at 40 ºC
5. Keeping the tank temperature constant, start varying the pump speed to change the hot
water flow rate
6. At each value of the flow rate note down the temperature and flow rate readings
7. Find experimental effectiveness values and the global heat transfer coefficient for each
reading
8. For the second part keep a constant flow rate of hot water
9. For the first reading set the tank temperature at 40 ºC 10.Vary the tank temperature by
increasing from set point TIC7.
11. At each value of TIC-7, note down the readings of temperature and flow rate sensors
12. Calculate the value of heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness for each case.At the end,
turn off the heater, then the pump
13. Shutdown the equipment and valves.
Constants:
Density of water = 987.1 kg/m3
l/min
,
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
Mean heat transfer area = 0.02 m2
Table 7.1 Countercurrent –Observations (Hot Water Flow Rate Constant)

Hot Water Temperature
TIC-7
40
45
50
55
60
Table 7.2 Countercurrent-Calculations
56
Effectiveness
NTU
W K K K W/m2/K
Table 7.3 Counter Current Flow-Observations (Hot Water Temp: 40 )
Table 7.4 Counter Current Flow-Calculations
Effectiveness
NTU
W K K K W/m2/K
Analysis:
• Plot the graph of U versus hot water temperature (For constant pump speed case)
• Plot the graph of U versus hot water flow rate (For constant Hot water temperature
case)
Q 1. What is the effect of changing pump speed and hot water temperature on the effectiveness
and the overall heat transfer coefficient?
57
Q2. Explain the terms single pass, double pass flow in heat exchangers?
Q3. Write some applications of shell and tube heat exchangers?
Q4. Write the factors which are considered as bottleneck to the effective heat transfer in shell
and tube heat exchangers?
58
Experiment # 7
7. Plate Heat Exchanger

Objective
To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient and efficiency in a plate heat exchanger
Theory
The plate heat exchanger normally consists of corrugated plates assembled into a frame. The
hot fluid flows in one direction in alternating chambers while the cold fluid flows in true
counter-current flow in the other alternating chambers. A schematic diagram of the flow is
shown in Figure 2. The fluids are directed into their proper chambers either by a suitable
gasket or a weld depending on the type of exchanger chosen. Traditionally, plate and frame
exchangers have been used almost exclusively for liquid to liquid heat transfer. The best
example is in the dairy industry. Today, many variations of the plate technology have proven
useful in applications where a phase change occurs as well. This includes condensing duties
as well as vaporization duties. Plate heat exchangers are best known for having overall heat
transfer coefficients (U-values) in excess of 3–5 times the U-value in a shell and tube
designed for the same service.
Plate heat exchanger is an attractive option when more expensive materials of construction
can be employed. The significantly higher U-value results in far less area for a given
application. The higher U-values are obtained by inducing turbulence between the plate
surfaces. Owing to this they are also known to minimize the fouling.
Fig.8.1: Plate heat exchanger
Fig. 8.2: Plate heat exchanger Schematic

1. Secure plate heat exchanger on base plate of service unit.
59
2. Check the water level in the hot water tank. It should be at least 0.5 L above the minimum
level indicator.
3. Turn on pump and heater.
4. Set parallel or counter flow configuration.
5. Set desire hot water set point from TIC7 controller and wait for desire temperature.
6. Open cold and hot water flow to heat exchanger.
7. Note hot and cold water inlet and outlet temperatures.
8. Now calculate overall heat transfer coefficient and efficiency.
9. Repeat same steps for other heat exchangers.
10. Turn off heater and then pump.
Technical Data
L x W x H: 400 x 230 x 85 mm
Number of plates: 6
Plate Material: Stainless steel
Heat Transfer Area: 0.048 m2

Hot Water Temperature
TIC-7
40
45
50
55
60
Effectiveness
NTU
W K K K W/m2/K
60
Effectiveness
NTU
W K K K W/m2/K
Analysis:
• Plot the graph of U versus hot water temperature (For constant pump speed case)
• Plot the graph of U versus hot water flow rate (For constant Hot water temperature
case)
Q 1. Based on results, in which case heat transfer is more, shell and tube heat exchanger or plate
heat exchanger?
61
Q2. Differentiate between fouling and scaling?
Q3. Write some applications of plate heat exchangers?
Q4. Write factors which can affect heat transfer in plate heat exchangers?
Q5. What factors you have to keep in mind while choosing a plate heat exchanger?
62
Experiment # 8
8. Tubular Heat Exchanger

Objective
To evaluate the performance characteristics of a double pipe heat exchanger under parallel
and counter flow configurations.
Theory
A double pipe heat exchanger, in its simplest form is just one pipe inside another larger pipe.
One fluid flows through the inside pipe and the other flows through the annulus between
the two pipes. After determining the required heat exchanger surface area, for either
counter flow or parallel flow, the pipe sizes and number of bends for the double pipe heat
exchanger can be selected. The flow pattern and the required heat exchange duty allows
calculation of the log mean temperature difference together with an estimated overall heat
transfer coefficient and heat transfer surface area. Then pipe sizes, pipe lengths and number
of bends can be determined.
Advantages
• Simple construction
• Connecting together several double tubes enables the heat transfer area to be varied by
changing the number of double tubes.
• Because it is possible to have large flow cross sections, the unit is also suitable for high
viscosity fluids and for products containing solid pieces or fibers.
• There is a hygienic advantage as the tube area is free of flow dead zones (important in the
food industry).
Fig 9.1 Tubular Heat Exchanger
63
Fig 9.2 Flow Arrangements in Tubular Heat Exchanger

1. Secure tubular heat exchanger on base plate of service unit.
2. Connect the plug for the hot water temperature, centre (TI2) measuring lead to the
appropriate socket.
3. Connect the plug for the cold water temperature, centre (TI5) measuring lead to the
appropriate socket.
4. Plug the couplings (7) for hot and cold water into the corresponding connections on the
tubular heat exchanger.
5. Check the water level in the hot water tank. It should be at least 0.5 L above the minimum
level indicator.
6. Turn on pump and heater.
7. Set parallel or counter flow configuration.
8. Set desire hot water set point from TIC7 controller and wait for desire temperature.
9. Open cold and hot water flow to heat exchanger.
10. Note hot and cold water inlet and outlet temperatures.
11. Now calculate overall heat transfer coefficient and efficiency.
12. Repeat same steps for other heat exchangers.
13. Turn off heater and then pump.

Hot Water Temperature T1 T3 T4 T6
TIC-7
40
45
50
55
60
64
W K K K W/m2/K
T1 T3 T4 T6
W K K K W/m2/K
Analysis:
• Plot the graph of U versus hot water temperature (For constant hot water flow)
• Plot the graph of U versus hot water flow rate (For constant Hot water temperature case)
65
Comments and Conclusion:
66
Experiment # 9
9. Jacketed Vessel with Stirrer and Coil Unit

Objective
To demonstrate the performance of jacketed vessel with stirring and record the measured value
time response
Theory
In many process engineering applications, several basic operations are combined, for
example a fluid is heated by another fluid while being stirred, with a chemical reaction taking
place at the same time. Such processes frequently take place in tanks.
Depending on the specific perspective, the corresponding tanks can have various
designations, including agitating vessels, chemical reactors or heated reaction tanks. The
process can generally be carried out in batches or continuously.
The Jacketed Vessel with Stirrer and Coil is a model of this type of tank. It focuses on
investigation of heat transfer. In this unit, heat transfer can occur through the wall of the
tank. To allow this, the tank has a double jacket and the outer jacket is insulated. As an
alternative to the double jacket, an internal heating coil can be used to transfer the heat.
The installed stirrer improves the heat transfer.
Fig. 10.1 shows the jacketed heat exchanger with base plate. After loosening the three
knurled screws (41), the transparent cover can be removed. Fig. 10.2 shows the cover with
the stirrer attached to it. Next to the stirrer is the immersion sleeve with temperature
sensor for measuring the water temperature in the tank.
Fig 10.1 Jacketed Vessel Fig 10.2 Jacketed Vessel Cover with stirrer
67
The top view of the open jacketed heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 10.3. As well as the
heating coil (52) the flow breakers (51) attached to the tank wall can clearly be seen. They
ensure a good stirring effect by preventing rotation of the liquid in the tank. The tank is filled
with cold water before an experiment. This cold water in the tank is then heated by hot
water. The schematic view in Fig. 10.4 illustrates the experiment options:
(a) Heating with hot water flowing through the heating jacket
(b) Heating with hot water flowing through the heating coil
As determined by the two different coupling designs (7), only hot water (red) can be connected.
Fig. 10.5 explains the water connections for this unit. The cold water return (E) can be
identified by the ball valve (V4). The tank can be drained by opening the ball valve V4. The
tank can be filled with cold water using the cold water feed (B).
Fig 10.3 Top View Fig 10.4 Flow Schematic
68
Fig 10.5 Water Connections

1) Secure jacketed vessel heat exchanger on base plate of service unit.
2) Connect the plug for the stirrer cable to the connecting socket on the service unit.
3) Connect the measuring lead for water temperature in the tank to the corresponding socket
on the service unit.
4) Plug the couplings (7) for hot and cold water into the corresponding connections on the
heat exchanger, or manually add cold water (preferred).
5) Set hot water coupling to either jacket or heating coil as desired.
6) Check the water level in the hot water tank. It should be at least 0.5 L above the minimum
level indicator.
7) Set the main switch on.
8) Start the PC. Start data acquisition program.
9) Turn on pump and heater.
10) Set the desire hot water temperature at 70 0C.
11) Open cold and hot water flow to heat exchanger. Fully open hot water flow.
12) Start automatic measured values recording.
13) Start stirring, keep maximum speed.
14) Waite until cold water temperature reaches hot water temperature.
15) Save a screen shot for the time response of the measured values in a file.
16) When experiment is complete, turn off heater first and then pump.
69
Experiment # 10
10. Film-wise and Drop-wise Condensation

Introduction
Boiling and condensation are vital links in the transfer of heat from a hot to a colder
region in countless applications, e. g. Thermal and nuclear power generation in steam plants,
refrigeration, refining, heat transmission, etc.
Condenser is used to condense a gas (vapors) to convert it into a liquid form. Power
generation plants, sugar mills and fertilizer factories use different types of condensers
depending upon the need and requirement. A typical example of the use of a condenser can
be seen in the domestic refrigerator.
When the refrigerant vapors (usually Freon-R12) pass through the condenser, (which
acts as a heat exchanger) they reject heat to the surroundings and turn into liquid. But
during the hot summer season, the temperature of the surrounding is quite high and so the
heat rejection rate from the condenser to the surrounding is low. Due to this reason the
performance of the refrigerator also becomes low. Similar kinds of problems are
encountered in other applications involving both condensers and boilers. Purpose of this
experiment is to decide what kind of condensation and boiling mechanism should be
adopted to increase the performance of heat exchangers (condenser or boiler).
Objectives
Part I: Visual demonstration of filmwise, dropwise and nucleate boiling.

Part II: Measurement of heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient during
filmwise and dropwise condensation.
Theory
Condensation
When a vapor is exposed to a surface with temperature less than the saturation
temperature, then the heat transfer occurring is called condensation heat transfer. The
condensate (i.e. vapor converted into liquid) which is formed flows down the surface under
the influence of gravity. If the liquid does not wet the surface, the process is dropwise
condensation. The droplets formed flow over the surface along random paths. For those
liquids that wet the surface, the condensate form the film that builds up as it flows down the
surface and the process is called filmwise condensation.
70
Dropwise condensation
By specially treating the condensing surface, the surface becomes non- wettable and
as the vapor condenses, a large number of especially spherical drops form on its surface. The
drops become larger, coalesce, and then trickle downwards. The moving drops gather all the
static drops along their downward path, become larger, accelerate and leave a virtually bare
surface in its trail. The “bare” surface offers little resistance to the transfer of heat and very
high heat fluxes are therefore possible.
Film wise condensation

Unless specially treated, most materials used in the construction of heat exchangers
are “wettable” and during condensation a film of condensate spreads over the surface. More
vapors condense onto the outside of this film, increasing its thickness and causing it to flow
downward and drip from the lowest points.
The heat given up by the vapor during condensation is conducted through the film into the
metal beneath and from this to the coolant. A liquid is comparatively a poor conductor of
heat, and although the film may be relatively thin, its thermal resistance is appreciable. It is
this resistance which accounts for the large difference between the effectiveness of filmwise
and dropwise condensation.
Boiling
When a liquid at saturation is in contact with the surface of a solid (usually metal) at a
higher temperature, heat is transferred to the liquid and a phase change of some of the
liquid occurs. Although boiling is a process familiar to everyone, the production of vapor
bubbles is a very interesting and complex process.
Due to surface tension, the vapor inside a bubble must be at a higher pressure than the
surrounding liquid. The pressure difference increases as the diameter of the bubble
decreases, and is insignificant when the bubble is large.
Convective Boiling
When the heating surface temperature is slightly hotter than the saturation temperature of
the liquid, the excess vapor pressure is unlikely to produce bubbles. The locally warmed
liquid expands and the convection currents carry it to the liquid-vapor interface where
evaporation takes place and thermal equilibrium is restored. Thus in this mode, evaporation
takes place at small temperature differences and with no bubble formation.
Nucleate boiling
As the surface becomes hotter, the excess of vapor pressure over local liquid pressure
increases and eventually bubbles are formed. These occur at nucleating points on the hot surface
where minute gas pockets, existing in surface defects, form the nucleus for the formation of
bubble.
As soon as the bubble is formed, it expands rapidly as the warm liquid evaporates into it.
The buoyancy detaches the bubble from the surface and another starts to form.
71
Vigorous bubble formation and turbulence characterize nucleate boiling.
Exceptionally high heat transfer rates and heat transfer coefficients with moderate
temperature differences occur in nucleate boiling, and in practical applications, boiling is
nearly always in this mode.
Film Boiling
Above a critical surface-liquid temperature difference, it is found that the surface becomes
“vapor locked” and the liquid is unable to wet the surface. When this happens, there is a
considerable reduction in heat transfer rate. If the heat input to the metal is not immediately
reduced to match the lower ability of the surface to transfer heat, the metal temperature
will rise until radiation from the surface plus the limited film boiling heat transfer, is equal to
the energy input.
If the energy input is in the form of work (including electrical energy) there is no limit to the
temperature, which could be reached by the metal, and its temperature can rise until a
failure or a “burn out” occurs. Immersion heaters must obviously be designed with sufficient
area so that the heat flux never exceeds the critical value.
Apparatus
The unit consists of a vertical, thick glass steam chamber with nickel plated brass
cover plates, contains approximately 0.5 kg H2O, normally as saturated water and saturated
steam. The lower plate carries an electrical heating element, which converts water to steam
at a rate, which is determined by the electrical power input. This steam flows upwards to the
two condensers where it is condensed by transferring heat to the cooling water, and the
condensate returns to the lower end of the vessel for re-evaporation. Three baffles are fitted
in the chamber to reduce the amount of splashing, which results from the vigorous boiling.
The water-heating element is helical wound and is rated at 3kW. In thermal contact with the
upper coils of the element is a stain less steel pocket containing a thermocouple, which operates
a controller to isolate the heater in the event of overheating due to water shortage?
Film wise condenser is constructed from brass and copper components and incorporates a
heat exchanger to pre-heat the cooling water. This is to ensure that there is little variation in
the temperature of the outer copper shell onto which the steam condenses.
Drop wise condenser is similar to the film wise condenser except that the outer surface of the
shell is gold plated to promote drop wise condensation.
Procedure
Part I (refer to figure 8.1)

1. Check that there is sufficient water in the chamber to cover the element by about 30 mm.
2. Switch on the electrical supply and press the black reset switch to the left of the heater power
control.
3. Set the temperature indicator to the station 1.
4. Circulate the water through both condensers at a low rate.
5. Rotate the heater control to raise the temperature to about 80 C.
72
6. Turn the heater control knob fully anticlockwise to its minimum setting and carry out the air
extraction procedure.
Fully open the water jet pump control valve. Then press the green air extraction button,
thus drawing air and steam from the chamber. The button should be held depressed
until no further air bubbles are seen in the clear plastic tube visible through the aperture
in the panel. Release the green button and then control the jet water control valve.
7. Start the heating again and carry on until T1 reaches the desired value, say 100 C.
8. Adjust the condenser water flow rates until the surface temperatures of drop wise T 2 and film
wise T5 are equal and about 8 to 10 K less than T1.
Part II
1. Ensure that the water level in the chamber is correct.
2. Carry out the air extraction procedure.
3. Run the unit for about five minutes with a saturation temperature T 1 of 100 C and low
condenser water flow rates. This is to warm all components and to reduce condensation on
the glass.
4. Select the steam temperature T1 at 80 C, which is to be constant for the test.
5. Circulate water through the dropwise condenser at a low rate say 5 gm/ S and adjust the
heater input to maintain the selected value of T1.
6. Note the steam temperature T1, the surface temperature T2, the cooling water inlet
temperature T3, the water outlet temperature T4, and the water flow rate md and record these
values in Table 8.1
7. Increase the water flow rate to say 10 gm/ S and again adjust the heater input to bring the
steam temperature T1 to the selected value.
8. Again note T1, T2, T3, T4, and md.
9. Repeat at other flow rates up to the maximum and complete Table 8.1
10. Repeat in a similar manner but using the filmwise condenser with appropriate water flow
rates, observing T1, T5, T6, T7 and md, and complete Table 8.2
11. Repeat both values at other constant values of T1.
Observation and Comparison

The condensation process may now be observed and compared.
1. It will be seen that the rate at which condensate falls from the drop wise condenser is
several times greater than that at which it falls from the film wise condenser. This
indicates that for the same steam to surface temperature difference, drop wise
condensation causes a much higher rate of heat transfer.
2. In drop wise condensation, the steam condenses on the surface forming a large number
of static beads that grow in size. When a bead reaches a certain size, it breaks away and
rapidly runs down the surface, gathering all the static beads in its path. The surface in the
73
trail of bead is momentarily free from liquid but further beads of condensation quickly
appear.
3. In film wise condensation, the surface of the condenser is covered with an unbroken film
of liquid that steadily increases in thickness as it flows downward. The smooth surface of
the liquid film indicates that flow within it is probably laminar and that there will be little
or no mixing of hot outer layer with the cooler inner layer close to the condenser surface.
In this case, heat transfer from the condensing steam (on the outer layer of the film) to
the metal surface is by conduction through the film of liquid. Although the film has a small
thickness, its resistance is enough to account for the significant difference between the
heat transfers rates observed in 1.
74
Results
Table 11.1: Dropwise Condenser (observations)
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Chamber Pressure, Psat(kN m2)
Saturation Temperature T1( C)
Indicated Surface
Temperature
T2( C)
Water Inlet Temperature T3( C)
Water Outlet Temperature T4( C)
Water Flow Rate md (kg s-1)
Table 11.2: Filmwise condenser (observations)

Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Chamber Pressure, Psat(kN m2)
Saturation Temperature T1( C)
Indicated Surface
Temperature
T5( C)
Water Inlet Temperature T6( C)
Water Outlet Temperature T7( C)
Water Flow Rate md (kg s-1)
75
Temperature Drop Through Shell,
tmetal (K)
Corrected Steam to Surface Temp.
Difference, Tsat – Tsur (K)
Corrected Heat Transfer
Coefficient, h (kW m-2K-1)
Data Analysis
1. Plot heat flux against steam to surface temperature difference.
2. Plot surface heat transfer coefficient against steam to surface temperature difference.
3. Give comments on your plots.
Exercise
1. What is the difference between boiling and condensation?

76
2. Why are higher heat transfer rates experienced in drop wise condensation than in film
condensation?
3. What is the criterion for determining whether film or drop wise condensation will occur?
77
Experiment # 11
11-Flow Boiling Demonstration
Introduction:
In the design and construction of steam generators knowledge of the evaporation process is
essential. With the test rig WL 210 Demo Unit Flow Boiling, the evaporation process in
heated pipes, such as occurs in water-tube steam generators, can be demonstrated. The
different phases of evaporation occurring in a water tube are seen particularly clearly.
The following concepts can be demonstrated:
 Single-phase liquid flow

 Sub-cooled boiling
 Bubbly flow
 Slug flow
 Annular flow
 Film boiling
 Mist flow
 Single-phase vapor flow
 Wet steam
 Superheated vapor
The influence of parameters such as flow rate, temperature and pressure on the
evaporation process can also be examined experimentally. The evaporation process takes
place in a transparent, double-walled glass pipe. The pipe is heated with hot water in its
outershell.
78
79
Object of the Experiment:
The object of the experiment is to demonstrate the various
phases of evaporation and boiling in a water pipe heated from
an external source.
81
82
Student Experimental Results:
83
Part II: Chemical Reaction Kinetics
Equipments:
1) Supply Unit for Chemical Reactors
 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
 Tubular Reactor.
 Plug flow reactor
84
Experiment # 12
12. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor

Objectives
PAR I: To determine the influence of retention time on conversion of reactants into
Products.
Part II: To determine the influence of temperature on reaction conversion.
Theory
Continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) are the most basic of the continuous reactors used in
chemical processes. Continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTRs) are open systems; reactants
are continuously introduced into the reactor, while products are continuously removed.
CSTRs are very well mixed, so the contents have relatively uniform properties such as
temperature, density, etc. throughout.
Because the compositions of mixtures leaving a CSTR are those within the reactor, the
reaction driving forces, usually the reactant concentrations, are necessarily low. Therefore,
except for reaction orders zero- and negative, a CSTR requires the largest volume of the
reactor types to obtain desired conversions. However, the low driving force makes possible
better control of rapid exothermic and endothermic reactions. When high conversions of
reactants are needed, several CSTRs in series can be used. Multiple CSTRs can also be used
when two immiscible liquids or viscous liquids are present and require a high agitation rate.
Equally good results can be obtained by dividing a single vessel into compartments while
minimizing back-mixing and short-circuiting. The larger the number of CSTR stages, the
closer the performance approaches that of a tubular plug-flow reactor.
Continuous-flow stirred-tank reactors in series are simpler and easier to design for
isothermal operation than are tubular reactors. Reactions with narrow operating
temperature ranges or those requiring close control of reactant concentrations for optimum
selectivity benefit from series arrangements. If severe heat-transfer requirements are
85
imposed, heating or cooling zones can be incorporated within or external to the CSTR. For
example, impellers or centrally mounted draft tubes circulate liquid upward, then
17
downward through vertical heat-exchanger tubes. In a similar fashion, reactor contents can be
recycled through external heat exchangers.
The CSTR configuration is widely used in industrial applications and in wastewater treatment
units (i.e. activated sludge reactors).
Procedure
1. Connect CSTR hydraulically and electrically to supply unit.

2. Fill the educt tank for caustic soda with the prepared 0.2 molar caustic soda solution up to
the 2.5 L mark. Fill the educt tank for ethyl acetate solution up to the 2.5 L mark. Empty the
product tank.
3. Screw a combined temperature and conductivity transducer into the tapped hole of the
educt tank B1 for caustic soda.
4. Make the electrical connection for Conductivity / Temperature 1.
6. To measure the influence of the retention time, this experiment is carried out at ambient
temperature.
7. Turn on the heater, set the desired target temperature.
8. Turn on pump P1.
9. Step by step, reduce the speed of pump P2 (40min-1, 30min-1, 20min-1, 12min-1, 7min-1).
10. Set the overflow to, e.g., 10 cm and enter this value into the measurement data acquisition
program.
11. When the educt tank has reached the selected temperature, press the [lambda0] button in
the measurement data acquisition program to confirm that the initial conductivity is saved.
12. Unscrew the combined transducer from educt tank B1. Screw the same combined
transducer into the first reactor C1 of the stirred tanks in series.
13. Screw the third combined transducer into reactor C3 of the cascade.
14. After the last operating point has been reached: Turn off the pumps P1, P2 (CE 310.03 only:
also P3), the heater, and the stirring machine.
15. Empty and clean the module and the supply.
86
Figure 12.1: overview of supply unit
Figure 12.2: continuous stirred tank reactor

Technical Data
87
88
Experiment # 13
13- Tubular Reactor
Objectives
PAR I: To determine the influence of retention time on conversion of reactants into products.
Part II: To determine the influence of temperature on reaction conversion.
Theory
A tubular or plug flow reactor is a vessel through which flow is continuous, usually at steady
state, and configured so that conversion of the chemicals and other dependent variables are
functions of position within the reactor rather than of time. In the ideal tubular reactor, the
fluids flow as if they were solid plugs or pistons, and reaction time is the same for all flowing
material at any given tube cross section. Tubular reactors resemble batch reactors in
providing initially high driving forces, which diminish as the reactions progress down the
tubes.
Flow in tubular reactors can be laminar, as with viscous fluids in small-diameter tubes, and
greatly deviate from ideal plug-flow behaviour, or turbulent, as with gases. Turbulent flow
generally is preferred to laminar flow, because mixing and heat transfer are improved. For
slow reactions and especially in small laboratory and pilot-plant reactors, establishing
turbulent flow can result in inconveniently long reactors or may require unacceptably high
feed rates.
Procedure
1. Connect CSTR hydraulically and electrically to supply unit.

2. Fill the educt tank for caustic soda with the prepared 0.2 molar caustic soda solution up to
the 2.5 L mark. Fill the educt tank for ethyl acetate solution up to the 2.5 L mark. Empty the
product tank.
3. Screw a combined temperature and conductivity transducer into the tapped hole of the
educt tank B1 for caustic soda.
89
6. To measure the influence of the retention time, this experiment is carried out at ambient
temperature.
7. Turn on the heater, set the desired target temperature.
8. Turn on pump P1.
9. Step by step, reduce the speed of pump P2 (40min-1, 30min-1, 20min-1, 12min-1, 7min-1).
10. Set the overflow to, e.g., 10 cm and enter this value into the measurement data acquisition
program.
11. When the educt tank has reached the selected temperature, press the [lambda0] button in
the measurement data acquisition program to confirm that the initial conductivity is saved.
12. Unscrew the combined transducer from educt tank B1. Screw the same combined
transducer into the first reactor C1 of the stirred tanks in series.
13. Screw the third combined transducer into reactor C3 of the cascade.
14. After the last operating point has been reached: Turn off the pumps P1, P2 (CE 310.03 only:
also P3), the heater, and the stirring machine.
15. Empty and clean the module and the supply.
Figure 13.1: overview of supply unit
90
Figure 13.2 Tubular reactor
91
Technical Data
92
93
Part III- Thermodynamics

Equipments:
1) Steam Power plant with steam engine
2) Absorption Refrigeration Unit
3) Temperature Measurement Unit
93
Experiment # 14
14- Temperature Measurement Unit

Objectives
Part I: To know, how to use the following temperature measuring devices:

1. Expansion thermometers
2. Change of state devices
3. Thermo-Resistive
4. Whirling Hygrometer
Part II: To know, how to use whirling hygrometer to determine the relative humidity in the
atmosphere.
Part III: To compare the characteristic responses and accuracy of these temperature
Measurement devices.
Theory
Introduction to some important temperature measurement devices is given below.
1. Expansion Thermometer
(i) Liquid Filled Thermometer

This type of thermometer depends on the expansion of a liquid associated with an increase
in temperature. The most common is the mercury-in-glass thermometer. This
thermometer consists of a capillary tube with a bulbous end. Clean dry mercury is
introduced and the thermometer heated to drive off the air. The end is then sealed leaving
mercury and mercury vapor only.
The mercury-in-glass thermometer is an accurate device but is very fragile and care should
be exercised in use. This type of thermometer cannot be used in application such as the
food industry where mercury poisoning could occur in event of breakage. Other fluids
according to the application may replace the mercury. For example, the alcohol is cheaper
and may be used at lower temperatures than mercury.
94
(ii) Vapor Pressure Thermometer
For industrial applications, the liquid-in-glass is far from suitable due to its fragility and
difficulty in reading. In these applications a metal container replaces glass and mechanical
indication is substituted. One example of this type of thermometer is vapor pressure
thermometer.
This consists of a metal bulb, Partially filled with fluid, which is connected to the sensing
element of a Bourdon gauge. The space above the fluid is filled with the vapor of the fluid,
the pressure of which is displayed on the Bourdon gauge. The gauge is calibrated directly in
units of temperature corresponding to the equivalent pressure of the vapor. The
calibration is far from linear because the vapor pressure increases rapidly at high
temperatures. For this reason, vapor pressure thermometer is suitable only for operations
over short ranges of temperatures and suffers from lack of sensitivity.
Vapor pressure thermometers offer the advantage of remote reading. Correct orientation of
the bulb and gauge should be preserved for accurate results.
(iii) Bimetal Thermometer

Expansion of solids may be used to measure temperature but direct measurement is
impractical due to the very small movements involved. However if two thin metal strips,
having different coefficients of linear expansion are mechanically fastened together, the
result is a strip that bends significantly when heated. This combination is called a bimetal
strip and coiling the strip into a spiral may increase the sensitivity. One end of the strip is
fixed to the case and a pointer is attached to the other end. A linear scale may be obtained
by suitable choice of metals.
This type of thermometer is very robust and has many applications throughout the industry
where accuracy of measurement is not important.

A change of state device is designed for use where a permanent record of temperature is
required or access is impractical during operation. Such indicator consists of a substance
which changes color when heated to certain temperature. The indicator is irreversible and
cannot be reused. The strip indicators incorporate small areas that change color at
different calibrated temperatures. After use the maximum temperature reached is
indicated by the color changes which have occurred.
3. Thermocouples
95
A thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metal joined together at one end. When
the metallic junctions heated, an e.m.f is generated known as Peltier e.m.f. By suitable
connection of junctions and instrumentation, a circuit can be created which may be used to
determine temperature difference.
4. Thermo-Resistive Element
Electrical resistance of most of the materials changes with temperature and may be utilized
in the measurement of the temperature. The resistance temperature characteristics
however differ widely from material to material and care has to exercised in selection of
suitable elements. Two common types of resistive elements are included on the Bench.
(i) Platinum Resistance element

Metals such as nickel, copper and tungsten are commonly used as resistive elements for
temperature measurement. However platinum is the most widely used material due to its
reliability. The resistance thermometer provides a near linear , temperature resistance
relationship that is stable over long period.
The element itself usually consists of a length of platinum wire which is trimmed in length
to give an accurate resistance of 100Ωat 0ºC. The wire is wound to an insulated former and
protected by additional insulation, the whole assembly being encase in a metal shell.
(ii) Thermistor
The thermistor is a thermally sensitive variable resistor, which is made from
semiconducting material. The change in resistance with temperature is far greater than in
case of metals, which means less sensitive instrumentation may be used.
The wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer consists of two liquid-in-glass thermometers
mounted in a frame, one of which is equipped with a water saturated wick over the sensing
bulb. Evaporation of water from the wick causes a reduction in the temperature, the
magnitude of this reduction depending upon the ambient temperature, relative humidity
and the velocity of the air past the bulb. The assembly is whirled to promote air flow past
the bulbs and the temperatures of the two bulbs are noted. The wet bulb thermometer will
be depressed relative to the dry bulb, i.e. wet bulb depression = dry bulb temperature –
wet bulb temperature.
Thermal Response
The thermal response of a thermometer to changes in temperature is probably the most
important characteristic to consider when selecting instrumentation for a Particular
application
96
A thermometer may be extremely accurate and suitable in performance but totally
unsuitable for use in a dynamic situation, due to a time lag between system temperature
and thermometer reading.
The response of a thermometer is defined by the time taken for the temperature reading
to change by 63.2% of the step change, where step change is the difference between the
system temperature and temperature indicated on thermometer before it is inserted into
the system. For any thermometer, this value will be a constant value irrespective of the
step change and is defined as the time constant for the thermometer. The time constant
and the response profile for a thermometer will change, if the system is modified. For
example, the speed of response of a thermometer will be slowed down if it is protected
from the system being measured by the thermometer. There can be other similar system
modifications that may change thermal response of a thermometer.
Procedure
• Connect the reference sensor to its socket and connect the PRT to the millivoltmeter
and the constant current source. Note that the PRT is connected as a four wire device.
• Put the reference sensor and the PRT into the icebox (through the holes in its lid). Wait
a few minutes for the readings to stabilize and record them (reference temperature
should be between 0°C and 1°C).
• Now put both devices into the heater tank (through the holes in its lid). Switch on the
heater and note the reference temperature.
• At intervals of 10°C (shown by the reference temperature), record the input 1 readings
of the millivoltmeter.
• Stop the experiment and switch off the heater when the reference temperature
reaches 100°C.
Results Analysis
• Given that the constant current is 1 mA, use Ohm’s law to calculate the resistance of
the PRT for each row in your table.
• Plot a chart of resistance (vertical axis) against temperature (horizontal axis). Start the
vertical axis at 100 Ohm.
• Draw a best curve through your results to see how the PRT gives a good linear
resistance change over the range 0 to 100°C. Note that resistance increases with
temperature (positive temperature coefficient).
• On your results table, find the difference between the standard and your results (the
deviation) and calculate the percentage error.
Percentage error = (deviation/standard) x 100
97
Table 1.1
THERMOCOUPLE CALIBRATION
Reference Measured Measured

Standard Voltage Deviation
Temperature Voltage Voltage Error %
(µV) (Ω)
(oC) (mV) (µV)
Table 1.2
NTC THERMISTER CALIBRATION
98
Reference Measured Calculated Standard
Deviation Error
Temperature Voltage Resistance Resistance
(Ω) %
(oC) (mV) (Ω) (Ω)
99
1. From your results, can you understand why we can use the PRT as an accurate reference
sensor?
2. Can you identify any possible causes of errors in your readings?
3. What type of thermometer should be selected to communicate the temperature to the control
room?
100
4. What type of thermometer should be used to observe the temperature from relatively larger
distances?
5. What type of thermometer is commonly used to indicate the radiator water temperature in an
automobile?
6. Identify the instruments that you came across with in this experiment. Also explain their uses in
modern industry.
101
Experiment # 15
15- Absorption Refrigeration System
Introduction:
In refrigeration engineering are mainly two different types of systems found:
– Compression refrigeration systems
– Absorption refrigeration systems
Absorption refrigeration systems are powered by thermal energy while compression
refrigeration systems require a mechanical drive. The ET 480 absorption refrigeration
system demonstration model is a fully functional absorption refrigeration system. The ET
480 is heated with propane gas or electrically and works with an ammonia/water mixture.
The clear table-top arrangement makes the different circuits easy to understand.
Temperature transducers at obvious points in the media circuits clearly indicate the
individual sections of the refrigeration process.
Objectives of unit, target group and learning content
The ET 480 demonstration model is designed for use in education and training.
The learning objectives are:
• To demonstrate the fundamental principle of an absorption refrigeration system.
• To learn about absorption refrigeration systems and their main components.
• To learn about operating behavior under load.
102
103
104
Experiments
The selection of experiments makes no claims of completeness but is intended to be used
as a stimulus for your own experiments. The results shown are intended as a guide only.
Depending on the construction of the individual components, experimental skills and
environmental conditions, deviations may occur in the experiments. Nevertheless, the laws
can be clearly demonstrated.
NOTICE
Before starting a measuring series, reset the power display using the RST button.
Experiment aim
Demonstration experiments, electric heater, operating behavior under load (counter
heater).
105
106
107
108
109
Student Experimental Results:
110
Experiment # 16
16- Steam Power Plant with Steam Engine
111
Learning content/exercises
– Recording of a steam pressure curve
– Effect of additional evaporation
– Effect of the addition of cold water
– Determination of the fuel consumption
– Determination of the steam volume generated
– Determination of emitted power
– Determination of boiler efficiency
– Determination of condensation power
Equipment Layout:
112
113
114
115
116
Experiments
The selection of experiments makes no claims of completeness but is intended to be used
as a stimulus for your own experiments. The results shown are intended as a guide only.
Depending on the construction of the individual components, experimental skills and
environmental conditions, deviations may occur in the experiments. Nevertheless, the laws
can be clearly demonstrated.
Experiment 1 – Demonstration of function
Performing the experiment
When the steam engine is running slowly, the relationship between the movement of the
piston and the slider can be clearly observed. The steam engine can be stopped safely
using the flywheel and the power provided by the steam impressively demonstrated by
letting the flywheel rotate slowly through the hand. For this purpose a higher boiler
pressure is sensible. By opening the steam valve the timing of the inlet flow of the steam
can be clearly shown.
Experiment 2 – Plotting the steam pressure curve
117
– To achieve an exact temperature measurement, a small amount of steam must flow past
the temperature sensor T3. Open the steam valve a little on the steam engine.
– Slowly increase the pressure in the boiler and at the same time note the temperature T3
and pressure p1. Stop the experiment at 3 bar.
– The steam pressure can now be plotted against the temperature.
Experiment 3 – Demonstration of additional evaporation

– At 3 bar open the steam valve slightly and allow the steam engine to rotate slowly
without load.
– Observe the water level gauge. The water level is steady and can be clearly seen.
– Fully open the steam valve. To do this, apply a load to the steam engine with 2 bulbs.
Observe the water level gauge.
Experiment 4 – Demonstration of additional feed
– The water level should be in the lower third of the water level gauge.
– At 3 bar add, add plenty of water using the feed water pump and observe the
manometer. The pressure reduces rapidly. The cold water draws energy from the content
of the boiler and the production of steam collapses.
Experiment 5 – Calculations
– Adjust the gas flow rate to maximum.
– Set the cooling water flow rate to 50 L/h.
– Manually start the steam engine and leave to run at low speed without load.
– Adjust the steam valve so that a pressure of 4.0 bar is maintained.
– Set the gas flow rate to 50 L/h.
– Turn on two bulbs as a load.
– Wait until the system has reached a steady state. During this process do not forget to
add water.
Once a steady state has been reached, the measurements can be made.
– Place the measuring tank under the condensate drain valve V5 and open the valve. Pour
away accumulated condensate and plate the measuring tank underneath again.
118
– Read and note all measured values. The table in the Appendix can be used for this
purpose.
– Repeat the reading every 5min and ensure that the measured values change as little as
possible End the experiment after 10...20min. Determine the amount of condensation
using the measuring vessel.
119
Student Experiment Results:
120
Experiment # 17
1. Temperature Measurement Devices
Objectives
Part I: To know, how to use the following temperature measuring devices:
121
1. Expansion thermometers
3. Thermo-Resistive
Part II: Measuring the pt100 , NTC and thermocouple sensor with the phase transition
temperature of water
Part III: To compare the characteristic responses and accuracy of these temperature
measurement devices.
Theory
Introduction to some important temperature measurement devices is given below.

1. Expansion Thermometer
(iv) Liquid Filled Thermometer

This type of thermometer depends on the expansion of a liquid associated with an increase
in temperature. The most common is the mercury-in-glass thermometer. This
thermometer consists of a capillary tube with a bulbous end. Clean dry mercury is
introduced and the thermometer heated to drive off the air. The end is then sealed leaving
mercury and mercury vapor only.
The mercury-in-glass thermometer is an accurate device but is very fragile and care should
be exercised in use. This type of thermometer cannot be used in application such as the
food industry where mercury poisoning could occur in event of breakage. Other fluids
according to the application may replace the mercury. For example, the alcohol is cheaper
and may be used at lower temperatures than mercury.
(v) Vapour Pressure Thermometer

For industrial applications, the liquid-in-glass is far from suitable due to its fragility and
difficulty in reading. In these applications a metal container replaces glass and mechanical
indication is substituted. One example of this type of thermometer is vapor pressure
thermometer.
This consists of a metal bulb, partially filled with fluid, which is connected to the sensing
element of a Bourdon gauge. The space above the fluid is filled with the vapor of the fluid,
the pressure of which is displayed on the Bourdon gauge. The gauge is calibrated directly in
units of temperature corresponding to the equivalent pressure of the vapor. The
122
calibration is far from linear because the vapour pressure increases rapidly at high
temperatures. For this reason, vapour pressure thermometer is suitable only for operations
over short ranges of temperatures and suffers from lack of sensitivity.
Vapour pressure thermometers offer the advantage of remote reading. Correct orientation of
the bulb and gauge should be preserved for accurate results.
(vi) Bi-metal Thermometer
Expansion of solids may be used to measure temperature but direct measurement is
impractical due to the very small movements involved. However if two thin metal strips,
having different coefficients of linear expansion are mechanically fastened together, the
result is a strip that bends significantly when heated. This combination is called a bimetal
strip and coiling the strip into a spiral may increase the sensitivity. One end of the strip is
fixed to the case and a pointer is attached to the other end. A linear scale may be obtained
by suitable choice of metals.
This type of thermometer is very robust and has many applications throughout the industry
where accuracy of measurement is not important.

A change of state device is designed for use where a permanent record of temperature is
required or access is impractical during operation. Such indicator consists of a substance
which changes color when heated to certain temperature. The indicator is irreversible and
cannot be reused. The strip indicators incorporate small areas that change color at
different calibrated temperatures. After use the maximum temperature reached is
indicated by the color changes which have occurred.
3. Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metal joined together at one end. When
the metallic junctions heated, an e.m.f is generated known as Peltier e.m.f. By suitable
connection of junctions and instrumentation, a circuit can be created which may be used to
determine temperature difference.
4. Thermo-Resistive Element
Electrical resistance of most of the materials changes with temperature and may be utilized
in the measurement of the temperature. The resistance temperature characteristics
however differ widely from material to material and care has to exercised in selection of
suitable elements. Two common types of resistive elements are included on the Bench.
(iii) Platinum Resistance element

Metals such as nickel, copper and tungsten are commonly used as resistive elements for
temperature measurement. However platinum is the most widely used material due to its
123
reliability. The resistance thermometer provides a near linear , temperature resistance
relationship that is stable over long period.
The element itself usually consists of a length of platinum wire which is trimmed in length
to give an accurate resistance of 100Ωat 0ºC. The wire is wound to an insulated former and
protected by additional insulation, the whole assembly being encase in a metal shell.
(iv)Thermistor
The thermistor is a thermally sensitive variable resistor, which is made from
semiconducting material. The change in resistance with temperature is far greater than in
case of metals, which means less sensitive instrumentation may be used.
The wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer consists of two liquid-in-glass thermometers
mounted in a frame, one of which is equipped with a water saturated wick over the sensing
bulb. Evaporation of water from the wick causes a reduction in the temperature, the
magnitude of this reduction depending upon the ambient temperature, relative humidity
and the velocity of the air past the bulb. The assembly is whirled to promote air flow past
the bulbs and the temperatures of the two bulbs are noted. The wet bulb thermometer will
be depressed relative to the dry bulb, i.e. wet bulb depression = dry bulb temperature –
wet bulb temperature.
Thermal Response
The thermal response of a thermometer to changes in temperature is probably the most
important characteristic to consider when selecting instrumentation for a Particular
application
A thermometer may be extremely accurate and suitable in performance but totally

unsuitable for use in a dynamic situation, due to a time lag between system temperature
and thermometer reading.
The response of a thermometer is defined by the time taken for the temperature reading
to change by 63.2% of the step change, where step change is the difference between the
system temperature and temperature indicated on thermometer before it is inserted into
the system. For any thermometer, this value will be a constant value irrespective of the
step change and is defined as the time constant for the thermometer. The time constant
and the response profile for a thermometer will change, if the system is modified. For
example, the speed of response of a thermometer will be slowed down if it is protected
from the system being measured by the thermometer. There can be other similar system
modifications that may change thermal response of a thermometer.
124
Procedure
• Connect the reference sensor to its socket and connect the PRT to the milli voltmeter
and the constant current source. Note that the PRT is connected as a four wire device.
• Put the reference sensor and the PRT into the icebox (through the holes in its lid). Wait
a few minutes for the readings to stabilize and record them (reference temperature
should be between 0°C and 1°C).
• Now put both devices into the heater tank (through the holes in its lid). Switch on the
heater and note the reference temperature.
• At intervals of 10°C (shown by the reference temperature), record the input 1 readings
of the milli voltmeter.
• Stop the experiment and switch off the heater when the reference temperature
reaches 100°C.
Results Analysis
• Given that the constant current is 1 mA, use Ohm’s law to calculate the resistance of
the PRT for each row in your table.
• Plot a chart of resistance (vertical axis) against temperature (horizontal axis). Start the
vertical axis at 100 Ohm.
• Draw a best curve through your results to see how the PRT gives a good linear
resistance change over the range 0 to 100°C. Note that resistance increases with
temperature (positive temperature coefficient).
• On your results table, find the difference between the standard and your results (the
deviation) and calculate the percentage error.
Percentage error = (deviation/standard) x 100
125
126
127
Part - III
128
1. From your results, can you understand which type of temperature measuring device is
more accurate?
2. Can you identify any possible causes of errors in your readings?
3. What type of thermometer should be selected to communicate the temperature to the

control room?
129
4. What type of thermometer should be used to observe the temperature from relatively larger
distances?
5. What type of thermometer is commonly used to indicate the radiator water temperature in
an automobile?
6. Identify the instruments that you came across with in this experiment. Also explain their
uses in the modern industry.
130

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Chemical Engineering Department

Faculty of Materials and Chemical Engineering

GIK INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES &

Instructions and information

Complement to the Safety Instructions

Dealing with Electrical Systems

FIRE SECTION 2333 MEDICAL CENTRE 2434

Chemical Lab IV (CH 352L) Safety Regulations Agreement

Part I- Heat Transfer:

1. Conduction Heat Transfer

Part I: To determine the thermal conductivity of brass and steel samples.

Aluminum 200 120

Diamond, type 1 900 520

Limestone 1.5 0.87

Mercury 8.7 5.0

Hydrogen 0.18 0.10

Conduction Heat Transfer

Fourier Law of Conduction

where A is normal to the direction of transfer x, and k is the thermal conductivity.

where, heat transfer also is function of t and x.

q =htc A[TI - TII ]

Where htc is called the thermal contact coefficient.

q(r)= 2πLk(T1 -T2)

1. Select an intermediate position for the heater power control.

Figure 2.1: Composite with perfect thermal contact

Figure 2.2: Composite with imperfect thermal contact

Figure 2.3: One dimensional radial heat transfer in a hollow cylinder

Use following data in your calculations:

For axial flow-one dimensional heat transfer:

Conductivity of the Heater Length of the heater element =

For radial flow- two dimensional heat transfer:

Inner Radius of the Disc = External Side temperature

2. Thermal Conductivity of Fluids

PAR I: To determine the extent of incidental heat transfer.

Incidental Heat Transfer

Repeat above procedure and complete table 3.2

Figure 3.1: Thermal Conductivity of Fluids Apparatus

1. R, Nominal resistance of heating element = 53.61

qc = Heat conducted through air

qe = Electrical heat input = R

= Plug Surface Temperature = Electrical Heat Input

= Jacket Surface Temperature = Incidental Heat Transfer

= Temperature Difference = = Total length of the cylinder

Table 3.2: Measurements for WATER

3. Write your comments on the plots.

3. Convection Heat Transfer

Coefficient of Heat Transfer

Ambient Air Temperature, TA = __________ΔC

Ambient Air Temperature, TA = _______ C Heater Power Input, q = 50 Watts

Ambient Air Temperature, TA = ____ C Heater Power Input, q = _______Watts

0m/s Velocity 0.5m/S 1.0m/S Velocity 1.5m/S Velocity

4. Radiation Heat Transfer

=Stefan-Boltzmann constant whose value is 5.67 X10—8 W /m2 K4

Radiation Heat Transfer Rate

Q12 = A1 F12 (T41 – T42)

Light Passing through Non-opaque Matter

α is the absorptivity of the material,

I is the luminous intensity after traverse.

Thermal Radiation Apparatus: consists of a pair of electrically heated radiant heat

1. Horizental Bench Mount

Initial distance from radiometer to heat source, X = 110mm Initial

Initial distance from radiometer to heat source, X = 110mm Initial

Initial distance from radiometer to heat source, X = 300mm

Ambient Air Temperature, TA = C Heater Power Input, q = ___Watts