Dynamic Effects

Introduction

In the preceding chapters the longitudinal strength of a ship has been investigated on the basis of
a static calculation. Whilst this may be good enough for comparative purposes, it is of
importance to examine its validity.

There are two problems which must be discussed under the heading of dynamic effects.

First of all, the ship has been assumed to be poised statically on a wave, and the buoyant force
considered to be due to the hydrostatic pressure created by the head from the point under
consideration to the free surface of the wave. It will be shown presently that this assumption is
incorrect, and that, due to the motion of the particles of water, there is a correction to be made to
the pressure at any point in the wave.

The second point concerns the ship itself. If the ship is passing through waves, it will execute
oscillations and, so far as longitudinal strength considerations are concerned, the important
oscillations are heaving and pitching. As much of the theory of heaving and pitching as is
necessary for the present purpose will be discussed in this chapter, and the effect of these ship
motions on strength will be demonstrated

Dynamics Effects:

Dynamics effects of ship motion include the effect of inertia forces, the effect of speed and effect
of slamming.

(a) A ship in waves even if it is “hove to” or without forward motion experiences rolling,
pitching and heaving motions and the weight of every part of the ship and its load is
affected by inertia, or acceleration, or forces resulting from these motions.

For heaving inertia force =


Pitching inertia force =

z = heave amplitude
 r = distance from axis of pithching
 = Pitch angle

In either case, the inertia force is upward when acceleration is downward and downward
when acceleration is upward. Since a ship among waves is constantly rolling, pitching
and heaving, the apparent of effective weight of all parts of the ships is constantly
changing and also changing the load curve.

(b) The reduction in the apparent weight of the entire ship at the top of an upward heave tens
to reduce hogging moment on the crest of a wave. Conversely, the increase in apparent
weight at the bottom of a downward heave tends to increase the sagging moment in a
wave hollow. The corresponding effects of pitching accelerations, which are small near
amidships and largest sometimes approaching “g” near the ends are more indeterminate,
however in general the inertia forces resulting from pitching also tend to reduce the static
bending moments.

(c) A quiet different dynamic effect on hull bending moments is that resulting from forward
motion, even in smooth water, owing to change in waterline and in the distribution of
buoyancy when underway. A s speed increases, the wave profile becomes more
pronounced, and at sufficiently high speeds it evolves into a large wave creast near the
bow, a wave hollow amidships and creast near the stern resulting in an obvious sagging
moments. If at the same time the ship is being driven into head seas, the upward impact
of the oncoming seas on the bow results in an additional sagging moment, and a
compression on the entire body. The combination of all this has been known to buckle the
upper deck forward when driving the ship at too high speed into head seas.

(d) A third dynamic effect is the vibratory bending moment resulting from slamming or the
impact of the bow on the water during a large downward pitch. The magnitude of
slamming force is primarily dependent on the descending velocity of the bow and the
area subject to impact. The resulting oscillations have the two node vibration frequency
 of the ship. The vibratory stresses, called slamming stresses are additive to the wave
bending stresses which occurs at the frequency of the wave encounter.
The most severe slamming and slamming bending moments, occur when the pitching
period of the ship is approximately the same as the period of encounter (Synchronous
pitching). Slamming forces increase with the increasing wave height and with speed.
Increasing the draft results in a decrease both in slamming stress and in the speed range in
which slamming occurs but it may increase the bow flare slamming.

Properties of trochoidal wave:

 Motion decay with depth

The radius of orbits decays exponentially with depth. For a given depth h below the free surface,
the amplitude of the orbital motion is
rh= re-h/R
The amplitude on the sea bottom should be zero.
In our model this only happens at an infinite depth; therefore, the trochoidal wave model is
correct only in infinite depth seas. However, let us calculate the radius of the orbit at a depth
equal to half a wave length:

r/2 = r e(-/2R) 0'0043r, that is practically zero.

,

 Virtual gravity

A water particle moving along a circular orbit is subjected to two forces:

• its weight, mg\
• a centrifugal force, mr2, where  is the angular velocity of the particle.
 Figure: Forces on particle in wave surface

It can be shown that 2= g/R.

In the trough the two forces add up to mg(1+r/R) while on a wave crest the result is mg(1-r/R)

Thus, a floating body experiences the action of a virtual gravity acceleration whose value varies between
g(1 — r/R) and g(1+g/R) . One wave height-to
height length ratio frequently employed in Naval Architecture is
1/20. With this value the apparent gravity varies between 0.843g and 1.157g.The
.The variation of apparent
gravity, and consequently of buoyancy, in waves is known as the Smith effect, after the name of the
researcher who described
ibed it first in 1883. The reduction of virtual gravity on wave crest was considered
another cause of loss of stability in waves.
The influence of the motion of the water particles on the buoyancy of a ship amongst
waves:

The influence of the pressure in a wave upon the buoyancy was first discussed by W. E. Smith
and the correction made to static calculations is usually called the Smith effect, or the Smith
correction. The theory of wave motion that mostly stly used by naval architects is the trochoidal
theory. The trochoidal theory developed for waves on the surface of a fluid of finite depth shows
that the particles of water in the wave execute closed paths, and that these are elliptical. When
deep water is considered, and this generally means water whose depth is more than half a
wavelength, the ellipses become circles, and for thee surface particles it has been seen that the
h
radius ro is related to the height of the wave h, i.e. ro 
2
For the particles below the surface, the radius reduces
red as depth increases
ncreases and the radius at any
y

R
depth is given bv ros  ro e

Figure: Sub surface trochoid

where y is the depth below the free surface, and R is the radius of the “ rolling circle”, and is
equal to L/2.

This means that the sub-trochoids

trochoids diminish in height with depth below the surface, as shown in
Fig. 54, which indicates the structure of the wave. If the wave were of symmetrical form about a
horizontal axis, then in falling to rest the water level would coincide with the line of orbit centres
for a particular trochoid. Because, however, the wave is sharper at the crest than at the trough,
the still water level is below the line of orbit centres for a particular trochoid. It can be shown
that the distance between the two is i “ r2/2R” .
Figure : Line of orbit centers in relation to still water surface
Wave pressure (Smith Corrections):

One of the basic assumptions in the calculation of the bending moment on a vessel on trochoidal
wave is that pressure, and hence buoyancy, is directly proportional to the depth below the wave
surface. The influence of the pressure in a wave upon the buoyancy was first discussed by W. E.
Smith and showed that in a wave the pressure does not conforms the laws of the hydrostatics due
to centrifugal forces set up by the orbital motion of the particles in the wave. Therefore, the
pressure within a wave is not proportional to the depth below surface wave. Because the orbital
motions of the particles, the pressure and the buoyancy are reduced in the wave crest and
increase in the trough. This action provides a more distribution of the wave buoyancy and hence
decreases both hogging and sagging moments. The reduction in bending moments increases
rapidly with draft and can vary from 15% to as much as 50% or more.

The still water levels corresponding to the various trochoids are shown in Fig. 54. The trochoidal
theory shows that the pressure at any point in the wave is the same as that at the corresponding
still water level. Thus if a section at xx in the wave is considered, the pressure at the point B is
not due to the head AB but is due to the head A'B' where A' and B' are the still water levels
corresponding to A and B respectively. At the crest of the wave A'B' is less than
AB and at the trough of the wave A'B' is greater than AB. If a section of the ship is considered,
as in Fig. 55, it will be noted that, by finding the still water levels corresponding to a series of
points round the section, and setting up the distances between the still water levels corresponding
to those points and that at the free surface, it is possible to draw a virtual free surface as shown.
This is a curved line, and it lies above the free surface for a section in the trough, as shown at (a),
and below the free surface for a section at the crest as at (b). It will be seen that the virtual
immersed area is reduced at the crest and increased at the trough. The effect of this is to increase
the buoyancy of the ship in way of the trough and to reduce it in way df the crest. This in turn
means that the buoyancy curve is smoothed out, as shown in Fig. 56, and consequently the wave
bending moment acting on the ship is reduced.
Fernandez and Miller Method:

The difficulty in applying the smith correction to the buoyancy of a ship amongst waves is to
find at any point on the ship surface the trochoid which will pass through this point. Smith’s
approach to the problem was to treat it graphically, and this involved drawings a whole series of
sub-trochoid and finding their appropriate still water levels. There have been other approaches to
the problem and may be made to the work of Fernandez and Miller.

The method makes two basic assumptions which get over some of the difficulties associated with
the problem. These are:
(1) The trochoid wave form can be represented adequately by
2 x  ro 2  4 x 
r  ro cos  1  cos L 
L L
 Aro  Bro 2
where
2 x  4 x 
A  cos B  1  cos
L , L L 
This assumption get over the difficulty arising from the fact that in the trochoidal formula, it is
not possible to express one coordinate of the wave profile explicitly in terms of the other.
y

R
r  ro e
(2) Whilst the orbit radius of a sub trochoid should be given by , the decline of orbit
radius with depth is assumed to be linear instead of exponential. Thus if rod is the orbit radius
at depth d calculate from
d 2 d
 
R L
rod  ro e  ro e

 r r 
It will be assumed that ros  r0 1  o od  y 
 ro  d 
This linear assumption is not very far from the truth, the maximum error being of order of 1.5%
to 2.0%. In making the calculation, d should be chosen so as to cover the range of depth
required to for a particular problem, and a suitable value for this is the distance from the line of
the orbit centers for the surface trochoid to the bottom of the ship.
If z is the distance from the surface trochoid to some point on the surface of the ship, then
z  y  r  rs
Where
rs= height of the sub-trochoid at any position in the length
y = distance from orbit center line of surface trochoid to the orbit center line of sub trochoid
 z = distance from surface trochoid profile to sub trochoid profile.

The problem is to find rs and to do so it, it is first necessary to find ros, the orbit radius of the
sub-trochoid which passes through the point under consideration.
y  z  rs  r ,  y  z  rs  r 

 r r 
ros  ro 1   o od   z  r  rs  
 ro  d 
 r r 
ros  ro 1  o od   z  r  Aros  Bros 2  
 ro  d 
Rearranging this becomes ( quadratic equation of ros)
 r r   ro  rod   r r 
ros2  B   o od   ros 1   A  ro 1  o od   z  r    0
 d   d   ro  d 
The solution is
2
 ro  rod   r r  r r   ro  rod 
1   A  1  o od  A  4 B  o od  ro 1    z  r 
 d   d   d   ro  d 
ros 
 r r 
2 B  o od 
 d 
2
 ro  rod   r r   r r   r r   r r 
1   A  1  o od  A 1  4 B  o od  ro 1  o od   z  r   1  o od  A
 d   d   d   ro  d   d 
ros 
r r 
2 B  o od 
 d 
Expanding the 2nd term of the above equation
 2
 ro  rod   1  ro  rod   r r   ro  rod  
1   A  1  1   A  4 B  o od r
 o 1    z  r    ..........
 d   2  d   d   ro  d  

Then
r r   r r 
2 B  o od  ro 1  o od   z  r  
 d   ro  d 
ros 
 ro  rod   ro  rod 
1  d  A  2 B  d 
   
Finally
 r r   r r 
ro 1  o od   z  r   ro 1  o od   z  r  
ro  d ro  d
ros    ros   
 ro  rod   ro  rod 2 x 
1   A 1   cos 
 d  ,  d L 
All these quantities are known or can be calculated for any position in the length, so that the orbit
radius of the sub-trochoid can be determined.

The pressure at any point in the wave is the same as at the corresponding still water level. Thus
the pressure at the point Z below the free surface of the wave is found by finding the distance
between the still water level for the surface trochoid and that for the sub-trochoid passing
through the point under consideration.

ro2 ros2
Thus the pressure head (still water level to still water level)  y  
2R 2R
 ro2  ros2
 y 
L L
But the static pressure, z  y  rs  r

  ro2  ros2 
So the reduction in head is
 y  rs  r   y   
 L L 


  r  rs  
L
ro
2
 ros2 


dynamic pressure head  r  rs  
L
r o
2
 ros2 
Hence 
Static pressure head z
z  y  rs  r
In order to determine the effect of this on the buoyancy of the ship amongst waves, this change
in pressure head should be evaluated for a number of points across a section. It is then possible to
draw the virtual free surface, as shown in Fig. 55. The virtual immersed area can then be used in
a calculation to determine the buoyancy of the ship.

To determine the influence of the Smith correction, on longitudinal bending moments, it is first –
necessary to balance the ship on the wave, as for the static calculation. Two approaches can be
employed.

Suppose that the ship has already been balanced statically on the wave and the area of the
immersed cross-section at any position in the length is Ao. For a position of the wave 4 ft higher
than this let the area be A4, and let the Smith corrections to these areas be A'0 and A4 . It follows
that, if this alteration is made to the areas, the ship will be out of balance and the wave will have
to be raised or lowered and tilted to re-establish equilibrium. Let the movement of the wave at
any section be

x
y  a1  b1
L

The constants a1 and b1 will be determined from the following two equations:

 A4  A4    Ao  Ao   a x
 A o  Ao dx  
4


1  b1  V
L

And

x  A  A4    Ao  Ao   a  b x  x  V x
dx   4
 A o  Ao 
L 4
 1 1 
 LL L

Since

 A dx  V
o

And

x x
A o
L
dx  V
L

These equations become:

  A4  A4    Ao  Ao   a x
 A dx  
o
4


1  b1 0
L

x  A4  A4    Ao  Ao   a xx

 A L dx  
o
4


1  b1  0
LL

From which it is possible to solve for a1 and b1 and hence determine the corrected areas at any
section

The second method of approach would be to balance the ship in one single operation. In this, as
in the ordinary statical calculation, the area A0 would refer to the position of the wave originally
assumed, and A4 to the position 4 ft above this. The equations for balancing the ship will then be

 A4  A4    Ao  Ao   a  b x   V
 A o  Ao dx  
4



L

and

x  A  A4    Ao  Ao   a  b x  x  V x
dx   4
 A o  Ao 
L 4



LL L

In this method, it is not possible to find the wave bending moment without the application of the
Smith correction.

Once the modified areas have been obtained, it is a simple matter to calculate the bending
moment at any position. Calculations show that the effect of the Smith correction, on the wave
bending moment, can be quite considerable. For example, in reference (23) a calculation for a
rectangular box form shows that there is a reduction of some 30 %. As stated earlier, the effect of
the Smith correction is always to reduce the bending moment, because the buoyancy curve is
smoothed out. For this reason it has often been neglected, in view of the difficulty in applying it.
Influence of ship motions on longitudinal STRENGTH:
The ship has six degrees of freedom, three linear and three rotational. The resulting motions all
involve accelerations, and these in turn produce forces on the structure, it. addition to the purely
static forces.

The six possible motions of the ship are:

(1) Heaving. : Motion of the ship in a vertical direction.

(2) Surging: Motion of the ship backwards and forwards in the direction of its ahead motion.

(3) Swaying: An athwartship motion of the ship.

(4) Rolling: Rotation about a longitudinal axis.

(5) Pitching: Rotation about a transverse axis.

(6) Yawing: Rotation about a vertical axis.

All of these motions would to a greater or lesser extent produce forces on the ship, but in
considering the problem of the longitudinal strength of ships consideration will be limited to
heaving and pitching, as these only will affect the longitudinal bending moment. As a
preliminary study the motions of the ship in still water will be dealt with, after which a
discussion of the motion of the ship in regular seas will be considered, and finally some
reference will be made to ship motions in confused seas
 Heaving in still water:

Let A be the area of the water plane at which the ship would float at rest. Let V be the volume of
displacement and v the distance which the ship is displaced in a vertical direction, at any instant.
In the absence of damping forces, the equation of motion of the ship can easily be formed, on the
assumption that the ship is vertically sided in the neighbourhood of the waterline.

This assumption is necessary in order to produce a linear theory, and will be adopted throughout
the discussions on ship motions. Another factor which must be taken into account is the
influence of the water surrounding the ship. Briefly, this means that as the ship oscillates it
sets in motion the surrounding water, and in forming the equation of motion for the ship this
effect must be taken into account. It can be shown that the effect is as though the mass of the
ship were increased, and it is often referred to as added virtual mass. Evidence shows that the
added virtual mass can be at least equal to the mass of the ship itself and is therefore a factor
which cannot be neglected.
The equation of motion of the heaving ship can be written

d 2z
 V  V     gAz  0
dt 2

Where V can be called the added virtual mass, and  is the density of the fluid.

The solution of the above equation is

 gA 
z  B sin  t  
 V  V   


Where B is arbitrary constant and  is the phase angle.

The time period of motion is TH  2

V  V   and the vertical acceleration is
gA

d 2z gA 4 2
  z   z
dt 2 V  V   TH 2

It will be seen that short heaving periods will involve large accelerations and vice versa.
Actually, there is very little or no control over the period, once the form of the ship has been
decided upon, since it depends only on the volume of displacement (corrected for added virtual
mass) and the area of the waterline at which the ship is floating.

w  w 4 2 z
Heave weight per unit length = w   2
g TH
It is also necessary to modify the buoyancy curve for the effect of heaving. Suppose that the ship
is heaved into the water a distance z, which will correspond to the plus sign in above eqn, then
the additional buoyancy per foot is gbz, where b is the waterline breadth. On the assumption of
vertical-sidedness in the neighbourhood of the waterline, the total increase of buoyancy is simply
pgAz.
Equilibrium Equation before heaving

 W

After heaving

W  W  4 2
   gAz  W  z
g TH 2

The bending moment is then

 w  w 4 2 
M    w   2 z dxdx    gadxdx    gbz dxdx
 g TH 

Where a is the static cross sectional area

The change in bending moment due to heaving

 w  w 4 2 
    2 z dxdx    gbz dxdx
 g TH 
 Damped heaving in still water
In the previous section damping forces were neglected, but, in order to study the behaviour of
the ship amongst waves, it is necessary to consider the influence of damping. The main
cause of damping is the creation of surface waves. As the ship moves upwards and
downwards, a large amount of water is displaced and this results in the formation of
waves, which spread away from the ship and represent a loss of energy.

A simple solution to the damped oscillations of a ship can be obtained by assuming the damping
force to be proportional to the velocity. Thus
dz
F 
dt
And the equation of motion of the ship is
d 2z dz
 V  V  2
    gAz  0
dt dt
Or
d 2z  dz gA
 V  V   2
  z0
dt  V  V   dt V  V  
The solution of the above equation is

z  Be t sin  pt   

where


2  V  V  

2 gA 2
p  
V  V   4  2 V  V  2
The influence of damping is twofold. In the first place the amplitude of the motion gradually
becomes less and less, until theoretically it becomes zero, at infinite time. Usually, after a
sufficient lapse of time, the amplitude is sensibly equal to zero; in the case of heaving the
damping is quite large, and the motion of the ship is rapidly damped out. The second effect of
damping is to increase the heaving period. Now
 2 1
TH   2
p gA 2
 2
V  V   4  V  V  2

 
 
TH  2
V  V   1 
gA  2 
 1  2 2 
 4  V  V   gA 

It will be noted that the second term in the above equation represents the correction to the
undamped heaving period, and in many vibration and oscillation problems it is unity. There is
evidence that in the heaving problem this is not so, and some correction to the undamped period
should be made, to take account of damping.
According to Sims and Williams the influence of damping on pitching and heaving is to increase
the period by about 5 to 10%.

Accurate damping factors are very difficult to obtain, because it is not very easy to dissociate the
effect of damping from the effect of added virtual mass on the periods, and because, as stated
earlier, the motions are very quickly damped out, so that a long record of motion against time
cannot be obtained.
 Heaving Amongst regular waves

The elementary study of a ship heaving amongst waves assumes the waves to be of regular sine
form and to be long crested, that is to say, the waves are essentially two-dimensional. Figure 60
shows a ship moving at an angle a to the direction of motion of the waves. With the notation
adopted in the figure, the period of the waves relative to a stationary object is

gl 2 l
TW  l / v  l 
2 g

Because the ship has ahead speed, the period of encounter of the waves with the ship is altered.
The period of encounter TE is the time interval between two successive crests passing the same
point on the ship. It will be seen that
TE  V cos   v  TE  l

Hence
 l
TE 
V cos   v

or

l /v TW
TE  
1  V / v  cos  1  V / v  cos 

Period of Encounter
The absolute period of the waves may not be the same as the period of the waves encountered by a ship
during its travels. A ship heading directly into waves (in a head sea) will meet successive waves much more
quickly and the waves will appear to have a much shorter period. On the other hand, a ship moving in a
following sea will move away from the waves, which will then appear to have a longer period. If the waves
approach a moving ship from the broadside, there will be no difference between the absolute period of the
waves and the apparent period experienced by the ship

The period of waves thus encountered by the ship, known as the encountering period Te, is a function of the
absolute period of the wave, the ship speed, and the angle between the direction of wave travel and the
direction in which the ship is heading.

The encountering period Te (or the encountering frequency (= 2n/Te) is the important consideration in
regard to ship motion in waves, since the encountering period tells how the ship meets the waves, which
then affect the motion of the ship. Therefore, in all ship calculations, the encountering period (or frequency)
should be considered instead of the absolute wave period (or frequency).

Figure: Vessel moving in a regular wave train

The encountering angle , that is the angle between the direction of wave travel and the direction of the
ship’s heading, is measured in a clockwise manner from the direction of wave travel. When the ship is
heading into a train of regular waves, the angle  is considered to be 180°, as shown in Fig. 3.20a.
Similarly, it is shown in the figure that the encountering angles  for the following and, the beam sea are 0°
and 90°, respectively. It should be noted that, because of the symmetry of the ship on the sea surface, one
should consider only the encountering angles from 0 to 180°.

The expression for frequency of encounter when a vessel is traveling at an angle p from the advance of the
waves is now derived. Let
Lw = length of wave, Vw = speed of waveand V = speed of ship
The component of V in the direction of the waves if Vcos , while the relative speed of ship to waves is
Vw — Vcos . The time required by the ship to travel from one crest to the next is
Lw
Te 
Vw  V cos 
which is the period of encounter. But Lw  VwTw
VwTw Tw
where Tw is the wave period. Therefore Te  
Vw  V cos  V 
1    cos 
 Vw 
Note: When ship and waves are traveling in opposite directions, cos is negative.

Figure: Definition of heading angles, (a) Head sea. (b) Following sea. (c) Beam sea.
It will then be seen that the period of encounter or the apparent wave period, as it is sometimes
called, is reduced when the ship is moving into the sea, and will be increased when the ship is in
following seas.

In calculating the heaving force acting on the ship, it is assumed that the ship is vertically sided
in the neighbourhood of the waterline. Suppose that waves of height

2 t
h  ho cos
TW

approach the ship, then, if t is measured from the time when the wave crest is at midships, the
height of the wave above the still water level at any position x from amidships is

 2 t 2 x 
h  ho cos   
 TE l / cos  

 2 t 2 x cos  
h  ho cos   
 TE l 

In order to calculate the heaving force, the ship is imagined to be stationary, in so far as vertical
motion is concerned, and the waves to pass the ship slowly. Under these circumstances the
excess buoyant force (neglecting the Smith correction) at any instant, which is the heaving force,
is given by
L /2
 2 t 2 x cos  
H   gbho cos    dx
 L /2  TE l 
L /2
 2 t 2 x cos  2 t 2 x cos  
H   gbho  cos cos  sin sin  dx
 L /2  TE l TE l 

In general this cannot be taken any further without some knowledge of the shape of the
waterline, since b is a function of x. Some insight into the factors on which the heaving force
depends can be obtained by considering simplified forms.

For a vessel of constant rectangular cross-section it can be shown that

 gblho  L cos  2 t
H sin cos
 cos  l TE
   L cos  
sin  
H   gbLho  l  cos 2 t
  L cos   TE
 
 l 

 L cos 
Let 
l

 sin   2 t
H   gbLho   cos
   TE

Above equation shows first of all that the heaving force is a simple harmonic function of the
time, and this can he shown to be true no matter what shape of waterline is assumed. The force is
also dependent upon the direction of the waves.

(a) When  = 90 , for example, the heaving force reaches its maximum value of

2 t
H max   gbLho cos
TE

(b) It will be seen that another factor affecting the force is the ship length/wavelength ratio
(L/l). If L/l is large, i.e. the ship is in very small waves, the force tends to zero, whilst if
 L cos 
the waves are long, i.e. L/l is small,   0
l
2 t
the force becomes H max   gbLho cos
TE

and is independent of the direction of the waves. Finally the heaving force will depend upon the
waterline shape. In the light of this discussion it may be said that

2 t
H  H o cos
TE

for a form symmetrical about amidships, where H0 is the maximum heaving force and is a
function of direction of the waves, ship length/wave length ratio and the shape of the
waterline.
The equation for the heaving motion of the ship may now be formed and is as follows:

d2z dz 2 t
 V  V   2
    gAz  H 0 cos
dt dt TE
or
d 2z dz 2 t
2
 a1  a2 z  a3 cos
dt dt TE
where

a1 
 V  V  
gA
a2 
V  V 
H0
a3 
 V  V 

The solution of equation (84) is in two parts, one representing a transient damped oscillation in
the period of the ship, and the other the forced oscillation due to the heaving force H. The
complete solution is

2 t
z  Be   t sin( pt   )  C cos(  )
TE

Where  and  are the phase angles.

After a sufficient lapse of time the transient oscillation vanishes and the forced oscillation only is
left, viz.,

2 t
z  C cos( )
TE

The two unknowns in this expression for the forced oscillation are C and  and there are various
ways for finding their values. One method is to substitute the solution in the original equation
and find the values of C and  by equating coefficients on the two sides of the equation. This
leads to the following result:

2
 a1
TE
tan   
4 2
a3  2
TE

and, on substituting for al and a2 and rearranging

 2 TH
 (V  V ) gA TE
tan   
T2
1  H2
TE

TH/TE, called the tuning factor, is denoted by 


Let k 
 (V  V ) gA

So that

2k 
tan   
1  2

The value of C is given by

Y H
C where Y 
2 2 2  gA
1      2k  
The significance of Y is that it is the static heave, which would be produced by the application of
a static force equal to H, and hence the factor

C 1

Y 2 2 2
1      2k  
is what may be called the magnification factor. The motion of the ship is represented by

Y  2 t 
z cos   
2 2
1      2k   2
 TE 

By plotting z/ Y to a base of  the usual dynamic response diagram can be produced, as shown
in Fig. 61. The maximum response is obtained when the quantity under the root sign in (88) is a
minimum. The condition for this can be found by differentiating with respect to A and equatine
to zero. This gives
  2  1  2k 2

For lightly damped systems, i.e. when K is small, A is sensibly equal to unity, and this condition
is usually taken as the critical one, viz., where the frequency of the disturbing force is equal to
the natural frequency of the system. It would seem however, that, in the case of heaving,
damping is of sufficient magnitude to cause the position of maximum response to be at a value of
A somewhat less than unity.
 Influence of heaving amongst waves on longitudinal strength
 4 2 
The acceleration to which the various parts of the ship are subject is   2  z
 TE 

Here the period of encounter is the important factor and not the natural period of the ship. If the
expression for z is substituted, it follows that
 4 2  Y  2 t 
Acceleration    2   cos   
 TE  2 2
1      2  2
 TE 

At resonance, i.e. when A = 1, the acceleration becomes

 4 2  Y  2 t 
 2  cos   
 TE   2   TE 

This will in general be the greatest acceleration, and it is only the damping factor K which
prevents it from becoming infinite. In this condition tan =  and  = —90°, and the ship
achieves its maximum amplitude of heave, and hence its maximum acceleration, a quarter of a
period after the maximum heaving force has been applied to the ship.
 2 t   2 t 
cos   90   sin  
 TE   TE 
2 t 
  t  TE / 4
TE 2

 The maximum downward force causing the ship to be heaved into the wave will
generally occur when the crests are at the perpendiculars.
 The maximum heaving amplitude and acceleration will not, however, occur until the
wave has moved on a quarter of a wavelength.
 Thus the maximum dynamic bending moment due to the acceleration will not take place
at the same instant as when the static bending moment due to the ship being poised on the
wave is a maximum.
 This illustrates the point that it is not correct to take the maximum heaving acceleration
and calculate the dynamic bending moment, and add this to the maximum static bending
moment. What should be done is to calculate the instantaneous acceleration for several
 positions of the wave along the length of the ship, and for each of these positions
determine the static and dynamic bending moments.
 The total bending moment, at any instant, is the sum of these two moments. The greatest
value of this total bending moment should then be compared with the bending moment
obtained from purely static considerations, in order to find the influence of heaving on
the longitudinal bending moment.
 Several different directions of the waves should also be chosen since, although the effect
of wave direction is to increase the apparent wavelength, and probably therefore reduce
the static bending moment, at the same time the dynamic bending moment may be
increased because the heaving force is increased.
 In the foregoing, resonance between period of encounter and heaving period has been
considered. Where resonance does not occur the phase angle will not be —90 ', but will
have some other value. The same situation will hold however, viz., that the maximum
static, and maximum dynamic, bending moments will not necessarily occur at the same
instant.
 As period of encounter is affected by ship speed, it follows that the tuning factor is
similarly affected, and this in turn means that the magnification factor which affects the
heave amplitude, and hence the acceleration, is also affected by speed.
 In this way, it is seen that the bending moment on the ship is a function of ship speed,
but it does not necessarily always follow that increased speed means increased bending
moment. If an increase in speed should take the ship away from a resonant condition, it
may be that a reduction in bending moment will result.

The method of calculating the dynamic bending moment for heaving amongst waves is similar to
that for heaving in still water, except that in calculating the acceleration it must be remembered
that the period to be used is the period of encounter and not the natural period of oscillation of
the ship.
Pitching
The problem of the ship heaving has been dealt with at some length. In considering pitching only
the broad general conclusions will be given, since much of the work is similar to the heaving
problem, although pitching is a rotary motion.

Natural pitching period:

The natural pitching period can be derived by a consideration of Newton’s Second Law. Consider a

ship inclined at an angle  in the fore and aft direction as in Fig. 62. Then, allowing for the added
virtual mass due to the surrounding water, the equation o' motion can be written:

d 2 d
 V  V   K 2 2
   gV GZ  0
dt dt
allowing for a damping moment proportional to the angular velocity. This equation can be re-
written:
d 2  d gV
2
  GZ  0
dt  V  V    K dt V  V   K 2
2
The usual way of solving this equation is to make the metacentric c approximation GZ = GML.
This is certainly a very good approximation for pitching. Hence,
d 2  d gV
2
  GM L  0
dt  V  V    K dt V  V    K 2
2

The solution of the above equation is

  Be t sin  pt    as for heaving


2  V  V  K 2

gGM L V 2
p 
K 2 V  V   4  2 V  V  2 K 4

Thus

TP 
2 K V  V    1
gGM L V 2
1
4  2 V  V   VgGM L K 2

Or using Sims -Williams

TP 
2 K V  V   1
gGM L V 1 k 2

In this expression the value of k, if calculated, should be determined allowing for the distribution
of added virtual mass. The last term, viz. 1/ (1 - k2), shows the influence of damping on the
period, and, as stated in connection with heaving, this may result in an increase in the pitching
period of the order of 5-10 °.
 Pitching amongst waves
In order to study the pitching of the ship amongst waves, the pitching
moment must first of all be considered. The pitching moment can be written

x
 2 t 2 x cos  
M    gbho x cos    dx
0  TE l 

In this x should really be measured from the still water position o. the centre of buoyancy, but for
symmetrical forms this will be amidships, in which case the limits of the integral will be ± L/2.

If this expression is expanded, the pitching moment becomes

L /2
 2 t 2 x cos  2 t 2 x cos  
M   gbho x  cos cos  sin sin  dx
 L /2  TE l TE l 

and this for symmetrical forms can be written:

2 t
M  M o sin
TE

Where M0 is the maximum pitching moment for a given form and is a function of direction of
the waves, ship length/wave length ratio and the shape of the waterline.

The equation of motion for pitching amongst waves now becomes

d 2 d 2 t
 V  V    K 2 2
   gV GZ  M o cos
dt dt TE

d 2  d gV M0  2 t 
2
 2
 2
GZ  2
sin  
dt  V  V    K dt V  V    K  V  V    K  TE 

d 2  d gGM L V M0  2 t 
2
 2
 2
 2
sin  
dt  V  V    K dt K V  V    V  V   K  TE 

This equation is similar to that for heaving, and leads to a similar solution.
Neglecting the transient oscillation in the frequency of the ship itself, the
solution can be written:
  max  2 t 
 sin   
2 2
1      2k   2
 TE 

where max is the static pitch angle due to the application of the maximum
pitching moment, and

2k 
tan   
1  2

The same type of response curve is obtained as for heaving and the
2
maximum pitching amplitude is obtained when  = 1 - 2k . Once again for lightly damped
systems, resonance can be said to occur at =1 but it would seem that with the values of k
suggested by Sims and Williams resonance would probably occur at  = 0.85 to 0.90. It is worth
noting, however, that by assuming that the maximum amplitude occurs at A significant error in
the amplitude, and this is the quantity which affects the pitching acceleration. From above, when
A = 1.0 the pitching acceleration is given by

d 2 4 2  max  2 t 
  sin  
dt 2 TE 2 2k  TE 
and this has a maximum value of

 d 2  2 2  max
 2   
 dt max TE 2 k

At resonance the pitch angle lags a quarter of a period behind the maxi¬ mum pitching moment,
and this means that, as in heaving, the maximum static bending moment and the maximum
dynamic moment due to pitching do not necessarily occur at the same time.
 Influence of pitching on longitudinal strength

Unlike heaving, when the ship is pitching, every point is not subjected to the same acceleration.
If x is the distance of a particular point from the axis of oscillation, then the vertical acceleration
is
4 2
d 2 TE 2  max  2 t 
x  x sin  
dt 2 2 2 2 2k  TE 
1      2k  
At any instant therefore the vertical acceleration is proportional to the distance from the axis of
oscillation, so that

w d 2
Dynamic force = x 2
g dt
And

w d 2
Total force= w  x 2
g dt

The pitched weight curve will then he as shown in Fig. 63. As with heaving, added virtual mass
should be taken into account when calculating the effect of the acceleration on the weight curve.
The pitched buoyancy curve is obtained by considering the change in buoyancy when the ship is
inclined at an angle  to the static position. If  is the angle for which the acceleration d2/dt2 has
been calculated to determine the pitched weight curve, then
Increased buoyancy at any point = gx x  x b,
where b is the waterline breadth at x.

This assumes the ship to be wall-sided in the neighbourhood of the waterline, which assumption
has been made throughout this study. The pitched buoyancy curve then becomes as shown in
Fig. 63. The calculation of the shearing force and the bending moment proceeds as before, and,
in order .o calculate the total bending moment, the dynamic moment should be added to
the static moment corresponding to the position of the wave for which the dynamic moment has
been calculated. If it is desired to find the greatest total bending moment, several positions of the
wave should be assumed and the total moment calculated for each.