Influence of activated sludge flocculation
time on secondary clarification
Eric J . Wahlberg, T h o m a s M . Keinath,
ABSTRACT: The success of gravity separation of activated sludge from
a treated effluent depends on the flocculent nature of the mixed liquor
entering the secondary clarifier. Despite its importance to the overall
effectiveness of the activated sludge process, flocculation phenomena are
not routinely considered in the design and operation of the process.
Further optimization of the activated sludge process to meet higher per-
formance demands requires that the competing reactions of floc aggre-
gation and breakup be maximized and minimized, respectively. Ac-
cordingly, the goal of this study was to develop an improved understand-
ing of activated sludge flocculation.
A theoretically based and easily performed batchflocculationprocedure
was developed. The procedure enabled the quantification of the floc-
culation characteristics of activated sludges. The procedure was field ap-
plied, testing 30 activated sludges obtained at 21 full-scale facilities. Results
obtained during the field study indicated that the equilibrium concen-
tration of supernatant suspended solids following batch flocculation and
settling is comparable for a wide variety of activated sludges regardless
of the initial aggregative state of the mixed liquors or the aeration device
employed. The results indicated that flocculation of activated sludge
cannot be used to reduce supernatant suspended solids below a certain
limit. Moreover, the results indicated that attainment of equilibrium is
rapid; the activated sludge flocculation reaction in batch reactors was
99% complete within 10 minutes for all but six of the activated sludges
studied. Field-determined estimates of activated sludge flocculation
characteristics can be used to predict the performance of flocculators
placed either upstream of or in secondary clarifiers. These estimates also
can be used to determine the impact of altering process variables on
flocculation, thereby affording a procedure for optimizing an activated
sludge's flocculation potential. Water Environ. Res., 66, 779 (1994).
KEYWORDS: activated sludge, clarification, flocculation, model.
The quality of an effluent discharged from an activated sludge
system, the most commonly used for biologically treating mu-
nicipal and industrial wastewaters, is profoundly affected by the
solids capture efficiency of the secondary clarifier. The majority
of organic matter discharged from activated sludge systems is
particulate. In addition to being oxygen demanding, effluent sol-
ids contain significant concentrations of the nutrients nitrogen
and phosphorus, and the discharge of these two nutrients is
known to cause accelerated eutrophication in receiving waters.
Heavy metals and some non-biodegradable toxic organics dis-
charged into wastewater collection systems partition extensively
to the solid phase. As a result, these materials often are discharged
from activated sludge systems associated with effluent solids. In
addition, effluent solids may shield pathogenic microorganisms
from the desired effects of subsequent disinfection processes and
compromise the performance of downstream processes such as
filtration.
The success of gravity separation of activated sludge from a
treated effluent absolutely depends on the flocculent nature of
the mixed liquor entering the secondary clarifier. Most of the
September/October 1994
D e n n y S. Parker
biosolids in the effluent from well-designed secondary clarifiers
either have not been incorporated into or have been sheared
from a floe particle due to excessive turbulence. This fact has
been recognized by the water treatment industry, but only rel-
atively recently has it begun to be appreciated by activated sludge
design and operations professionals.
Because regulatory agencies increasingly are requiring high
performance efficiencies of the activated sludge process, it has
become imperative that flocculation of mixed liquors be opti-
mized. T o do so, the competing reactions of floc aggregation
and breakup must be maximized and minimized, respectively.
Accordingly, the primary goal of this study was to develop an
improved understanding of activated sludge flocculation thereby
affording activated sludge treatment plant designers and oper-
ators the tools to improve the suspended solids (SS) capture
efficiency of secondary clarifiers.
Objectives
Attaining the primary goal of this investigation required a
more complete understanding and quantification of the com-
peting reactions of activated sludge aggregation and breakup.
Specific study objectives included the following: to develop a
theoretically based, easily performed batch flocculation testing
procedure which defines activated sludge flocculation charac-
teristics; to establish the general utility of the batch flocculation
test procedure through field application at full-scale activated
sludge facilities; and to establish a data set of activated sludge
flocculation characteristics from which rational design and op-
erational guidelines can be formulated.
Background
Physical conditioning of activated sludge to improve SS cap-
ture without the addition of chemicals was first studied by Fischer
and Hillman (1940). Parker et al. (1970, 1971) subsequently
cited other literature relating to the physical conditioning of ac-
tivated sludge. Most of the studies cited focused on the input of
mechanical energy in the form of slow-speed stirring of the mixed
liquor prior to settling. Parker et al. (1970, 1971) concluded
there was significant potential for improving the quality of ac-
tivated sludge plant effluents by flocculation, although infor-
mation regarding the mixing intensities and detention times on
which flocculator design should be predicated was lacking.
In any turbulent flow regime, floc aggregation and breakup
occur simultaneously (Argaman and Kaufman, 1970; and Parker
et al, 1971). Based on theoretical considerations, Parker et al.
(1970, 1971, 1972) developed the following differential equation
describing the net rate of change in the number of primary par-
ticles with respect to time i n a batch reactor:
779
Wahlberg et al.

-1

m
no flocculation is equal to n ( n u m b e r s - L ) . In a constant G
0

= k*XG - k XnG (1)

at
A
system, Equation 3 also can be expressed as a simple decreasing
exponential:
where n is the primary particle number concentration (num-
- 1
b e r s ' L ) ; /, time (s); X, the mixed liquor suspended solids n = a + 0e
t
- x t
(4)
- 1
(MLSS) mass concentration ( g - L ) ; G, the root-mean-square
-1
velocity gradient (s ); k , the floe aggregation rate coefficient
A
The parameters of this equation are defined differently than those
- 1
( L - g ) ; k , the floe breakup rate coefficient (num-
B
of Equation 3: a is the equilibrium primary particle number
-1

bers • s m _ 1 _1
• g ); and m, the floe breakup rate exponent (dimen- concentration ( n u m b e r s - L ) , (3 is the difference between the
sionless). The first and second terms on the right-hand side of initial (that is, unflocculated) and equilibrium primary particle
_ 1

Equation 1 account for the formation and disappearance of pri- number concentrations (numbers • L ) , and X is the overall pri-
-1

mary particles by the mechanisms of floe breakup and aggre- mary particle removal rate (s ). The parameters of Equations
gation, respectively. 3 and 4 — k , k , n , «, ft and X—were used in this study to
A B 0

define an activated sludge's flocculation characteristics.

Performing a mass balance of primary particles around a con-
tinuous-flow flocculator results in the following equation:
Materials a n d M e t h o d s
«/ (1 + k XGI)
= A
Treatment plants. Flocculation characteristics were estimated
m
n E (1 + k DG T)
B
for 30 activated sludges obtained at 21 full-scale facilities located
in the Southeastern U.S. The influent flow to all the plants,
where n1 and n are the influent and effluent primary particle
E
3 - 1
_1 which ranged in size from 0.6 to 13 000 m • h , was primarily
number concentrations, respectively (numbers-L ), D is the
-1 municipal in origin; industrial wastewater was a small percentage
quotient X / n (g- numbers ), and T is the hydraulic residence
7
of the total flow to each of the plants.
time (s). Parker et al. (1971, 1972) performed a series of floc-
culation tests to verify their theoretical development. These tests Different aeration methods were used at the plants visited
were conducted in continuous-flow, completely-mixed floccu- (Table 1). Nine of the plants employed mechanical aerators;
lators in which G and T were varied. Primary particle number seven, course-bubble diffused aeration systems; and five, fine-
bubble diffused aeration systems. The George's Creek and
concentration was operationally defined as the mass concentra-
Golden Creek plants were oxidation ditches with brush-type
tion of SS remaining in the supernatant after 30 minutes of
aerators. The Gilder Creek plant also was an oxidation ditch,
settling. Results were presented in a series of graphs in which
but it employed conventional, turbine-type mechanical aerators.
performance was plotted as a function of G for constant T. They
At the Middle Branch plant, the fine-bubble air diffusers were
concluded that m was equal to 2, indicating that floc breakup
attached to a traveling bridge which circumscribed the aeration
occurred by erosion of primary particles from floc surfaces due
basin at a rotational velocity of approximately 0.5 rpm.
to eddies in the viscous dissipation subrange.
The use of G to characterize the mixing regime in flocculation Different modes of the activated sludge process were employed
at the plants visited. Twelve plants employed the completely-
systems has been challenged. Argaman and Kaufman (1970)
mixed mode (CMAS); seven, the conventional, or plug-flow,
argued that G does not account for the length and time scales
mode (CAS); and two, the contact-stabilization mode (CSAS).
over which spatial velocity fluctuations occur in any turbulent
The oxidation ditches were categorized as C M A S plants.
flow regime. Kalinske (1971) emphasized that different combi-
nations of scale and intensity, the basic parameters which char- The hydraulic design of the Ware Shoals plant included the
acterize turbulent flow, can yield the same value of G. Cleasby flow from a major industrial complex which no longer was op-
erational. As a result, the treatment plant was grossly underloaded
(1984) reasoned that the use of G was inappropriate because it
hydraulically. The mechanically-aerated flow-equalization basin
is valid only for the flocculation of particles smaller than the
was used as the aeration basin at the time the plant was visited.
Komolgoroff microscale. Unfortunately, more descriptive terms
for characterizing the flow regime in flocculation systems are Flocculation tests. A l l flocculation tests were performed on-
difficult to measure. The use of G in both Parker's study, and site. Two 6-paddle stirrers (Phipps and Bird) were used to floc-
this study is based primarily on its ease of determination, sim- culate the activated sludge samples. Flocculation was induced
by gentle stirring at a rotational velocity of 37.5 rpm, which
plicity, and widespread acceptance. -1
resulted in a measured G value of 15 s (Wahlberg, 1992). The
The continuous flow flocculators used by Parker et al. (1970,
bottoms of the rectangular paddles supplied by the manufacturer
1971) do not lend themselves for field use because elaborate
were approximately 50 mm above the bottom of the jar during
equipment is needed and the time required to achieve the req-
flocculation. Square jars (2 L) were used for the flocculation
uisite steady-state conditions can be extensive. O n this account,
studies obviating the need for any in-vessel baffling. During all
the theory was extended to allow quantification of an activated
flocculation tests, the stirrers and jars were placed in a water
sludge's flocculation characteristics using batch data. Assuming
bath filled with secondary clarifier effluent to maintain the mixed
k and k are independent of time and using a value of 2 for m,
A B
liquor samples at constant temperature.
integration of Equation 1 yields:
Mixed liquor samples were collected as near the aeration basin
kG B ( k G\ . B
outlet as possible using a 10-L bucket. The flocculation jars then
n = —
t + ( „ „ - — ) ™ e (3) were filled to the 1.5 L mark directly from this bucket with
minimal delay. Each jar, randomly assigned a flocculation time
This equation defines the primary particle number concentra- (from 0 to 64 minutes), was placed at a stirring station, and
_1
tion, n ( n u m b e r s - L ) , in a batch flocculator at time t. The
t
flocculation commenced. After the prescribed flocculation time
primary particle number concentration of the slurry receiving had elapsed, flocculation was stopped by removing the jar from

780 Water Environment R e s e a r c h , Volume 66, Number 6

 Wahlberg et al.

T a b l e 1 — M L S S a n d M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d flocculation parameter e s t i m a t e s for plants v i s i t e d .

MLSS, MLVSS, k X 10 ,
A
5
k X 10" ,
B
5
no, 0, X X 10~ , 3

1
1
Plant (AIR ) g-L- 1
L-g 1
NTU-s-L-g" NTU NTU NTU s- 1

Pendleton/Clemson (M) 2.570 10.7 12.2 40.8 17.0 23.7 4.14

Coneross (M) 3.710 2.560 10.5 4.65 17.6 6.67 10.9 5.82
Shoresbrook (CB) 2.272 1.811 51.8 49.5 29.0 14.3 14.6 17.7
Pacolet (CB) 2.246 1.739 19.0 6.86 10.9 5.40 5.49 6.41
Lawson Fork (M) 2.764 1.965 39.8 18.4 18.2 6.94 11.3 16.5
R. M. Clayton (FB) 3.677 2.663 19.2 3.79 7.29 2.97 4.32 10.6
Utoy Creek (CB) 2.335 1.728 37.2 5.00 15.9 2.01 13.9 13.0
Wilson Creek (M) 2.065 1.244 42.9 11.3 47.9 3.96 44.0 13.3
Coneross (M) 3.286 2.172 21.9 4.92 13.1 3.37 9.75 10.8
Middle Branch (FB) 2.557 1.946 31.6 3.32 2.52 1.58 0.94 12.1
George's Creek (M) 3.832 2.795 39.6 9.35 5.84 3.54 2.30 22.8
Golden Creek (M) 2.039 1.571 69.9 17.9 15.2 3.83 11.3 21.4
Due West (CB) 6.416 3.994 1.80 0.18 2.67 1.50 1.17 1.73
Ware Shoals (M) 0.478 0.275 93.6 130 69.2 20.8 48.4 6.71
Camp Creek (FB) 1.048 0.660 96.5 13.1 10.1 2.03 8.10 15.2
Gilder Creek (M) 2.431 1.953 45.9 6.57 10.9 2.14 8.75 16.8
Fairforest (M) 3.409 2.428 31.3 9.69 17.1 4.64 12.4 16.0
Coneross (M) 2.141 1.415 26.8 25.1 69.1 14.1 55.0 8.60
Manning (FB) 0.886 0.638 98.5 23.2 16.7 3.53 13.2 13.1
Rock Hill (FB) 4.908 3.340 13.5 10.6 42.0 11.7 30.3 9.94
Oakforest-3 (CB) 0.808 0.653 76.4 12.5 9.67 2.46 7.21 9.25
Coneross (M) 2.767 1.687 31.5 8.85 50.9 4.21 46.6 13.1
Oakforest-3 (CB) 0.695 0.528 41.9 19.3 14.9 6.93 7.99 4.36
Coneross (M) 1.967 1.177 32.6 13.3 53.8 6.12 47.7 9.61
Oakforest-3 (CB) 1.559 1.270 105 20.0 3.68 2.85 0.83 24.6
R. M. Clayton (FB) 3.046 2.106 29.7 6.39 22.3 3.23 19.1 13.6
Middle Branch (FB) 2.551 1.753 21.6 2.71 2.93 1.88 1.05 8.27
Coneross (M) 1.961 1.218 52.2 8.71 32.0 2.50 29.5 15.3
Utoy Creek (CB) 1.862 1.322 48.6 6.25 6.14 1.93 4.21 13.6
Oakforest-3 (CB) 2.773 2.184 23.7 4.32 4.07 2.74 1.33 9.84

1
AIR M = mechanical aeration, FB = fine-bubble aeration, and C B = course-bubble aeration.

the stirrer. Each jar remained i n the constant-temperature water spectively, of Standard Methods (1989). The M L S S concentra-
bath throughout the subsequent settling period. Any flocculation tion, X , is necessary when estimating the flocculation parameters,
that may have occurred as a result of differential settling during k , k , and n , of Equation 3.
A B 0

the settling period was considered inconsequential in the curve
fitting step described below.
After approximately 20 minutes of settling, floating solids and
scum were removed from the surface of the sample using a
flanged, j-shaped tube attached by flexible tubing to a portable
vacuum pump. After 30 minutes of settling, 200 m L of super-
natant were removed employing the same apparatus. The j -
shaped tube was submerged to the same depth during the col-
lection of all supernatant samples. A controlled air leak in the
vacuum tubing was used to set the supernatant and scum with-
_1
drawal rates at 20 m L • s so as not to disrupt the solids blanket.
The supernatant samples were collected in polypropylene bottles,
stored on ice, and analyzed i n the laboratory using a Hach Co.,
(Loveland C O ) Model 2100A Ratio Turbidimeter, calibrated in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Supernatant
turbidity after 30 minutes of settling was used as a surrogate
measure of the primary particle number concentration, justifi-
cation for which is given by Wahlberg (1992).
A composite sample of mixed liquor was collected while the
flocculation tests were underway and transported to the labo-
ratory on ice. The M L S S and M L V S S concentrations were de-
termined i n accordance with Methods 2540D and 2540E, re-
Methods 2540D of Standard Methods (1989) also was used
to determine the total SS concentration of a composite sample
of the replicate supernatant samples taken from the jars that
were not stirred during the flocculation tests. The turbidity of
this composite also was measured. The results from these analyses
were used to establish a functional relationship between SS con-
centration and turbidity.
The flocculation tests were conducted to determine the floc-
culation characteristics of the activated sludges studied; that is,
k , k , and n of Equation 3, and a, (3, and X of Equation 4.
A B 0
Estimates of these parameters were made by fitting these equa-
tions to the turbidityitime data collected in the flocculation tests
using a nonlinear curve fitting program (SAS, 1985). Although
the parameters in either Equation 3 or 4 can be determined
algebraically from the estimates of the parameters from the other
equation, the two equations were fitted to the data independently
of each other. In this manner, the flocculation parameters of
Equations 3 and 4 were estimated with known statistical prop-
erties. In fitting Equation 3 to the data, G was set equal to 15
1
s" and X was set equal to the M L S S concentration determined
on the mixed liquor composite sample obtained during the con-
duct of the flocculation tests.

September/October 1994 781

Wahlberg et al.

Results and Discussion

As indicated, a number of supernatant samples were analyzed
both for turbidity and SS concentration. From these results,
shown in Figure 1, a relationship was developed using linear 3
I-
least squares. This relationship, statistically shown to pass 2
through the origin, was of the following mathematical form:
•g
Xss=1.21n T (5)

where X is the SS mass concentration ( m g . L ) corresponding

s s

to a turbidity of n ( N T U ) . This expression was used to convert

T

between turbidity and SS mass concentration.

Experimental data resulting from the flocculation tests con-
ducted at four plants are shown in Figures 2 to 5 along with the
corresponding curve fits. These results are typical of those ob-
tained at all plants visited. As may be observed, the data are well
Flocculation time (min)
Figure 2—Turbidityitime data c o l l e c t e d at the P e n d l e t o n /
C l e m s o n plant o n J u n e 1, 1990, with batch flocculation
1

described by the curves despite the fact that supernatant turbidity curve fit ( k A = 0.000 107 ± 0.0 000 147 L g ; k B

was used as a surrogate measure of the primary particle number = 0.000 122 ± 0.0 000 202 N T U • s • L • g \ n = 40.8 ± 1.22 0

concentration. This observation indicates the applicability of N T U ; a = 17.0 ± 0.760 N T U , 0 = 23.7 ± 1.38 N T U , X
1

the theoretical development of Parker et al. (1970, 1971) to the
description of batch flocculation data.
The rapidity with which supernatant turbidity is removed in
a batch flocculator also is evident in Figures 2 to 5; the greatest
decrease in supernatant turbidity typically occurred within 2
minutes of flocculation. The implications of this observation to
design and operation are discussed below. However, this obser-
vation also has implications in terms of the testing procedure
used. Specifically, the estimation of the parameters occurring in
the exponents of Equations 3 and 4 (k and X, respectively) is
A sludge), the parameters in the equations are fundamentally dif-
particularly sensitive to the slope of the curves at low flocculation
= 0.00 413 ± 0.000 566 s ).
observations is that more data should be collected at flocculation
times between 0 and 2 minutes when the batch flocculation test
is performed in the future.
Although Equations 3 and 4 are of the same basic mathe-
matical form and are used to describe the same phenomenon
(primary particle removal during flocculation of activated
ferent. The parameters k and k in Equation 3 are coefficients
A B

times. Because the experimental plan followed throughout this that describe the rates of floc aggregation and breakup, respec-
study did not obtain data in this sensitive region, the standard tively, and n reflects the activated sludge's initial state of ag-
0

errors about the estimates of k and X tended to be large. Because

A gregation. The parameters of Equation 4—a, ft and X—represent
k occurs in association with k in Equation 3, the standard
A B the degree to which flocculation can remove residual supernatant
error about this latter estimate also was affected by the lack of turbidity, the amount of residual supernatant turbidity that can
data at low flocculation times. For example, the standard errors be removed by flocculation, and the overall rate of removal of
were 14, 17, 3, 4, 6, and 14% about the k , k , n , a, ft and X
A B 0 residual supernatant turbidity by flocculation, respectively. The
estimates for the activated sludge obtained at the Pendleton/ estimates of the flocculation parameters resulting from the fits
Clemson plant (Figure 2), respectively, and 5, 12, 1, 9, 2, and of Equations 3 and 4 to the raw turbidity:time data are given in
5% for the activated sludge obtained at the Wilson Creek plant Table 1. The individual flocculation parameters are discussed
(Figure 4), respectively. The conclusion to be drawn from these below.

< 1

6 3
i-
c

o JO

Oi

</)

-g
o , Flocculation time (min)
oo
Q>
Figure 3—Turbidityitime data c o l l e c t e d at the Utoy C r e e k
~o Turbidity (NTU)
c - plant o n July 19, 1990, with batch flocculation c u r v e fit
<D
Q.
Figure 1 — S u s p e n d e d s o l i d s (SS) concentration a n d tur- (k = 0.000 372 ± 0.0 000 298 L g , k = 0.000 050 1

V) A B

D 1
± 0 . 0 000 069 N T U ' S - L - g " , n = 15.9 ± 0.340 N T U ; a
Cbidity
O data c o l l e c t e d throughout the study with a linear 0

relationship function a n d 9 5 % S S concentration prediction = 2.01 ± 0.165 N T U , 0 = 13.9 ± 0.380 N T U , X = 0.0130

1
interval estimate. ± .00 104 s ).

782 Water Environment R e s e a r c h , Volume 66, Number 6

 Wahlberg et al.

which has been reported to yield large estimates of a and k B

(Wahlberg et al, 1992).

Based on the foregoing discussion, it seems reasonable not to
3
include the Ware Shoals k estimate in a discussion of the other
B

k estimates reported in Table 1. Without the Ware Shoals es-

B

timate, the other k estimates i n Table 1 averaged 11.7 X 10~

B
5

_ 1
N T U • s • L • g . Using Equation 5 to convert from N T U to SS
ZD
V- concentration and canceling units, this corresponds to 14.1
X 10~ s. The four k estimates reported by Parker et al (1970,
8
B

1971) ranged from 0.78 to 18.8 X 10~ s and averaged 7.29 9

X 10~ s. Estimates of k obtained in this study were approxi-

9
B

Flocculation time (min) mately an order of magnitude larger than those determined by
Parker et al. (1970, 1971). Again, this likely is attributable to
Figure 4—Turbidity:time d a t a c o l l e c t e d at the W i l s o n the different stirring devices (i.e., paddles) employed in the two
C r e e k plant o n A u g u s t 1, 1990, with b a t c h flocculation studies (Wahlberg, 1992).
1
curve fit (k A = 0.000 429 ± 0.0 000 230 L g , k B
The argument (different stirring devices) invoked to explain
= 0.000 113 ± 0.0 000 138 N T U • s•• L • g \ n = 47.9 ± 0.71 0
the differences in the k and k estimates made in this study as
A B

N T U ; a = 3.96 ± 0.344 N T U , /3 = 44.0 ± 0.780 N T U , X compared with those made by Parker et al (1970, 1971) can be
1
= 0.0 133 ± 0.000 710 s ). substantiated further. Parker et al. (1970) reported the results
from a series of batch flocculation tests performed using activated
sludges obtained at full-scale facilities. The purpose of this study
k flocculation parameter. Estimates of the aggregation rate
A was to establish the potential for enhancing SS removal by ad-
coefficient, k , varied over two orders of magnitude, from 1.8
A ditional floe conditioning. Because these tests were conducted
to 105 X 10~ L * g" (Table 1). The average of the k estimates
5 1
A using the same type of stirring apparatus used in this study, it
given in Table 1 is 42 X 10~ L - g . The average of four k
5 - 1
A is assumed that the paddles, i f not identical, were similar in the
estimates reported by Parker et a/. (1971) was 3.6 X 10~ L • g . 5 _ 1
two studies. Equations 3 and 4 were fit to the batch reactor data
Although the averages of the two studies differed by an order of for the Vacaville Easterly wastewater treatment plant reported
magnitude, three of the four k estimates reported by Parker et
A by Parker et al. (1970) in the same manner as used to fit the
al. (1970, 1971) fell within the range of estimates obtained in data obtained i n this study. The Vacaville data and curve fit are
this study. The differences may be due to the different floccu- shown in Figure 6. Because Parker et al (1970) reported super-
lation systems employed in the two studies. Examination of the natant SS concentrations, rather than turbidity, as a function of
theoretical makeup of the aggregation rate coefficient, k , sug- A flocculation time, Equation 3 had to be modified slightly to ac-
gests that differences in the stirring devices, in particular the count for the use of different units. Estimates for k and k A B

paddles, and resultant energy dissipation patterns are the likely resulting from these curve fits were 12.8 X 1 0 L - g and 4.0 -5 - 1

sources of the observed discrepancy (Wahlberg, 1992). X 10~ s, respectively. These estimates are similar to those found
8

k flocculation parameter. Estimates of the floe breakup rate

B in this study. It appears, therefore, that the estimation of these
coefficient, k , showed the greatest variability of all the floccu-
B parameters is specific to the flocculation system used. This con-
lation parameters listed in Table 1: from 0.18 to 130 X 10~ 5
clusion has two important ramifications. First, comparisons of
_ I
N T U • s • L • g . The largest k estimate was obtained from the
B these flocculation parameters cannot be made unless a standard
fit of Equation 3 to the turbidity:time data collected at the Ware procedure for conducting these batch flocculation tests is estab-
Shoals plant. It appears from the other k estimates given in B

Table 1 that the Ware Shoals estimate is a gross outlier; the

second largest estimate is less than one half its magnitude, 49.5
X 10~ N T U • s • L • g . The magnitude of the Ware Shoals es-
5 - 1

timate of the floe breakup rate coefficient, therefore, warrants

scrutiny. 3

Parker et al (1970, 1972) showed that floe strength is inversely

proportional to k ; that is, activated sludge floes with weak in-
B

terparticle bonds are characterized by a large estimate of k . B

This appears to be the case for the Ware Shoals sludge for several =5
reasons. First, the large n estimate for this sludge (the largest
0

observed) was not due to excessive aeration basin turbulence,

but was likely due to breakup incurred during the sampling pro-
cedure (Wahlberg, 1992). Second, the large a and k estimates A
Flocculation time (min)
obtained for this sludge, in conjunction with the large k estimate, B

indicate that interparticle bonds were formed and broken quickly Figure 5—Turbidity:time d a t a c o l l e c t e d at the Camp
when the flocculation reaction was in dynamic equilibrium. In- C r e e k plant o n A u g u s t 13, 1990, with b a t c h flocculation
directly, this suggests that the bonds formed were weak. Finally, curve fit (k A = 0.000 965 ± 0.0 000 920 L g k B

the low volatile fraction ( M L V S S / M L S S , see Table 1) i n the = 0.000 131 ± 0.0 000 165 1
NTU • s • L •g~ , n 0 = 10.1
Ware Shoals mixed liquor, 58%, suggests this sludge was char- ± 0.209 N T U ; a = 2.03 ± 0.100 N T U , 0 = 8.10 ± 0.231
acterized by a low concentration of cell-surface polysaccharide N T U , X = 0.0 152 ± .00 145 s ) . _ 1

September/October 1994 783

Wahlberq et al.
c
o at this plant was constructed with a diffused aeration system.
I
CD
O
c the surface. Because it was not possible to empty the basin, the
o
! §
•o
<D
T3
C
CD
CL
to
CO
Flocculation time (min)
Figure 6 — S u s p e n d e d solidsztime data reported by Parker
et al. (1970) for Vacaville Easterly plant with batch
curve fit.
lished. Second, scale-up to full-scale activated sludge flocculators
must be done with caution, especially in light of the fact that
rarely are G values known in full-scale situations.
noflocculationparameter. The n flocculation parameter cor-
0
responds to the supernatant turbidity in samples that received
no flocculation other than that received in the aeration basin
prior to sample collection and during sample handling. It is em-
phasized that these samples were handled in precisely the same
manner as all others; that is, they were obtained at the aeration
basin outlet in a bucket, transferred to a flocculation jar, and
allowed to settle for 30 minutes in the constant-temperature
water bath before the supernatants were sampled. Although the
n flocculation parameter essentially is the average turbidity of
0
the supernatants obtained from these unflocculated samples, n 0
was entered in the curve fitting program as a parameter, not as
a value. As a parameter it was adjustable as the program searched
for the minimum sum of squared errors. The n estimates given
0 employed. Numerically, a is equal to the turbidity value the
in Table 1 are the estimates resulting from the curve fitting pro-
gram. In most cases, these estimates were equal to the averages
of the replicate, unflocculated supernatant turbidity readings.
Although reference has been and will be made to this parameter
as the initial turbidity, no time dependence is inferred.
As noted in Table 1, n ranged from 2.52 to 69.2 N T U (3.1
0
1
to 84 mg S S - L T ) indicating that the activated sludges tested
varied considerably with respect to their initial state of aggre-
gation. Das et al. (1993) reported on a study, conducted con-
currently with this study, in which floe breakup in activated
sludge plants was investigated. Supernatant SS in samples col-
lected at the aeration basin outlet and settled 30 minutes under
ideal conditions were found to increase in concentration with
increasing aeration basin mixing intensity in diffused aeration
plants. A similar relationship was not observed by Das et al.
(1993) for plants with mechanical aerators, but this was attributed
to the fact that the average aeration basin G values did not suf-
ficiently characterize the localized G values existing at the aer-
ation basin outlet. Because the supernatant SS concentration
was noted to decrease with increasing distance from mechanical
aerators, optimizing flocculation in mechanically aerated plants
must take into account several complex interactions (Das et al,
1993).
The effect of mechanical aeration on flocculation at the Wilson
Creek plant shows that the techniques used in this study can be
used to analyze an operating problem. The large aeration basin
784
After the plant had operated for some time, the air headers in
the aeration basin separated from their anchors and floated to
diffused aeration system could not be repaired. Consequently,
several floating mechanical mixers and aerators were installed
in the aeration basin by mooring them to the side of the basin
with cables. By the time the Wilson Creek plant was tested in
this study, the operators had gained considerable experience with
the mechanical aeration system. The operators noted that they
were unable to attain the same degree of secondary effluent clarity
with the mechanical aerators they previously had achieved with
the diffused-air system.
The flocculation tests conducted at this plant indicated that
the sludge responded well to flocculation (Figure 4)—the a and
(3 estimates (the sum of which equals the n estimate) corre-
0
1
sponded to 4.8 and 53 mg S S - L , respectively. However, two
aspects of the plant layout corroborate the operators' observa-
tions. First, one of the larger mechanical aerators used at the
plant was situated in close proximity to the aeration basin dis-
charge point. The detrimental effect the placement of this aerator
had on the flocs exiting the aeration basin is apparent in the
1
high n estimate, 47.9 N T U (58 mg SS • L " ) , reported for this
0
activated sludge. Also, the mixed liquor conveyance system be-
tween the aeration basin and the secondary clarifiers was short,
allowing little opportunity for reflocculation. There is no doubt
that the quality of the effluent discharged from this plant would
improve either with the addition of flocculator center wells in
the secondary clarifiers or by repositioning the aerator nearest
the aeration basin discharge. This is an example of the kind of
operational or design decisions that can be made based on the
flocculation tests.
aflocculationparameter. The parameter a is the equilibrium
turbidity that can be attained using the batch flocculation system
curve, described by Equation 4, approaches asymptotically. From
a theoretical perspective, a can be treated as a measure of the
primary particle number concentration existing in the bulk me-
dium when the competing reactions of floc aggregation and
breakup are in dynamic equilibrium at a particular energy level;
that is, when primary particles are removed from the bulk me-
dium and incorporated into floc particles at the same rate, they
are reintroduced to the bulk medium due to hydrodynamic ero-
sion from floc surfaces.
The a parameter ranged from 1.5 to 20.8 N T U (1.8 to 25 mg
SS • L ) . Twenty-five of the 30 a estimates reported were below
- 1
7 N T U despite the fact, as indicated above, that the activated
sludges tested varied considerably in their initial state of aggre-
gation. This observation suggests that this parameter is com-
parable for a wide variety of activated sludges, at least with respect
to the flocculation system employed in this study. The average
of all the a estimates given in Table 1 is 5.6 N T U (6.8 mg
1
SS-L" ).
Five a estimates greater than 7 N T U are given in Table 1.
The largest a estimate, 20.8 N T U , resulted using the activated
sludge obtained from the Ware Shoals plant, which was me-
chanically aerated. As discussed above, this estimate can be dis-
counted from further consideration. The activated sludge at the
Coneross plant, which also was mechanically aerated, was tested
six times during the course of this study. The largest of these a
estimates, 14.1 N T U , appears somewhat anomalous when corn-
Water Environment Research, Volume
Number 6

pared with the other Coneross a estimates (6.67, 3.37, 4.21,
6.12, and 2.50 N T U ) , although reasons for this disparity are not
clear. O f the three remaining sludges that yielded a estimates
greater than 7 N T U , one was obtained at a mechanically-aerated
plant (Pendleton/Clemson), another at a course-bubble diffused-
aeration plant (Shoresbrook), and the third at a fine-bubble dif-
fused-aeration plant (Rock Hill). These observations suggest that
the type of aeration device has no impact on the degree to which
activated sludges can be mechanically flocculated. Conversely,
the five a estimates that were greater than 7 N T U suggest that
other factors, such as sludge age or cell-surface polysaccharide
concentration, may influence the extent to which residual tur-
bidity can be removed by flocculation.
In this study, settling was accomplished under perfectly quies-
cent conditions. For wastewater treatment design and operations
professionals, the average of the a estimates obtained i n this
study has significance from two perspectives. First, it represents
the potential SS concentration that is achievable when a well-
flocculated activated sludge is settled ideally. Because few full-
scale plants consistently achieve an effluent SS concentration of
1
6.8 mg S S - L " , considerable improvement i n effluent quality
may be realized with attention to the flocculation step. Second,
although examples of operating facilities discharging effluents
- 1
with SS concentrations less than 6.8 mg SS • L can be found
in practice, this result indicates that a residual SS concentration
will exist even when an activated sludge is well flocculated and
is ideally settled. Unfortunately, activated sludge secondary
clarifiers are not ideal settlers, nor are activated sludges entering
secondary clarifiers always well flocculated. Discussed below is
how the results from the batch flocculation testing protocol can
be used for differentiating between these two operational prob-
lems.
f flocculation parameter. Estimates made for the parameter
ranged from 0.94 to 55.0 N T U (Table 1). The mean of the 0
estimates indicates that flocculation resulted i n a net decrease
- 1
in supernatant turbidity of 16.5 N T U (20 mg S S - L ) . In the
extreme case, where 0 equaled 55.0 N T U , flocculation resulted
in a decrease in supernatant SS concentration of approximately
1
67 mg S S - L " .
The magnitude of the /? and n flocculation parameters is
0
influenced by the degree of turbulence to which the mixed liquor
is subjected prior to flocculation, making between-plant com-
parisons of these parameters impossible (Wahlberg, 1992).
However, the magnitude of the 0 parameter is of considerable
interest on an individual plant basis. This parameter, estimated
from the results of the batch flocculation test performed using
the mixed liquor as it enters the secondary clarifier, quantifies
the potential enhancement of SS capture that is achievable with
flocculation and ideal settling. Coupled with the corresponding
a estimate, these two parameters can be used to ascertain whether
a high secondary clarifier effluent SS concentration is the result
of a poorly flocculated sludge or a flow and solids short-circuiting
problem i n the clarifier. A large estimate of ft would indicate
that the sludge entering the clarifier is in a poorly flocculated
state. Conversely, a small estimate of 0 would indicate that the
sludge is well flocculated, so a problem of high effluent SS con-
centrations would indicate a less than ideal hydraulic pattern i n
the clarifier. If a sludge entering a secondary clarifier is well
flocculated, the larger the deviation between the a estimate and
the effluent SS concentration, the more serious the short-cir-
cuiting problem.
September/October 1994
Wahlberg et al.
X flocculation parameter. As indicated i n Table 1, estimates
of the overall flocculation rate coefficient, X, made i n this study
1 1
ranged from 0.0017 to 0.0246 s- and averaged 0.0121 - . This
parameter defines the rate of decrease of the batch flocculation
curve given by Equation 4. As can be seen i n Figures 2 to 5, the
flocculation rate is rapid.
As previously discussed, the potential for enhancing turbidity
removal by flocculating activated sludge is quantified i n the /3
flocculation parameter estimate; that is, the fi estimate is nu-
merically equal to the difference between the initial, unfloccu-
lated sample turbidity and the equilibrium turbidity achievable
with flocculation and settling. The significance of the X parameter
can be appreciated further by considering the flocculation time
required to remove a fixed percentage of the (3 estimate. If the
parameter t 9 9is defined as the flocculation time required, i n
_1
minutes, to remove 99% of ft its relationship to X (s ) is given
by:
- I n (0.01) 0.07675
T 99 = = ( 6 )
60X X '
Using this relationship it can be shown that the removal of su-
pernatant turbidity i n this study was, on the average, 99% com-
plete with 6.3 m i n of flocculation. A l l but 6 of the 30 activated
sludges studied had X estimates that corresponded to t esti- 9 9
mates less than 10 minutes.
From a practical viewpoint, it is important to emphasize that
the flocculation reaction was carried out i n a batch reactor in
this study. In full-scale applications, the flow regime of practical
interest most likely would be a continuous-flow, completely-
mixed flocculator. With this i n mind, the parameters i n Table
1 were used to calculate the percent completion of the floccu-
lation reaction in a hypothetical, continuous-flow, completely-
mixed reactor such as might be employed i n practice. This was
accomplished using Equation 2 with m equal to 2 and assuming
_1
a G of 15 s and a mean hydraulic residence time (T) of 20
minutes as recommended for design by the Water Environment
Federation ( W P C F , 1985). The calculated percentages varied
from 68 to 96% for the different activated sludges, with an average
of 92%. These percentages indicate that a continuous-flow,
completely-mixed flocculator would require at least twice the
batch reaction time to approach the same level of performance.
Summary. The procedure for conducting the flocculation tests
used in this study is performed on a batch basis and uses su-
pernatant turbidity after 30 minutes of settling as a surrogate
measure of the primary particle number concentration. The fact
that the results obtained from these tests are well described by
the theoretical developments of Parker et al. (1970, 1971), sug-
gests that the procedure used is effective for describing activated
sludge flocculation characteristics.
Estimates of the a parameter indicate that the degree to which
residual supernatant turbidity can be lowered is comparable for
a wide variety of activated sludges and that a limit exists below
which flocculation cannot be used to further reduce turbidity
even under ideal settling conditions. Estimates of the X parameter
affirm that the removal of supernatant turbidity is rapid.
From a practical viewpoint, the use of Equation 4 to describe
turbidity removal by flocculation is more feasible than Equation
3, although the two equations are mathematically similar. The
reason for this lies in the definitions of the parameters that appear
in the two equations; the parameters of Equation 4 have more
practical meaning than the floe aggregation and breakup coef-
785
Wahlberg et al.
ficients in Equation 3. Moreover, the estimation of these latter
coefficients appears to be system specific. However, the floe ag-
gregation and breakup coefficients do not lack practical signif-
icance. For example, the k estimate obtained using the Camp
A assistance of Keith Smart, Alan Johnson, Dyke Hughes, and
Creek mixed liquor (Table 1, Figure 5), 96.5 X 10~ L - g , was
5 - 1
the third largest k estimate made in this study. It is interesting
A J i m Gregg of Oconee County's Coneross Creek Wastewater
to note that ferric sulfate was being added to the Camp Creek
aeration basin influent stream for phosphorus removal. Ferric
ions are used extensively as flocculation aids, a fact possibly
borne out by the observed high estimate of the aggregation rate
coefficient. This observation suggests that the procedure used in
this study can be used to study the effectiveness of flocculation
aids.
The batch flocculation test procedure can be used in the field
to assess an activated sludge's potential for improved suspended
solids removal by flocculation. In addition to the practical sig-
nificance of the a parameter mentioned above, the n parameter
0 cember 15, 1994. Discussions should be submitted to the Ex-
indicates the state of aggregation of the activated sludge at the
point and time the samples are taken, and the (3 parameter
quantifies the potential enhancement in solids removal afforded
through flocculation. However, scale-up considerations, es-
pecially with regard to the inplant G value, remain a concern.
Conclusions
O n the basis of the results obtained, a more complete under-
standing of the competing reactions of activated sludge floc ag-
gregation and breakup and their dynamic equilibrium has been
gained. Specific conclusions that can be drawn are
• the batch flocculation testing procedure is effective for es-
timating an activated sludge's flocculation characteristics, al-
though it is recommended that the procedure include data col-
lected at flocculation times between 0 and 2 min;
• the magnitude of the floc aggregation and breakup rate coef-
ficients (k and k , respectively) appears to be specific to the
A B
flocculation system employed for their estimation;
• the equilibrium supernatant turbidity (SS concentration)
after flocculation is comparable for a wide variety of activated
sludges regardless of the initial aggregative state of the sludges
or the type of aeration system employed; and
• flocculation of activated sludge by mechanical means is
rapid being 99% complete within 10 minutes under batch con-
ditions for most sludges. A similar performance improvement
can be obtained in the field by designing a completely-mixed
flocculation zone having a hydraulic residence time of at least
20 minutes.
Acknowledgments
Credits. This paper was presented at the Water Environment
Federation 65th Annual Conference and Exposition, and is
786
available on videotape from the Water Environment Federation.
The authors are indebted to the operators and personnel of the
treatment plants visited. In this regard, the contributions and
Virgil Fairey of the Spartanburg Sanitary Sewer District, and
Treatment Facility are especially noted.
Authors. A t the time of this work, the authors were, respec-
tively, graduate student, professor and head, and adjunct pro-
fessor with the Department of Environmental Systems Engi-
neering at Clemson University. Correspondence should be ad-
dressed to Eric J. Wahlberg, County Sanitation Districts of Los
Angeles County, P.O. Box 4998, Whittier, C A 90607-4998.
Submitted for publication February 11, 1993; revised manu-
script submitted November 10, 1993; accepted for publication
December 8, 1993. Deadline for discussions of this paper is De-
ecutive Editor. The authors will be invited to prepare a single
Closure for all discussions received before that date.
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Water Environment R e s e a r c h , Volume 66, Number 6