%IT*%IT*%IT*%IT*%IT*%IT*

Oxford Essential
Arabic Dictionary
ENGLISH–ARABIC
ARABIC–ENGLISH

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 iii

Preface
This dictionary is intended to help learners of Arabic and English. It
contains a basic vocabulary in each language and highlights some of
the difficulties of each of them. Pronunciation of English is given in
IPA and Arabic headwords are given in alphabetical order with their
vowels. Proper names of countries, cities, religions, etc are given in
the alphabetical listing of headwords. Thanks are due to Mai Zaki
and Muhammad Habib Bewley for their contributions and comments.

Raed Al-Jabari
Editor

‫ ﻳﻀﻢ‬.‫ﰎ ﺇﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻣﻮﺱ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺩﺍﺭﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺘﲔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﳒﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻣﻮﺱ ﺍﳌﻔﺮﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻼ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺘﲔ ﻣﻊ ﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺑﻌﺾ‬
‫ ﻭﻟﺘﺤﺴﲔ ﺍﻟﻠﻔﻆ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺩﺍﺭﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬،‫ ﻟﺘﺴﻬﻴﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻣﻮﺱ‬.‫ﻫﺬہ ﺍﳌﻔﺮﺩﺍﺕ‬
‫ ﰎ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﳌﻔﺮﺩﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﳉﺰﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒ ًﺎ ﺃﺑﺠﺪﻳ ًﺎ ﻭﰎ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬
‫ ﻓﻘﺪ ﰎ ﺍﺗﺒﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻷﺑﺠﺪﻱ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ‬،‫ ﺃﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺰﺀ ﺍﻹﳒﻠﻴﺰﻱ‬.‫ﻭﻭﺍﺿﺢ‬
‫ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻷﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻭﺃﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﳌﺪﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ‬.‫ﻋﺎﳌﻴ ًﺎ ﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻷﳒﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ‬
.‫ ﻓﻘﺪ ﰎ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒ ًﺎ ﺃﺑﺠﺪﻳ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻛِ ﻼ ﺍﳉﺰﺋﲔ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬

‫ﺗﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺃﺳﺮﺓ ﻣُﻌﺪﻱ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻣﻮﺱ ﺑﺠﺰﻳﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﶈﻤﺪ ﺣﺒﻴﺐ ﺑﻴﻮﻟﻲ ﻭﻣﻲ ﺯﻛﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
.‫ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﺘﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﱢﻤﺔ ﻭﺗﻘﺪﱘ ﺍﻟﻨُﺼﺢ‬

‫ﺩﻛﺘﻮﺭ ﺭﺍﺋﺪ ﻳﺤﻴﻰ ﺍﳉَﻌﺒﺮﻱ‬

‫ﺍﶈﺮﺭ‬

Note on trademarks and proprietary status

This dictionary includes some words which have, or are asserted
to have, proprietary status as trademarks or otherwise. Their
inclusion does not imply that they have acquired for legal purposes
a non-proprietary or general significance, nor any other judgement
concerning their legal status. In cases where the editorial staff have
some evidence that a word has proprietary status this is indicated
by the label ®, but no judgement concerning the legal status of such
words is made or implied thereby.

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 iv

Abbreviations
adj adjective ‫ِﺻﻔﺔ‬
adv adverb ‫ﻇَ ﺮﻑ‬
art article ‫ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﺗَﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬
aux v auxiliary verb ‫ﻓِ ﻌﻞ ﻣُﺴﺎﻋِ ﺪ‬
conj conjunction ‫ﺣَ ﺮﻑ ﻋَﻄﻒ‬
contr contracted form ‫َﺼﺮﺓ‬
َ ‫ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﻣُﺨﺘ‬
excl exclamation ‫َﺗﻌَﺠﱡ ﺐ‬
interj interjection ‫َﺗﻌَﺠﱡ ﺐ‬
modal v modal verb ‫ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣُﺴﺎﻋِ ﺪ‬
n noun ‫ﺍﺳﻢ‬
num numeral ‫َﻋﺪَﺩ‬
phv phrasal verb ‫ﻋِ ﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻓِ ﻌﻞ‬
pl plural ‫ﺟَ ﻤْﻊ‬
prep preposition ‫ﺣَ ﺮﻑ ﺟَ ﺮ‬
pron pronoun ‫ﺿﻤﻴﺮ‬
َ
UK British English ‫ﺇﳒِ ﻠﻴﺰِ ﻳﱠﺔ ﺑَﺮﻳﻄﺎ ِﻧﻴﱠﺔ‬
US American English ‫ﺇﳒﻠﻴﺰِ ﻳﱠﺔ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜِ ﻴﱠﺔ‬
v verb ‫ﻓِ ﻌﻞ‬

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 v Abbreviations

♦ ‫ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭﺍﺕ‬
demonstrative ‫ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬ ‫ﺃ ﺇﺵ‬
particle of comparison ‫ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﺗَﺸﺒﻴﻪ‬ ‫ﺃ ﺗﺶ‬
question forms ‫ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﺍﺳﺘِﻔﻬﺎﻡ‬ ‫ﺃ ﺇﺱ‬
possessive ‫ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﻣِ ﻠﻜِ ﻴﱠﺔ‬ ‫ﺃﻡ‬
negative ‫ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﻧَﻔﻲ‬ ‫ﺃﻥ‬
conditional ‫ﺃﺩﺍﺓ َﺷﺮﻁ‬ ‫ﺃ ﺷﺮ‬
plural ‫ﺟَ ﻤْﻊ‬ ‫ﺝ‬
adverb ‫ﺣﺎﻝ‬ ‫ﺡ‬
preposition ‫ﺣَ ﺮﻑ ﺟَ ﺮ‬ ‫ﺣﺞ‬
verb ‫ﻓِ ﻌﻞ‬ ‫ﻑ‬
noun ‫ﺍﺳﻢ‬
ْ ‫ﺱ‬
adjective ‫ِﺻﻔﺔ‬ ‫ﺹ‬
pronoun ‫ﺿﻤﻴﺮ‬
َ ‫ﺽ‬
adverb ‫ﻇَ ﺮﻑ‬ ‫ﻅ‬
number ‫َﻋﺪَﺩ‬ ‫ﻋﺪ‬
feminine ‫ُﻣ َﺆﻧﱠﺚ‬ ‫ﻡ‬
masculine ‫ُﻣ َﺬﻛﱠﺮ‬ ‫ﻣﺬ‬
singular ‫ﻣُﻔﺮَﺩ‬ ‫ﻣﻒ‬

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 vi

Guide to the dictionary

Arabic-English

part of speech ‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜَﻼ ﻡ‬

to go ‫ﺫَﻫَﺐَ ﻑ‬

irregular plural ‫ﺟَ ﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺴﻴﺮ‬

stamp (‫ )ﻣُﻠْﺼَﻖ‬/‫ﻃَﻮﺍﺑ ُِﻊ‬/ ‫ﻃﺎﺑِﻊ ﺱ ﺝ‬

character (‫ )ﺻِﻔَﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﻧْﺴﺎﻥ‬/‫ﻃﺒﺎﻉ‬/
ِ ‫ﺝ‬

discriminator ‫َﺷﺮﺡ ﺍﳌ َﻌﻨﻰ‬

ْ ‫ﺃَﺑْﻘﻰ ﻑ )ﺣﺎﻓَﻆَ ﻋَﻠﻰ‬

(‫ﺍﺳﺘِﻤْﺮﺍﺭﻳﱠﺔ َﺷﻲْﺀ‬
to maintain
to keep (‫)ﺍﺣْﺘَﻔَﻆَ ﺏ‬

dumb /‫ﺑُﻜْﻢ‬/ ‫ﺹ ﻡ ﺑَﻜْﻤﺎﺀُ ﺝ‬ ُ‫ﺃَﺑْﻜَﻢ‬

irregular feminine form ‫ﺍﳌﺆﻧﺚ‬

Note on Arabic verbs

Arabic verbs in the English-Arabic section of the dictionary
are given in their simple present form. In the Arabic-English
section they are given in the simple past.
Note on Arabic nouns and adjectives in both sections
A dammah on the last letter of a word indicates it is a
diptote. (‫ )ﻡ‬after a noun means it is feminine, although it
does not have a feminine ending. ‫ﻡ‬ ‫ ﺝ‬indicates the irregular
feminine plural of an adjective.

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 vii Guide to the dictionary

English-Arabic

part of speech ‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ‬

act /ækt/ v (to take action, to behave)

‫( ﻳَﺘَﺼَﺮﱠﻑ‬on stage) ‫ﻳُﻤَﺜﱢﻞ‬
Œ n (law) ‫ﺝ‬/‫ﻗَﻮَﺍﻧِﲔُ ﻣﻒ‬/‫( ﻗَﺎﻧُﻮﻥ‬of a
play) ‫ﺝ‬/‫ﻓُﺼُﻮﻝ ﻣﻒ‬/‫ﻓَﺼْﻞ‬

discriminator ‫َﺷﺮْﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‬

change of part of speech ‫ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ‬

irregular plural ‫ﺟﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺴﻴﺮ‬

child /tʃaɪld/ n pl -dren ‫ َﺃ ْﻃﻔَﺎﻝ‬/‫ِﻃﻔْﻞ‬

‫ﺝ‬/‫ﻣﻒ‬

irregular parts of verb ‫ﺗﺼﺮﻳﻒ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻢ ﻟﻠﻔﻌﻞ‬

know /nəʊ/ v knew, known (the

answer, a fact) ‫ﻳَﻌْﻠَﻢ‬

purse /pɜːs/ n (for money) /‫ِﻣ ْﺤﻔَﻈَ ﺔ‬

‫ﺝ‬/‫( ﻣَ َﺤﺎﻓِﻆُ ﻣﻒ‬US: handbag) ‫َﺣ ِﻘﻴ َﺒﺔ‬
‫َﻳﺪ ِﻧ َﺴﺎﺋِﻴﱠﺔ‬
EAD_Eng-Arab_K_95-96.indd 95 7/13/2009 11:50:01 AM
US English ‫ﺇﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ‬

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 viii

The Arabic Alphabet

Pronunciation guide Roman
equivalent

as the a in act a
as the b in boy b
as the t in tap t
as the th in thousand th
as the j in jet j
strongly aspirated h h
as the ch in Scottish loch kh
as the d in dome d
as the th in this dh
rolled r as in Spanish r
as the z in zebra z
as the s in sun s
as the sh in shut sh
strongly articulated s as the s in somber s
strongly articulated d as in duh d
strongly articulated t as in talk t
strongly articulated, like the th in though z
a guttural ‘ah’ ‘
a sound similar to a French r gh
as the f in fun f
strongly articulated k as in Qatar q
as the k in Kabul k
as the l in London l
as the m in man m
as the n in noon n
as the h in house h
as the w in wife or oo in ooze w
as the y in yacht or ee in meet y

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 ‫‪ix‬‬ ‫‪The Arabic Alphabet‬‬

‫‪Name‬‬ ‫‪Final‬‬ ‫‪Medial‬‬ ‫‪Initial‬‬ ‫‪Arabic‬‬

‫‪of letter‬‬ ‫‪letter‬‬
‫ﺃﻟِﻒ‬ ‫ـﺎ‬ ‫ـﺎـ‬ ‫ﺍـ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﺐ‬ ‫ـﺒـ‬ ‫ﺑـ‬ ‫ﺏ‬
‫ﺗﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﺖ‬ ‫ـﺘـ‬ ‫ﺗـ‬ ‫ﺕ‬
‫ﺛﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﺚ‬ ‫ـﺜـ‬ ‫ﺛـ‬ ‫ﺙ‬
‫ﺟﻴﻢ‬ ‫ـﺞ‬ ‫ـﺠـ‬ ‫ﺟـ‬ ‫ﺝ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﺢ‬ ‫ـﺤـ‬ ‫ﺣـ‬ ‫ﺡ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﺦ‬ ‫ـﺨـ‬ ‫ﺧـ‬ ‫ﺥ‬
‫ﺩﺍﻝ‬ ‫ـﺪ‬ ‫ـﺪـ‬ ‫ﺩـ‬ ‫ﺩ‬
‫ﺫﺍﻝ‬ ‫ـﺬ‬ ‫ـﺬـ‬ ‫ﺫـ‬ ‫ﺫ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺀ‬ ‫ـﺮ‬ ‫ـﺮـ‬ ‫ﺭـ‬ ‫ﺭ‬
‫ﺯﺍﻱ‬ ‫ـﺰ‬ ‫ـﺰـ‬ ‫ﺯـ‬ ‫ﺯ‬
‫ﺳﲔ‬ ‫ـﺲ‬ ‫ـﺴـ‬ ‫ﺳـ‬ ‫ﺱ‬
‫ﺷﲔ‬ ‫ـﺶ‬ ‫ـﺸـ‬ ‫ﺷـ‬ ‫ﺵ‬
‫ﺻﺎﺩ‬ ‫ـﺺ‬ ‫ـﺼـ‬ ‫ﺻـ‬ ‫ﺹ‬
‫ﺿﺎﺩ‬ ‫ـﺾ‬ ‫ـﻀـ‬ ‫ﺿـ‬ ‫ﺽ‬
‫ﻃﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﻂ‬ ‫ـﻄـ‬ ‫ـﻂ‬ ‫ﻁ‬
‫ﻇﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﻆ‬ ‫ـﻈـ‬ ‫ﻇـ‬ ‫ﻅ‬
‫ﻋ َْﲔ‬ ‫ـﻊ‬ ‫ـﻌـ‬ ‫ﻋـ‬ ‫ﻉ‬
‫ﻏ َْﲔ‬ ‫ـﻎ‬ ‫ـﻐـ‬ ‫ﻏـ‬ ‫ﻍ‬
‫ﻓﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﻒ‬ ‫ـﻔـ‬ ‫ﻓـ‬ ‫ﻑ‬
‫ﻗﺎﻑ‬ ‫ـﻖ‬ ‫ـﻘـ‬ ‫ﻗـ‬ ‫ﻕ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻑ‬ ‫ـﻚ‬ ‫ـﻜـ‬ ‫ﻛـ‬ ‫ﻙ‬
‫ﻻﻡ‬ ‫ـﻞ‬ ‫ـﻠـ‬ ‫ﻟـ‬ ‫ﻝ‬
‫ﻣﻴﻢ‬ ‫ـﻢ‬ ‫ـﻤـ‬ ‫ﻣـ‬ ‫ﻡ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻥ‬ ‫ـﻥ‬ ‫ـﻨـ‬ ‫ﻧـ‬ ‫ﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﻪ‬ ‫ـﻬـ‬ ‫ﻫـ‬ ‫ﻩ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻭ‬ ‫ـﻮ‬ ‫ـﻮـ‬ ‫ﻭـ‬ ‫ﻭ‬
‫ﻳﺎﺀ‬ ‫ـﻲ‬ ‫ـﻴـ‬ ‫ﻳـ‬ ‫ﻱ‬

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 The Arabic Alphabet x

Arabic diacritics used in this dictionary

Pronunciation guide place Diacritic

as i in fit ِ‫ﺭ‬ kasrah ‫َﺴﺮَﺓ‬

ْ ‫ﻛ‬
‫ َﺳﻤِ َﻊ‬،‫ﺽ‬
َ ِ‫ ﻣَﺮ‬،‫ﻓِ ﻌْﻞ‬
as u in sun ‫َﺭ‬ fathah ‫َﻓﺘْﺤَ ﺔ‬
‫ َﺳﻤَﻚ‬،َ‫ ﺃَﺧَ ﺬ‬، َ‫ﺫَﻫَ ﺐ‬
as u in put ‫ُﺭ‬ dammah ‫ﺿﻤﱠﺔ‬
َ
‫ ﻗُﺒﻮﻝ‬،‫ َﺃ ْﻧﺘُﻢ‬،‫ُﺴﺘُﻖ‬
ْ ‫ﻓ‬
indicates the absence ‫ْﺭ‬ sukun ‫ُﺳﻜﻮﻥ‬
of a vowel as n in sand
‫ َﻣﻔْﺘﻮﺡ‬،‫ َﺃﻛْﻞ‬،‫ﺍ ْﻧﺘِﻬﺎﺀ‬
indicates that each letter ‫ّﺭ‬ shaddah ‫َﺷﺪﱠﺓ‬
must be stressed as the
medial /n/ sounds in
unknown
‫ ﺗ ََﺴﻮﱡﻝ‬،‫ ﻣُﺤَ ﺪﱢﺙ‬،َ‫َﺷ ﱠﻐﻞ‬

Note on diacritics
In the English–Arabic part of the dictionary, long vowels are
vocalized, so a kasrah and a yaʾ together form a long ee. In
the Arabic–English part the diacritics are not given for long
vowels.
An alif without a hamza at the beginning of a word is an
alif with a hamzat al-wasl. If no vowel precedes this hamzat
al-wasl, it is pronounced i.

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 xi The Arabic Alphabet

English pronunciation guide

1. Consonants ‫ﺍﳊُ ﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻛِ ﻨﺔ‬

p pen /pen/ s see /siː/

b bad /bæd/ z zoo /zuː/
t tea /tiː/ ʃ shoe /ʃuː/
d did /dɪd/ ʒ vision /ˈvɪʒn/
k cat /kæt/ h hat /hæt/
g get /get/ m man /mæn/
tʃ chain /tʃem/ n now /naʊ/
dʒ jam /dʒæm/ ŋ sing /sɱ/
f fall /fɔːl/ l leg /leg/
v van /væn/ r red /red/
θ thin /θm/ j yes /jes/
ð this /ðɪs/ w wet /wet/

2. The symbol (r) indicates that British pronunciation

will have /r/ only if a vowel sound follows directly at the
beginning of the next word, as in far away; otherwise the /r/
is omitted.

‫ ﻓﻲ ﻧِﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟ َﻜﻠِﻤﺔ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳُﻠﻔَﻆ ﻓﻲ‬/r/ ‫( ﻳُﻈﻬِ ﺮ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺟﺎﺀ ﺍﳊَﺮﻑ‬r) ‫ﺍﻟﺮَﻣﺰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻠﻬﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺍﺫﺍ ﺑَﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗَﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺑِﺤﺮﻑ ﻋِ ﻠﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﳊﺎﻝ‬
‫( ﻳُﻠﻔَﻆ ﻓﻲ ﺟَ ﻤﻴﻊ‬r) ‫ ﺃﻣّﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻬﺠﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﱠﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ‬.far away ‫ﻓﻲ‬
.‫ﺍﻷﺣﻮﺍﻝ‬

Ess Arabic Prelims V2.indd xi 9/28/2009 3:05:12 PM

 English pronunciation guide xii

2. Vowels and ‫ُﺣﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌِ ﻠﱠﺔ ﻭﺭُ ﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﻠَﻔﻆ‬

diphthongs
iː see /siː/ ɜː fur /fɜː(r)/
i happy /ˈhæpi/ ə about /əˈbaʊt/
ɪ sit /sɪt/ eɪ say /seɪ/
e ten /ten/ əʊ go /gəʊ/
æ cat /kæt/ oʊ go /goʊ/
ɑː father /ˈfɑːðə(r)/ aɪ my /maɪ/
ɒ got /gɒt/ ɔɪ boy /bɔɪ/
ɔː saw /sɔː/ aʊ now /naʊ/
ʊ put /pʊt/ ɪə near /nɪə(r)/
u actual /ˈæktʃuəl/ eə hair /heə(r)/
uː too /tuː/ ʊə pure /pjʊə(r)/
ʌ cup /kʌp/

3. Stress ‫ﺗَﺸﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﳊُ ﺮﻭﻑ‬

Primary stress is shown by / ˈ/
Secondary stress is shown by /ˌ /

‫ ﻳُﺪﻟﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗَﺸﺪﻳﺪ‬/ˌ/ ‫ ُﻳﺪَﻟﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗَﺸﺪﻳﺪ ﺭَﺋﻴﺴﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺮَﻣﺰ‬/ˈ/ ‫ﺍﻟﺮَﻣﺰ‬
.‫ﺧَ ﻔﻴﻒ‬

Ess Arabic Prelims V2.indd xii 9/28/2009 3:05:12 PM