UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL, EARTH & ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DISCIPLINE OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
EXAMINATION: NOVEMBER 2013
SUBJECT, COURSE & CODE: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY GEOL711

Model Answers

Q1
a) Gradual reduction in volume of a fully saturated soil of low permeability due to drainage of
some of the pore water, the process continuing until all the excess pore water pressure set by an
increase in total stress has been completely dissipated. A soil is said to be fully consolidated
when its volume remains constant under a constant state of stress.
In One-dimensional consolidation – a condition of zero lateral strain is implicit.
The reverse of consolidation (swelling) - gradual increase in volume of a soil under negative
excess pore water pressure.

b)
Time 0.00 0.04 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.25 4.00 6.25 9.00
(min.)
√T (min) 0 0.2 0.5 0.7 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Change in 0.00 0.121 0.233 0.302 0.390 0.551 0.706 0.859 0.970
thickness
(mm)

Time 12.25 16.00 25.00 36.00 64.00 100 360 1440

(min.)
T (min) 3.5 4 5 6 8 10 18.9 37.9
Change in 1.065 1.127 1.205 1.251 1.300 1.327 1.401 1.482
thickness
(mm)

Plot Square root of time vs change in thickness (All axes must be properly labelled)
Draw best straight line through the points in the first 60% of the plot. The intersection of this
straight line with the thickness axis locates U = 0, corresponding to a change in thickness of Δho
= 0.078 mm.
Draw straight line with abscissae 1.15 times those of the first straight line which is the corrected
straight line to intersect the experimental curve at U = 90
From the plot √t90 = 3.78 thus t90 = 14.36 min
T90 = 0.848
Average thickness of specimen during this stage = 17.53 + (13482/2) = 18.27 mm
Length of drainage path, d = 18.27/2 = 9.14 mm
cv = (T90d2)/ t90 = (0.848 x 9.142)/14.36 = 4.93 mm2/min
Final Void ratio e1 =m1Gs = 0.247 x 2.70 = 0.667
Initial Thickness h0 = 17.53 + 1.472 = 19.00 mm

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Change in void ratio Δe = (Δh/h0)(1+e0) = (1.482 x 1.667)/19.00 = 0.130
Initial void ratio e0 = 0.667 + 0.130 = 0.797
Mv =( Δe/ Δσ′)(1/1+e0) = (0.130 x 103)/(100 x 1.797) = 0.723m2/MN
K =cvmvγv = 4.93 x 10-6 x 0.723 x 10-3 x 9.81 = 3.5 x 10-8 m/min

Q2
Topography and Geology very important
Desk study
Aerial photographs and topographic maps
Study of aerial photographs of site - Provides engineer with an idea of topography; enables an
opinion of the probable hydrological characteristics of catchment; assist in selection of dam site,
study of access routes, possible sources of materials and opinion about the geology of the site.
Site where dam wall & ancillary works, including spillway, can be economically constructed
The topography governs the storage capacity. Initial estimates made from topographic maps or
aerial photographs. More accurate information being obtained, where necessary from
subsequent surveying.
Identify catchment areas and drainage densities, catchment area with sufficient runoff; presence
of natural valley or topographic depressions.
Most attractive site sought is a valley constricted by a gorge at its outfall with steep banks
upstream so that a small dam can impound a large volume of water with a minimum extent of
water spread.
Geological maps and memoirs/reports – detailed geology of site is essential as it will govern the
type of dam to be selected for construction, governs the materials available for construction, and
controls the character of the foundation.
Useful information to be obtained from geological map – lithology of site, geological structures
very vital, strike and dip of rock types; very important to note the direction of dip of strata
(whether they dip into the proposed reservoir basin); details of any fault – very vital because
apart from stability, can be potential leakage zones.
Geology will also determine the watertightness of the reservoir basin; stability of the dam basin
or reservoir, seismic risk of area (study of the tectonic history of the site also vital).
Geotechnical aspects very important criteria as far as the dam foundation is considered. Most
important are the permeability, shear strength, deformability & volumetric stability.
To secure accurate information about soil & rock stratification, the composition of the materials
and the location of ground water
Boring/drilling and sampling: auger boring/core drilling
Discontinuities very vital – orientation, waviness, surface roughness, wall strength, fill type, fill
thickness, & water pressure in joint.
High quality boring/drilling to obtain samples for lab testing. Careful logging of cores, in situ
tests like Packer Tests in boreholes to assess the permeability
Undisturbed sampling for lab testing; e.g. triaxial tests to determine the shear strength properties
of the materials
In situ tests – Plate load test, seepage test, permeability tests
Seismic refraction technique to determine thickness of overburden in proposed dam site.

Environmental impact : Land inundation, dislodgement of people from their natural habitat,
destruction of wildlife, retention of silt, change in the ecology, change in the river regime

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especially downstream of dam, water borne diseases, induced seismicity. (Points should be
explained).

Q3
Soils that exhibit volume change from change in soil moisture are referred to as expansive or
swelling clays
Expansive soils are responsible for HEAVE
Heave = increase in volume with increase in water content.
Typical of highly plastic clays and clay shales that often contain swelling clay minerals such as
montmorillonite.
As they get wet, the clay minerals absorb water and expand; conversely, as they dry, they shrink
leaving large voids in the soil.
Shrink-swell phenomenon
Cyclical water ingress and removal causes moisture imbalance that triggers the ‘shrink-swell
cycles’
‘Shrink-swell cycle’ is caused by the periodic entry and evacuation of water in the soil. If only
moisture equilibrium can be maintained within the structure then the damage due to cyclic
movements of water into and out of the soil can be prevented or minimised.
Fine-grained soils possess characteristic crystal lattices that are very small and could not
normally be seen even under a microscope
These crystal possess electrical charges. The finer the crystals the greater the surface area and
the attractive electrical charges
The electrical attractive forces and the high affinity for water are very great as to cause
separation of the clays to absorb water and cations
Continued adsorption causes the swelling of the soil which could be reversible during periods of
evapotranspiration and matric suction
Cations in the soil water (such as Mg2+, Al3+, Na+, K+) are attracted to the surface of the lattice
crystals to balance the charges
The hydration of these cations can cause the attraction and accumulation of water between the
clay particles
Other factors include:
Soil plasticity
Dry density – the greater the density, the greater the expansive potential
Initial moisture content
Moisture variation – if the moisture is balanced and there are no variations in moisture then the
cycle is interrupted
Moisture buildup does not necessarily coincide with periods of high rainfall or moisture such as
during flooding – very low permeability of the expansive soils.
Thus, swelling would occur after the rainy season or in a dry spell after considerable time from
the exposure to inundation or saturation.
Continued inundation or flooding of a surrounding area could cause heaving to occur after a
period of time.
Laboratroy methods
1. Determination of swelling pressure in the lab.
2. Determination of free swell in the lab.

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Swelling pressure determined by 2 lab tests, both carried out in oedometer:
1. Swell under load
4 samples from the same undisturbed block. Samples placed in oedometer at in-situ MC,
gradually inundated over period of 20 min. Each sample loaded covering stress range of 1kPa
(free swell) to 100 kPa. Change in height of sample is measured with dial gauge. Readings taken
until equilibrium is reached.
Linear relationship between swell% and natural log of applied stress
Best fit line, 2 important numbers:
i) Swelling pressure: intercept of best fit line with horizontal axis
ii) Free swell: intercept of best fit line with vertical axis
Swelling pressure – the pressure which, if applied to a soil, would prevent volume change
of sample upon saturation
Advantage of test: each test only takes as long as the time needed for samples to reach
equilibrium under each load. However, if several samples are tested any variability in
samples will give a variation in test results.

2. Constant volume method

Single sample cut and consolidated under a small seating load in the oedometer. Sample
saturated. Volume change prevented by increasing or decreasing applied pressure until
equilibrium is reached. Final applied pressure required to prevent any volume change upon
saturation is the swelling pressure.
Disadvantage of test – response time of soil to increases in pressure. Care needed not to
induce consolidation, careful sample monitoring required

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 Free swell - % volume change that would occur in a sample if it were allowed to swell
under 1kPa from an initial dessicated condition to full saturation. Final moisture
condition should be equal to MC at shrinkage limit.
Pellisier (1988) – practical problems as soil suction may be as high as 300 MPa at
shrinkage limit whilst under field conditions it rarely exceeds 3 MPa.
2 methods for free swell determination are with the oedometer, and with the Pidgeon’s
lump test.
Sample cut and placed in oedometer at in-situ MC. Then saturated and placed under
stress of 1kPa. Amount of swell is recorded with a dial gauge and maximum swell under
1kPa stress = free swell.
Test often extended by allowing equilibrium to take place under the 1kPa stress, then
adding loads in convenient increments. After each addition sample is allowed to
consolidate fully before the next load is applied.
Advantage of test: Only 1 sample required, also consolidation characteristics determined.
Disadvantage: stress path followed is completely different from that followed if soil is
allowed to swell under a confining load

Pidgeon’s lump test (1987)

Change in dry density with change in MC is determined. From this the volumetric swell
can be calculated.
5 or 6 lumps should be broken from the same undisturbed block of clay, or 6 lumps
should be broken in-situ and wrapped individually until testing.
In-situ MC should be determined from 1 lump.
Remainder of lumps should be allowed to dry out, or wet up.
Typical test:
1 lump air drying for 1 day
1 lump air drying for 2 days
1 lump wetting up for 1 day in moisture room
1 lump wetting up for 2 days in moisture room
1 lump oven dried
Success of test depends on choice of how many samples to wet up and dry out. Depends on
initial estimates of in-situ MC. If soil close to saturation, then dry out 3 samples and wet up 1.
Typical results:

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% volume change corresponding to a change in w (%) from wi to wf of the soil is calculated by:
∆V/Vi%=[(γdi/γdf)-1]100
Where: Vi = 1m3 of soil
γdi = dry density of the soil corresponding to the dry
density at the initial moisture content (wi)
γdf = dry density of the soil corresponding to the final
moisture content (wf)
In order to determine % swell, a decision must be taken regarding relative strain likely to
take place in each direction
Advantage of lump test: does not require any sophisticated testing.
However, a large scatter in results can be obtained, and assumptions regarding one or three
dimensional heave.
Better results obtained if determinations of dry density are done with care – better predictions

Q4
A soil with a collapsible fabric is defined as a soil that can withstand relatively large imposed
stresses with small settlements at a low in situ moisture content but will exhibit a decrease in
volume and associated settlement with no increase in the applied stress when wetting occurs or
when the soil moisture content increases.
Decrease in volume occurs as a result of collapse of the soil structure.
Day (2001) defined collapsible soil as soil that is susceptible to a large and sudden reduction in
volume upon wetting.
Collapse is vastly different from consolidation since no water is being expelled and the soil
progressively absorbs water and looses strength.
The problem of collapse is associated with a change in the compression characteristics of the soil
brought about by capillary forces resulting from partial saturation.

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Concept of additional settlement due to collapse of soil fabric (after Schwartz, 1985).

Compression curves of a soil with collapsible fabric having different moisture contents (after
Shwartz, 1985).

Collapsible soils have two main features:

i. loose cemented deposits
ii. naturally dry
Collapse behaviour can also occur in fill material as a result of decrease in negative pore water
pressure (capillary tension), when the fill becomes wet.
Collapse potential increases as the dry density decreases, the moisture content decreases and the
vertical pressure increases.
Collapse can also occur in saturated soil bearing soluble mineral when subjected to continuous
leaching, resulting from infiltration of rainfall, or flocculation of water table; referred to as
chemical piping or leaching and collapse Leaching of soluble salts from the soil matrix
increases the void ratio and decreases the strength which causes the collapse of the matrix under
the compression strength.
Collapsible soils can withstand a large applied vertical pressure with small compression, but then
show much larger settlement upon wetting with no increase in vertical stress.
Can yield disastrous consequences for structures built on such deposits
For a soil to collapse, a loss of cohesion/shear strength is needed.
Soil must have a collapsible fabric – May occur in any open textured silty or sandy soil which
has a relatively high shear strength at a low moisture content due to colloidal or other coatings
around the individual grains
A condition of partial saturation is essential – Collapse settlement will not occur in soils which
are below the water table.

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There must be an increase in the moisture content – Considered to be the triggering action for
collapse to occur.
With an increase in the moisture content the bridging colloidal material undergoes a loss of
strength and the soil grains are forced into a denser packing with a reduction in void ratio.
Soil must be subjected to an imposed pressure greater than its overburden pressure before
collapse will take place.
Prediction of collapse from laboratory evidence
Particle size distribution, Atterberg Limits, dry density. Note: a high clay content does not
necessarily mean that collapse will not occur.
Soils with a collapsible fabric very often have a low dry density which fall in the range of 900 to
1,600 kg/m3. Should only be considered as index type tests.
SEM studies, X-ray, chemical analysis
The quantification of volume change when soil undergoes collapse is obtained from oedometer
test
The double oedometer test
The single consolidometer test
The collapse potential test
Double oedometer test
Consists of testing two undisturbed samples in oedometers; one tested at in-situ moisture content
and the other is fully saturated before the test begins and then subjected to identical loading.
Two stress-strain curves are generated.
The difference between the compression curves is the amount of deformation that would occur at
any stress level at which the soil gets saturated.

Typical plots from a double oedometer test

Single consolidometer/oedometer test

The undisturbed soil specimen at in-situ moisture content is loaded in the conventional
oedometer to a stress level ranging between 200 and 400 kPa and then saturated with distilled
water to induce collapse.
Jennings & Knight (1975) recommended the use of stress level of 200 kPa and calculate the
collapse potential (Ie) as:
Ie = ∆ec/1 + e
Where
∆ec = change in void ratio resulting from saturation

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 e = natural void ratio

Typical plot from a single oedometer test

Q5
Sinkhole – typically cylindrical or conical in shape and varies in diameter (1 – 50 m) and depth
(1 – 50 m). Potentially more dangerous than as it usually manifests within a matter of seconds
and without prior warning. Commonly occur in dolomitic terrains.
Dolomite, when exposed to weakly acidic groundwater, dissolves - can be removed in the form
of Ca & Mg bicarbonates
Solubility of rock is high in comparison to other rocks
Weathering takes place preferentially along joints, faults & fractures
Rain water takes up CO2 in the atmosphere & soil to form a weak carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Weakly-acidic groundwater circulating along tension fractures, faults & joints causes leaching of
the carbonate minerals
The differential weathering pattern gives rise to a karst topography and cave systems
This process may be represented as:
CaMg(CO3)2 + 2 H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2 + Mg(HCO3)2
The resultant bicarbonate-rich water emerges at springs and is carried away
Process of dissolution has resulted in a vertically zoned succession of residual products, which in
turn are generally overlain by geologically younger formations or soils
Insoluble residual products:
- Chert (SiO2)
- Ferroan soil
- Wad
Given sufficient time & correct triggering mechanisms, instability may occur - naturally or
anthropogenic
Primary triggering mechanisms: ingress of H2O; poorly managed surface water drainage and
groundwater level drawdown
Primary requirement - parts of the blanketing layer are moblised into a receptacle. If blanketing
layer contains substantial amounts of wad, potential of mobilization is high. On the other hand,
if the blanketing layer contains dense, impermeable layers of karoo shale or intrusive sills, the

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mobilization potential is low. When material is removed from the blanketing layer, a secondary
void may form above the point of exit (throat). Void can grow upwards until it reaches a more
resistant layer or daylights as a sinkhole. Typically the void will grow until it reaches the
stronger uppermost part of the soil horizon and then attain temporary stability. For it to fail and
cause a catastrophic sinkhole, a triggering mechanism (e.g. wetting, or vibration) is required. If
arching does not develop while material from blanketing layer is being mobilized, surface
subsidence may manifest as the initial stage of sinkhole formation.
Certain criteria has to be met in order for a sinkhole to develop. These include: presence of
adjacent rigid material to form abutment for the roof of a void; arching within the overburden;
presence of reservoir below the void to accept the mobilized material; some means of
transportation for the material such as flowing water; and a trigger mechanism to cause collapse
of the arch. The permeability of the overburden determines the mechanism of sinkhole
formation, by controlling the erosive activity of the percolating groundwater.

TERMINOLOGY

(Buttrick & van Schalkwyk, 1998)

Methods employed in detecting sinkholes

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Depends in the area of the site, the present state of development and the surface geological
conditions.
Large areas of open land – geological mapping and geophysical survey. Before undertaking
drilling
Small sites – only possible to drill one or two boreholes.
Geological mapping – aerial photographs to delineate areas of outcrop, shallow bedrock, rock
types, intrusive, joint orientations and karst features. Also, present land use, drainage features,
and signs of previous instability.
Geophysical methods – mainly gravity methods. Where the average bedrock surface is deeper
than 5 m., gravity readings are generally taken at grid points spaced between 10 m and 30 m
apart. Results allow the calculation of residual gravity as positive values where bedrock is above
the groundwater level and negative where bedrock is below the water level. These residual
gravity contour maps delineate areas of relatively deep or shallow bedrock and depict the
bedrock surface gradient.
Rotary percussion drilling is the only economic means of deep sub-surface exploration in
dolomite areas. Information obtained by recording penetration rates, air losses, sample return,
hammer action and inspection of drill cuttings. Groundwater level can also be measured.
Borehole positions can be selected to further investigate and confirm the land classification
obtained from surface mapping and geophysics.
Geotechnical solutions
The removal of unsuitable material and replacement with compacted granular fill
The removal of material and return of the same with controlled compaction layers
In-situ compaction
Highly variable material is improved to form a mattress of known strength & suitable thickness
below the structure
Soil mattress reduces differential settlement & improves impermeability of material – reduces
risk of sinkhole formation
Mattress forms competent roof over small- and medium-sized cavities
Foundations such as strip footings often used on dolomite for light structures where risk of
sinkhole formation is acceptable
1. Conventional foundations - sites Class A, B & C
Class A sites: differential settlement may be a problem, where rock has to be removed in
foundation trenches, conventional foundations become costly. Areas of differential settlement
>5mm then split construction similar to those on heaving clays
2. Mattress of improved material - sites Class A, B & C
Consistency of soil cover is highly variable & can deteriorate with depth – removal and
replacement of soil under controlled conditions to form a mattress
[Class A: Pinnacle & boulder dolomite at or near surface
c<3m
Class B: Pinnacle & boulder dolomite overlain by moderately thick overburden
3m<c<15m
Class C: Pinnacle & boulder dolomite overlain by thick overburden
c>15m
Where C is the average thickness of overburden to tops of pinnacles & boulders.]

Q6

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A foundation is that part of a structure which transmits loads directly to the underlying soil.
1. Shallow foundations (footings)
Distribute load to ground over area sufficient to suit pressures to the properties of soil or
rock
Size is governed by strength of material
Support of single column: spread or pad footing (isolated footing)
Footing beneath wall: strip or continuous footing
Rafts
Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface; generally
where the founding depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing and less than 3m
If surface loading or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a
foundation it is 'shallow‘
Shallow foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong & stiff to support
the imposed loads
Generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill, peat,
recent lacustrine & alluvial deposits, etc
Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as that due to a
structural column
Circular, square or rectangular
Usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but may be stepped if they are
required to spread the load from a heavy column
Usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used
Strip foundations
Used to support a line of loads, either due to a load-bearing wall, or if a line of columns
need supporting where column positions are so close that individual pad foundations
would be inappropriate.
Raft Foundations
Used to spread load from a structure over a large area, normally the entire area of the
structure. Used when column loads or other structural loads are close together &
individual pad foundations would interact.
Normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area. It may be
stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation.
Advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists differential
movements between loading positions
Often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads
over a larger area

Deep foundations
Those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base bearing
capacity to be affected by surface conditions
Usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level
Include piles, piers & caissons or compensated foundations using deep basements and
also deep pad or strip foundations
Can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils
are present near the surface
i) Piles

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 Relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads through soil strata of low
bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high bearing capacity
Used when for economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable to
transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of shallow foundations
In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures against uplift
forces and to assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces
ii) Piers
Foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed in situ in a deep
excavation
iii) Caisson
Form of deep foundation constructed above ground level, then sunk to the required level
by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson
iv) Compensated foundations
Deep foundations in which stress relief due to excavation is approximately balanced by
the applied stress due to the foundation
Net stress applied is very small
Normally comprises a deep basement
Mechanisms of failure
Three modes of failure identified:
1. General shear failure
2. Local shear failure
3. Punching shear failure
General shear failure
Failure pattern is clearly defined and definite failure surfaces develop within the soil.
Wedge of compressed soil (I) goes down with the footing creating slip surfaces and areas of
plastic flow (II).
These areas are initially prevented from moving outwards by the passive resistance of the soil
wedges (III).
Once passive resistance is overcome, movement takes place.
Heaving or bulging of the soil surface around the foundation results.
 Collapse is sudden, accompanied by tilting of the foundation.
Mode of failure is typical of soils of low compressibility (i.e. dense or stiff soils) and q f is well
defined.
Local shear failure
Significant compression of soil under the foundation.
Only partial development of the state of plastic equilibrium.
Only slip surfaces immediately below the foundations are well defined.
Shear failure is local and do not reach the ground surface.
Slight heaving occurs.
 Tilting of foundation is not expected.
Associated with soils of high compressibility and characterized by the occurrence of relatively
large settlements and qf is not clearly defined.
Punching shear failure
Occurs when there is relatively high compression of the soil under the footing.
Shearing occurs in the vertical direction around the edges of the footing.
No heaving of ground surface away from the edges and no tilting of the footing.

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Characterised by large settlements and qf is not well defined.
Load settlement curves for the different failure mechanisms required.
(Diagrams of the different failure mechanisms to be given)

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