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SOLVENT EXTRACTION
OF VEGETABLE OILS
H. V. PAREKH
B,Sc. (Tech.) Bmo., M.Ch.E. (U.S.A.)
Bhavnagar Chemical Works (1946) Ltd.,
Vartej (Saurashtra).
MAY 1958
FIRST EDITION 1\l58
Published by Dr. R. Sankaran, M.A., Ph. D. (London), D.I.C., Secretary, Indian CcntralOilseecL.
Committee, "Gandhi Bhavan", HydCl'abad.1 (Deccan), and Printed by J. S. Pereira at the
Examiner Pres.!!, Fort, Bombay 1.
It was at the Ninth Annual General Meeting of the Indian Central
Oilseeds Committee held at Hyderabad on 22nd October, 1955 that it
was decided to publish a series of monographs on oilseed crops and allied
industry. One of the subjects selected was 'Solvent Extraction of Vegetable
Oils' which was assigned to Shri H. V. Parekh, Chief Chemist and Chemical
Engineer, Bhavnagar Chemical Works Limited, Vartej, Saurashtra.
Solvent extraction dealt ,,,,,ith here is the recovery of oils from seed
material through the use of suitable volatile solvents. The advantages of
the method are that the recovery of oil is greater than through mechanical
processes in vogue, the proteins in the residual cake are not denatured, the
oil is not caramelised in the process, the resulting cake has very low oil
content, and consequently possesses superior keeping quality as well as
manurial value. In spite of these advantages, the solvent process had not
become popular in India so far, owing to fire hazard, the elaborate and ex-
pensive machinery involved and superior technical control required. How-
ever, by virtue of the advantages mentioned above, and the fact that the
present methods of mechanical extraction of oils adopted in the country are
not efficient, the solvent process has, in recent years, been gaining ground
and new factories have come into existence. It is, therefore, but appropriate
that all information available on this novel process should be made available
to the public.
I am glad tbat the author Shri Parekh has compiled the text relating
to 'Solvent Extraction of Vegetable Oils' with so much industry. Dr. N.
G. Chatterji, the General Editor for technological series of monographs of
the Indian Central Oil~eeds Committee: has edited this material. Shri N. S.
Bisht, Director of Arts, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, has prepared
the lay-out of the illustrations. Dr. R. Sankaran, Secretary of the Indian
Central Oilseeds Committee, has taken a good deal of interest in this work
and it is largely due to his efforts that this monograph is being published so
expeditiously. I hope this monograph will be of considerable practical
use to those interested in oil industry.
M. S. RANDHAWA, D.Sc., F.N.I., I.C.S.

Vice-President, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
Additional Secretary to the Government of India,
Ministry of Food and Agriculture (Department of Agriculture)
New Delhi, and
2nd Decemoer, 1957. President, Indian Central OiIseeds Committee.
CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCTION OF

VEGETABLE OILS
(1) Introduction .. 1
(2) Different Methods 5
I. Mechanical Expression of Oil [>
(a) Cottage Oil Milling 5

(b) Medium and Large-scale Oil Milling 7
II. Fore-Pressing i
III. Solvent Extraction of Oilseeds and Oilcakes 9
CHAPTER II. SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS 11
(I) Introduction 11
(2) Basic Principles of Solvent Extraction and its
Application 15
(3) Advantages of the Solvent Extraction 22
(4) Insupportable Objections Against Solvent Extraction
Industry in India 25
(a) Value of Deoiled Cakes 25

(b) Traces of Solvent 26
(c) Proper Solvent .. 27
Cd) Climatic Conditions 27
CHAPTER Ill. SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS AND MACHINERY 28
(1) Handling 28
(2) Grading 28
(3) Removal of Foreign Matter 29
(4) Storage 30
(a) Effects Accompanying Deterioration. . 30

(b) Relative Roles of Seed Enzymes and Micro-
organism 30
(c) Effect of Seed Composition and Oil Quality.. 31
(d) Influence of Moisture Content 31
\,1
Page
(e) Influence of Temperature 32
(f) Influence of Miscellaneous Factors 32
(g) Relation to Previous History of the Seed 33
(5) Chemical Treatment 33
(6) D~inting :14
(7) Decorticating 35
(8) Pre-treatment of Raw Materials 35
(i) Hulling 36
(ii) Conditioning a6
(iii) Rolling and Flaking 36
(iv) Cooking 37
(v) Crisping 37
(9) Types of Solvent Extraction Plants 38
(1) Batch Process 38
(i) Soxhlet Type 38
(ii) Rotative Type 38
(2) Semi-Continuous Proces'i 39
(a) Vertical Kettles with Stirrers 39
(b) Rotating Extractor 40
(3) Continuous Extraction Plant 43
(1) Extractors with Screw Conveyors 14
(a) Hildebrandt (U-Tube) 45
(b) Krupp Extractor 46
(c) B.M.A-Hildebrandt 47
(d) Egrot & Grange 47
(
!.f)
\
Ford Extractor 48
(f) Detrex Extractor 50
(2) Extractors with Other Conveying Devices 51
(a) Bonotto Extractor " " 51

(b) Allis-Chalmers Extractor 52
Cc) Anderson Extractor 53
Cd) Miag Extractor 56
Ce) Kennedy ExtractOl" 57
V11
Page
(f) Iowa State System 59
(g) Gaito-Buhler Extractor 60
(3) Extractors with Screw Presses for Solvent
Removal 60
(a) Fouth Extractor. . 60
(4) Extractors Operating in Solvent Rain (with
different conveying devices) 61
(a) Tyca Extractor 61

(b) De Smet Unit 62
(c) Rotocel (Blaw-Knox) 66
(d) Rosedown-Merz System 67
( 5) Basket Type Extractors. . 68
(a) Bollmann System .. 69
(b) French Oil Mill Extractor 69
(c) Lurge Extractor 72
(d) Bamag-Manning Extractor 73
(6) Other Types of Extractors 74

(a) Sherwin-William System 74:
(b) Filtra tion-Extraction 76
(10) Recovery of Solvent 78

(I) Distillation of Miscella . . 79
(II) Recovery of Solvent from Meal (Marc) 80
(III) Solvent Vapour-Recovery System 81
(11) Technical Control and Management 83

(12) Flow-Sheets, Photographs and Quotations. . 91
CHAPTER IV. ApPLICATION OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS TO

VARIOUS OrLsEEDs 93
(1) Introduction 93
(2) Groundnut 94
(3) Cottonseed 96
(4) Soyabean 99
(5) Castor Bean 99
(6) Flaxseed 100
(7) Sesame 101
(8) Copra 10l
-viii
/
Page
(9) Mowrah 102
(10) Rice Bran 102
(11) Okra seed 104
(12) Gokhru 105
(13) Pilu (Khakan) 106
(14) Miscellaneous Oilseeds 107
CHAPTER V. SOLVENTS 108
(1) Introduction 108

\ 2) Characteristics of an Ideal Solvent 108
(3) Petroleum Solvents .. 109
(4) Non-flammable Solvents 115
(5) Alcohols as Solvents 118
(a) Ethanol 118
(6) Handling of Industrial Solvents 119
(a) Introduction 119
(b) Health Hazard 122
(c) Fire Hazard 123
(d) Solvent Storage .. 126
(7) Explosive Rules and Regulations 126
CHAPTER VI. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS 127

(2) Relative Yields 127
(3) Operating Cost 129
(4) Installation Cost 134
(5) Selection of the Solvent Extraction Plant 136
(6) Plant Location 139
(a) Transport Facilities 139

(b) Water Facility 140
(c) Power Facility 140
Cd) Labour .. 140
(e) Raw Material 140
(1) Market for Deoiled Meals 141
(7) Utilization of Products and By-products 141
lX
Page
(a) Oil 141
(b) Deoiled Meal 141.
(c) By-products 142
CHAPTER VII. REVIEW OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION INDUSTRY IN INDIA 144

(2) History of the Early Development of Solvent Ex-
traction Process 145
(i) Kanpur Plant 146

(ii) Kalyan Plant 147
(iii) Calcutta Plant 147
(iv) Jadavpur University Pilot Unit 147
(3) Introduction of Modern Solvent Method in India.. 147
(4) Present Position of Solvent Extraction Plants 149
(5) Future of Solvent Extraction Industry in India 152
(6) Conclusions 154
CHAPTER VITI. ApPLICATION OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS TO

VILLAGE GHANI 155

(2) Revival of Bullock Ghani 155
(3) Working of Solvent Extraction Plant on Co-opera-
tive Basis 157
(4) Conclusion 162
CHAPTER IX. RECENT RESEARCHES AND LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOP-

MENT 164
\ 1) Fabrication of Solvent Extraction Plants in India 164

(2) Deoiled Meal as Human Food 165
(3) Deoiled Meal as Cattle Feed 168
(4) Production of Vegetable Protein Fibre 171
(5) Production & Uses of Vegetable Lecithin. . 177
(b) Production 178
(c) Refining of Phosphatides 179
(d) Properties 180
(e) Applications 181
x
Page
A-Food Uses 181
(i) Chocolate 181
(ii) Margarine 181
(iii) Shortening. . 182
(iv) Antioxidant for Edible Oils and Fats 182
(v) Bakery Goods 182
(vi) Macaroni and Noodles 182
(vii) Confectionery and Ice-cream 183
(viii) Miscellaneous Uses 183
B-Non-food Uses 184

(i) Petroleum Derivatives 184
(ii) Textiles and Leather 184
(iii) Protective Coatings & Printing Inks 185
(iv) Rubber and Resins 185
(v) Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics and Soaps 185
C.--Miscellaneous Uses 185

Research Work in India 186
(6) Industrial Utilization of Groundnut Protein 187

(b) Manufacture of Groundnut Protein 188
(c) Properties of Proteins .. 190
(d) Groundnut Protein Products 190
(i) Plywood Adhesives 191

(ii) Paper Coatings 191
(iii) Glues 192
(iv) Sizes 192
(v) Protein Fibres 192
(vi) Fire-fighting Compound 193
(vii) Moulding Powder . . 193
(viii) Hydrolysates 193
(ix) Protein Paints 193
(e) Cost of Production 194
(f) Research m India 195
Xl
Page
BlBllOGRAPHY 196
APPENDICES
Appendix I List of Manufacturers of Solvent Extraction Plants 204
do. II Conditions of Special Licence in India for Solvent

Extraction Plant 205
do. III Quotations for Solvent Extraction Plants Received

from Foreign Countries 207
do. IV Solvent Plant Licence holders. . 209
PLATES After Page
1. Rotative Extractor 40
2. Battery of 10 Extractors 40
3. Model of De Smet Plan t 66
4. Rose Down-Merz System 66
5. Pictorial Flow-sheet 70
6. Packaged Extraction Plant 70
7. Bhavnagar Chemical Works (1946) Ltd. Plant 92
8. Jagdish Industries (Private) Ltd. Plant 92
9. Vegetable Vitamin Food Co. Plant. . . 92
10. Tata Oil Mill Plant 9~
11. Veraval Oilcake Co. Plant 92

12. Jadavpur University Pilot Unit 92
13. Central Food Technological Research Institute Pilot Unit. . 92
14. H. B. Technological Institute Pilot Unit 92
CHAPTER I
REVIEW OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUcnON OF

VEGETABLE OILS
1) Introduction
The art of recovering vegetable oils from the oil-bearing materials was
known to mankind from time immemorial. It was developed in China and
India probably much earlier than in other parts of the world. Whereas the
old Chinese oil presses used in remote villages of Manchuria were driven by
man-power,100 in India, the primitive village ghanis were driven by bullocks
and in their absence by man-power. Even today, the ghanis that are still
existing in rural India are of the same primitive type with little or no modi-
fication in their prototypes and still depend mostly on the bullock for driving
power.
The processing of oilseeds has been of vital importance to man since the
dawn of civiliLation and naturally, the methods employed as well as the
machinery utilised for the purpose of carrying out various operations have
undergone tremendous transformation from the primitive type of oil-milling
process to the most modern and scientific methods. 97
The recovery of oils from oilseeds constitutes a distinct and specialised

branch of oil technology.
Various methods of extraction employed today have their own degrees

of limitations, but all of them have certain common objectives which may
be enumerated as follows : 46
(1) To obtain the oil in its "native form", that is to say, in the process
of extraction of oil from the seeds, the damage done to the resulting
oil should be the minimum possible and the oil should be as free
from the undesirable impurities as possible.
(2) The final yield of oil should be the maximum consistent with the
economics of the method employed for the purpose.
(3) To produce the residual oilcake in such a form that the proteins
and other non-lipids present have the greatest possible value.
Before going into details about the present methods employed for the
processing of vegetable oilseeds, a description of the oil-bearing materials
will be of some help to understand the principles behind the equipment used.
2 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS
In as much as vegetable oils are derived from a wide variety of oleaginou;;

materials, any discussion of the physical characteristics of oilseeds must, of
necessity, be extremely generalized.
An oilseed (olive and palm fruit excepted) may well be considered

as consisting of an oil-bearing meat surrounded by a relatively hard protective
coating, known variously as hull (cottonseed); husk (groundnutseed) or
shell (castor beans). The protective coating in general, is of very little com-
mercial utility and hence it is frequently removed prior to processing the seed
for its oil. 77
Table No.1 shows the percentage of oil contained in some of the more
import an t oilseeds.
Table 1: Showing the Average Percentage of Oil in the Oil-Bearing Materials of Normal
Moisture Content
Name Q/ Material Percentage Q/ Oil
Castor llean (Ricinus communis) 44-45**

Copra (Dry kernel of coconut) (Cocos Ilucifera i 63-64'"
Cottonseed (delinted) (Gos!ypium) 28-40'"
Flaxseed (Linseed) (Lillltrn usitatissimum) 32-4:l
Groundnut (kernel) (Arachis hypogaea) 46-52"
Niger (Gui;;otia abyssiniea) 38-50
Poppyseed (Pa/laver somniferum) 40-50
Rape or Mustardseed (Brassica species:, 3()..-45*"
Rice-bran (Ory;;a sativa) 8-16
Rubberseed (Hevea brasiliensis) 42·-,30*
SafRower (Carthamus tiTletorius) 28
Sesame seed (Sesamum indicum) 50-57
Sunflowerseed (Helianthus annum) 22-3~
Teaseed (Camellia sasanqua) .. 48

Tobaccoseed (Nieotiana tabacum) 33-3S
--------- -~--.----
.. Oil content of meat.

** Oil content of whole seed.
The extraction of oil in certain cases is rather difficult due to the fact
that some oilseeds contain a large portion of solid substances accompanying
the oil, thus requiring a careful pre-treatment of the seeds.
From a chemical standpoint, oil seeds are extremely complex substance:;

containing, as they do, all the elements and compounds necessary to reproduce
and nourish the new plant until it can form the necessary system of roots
and leaves to obtain from the soil and from the atmosphere the materials
REVIEW OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCTION OF VEGE'I'ABLE OILS 3
essential for growth and maturation. 148 Therefore, many of the subs-
tances found in oilseeds have not been identified definitely, and the function
of some of those which have been identified is not fully understood. How-
eyer, it has been fairly well established that the major components of the seed
are lipids, which are comprised largely of oils, proteins, carbohydrates,
crude fibre, moisture and inorganic matter. There are also minor, though
in many cases important, constituents such as pigments, vitamins, antioxi-
dants and enzymes.
In general it may be said that the protective coating consists largely

of carbohydrates and crude fibre while the major components of the meat
are proteins and Ii rids (oils) .
Oilseeds contain also a number of minor components which, in many

instances, assume a degree of importance quite out of proportion to the quanti-
ty of these substances that is normally present. Among such substances are
sterols, carotenoid and other pigments, vitamins, antioxidants and a variety
of resinous and mucilaginous materials of uncertain identity. 77 In
addition, free fatty acids (and possibly glycerine) may be present from the
partial hydrolysis of the oil contained in the seed.
The substances listed above are of importance to the oil mill operator,
primarily on account of the effect, deleterious or otherwise, which they may
have on either the oil or the residual meal. Some of them are extracted
along with the oil, while others remain in the meal.
Pigments are important because the colour of the oil is one of the factors
upon which depends its attractiveness and thereby its value. Yellow and
red colours, which are largely due to the presence of carotenoid pigments,
can be removed during the refining process; however, green colours, caused
by the presence of chlorophyll, can be removed only with great difficulty.
The removal of brown pigments, which are occasionally present, is also very
difficult, but these are usually found only in oils obtained from damaged
seed. Other pigments, of which gossypol is a prime example, are important
because of their poisonous nature and not merely because of the colour which
they impart to the oil.
A number of unidentified substances (presumed to be mainly ketonic

in nature) are present in oils and serve to impart to each oil its characteristic
odour and flavour; pure glycerides are both odourless and tasteless.
Another series of substances which are of considerable importance are

the natural antioxidants, whose primary purpose appears to be protection
of the living plant from rancidity. 46 This conclusion is based on a

considerable amount of experimental work in which it was found that the
disappearance of certain naturally occurring substances from a vegetable
oil coincides with the appearance of rancidity. Although the structure of
all of these substances has not been established (tocopherol being a notable
exception), they are all believed to be easily oxidizable compounds.
Sterols, which are hydroaromatic alcohols containing 26-30 carbon

atoms, 77 appear in practically all oils, but as they are chemically inert, they
neither detract from nor add to the quality of the oil.
Lipids, classified in Fig. 1, are important from the viewpoint of the oil
mill operator for, while the simple lipids consist almost entirely of oils, the
more complex ones must be separated from these oils if marketable products
are to be obtained.
Vegetable oils are rather complex mixtures of glycerides (glyceryl esters

of various fatty acids). Oilseeds of commercial importance contain only
a very small quantity of waxes (esters of long chain monocarboxylic acids
and long chain alcohols). These waxes must be removed from certain edible
products, principally salad oils, presenting a specific refining problem.
Of the three main types of complex lipids (Fig. No.1) the glycolipids (fatty
acid derivatives of the carbohydrates) and the derived lipids (hydrolytic
products of the glycolipids and phospholipids) are important only because
their presence in a vegetable oil is undesirable. Therefore, these components
should not find their way into the oil in the process of its extraction. On
the other hand, the phospholipids (glycerides in which one fatty acid residue
has been replaced by a phosphoric acid residue-which in turn has been
esterified with a hydroxyamine) are of considerable value although they are
present in small quantities.
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS.
LIPIDS.
-I
I
SIMPLE LIPIDS,
I
REVIEW OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE OILS 5
Proteins are not oil soluble, and therefore form a substantial proportion
of the residue left over in any extraction process. Heat in certain extraction
processes causes a complicated series of irreversible reactions referred to as
denaturing or cooking.
Carbohydrates are also insoluble in oil, and so form a part of the residue
(oilcake).
2) Different Methods
A number of processes are used to recover oil from oil-bearing materials

but the more important ones may be classified as follows:
1. Mechanical expression by pressure of oil from oil-bearing materials.
II. Aqueous displacement method.
III. Forepressing.
IV. Solvent extraction of oilseeds and oilcakes.
T. MECHANICAL EXPRESSION OF OIL
The oil crushing industry ofIndia as it exists today can be broadly divided
into the following three categories: 174
(a) Cottage oil milling employing bullock driven kolhu and modified
ghanis.
(b) Small oil mills using power driven rotary ghanis.
(c) Big oil mills employing mechanical presses of high capacity.
(a) Cottage Oil Milling

In India the crushing of oilseeds by the bullock driven ghanis or wooden
kolhus has been practised from time immemorial. Even today we find quite
a number of such primitive and very inefficient ghanis, worked by bullocks.
It is said that at present in this country 4,00,000 bullock ghanis are work-
ing. However, the average crushing done by these is only about thirty-
five per cent of their total installed capacity. That is, every year they crush
ten lakh tons of oilseeds as against their estimated capacity for twenty-eight
lakh tons. H
In the First Five-Year Plan, the target for the development of village ghanis
had been fixed at the full employment of the existing 4,00,000 ghanis and
installation of new 2,00,000 improved ghanis. In this way the plan envisaged
the total full employment of 6 lakh people.
Essentially a bullock ghani consists of a receptacle in which the pestle

is rotated with the help of a bullock. The necessary pressure for crushing
the oilseeds is provided by the weights placed on the Bozapat. At the end
of each operation the pestle is lifted out and oil is separated from the crushed
meal by dipping rags and then squeezing them out. Most of the parts of
these ghanis cannot be replaced, especially the fatcher, and when worn out
the whole ghani has to be discarded.
The advantages of the bullock driven ghanis are stated to be as follows:
(1) It provides more employment per unit of oilseed treated, than

rotary power driven mills and much more than modern types of
screw presses (expellers).
(2) Most parts of the equipment can easily be manufactured in the
village by the ordinary carpenter, and hence leplacement of parts
can be done easily and expeditiously.
(3) The process is very simple and does not require any special skill.
(4) The oil produced under application of low pressure is better than
under high pressure expression as it is lighter in colour.
Inspite of the admitted advantages of the bullock ghani as listed above,

the process is very inefficient in that it leaves a comparatively high percentage
of oil in the oilcake and entails what is regarded as a great national loss.
In recent years, much work has been done to modify old village ghanis
to make them more efficient. Even with modifications it may be said with
considerable justification that the use of bullock ghanis is technically an in-
efficient process compared to the process employed in power driven rotary
mills. However, the great importance of the village ghani in a country
like India where millions of people go without a job cannot be overlooked.
The importance of ghani can be well gauged from Table No.2.
Thus, we see that the claim made by the village ghanis for recognition
is based mainly on social and economic aspects of village life and has very
little to do with technical efficiency. Thus looking to this condition, it might
be necessary to protect village ghani at the cost of machanised oil mills;
but then the main problem of increasing the national production with the
help of modern technology without increasing unemployment would still
remain.
REVIEW OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE OILS 7
Table 2: Production orOils and Oilcakes in '000 tons 174
Crushed in bullock Crushed in power Tota! production

driven ghanis driven mills
Name of Oil- Seed Oil pro- Oilcake Seed Oil pro- Oilcake Oil Oil- Re-
seed crushed duced produced crushed duced produced cake marks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Groundnut @35% @63% @40% @58%

kernels 400 140 252 1280 512 742·4 562 994·4
Cottomeed --~-- Very small quantity is crushed in big mills. --~--
Rape and @30% @67% @35% @62%

Mustard :l2ii 975 217·75 32ii 113·75 210·5 211·21) 419·25
@35% @62% @40% @57%

Sesam~ .. 200 77 136·4 80 32 45·6 109 182
@30% @73% @35% @62%

Linseed · . SO 24 53·6 ZOO 70 124 Hi 17i·6
@35% @63% @40% @58%

Castor · . 2;3* 8·75 15·75 112 44·8 64·96 53 ·615 80·71
@58% @39% @62% @35%

Copra ·. 30 17 11·7 155 96·1 54·25 113·5 65'95
@35% @62% @38% @57%

Mahua ·. 10* 3·5 6·2 4U 15·2 22·8 18·7 29
* Quantities crushed in hand screw presses which is another indigenous appliance for crushing
castor and other seeds such as Neem and Mahua.
(b) Medium and Large Scale Oil Milling
The technique of the 5eparation of oil from oilseeds by mechanical

power as practised in medium and large scale oil mills forms the subject
matter of another monograph in this series.
II. FOREPRESSING
Forepressing is fundamentally not different from screw pressing described

above, nor different machinery is employed for that.
Forepressing usually but not necessarily consists of a two-step process

of oil extraction, in which the first extraction is made by a mechanical method,
solvent extraction being utilized for the second step. This practice has been
carried out to a considerable extent in Europe, principally for oleaginous
materials having high oil content. In America it has been used for castor
beans.
Preliminary operations are in general the same as practised in oil mills.

In European methods first extraction is carried out at comparatively lower
pressure than in American method. Therefore, power requirements are
considerably less in European methods.
In general, in the second step the meal from screw press is solvent extrac-
ted either in batch or continuous extractor. Occasionally extraction of the
meal is finished in hydraulic press. And for certain oilseeds, e.g., palm
kernels and copra, hydraulic pressure is used for preliminary pressing. The
chief advantage of forepressing is that it allows solvent extraction to be applied
to oleaginous materials which would be quite difficult to process directly.
Other advantages are low power requirements and comparative excellence

of oil obtained in both stages of process.
Besides these, the following advantages are apparent in forepressing-cum-

solvent extraction.
(1) Pre-treatment of seed is similar in forepressing-cum-extraction;

so once the seed is treated for expelling it is also ready for extraction.
(2) Expeller in its turn gives double the capacity because low pressure
is employed.
(3) Low pressure drawn oil IS much better in colour and IS low in
acid value.
(4) There is an easy accessibility of the oil to the solvent, so the period
of extraction is shortened.
(5) There are lower solvent losses.
(6) Proteins remain intact, as they are not denatured. These proteins
can be used both for edible and industrial purposes.
Major disadvantages are additional handling and extra processing re-

quired.
Skipin process is also used in pre-pressing. Cottonseed at moisture

content of 14-20% is treated in a "forepan". Oil separates at a temperature
0
of 158 +3°F. Mter 25-30 minutes it is transferred to another cooker where
it is cooked for hydraulic pressing. 114
The reported advantages of Skipin process are:
(1) Free gossypol is removed with oil in "forepan."

REVIEW 01< DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE OILS 9
(2) Oil recovery is greater.
(3) Oil from "forepan" refines ea~ily.
Residual oil in this pre-press cake was reported to be 8·48 % and free
gossypol in cake O· 16 %
m. SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF OILSEEDS AND OILCAKES
The solvent extraction process in its simplest term means the recovery
of oils from oil-bearing materials by making use of a suitable type of volatile
solvent.
The advantages of using solvents to extract oil have been recognized ;

but the main hurdle in the process was the fire hazard encountered due to the
inflammable nature of the efficient solvents then known. Only in recent
years-because of the advancement of chemical engineering knowledge-
it has been possible to construct solvent extraction plants with full safety
devices. Solvent extraction plants for out-door (open-air) operation, now
available in the market, eliminate almost completely the fire hazard involved
in the process. On the other hand, research work has been done to find out
efficient non-flammable solvents for the process.
The material to be extracted is given a pre-treatment (milling and heat

treating operations) in which some of the oil-bearing cell walls are ruptured.
These flakes or grits are then immersed in a suitable solvent; and the oil
freed from its cells gets dissolved immediately in the circulating liquid. How-
ever at this stage of the process, the bulk of the cells remains probably intact.
Thus the greater part of the oil is not in direct contact with the solvent. The
removal of this enclosed oil continues by the diffusion process which is rather
slow.
The mixture of oil and solvent, known as 'miscella' is filtered from sus-
pended fine particles of the cell and then distilled in order to separate solvent
and oil more or less in pure forms. The exhausted cake goes to desolventizer
where the adhering solvent is removed almost completely from the final
meal.
In order to keep the solvent losses down to the mInImUm, refrigerating

system or activated carbon-bed for absorption of the solvent vapours from
vent pipes is provided. All the vents in the process go through the vapour
recovery system. Because of this very efficient vapour trapping arrange-
ment, solvent losses in hot countries are kept almost at par with the cold
countries.
The chief advantages of the process are :
(1) Oil recovery is of very high order.
(2) Proteins in the process are not denatured.
(3) Oil is not caramelized in the process of extraction.

(4) Keeping property of the final meal is increased due to vel y low
percentage of oil.
(5) Low pressing of oilseeds becomes economIC.
The principal disadvantages of the solvent extraction methods are:
(1) Fire hazard involved is very high compared to other methods
described.
(2) Machinery required per unit of production of oil is more elaborate
and expensive.
U~) Superior technical control is necessary.
(4) At present important units have to be imported from outside.
In general, it may be said that, in a country like India, where oilseeds

are produced in huge quantities and where mechanical expression of oil is
not at all efficient, solvent extraction process is of prime necessity in order
to recover extra quantity of valuable oils.
As it has been planned to revive at least 4,00,000 bullock driven village

ghanis in the country, it becomes almost imperative to have a number of
solvent extraction plants established at suitable places in order to handle
ghani oilcakes which are very high in oil content.
In the end it may be said that solvent extraction has now come to be
regarded as an indispensable housemaid in the oil industry.
CHAPTER II
SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE ·OILS
(1) Introduction
The first patent covering the use of solvents for the extraction of vegetable
oils was issued to Deiss in 1856; 165 however, the method is said to have
been introduced by one Jesse Fisher in 1843. In both of these instances, carbon
disulphide was employed as the solvent and olive oil was extracted in the
unagitated batch type extractor. The early extractors were of small capacity
and not very efficient in working. However, the results obtained were appar-
ently promising since according to Hildebrandt, the use of solvents had become
established in Europe on a relatively large scale by 1870.145 The improve-
ment in the process was gradually done by the substitution of agitated extractors
for the unagitated single-unit previously used and by the employment of batte-
ries of extractors vvorked in series. Thus it was possible to make use of the
famous principle of counter-current leaching by stages. Extractors of this
type have now been in continuous operation in some European plants for
:~O years or more.
Had the development of the solvent extraction process stopped at that

point, it would not, in all probability, have gained its present popularity.
However, during the early 1920's, the use ofrelatively high capacity extractors
which were capable of being operated on a continuous basis was inaugurated.
The development of the large industry which grew up shortly thereafter,
primarily in Germany, Holland and Belgium, was based on a number of
more or less interrelated factors. First, Europe was, and for that matter
still is, an oil deficient area, which necessitated the importation of tremendous
quantities of oil-bearing materials. One of the chief imports was Manchurian
soyabeans. Since the oil content of the soyabean is comparatively low (slightly
iess than 20 per cent), it was of extreme importance that the maximum amount
of oil be extracted from the material. The meal from the existing mechanical
process always contained at least five per cent oil which amounted to roughly
20 per cent of the original content of the soyabean, so it was only natural that a
more efficient process was eagerly sought. 77
Attention, therefore, turned to solvent extraction, since it was well known

that the oil content of meal from this process could be reduced to about one
per cent. Upon further investigation, soyabean was found to be ideally
adapted to large scale processing by continuous extraction methods. Thus
the solvent extraction industry developed largely around the ports of entry
for the various foreign oilseeds, and Germany was, for many years, the techno-
logical leader in this field. Although soyabeans constituted a considerable
portion of the oil-bearing material processed, Europeans developed methods
for the solvent extraction of virtually all types of vegetable oils. Forepressing
with continuous screw presses followed by solvent extraction of the residue wag
frequently employed for materials having a relatively high oil content.
Before attempting to trace the development of the American solvent

extraction industry, it should be noted that solvent extraction operates best
on a continuous, large-scale basis, a requirement which was easily met by the
centralised wpply, through imports, of oil-bearing materials in Europe.
Further, oil deficiencies, particularly in edible oils, have never been as severe
in the Uni ted States as in Europe, hence the lesser necessity in the country for
obtaining the "last drop" of oil from the material being processed. Interesting-
lyenough, cottonseed meal, remaining from mechanical expression methods,
was at one time exported to Europe where the remaining oil was extracted by
the use of solvent extraction methods.
Although attempts at solvent extraction were made as early as 1889
in the States, the successful operation of European solvent extraction plants
really began to attraCt the serious attention of American processors from
1930. The first successful commercial scale continuous plant was installed
in Chicago, Illinois, in 1934, a corn germ processing plant in 1936 and a
400 tons per day soyabean plant in 1937. 101
Many of the early extractors employed were of German design and some
of them were actually imported from Germany and set up and put into opera-
tion under the supervision of German technical personnel. However, as
time passed, extractors of American manufacture began to appear in the
market. Some of these were merely improved models of existing German
extractors, but .others were of American design as well as manufacture. The
great majority of the plants installed between 1934 and 1946 in the States
were for soyabean. Batch or semi-continuous typ~ of extraction plants never
gained popularity in U.S.A.
The operation of solvent extraction plants has not been confined to

Europe and the United States alone. At least one plant is known to have
been erected near Darien, Manchuria, during the early 1930's, though of
course, the current status of this enterprize is not known. In addition, several
extractors are known to be in operation in South America.
In India, the first solvent extraction plant was installed as early as 111
1905; but little is known about its working.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS 13
After World War I, semi-continuous plants were in great demand

in U.K. and Europe; but after World War II, it may be said that only con~
tinuous plants are found to be of economical value. The modern trend is
definitely for the installation of continuous automatic plants, even upto a
capacity of 25 tons a day. At the present rate of progress, it can be well
predicted that batch units will be completely obsolete after a span of 10 years
and that semi-continuous plants will be considered during the same period
as highly inefficient means of extraction. The modern trend in the States
is to have completely out-door plants, based on the knowledge acquired
from the open-air petroleum refinery installations. The second trend is
to switch on to the non-flammable solvents, such as trichlorethylene especially
for treating oilcakes which are mainly used as manure.
Early attempts to direct solvent extraction of medium and high oil content
materials presented difficulties which ultimately led to prepress solvent ex-
traction operations. To carry out prepreEs solvent extraction operations,
two complete and distinct plants were required, a screw press plant subs-
tantially to decrease the original oil content and a continuous solvent extraction
plant to reduce the oil content of the meal to below 1%. Initial capital
investment for such an installation is bound to be high.
In an attempt to make available to American industry a "universal"

solvent extraction system, the United States Department of Agriculture
authorized research to be conducted towards the achievement of that end.
In 1953 a continuous semi-commercial scale pilot plant was demonstrated
to the industry, under the process known as "Filtration Extraction." This
process technically appears to be quite versatile in operation and it has been
applied so far successfully on the pilot unit to direct extraction of soyabean,
cottonseed, ground nut milo germ , flaxseed, sesame seeds, copra, castor-
bean, sunflower seed etc.
The process has been licensed to several companies in U.S.A., by U.S.

Department of Agriculture; "Filtrex" by Wiister & Sanger, "Rotofil" by
the Blow-Knox Company and "Filtration Extraction" by Lukenweld Division
of Luken Steel Company. 136
In modern times De Smet process is gaining popularity in Europe and

in other countries of the world. At the moment 66 De Smet units are working
or are under erection. Four De Smet units are being installed in India and
it is hoped that all will be "on stream" before the close of year 1956. With
De Smet unit, it is possible to extract directly groundnut kernels containing
about 8-10% husk by weight.
A 100 tons/day capacity De Smet plant is working in Ceylon on coconut

poonac for the last three years. Recently two De Smet units have been sold
to U.S.S.R.
At the end of 1955, there were approximately 51 French Oil Mills

solvent extraction plants in existence. Individual units range in size from
50 to 800 tons per day capacity. 131
About 40% of the cottonseed tonnage that is extracted in U.S.A. i~

handled in basket extractors. Over 70% of all the soyabean tonnage handled
is in the basket extractors and the figure is 70% for corngerm and 80% for
flaxseed. The basket extractor handles a great deal more tonnage of oil-
seeds in U.S.A. than all other types of extractors combined. 119
During the last five years, the "Rotocel" plants of Messrs. Blow-Knox
(U.S.A.) have become quite popular in the States. 14 extraction plants having
a total rated capacity of approximately 2,30,000 tons/year (short) have been
installed since 1950. A "Rotocel" of the capacity 850 tons/day has been put
"on stream" recently in U.S.A.
The U.K. Government attitude to solvent extraction was made abundantly

clear during and immediately following the recent war, and in most cases,
oil-bearing materials were not allocated to processors unless a residual oil
content of less than 1 % was guaranteed. 154
The condition of oils and fats industry in Germany, just after World War II
was surveyed by British Intelligence Objective Sub-Committee during their
visit-14th August to 11th September, 1945. 35 Quite a number of solvent
extraction plants of fairly big capacity were working during World War
II in Germany. The principal solvent extraction plants were of the Hansa-
Miihle and Hildebrandt types.
The Germans remove the oil from soyabean practically always by extrac-
tion with solvents and, so far as could be ascertained, seldom or never by
pressing. Seeds containing higher percentage of oil than soyabean, however,
are usually forepressed and then "finished" by a solvent extraction. 98
The Germans used both multiple contact batch and continuous extrac-
tors. The batch (semi-continuous) installations are arranged in batteries
of approximately 10 kettles in the series. 101 The destruction suffered by
many of the German oil mills is beyond description. Military action crea-
ted a shambles of Germany's oilseed industry, and many years will be re-
quired to rebuild it to a position of prominence in world trade.
Lurgi (German) units appear to be going on nicely in Germany and in

other parts of Europe. One Lurgi unit of 100 tons per day capacity is work-
ing in India.
Inspite of the number of attempts made, nothing is known definitely

how the solvent extraction industry is functioning in the communist countries
of the world.
(2) Basic Principles of Solvent Extraction and Its Application
The unit operations involved in a complete solvent extraction plant

are material handling, size-reduction, drying, flow of fluids, heat transfer,
extraction, evaporation, striping, filtration and sometimes adsorption. How-
ever as the handling of most of these operations is fairly conventional, only
the extraction operation will be dealt with in detail.
In case of mechanical expression of oilseeds, the oil is squeezed out from

the oil-bearing materials by the application of mechanical pressure. In
the case of solvent extraction system, the selective action of a volatile solvent
for the oil is substituted for bringing out the oil. Although the underlying
laws of diffusion and mlubility upon which solvent extraction is based, are
capable of rather rigid mathematical calculations, certain assumptions are
necessary when these laws are to be applied to the processing of oilseed,
and oilcakes.
As shown in the previous chapter, the structure and composition of an

oilseed is quite complicated. However, for the purpose of this discussion ,
it will suffice if the oil is considered as being contained in small, tough-walled
cells, which are scattered throughout the meat of the oilseed. 77
The mathematical study of extraction of crude lipids (oils) from vegetable

oil-bearing materials for the application of the data to equipment design or
process control, makes apparent the need for an understanding of the mecha-
nism by which oil transfers itselffrom the solid to the liquid or miscella phase.
Inspite of the extensive study of solvent extraction process, particularly in
the soya bean processing industry, there is as yet no universally accepted
concept of the manner in which the basic process occurs. 76
Oil-bearing seeds that are usually prepared in the form of flakes or grits
prior to extraction have a porous structure. It has been established that
the volumetric composition of raw soyabean flake, is approximately 15%
dry solid, 8% water, 22% oil and 19% air. Where porous materials are
being extracted, the theory of diffusion may be expected to apply, and the
data should conform with theoretically derived equation for diffusion.
An oil-bearing substance, such as flake, is composed of four parts: (1)
non-oil bearing solids, (2) water, (3) oil and (4) air space. For the purpose
of discussion, the non-oil bearing solids and water are treated as a single com-
ponent. When the flake is immersed, the air space is filled with liquid of
the composition of the surrounding solution. As extraction proceeds, the
space originally occupied by the oil is also filled with this liquid. This void-
filling solution is termed "static hold-up", meaning that it is held within the
boundaries of the flake and will not drain. 76
The oil in the flake under extraction conditions is considered to exist

in two parts. One p art is a component of the static hold-up and is influenced
by the concentration of the surrounding solution. The other part is the
portion of the original oil content that has not yet been transferred from the
solid to the solution. This latter is termed as "undissolved oi1." Thus it
will be seen that the completely drained extracted meal from any extraction
process after desolventizing, has an oil content that is the sum of these two
parts. This concept may not agree with the actual physical disposition of
oil in the flake structure, but it has been found useful in treating extraction
data for commercial design. A practical result from the observation is that
the concurrent side of a basket extractor is almost as effective as the counter-
current side. 76
A number of interesting generalizations have been made by applying

the above theory:
1. The diffusion coefficient is more than twice as great for the lighter
Skellysolve-F-(Skellysolve is a patented name for the petroleum
cuts of Mis. Skelly Oil Company, Kansas City, MO U.S.A.)-
than for the Skellysolve-B.
2. The greater the moisture in the seed material, the smaller was
the diffusion coefficient and consequently the slower the diffusion.
3. The diffusion coefficient is essentially independent of the thickness

of the groundnut slices, as predicted by the diffusion theory.
4. Comparison of the experimental curves with the theoretical curve,

indicates that in all cases some of the oil is extracted from the ground-
nut slices much more rapidly than predicted by the theoretical
relation. This phenomena has been explained in terms of two
diffusion coefficients, the more rapid diffusion being that from
ruptured cells. This also shows that the cell wall IS the major
obstacle to diffusion extraction.
Before it is possible to discuss extraction from oilseeds, it must be clearly

established what it is that is being extracted. It would simplify the task
considerably if it were possible to say that we are concerned with the ex-
traction of a single chemical substance from a non-extractible solid of uni-
form composition. However, actually we are dealing with a product the
nature of which is subject to considerable variation so that the definition
of extractibilities is not precise. The various factors described below affect
the per cent total extractibles by as much as 1 % which is an important con-
sideration in view of the fact that commercial extractors are designed to pro-
duce meal containing 0·5 % residual oil. 1S0
1. Characteristics of Different Oilseeds

In Fig. No.2 typical extraction rate data for flakes of different oilseeds
have been plotted. Soyabean, cottonseed, and flaxseed flakes of appro-
ximately the same thickness were extracted with hexane at the boiling point
by percolation.
1.0
EXTRACT!ON OF FI.AKES
OF SEVERAL 011. SEEDS
O.S BV PERCOLATION WITH
HEXANE
0 I. sovaEANs-oooel TK
::; 0.2 li 2.COTTENSEED-0009S'no
0
en 0.1 1\ \
3. FLAXSEED - 0007S'TK
~
Q
\
.05
a; '. ""'-..
~ ::s: ~
-f--
as
..J
.02 \ ~
""
Fig. No.2
..J
I~
0
..J
<
;:)
Q
.0
.005
\
........
- 1--. 2
i"\.
en ""'-..
~ .002
.001
o 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70
EXTRACTION TIME-MINUTES
K,ARNOFSKY A.O.C.S. OCT. 1949

The following generalisations can be made from Fig. No.2.
(a) There is great difference in the rate of extraction of flakes of dif-

ferent oilseeds.
(b) The bulk (about 80%) of the oil is extracted rapidly.
(c) Some of the oil cannot be extracted at all without grinding.
2. Effect of Flake Thickness
In Fig. No. 3 the extraction rate curves of soyabean flakes of different

thickness extracted by percolation with hexane have been plotted. The
flake thickness has a profound effect on extraction rate, as can be easily seen
from the various curves given.
1.0
EXTRACTION OF SOYSE'
·AN FLAKES OF DIFFE-
0.5
'RENT THICKNESS BY
PERCOLATION WITH
3 o. 2
HEXANE
1-0.009' 3-0.017·
oen o. I \\\
~-0.014~ 4-0.022'
liQ .05
\\ \
\\ [\
tti \\ '\.
~ .02 \ '" t-.... r--
\\ Fig. No.3
~"" --
~
..J
..J
5 .0 I
'\.
"-
.......
I--
b-...
.......... 11
- 4
..J
c( .00 5
::) "- ....... 1
Q
m
a: .002
I
.000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
'KARNOFSI(Y' A.o.C.S. OCT. 1949

,3. Effect of Temperature and Solvent
Fig. No.4 shows the effect of temperature and of different solvenl~'

These effects are quite significant, as can be judged from the curves.
1.00
OF SOLVENT
1-71 HEXANE. 3-100 HEX:
2-100 HEPTANE, 4-150 HEX:
.50
o 5-192 HEPTANE
:J
oen EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
& SOLVE~IT ON RATE OF
~ .20
EXTRACTION OF
o COTTEN SEED FLAKES

o .Ol6'THICK
~
.......... 10
ai hl.\, Fig. No. "
.J 1\\\\
,1\\,\
..J
o .05 \\ ~
~ ::--...
\
:::--.
..J
« .~ ~ --.: f - I
::> "" I--- 1 --3
2
o ~ I'-. t---
en
W
«
.02
K - t-- 4
.0 I
~5
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
EXTRACTION TIME MINUTES
'KARNOFSKY' A.O,C.S, OCT. 1949
4. Effect oj Flakes and Grits of Different Sizes
Figs. No.5 and No.6 show the following facts:
(a) The rate of extraction increases as the flake SIze is increased.
(b) In the case of grits the rate of extraction is less than the flake of
the same thickness.
Based on the porous nature of the flakes, two entirely different extraction
mechanism may be postulated. These are the familiar theory of molecular
diffusion, and the less familiar one that the rate of extraction is determined
by the rate of solution of undissolved oil.
SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS
20
The theory of molecular diffusion assumes that the solid is homoget10US
and that the solvent (or partial miscella) used for extraction enters the voids
to form with the oil originally in the flakes, a miscella of uniform concentra-
tion throughout the rnatrix. A.s extraction proceeds oy the diffusion o~ the
oil, a concentration gradient is set up within the matrix from a maximum
at the centre of the flake to the concentration of the extraction solution at
the surface. At infinite time, the concentration of the miscella within the
matrix is uniformly equal to that of the extracting solution.
o
:J 10
EFFECT OF PARTICLE
o
II) 0.5
SIZE ON RATE OF
EXTRACTION OF
?io SOYBEAN GRITS BY
PERCOLATION WITH
0.2 HEXANE
ai 1-0.021' 3-0.015"
~
cd 0.1 ~\ 2-0.018" 4-0.013"
oJ 1\ "
....Z .05
\
"-
i"--.
i--
....UJZ \ '-....
-- t--
'"
2
o .02 ~
U --t---t-- 3
Fig. No.5
~ .0 1 \
o "-
f'......
=i. .005 --::.:.:_4
:::)
9
II)
UJ .002
" .00 I
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
'I(ARNOFSKY' A 0 .C.S. OCT. 1949
The extraction rate curves for the flakes cannot be explained by the
simple diffm;ion theory, because of maximum curvature occurring when
about 90% of the oil has been extracted.
The "undissolved oil" theory assumes that the oil acts like a slow-dissolv-
ing material, the rate of solution of which is dependent on miscella concen-
tration. This theory is supported by the fact that there are slow-dissolving cons-
tituents in the extractibles which may inhibit the solution of the oil, as pointed
out by Goss. 97 The theory also assumes that the diffusion through the
cel1 wal1s is rapid compared with the rate of solution of oil so that the miscella
in the voids has the same concentration as the extracting solution.
1.0
EFFECT OF ~ESH
SIZE ON RATE OF
EXTRACTION OF
0.5
SOYS EAN FLAKE S
a 0.0207" THICK
:J DATA OF KING
0C/)
>- 0.2 ~
0::
a
_.
ai
ur_.
0.1 1\ Fig. No.6
_.
-- --
1,''''-.,
.05 \'\... ~ESH
\. 1"-,---
'r--... -.. . . ...__
0
_. 8-12
~ ..........
~
6-8
a .02
~
cr
I'---....... ....____ :!I
.01
o 10 20 30 40 SO 60
EXTRACTION TIME-MINUTS
'KARNOFSKY' AoO.C.S, OCT. 1949
It has been shown that the solution of the less soluble material is a
slower process than the diffusion of dissolved oil so that the former eventual-
ly determines the extraction rate.
Thus the mechanism of extraction appears to be a combination of dif-

fusion, dialysis, and the solution of slowly soluble extractible material. The
latter is sufficiently important in that it determines the size of commercial
extractors.
In the end it may be remarked that the designing and deVeloping of

methods for operating extraction apparatus seem to have progressed by rule-
of-tbumb methods considerably faster than the application of the laws of
diffusion and extraction for determining the proper size of apparatus and
optimum operating conditions. Research on the theoretical aspects of extrac-
tion has made rapid strides within the past few years however, and promises
to contribute greatly towards improving the equipment available in the
future. 97
(3) Advantages of the Solvent Extraction
The importance of solvent extraction industry in an agricultural country

like India, producing large amount of different oilseeds cannot be over-
stressed. The technology of the process has so much advanced especially
after the Second 'Vorld War that the solvent extraction has become a part
and parcel of the oil-milling industry. Table No.3 shows the production
of major oilseeds in India.
Table 3: Production of Major Oilseeds in India

(In thousand tons)
Name of OiL~eed Year of Production
1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54
Groundnut (Unshelled) 3,379 3,426 3,142 :!,884 3,772
Cottonseed 1)30 1,010 1,080 1,096 1,377
Sesame seed 431 438 445 460 531

Rapeseed and Mustard 793 750 921 837 826
Linseed 411 361 319 359 355

Castorseed 128 101 106 106 107
Year of production
1949 1950 1951 1952 1953

Coconut 170 178 181 185 190
"Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds" (Commonwealth Economic Committee) HIM.
In a country like India, where millions of people go without milk, it

would be considered a boon to utilize deoiled ground nut white flour for human
food. Recent work carried out in India for "Nutritive Value of Balanced
Food" definitely indicates the great potentiality of the vegetable proteins
as a source of cheap type of complementary proteins to cereal grains. 179
A "balanced food" prepared from the deoiled vegetable oilseeds in the fol-
lowing proportion has proved to be quite a success.
The percentage composition of one type of such food is as follows :-

(1) Deoiled groundnut flour 30%
(2) Deoiled sesame flour 10%
(3) Deoiled soya bean flour 10%
(4) Wheat flour 10%
(5) Tapioca flour 35%
(6) Yeast 2%
(7) Common salt and condiments. 3%
Total 100%
Every year we have a groundnut crop of 30,00,000 tons. If this entire

crop is expelled and then solvent extracted under strict hygienic conditions,
it is possible to get 11,00,000 tons of defatted white groundnut flour quite
suitable for use as staple food for millions in India. 161
From the memorandum presented by the Nutrition Advisory Committee

of the Indian Council of Medical Research and the Animal Nutrition Com-
mittee of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, it has been made evi-
dent that every year India produces 2·4 million tons of edible oilcakes. 36
Out of this one million ton is used as manure. Deoiled meals can very
well be utilized for feeding all classes of stock except milch animals, after
adding iso-dynamic proportion of cereal grain like maize to supplement the
reduction of oil contents.
It is, therefore, possible to recover by solvent extraction process oils,

from the following quantities of oilcakes :
(1) From one million ton of oilcakes used as manure, the quantity
of oil recoverable is about 80,000 tons.
(2) From 0·7.5 million ton of oilcakes fed to animals other than milch
stock, the quantity of oil recoverable is 60,000 tons.
Thus the total amount of vegetable oils that could be salvaged is about
1,40,000 tons annually.
Besides the salvage of the 1,40,000 tons of oils from oilcakes, it is possible
to get 1,00,000 tons of cottonseed oil from the solvent extraction of half the
annual production of cottonseeds in India.
24 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEQ,ETABLE OILS
India produces annually 2·5 million tons of rice bran, on an average

containing 10% recoverable oil. Thus 2,50,000 tons of edible oil, valued
at 20 crores of rupees can be produced annually by the solvent extraction
process.
A glance at Table No.4 will show that a total quantity of 60,00,000 tons
of oil-bearing material can be very well processed in the solvent extraction
plant. Taking on an average about 10 per cent recovery of oils, 6,00,000
tons of oils valued at 60 crores of rupees can be easily procured annually,
without increasing the production of oilseed s .
Table 4: Showing the Quantity of Oil-Bearing Materials "'blch Can Be Made Available for The
Solvent Extraction Process in India.
Name of Material Quantity

(In thousand tons)
l. Edible Oilcakes .. 1,750

(After reserving 0·65 million tons for the milch animals)
2. Half the cottonseed production 700
(Other half is to be admixed with de-oiled meal)
3. Non-edible oilseed 500
4. Rice-bran 2,500
5. Other oilseeds crops and oil-bearing materials (estimate<l.) .. 550
Total quantity 6,000
Taking the average capacity of the solveht extraction plant as 50 tons/

day and 300 working days in a year, India. will need approximately 400
plants, having capital outlay of 30 crores of rupees. This new industrial
development is possible, without forcing any unemployment in the present
set up of the oil milling operations in India. On the contrary, new jobs to
the extent of 40,000 will be created. By the incorporation of the solvent
extraction process in India, the present-day oil milling practice will be put
on sound economical and efficient footing.
An Asian country namely Ceylon, has taken a definite lead in the applica-
tion of solvent extraction process for the edible oilcakes. It is the opinion
of the Government of Ceylon that coconut poonac containing about 1 %
oil is better for cattle than poonac with any higher proportion of oil
residue. 166
SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGE'l'ABLE OILS 25
In short, the advantages of the solvent extraction industry may be sum-
marised as follows:
(1) The recovery of oil from oilseeds is very high.
(2) It can profitably salvage oil otherwise going as waste in the oil-
cakes.
(:3) It saves the nation a waste of oils to the tune of 2,40,000 tons,
valued at 43 crores of rupees.
(4) No damage is done to the proteins of the entering materials m
the process.
(5) Nitrogen of the deoiled meal is rendered in such a form that it is
easily made available to the soil, when used as manure.
(6) Keeping property of the de oiled meal IS increased, due to less
amount of residual oil content.
(7) Mechanical pressing at low pressure (forepressing) is made econo-
mical and the end products, both oil and deoiled meal, are rendered
in readily marketable condition.
(8) It is quite possible to revive village ghanis, driven by bullocks
in a most efficient manner when worked in conjunction with a
solvent extraction plant (vide Chapter VIII).
(9) Deoiled meal is more or less in powder form and, therefore, ready
for immediate use.
(10) Deoiled meal produced under hygienic conditions t;[ the plant
from the edible oilseeds, may very well be utilized as human food.
(11) The production of synthetic vegetable protein fibre is made possible.
(4) Insupportable Objections Against Solvent Extraction Industry in India

There are quite a number of objections raised from time to time against
the advancement of solvent extraction process in India. Before going into
the details, it may be said without the least fear of being contradicted that in
the light of modern technology of the subject, all the alleged objections
levelled against the solvent extraction industry in India do not appear to
have any solid foundation.
(a) Value of Deoiled Cakes
The first and the foremost objection is that the process renders deoiled
meal useless for cattle feed.
UAS LIBRARY GKVK
111111111111111111111111111111
4035
The objection has some meaning when trichloroethylene is employed

as solvent. The deoiled "triene" meal had once created a havoc in Europe
when it was used as cattle feed, due to some unknown disease, cattle died on
mass scale. When employing petroleum solvents in the process the result-
ing deoiled meal has been found to be quite safe. It is quite possible to use
deoiled meal as human food, when petroleum cuts are used as solvent.
The deoiling does not change any nutritional value of the cake for two
reasons: 31
1. The physiological assimilation of the lipids does not proceed

directly; this means that the triglycerides are not taken up by
the organism in the form they are in the cakes. These lipids
are first hydrolysed by different lipases and even the resulting
fatty acids are further decomposed to simpler molecules. From
these decomposed materials the organism synthesises new lipids.
In other words, the animal builds up its own fat-stock.
2. The principal sources for the synthesis of the lipids are not-as
would be normally expected-the fatty materials in the ('ake~
but on the contrary, mostly the carbohydrates.
Tests have been made systematically with cattle to measure the

rate of transformation of carbohydrates to lipids in the presence
or absence of fatty materials. These tests proved that deoiled
cakes are more rapidly taken up for transformation to lipids than
oil-rich ones; the same quantity of carbohydrate per weight of fed
animal being kept constant in both cases.
(b) Traces rif Solvent
The second allegation 15 that la~t traces of solvent arc not removed
from the final cake.
In the modern continuous plants the guarantee for the solvent content
in the desolventized meal is less than 0·1 %; while in practice no traces are
found. Even if due to some defective operation of the plant, traces of solvent
are left in the final meal, it is perfectly safe to make use of this meal as cattle-
feed or as fertilizer.
Cattle have never manifested any aversion to extraction meal coming

out from efficient solvent extraction plants.
SOLVEKT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS 27
(c) Proper Solvent
The third objection raised is the difficulty of getting a proper solvent

in India. This matter has been discussed in some detail in Chapter V, and
it would seem that in India it is quite possible to get the correct type of petro-
leum cut at an economic price. Table No. 13 shows that the percentage
cost due to solvent loss is not high compared to the cost of other items.
With the use of commercial hexane, however, the toxicity ceased and
this solvent is most commonly used now-a-days throughout the world. It
is a stable hydrocarbon solvent, having narrow boiling range, no toxicity,
with excellent extraction propertie5 for vegetable oils and low dissolving
power for colouring matters; it is practically insoluble in water, and easily
eliminated from both fatty material and meal. 31
The regular supply of this solvent having standard and uniform physical
properties may be, nowadays, expected in almost any country.
(d) Climatic Conditions
The fourth objection is based 011 the argument that the hot climatic
conditions in India would result in high solvent loss, rendering the process
uneconomic.
The argument however, has little force, because all the modern solvent
extraction plants incorporate very efficient solvent vapour recovery system,
so that the actual loss of solvent even in summer is quite low.
For a continuous plant working in a hot country like India, having

inlet water temperature of 85°F., the guarantee for the solvent loss is 0·6-
O· 8% on the weight of oilcake treated in the plant. In practice this loss
comes to only half of the guaranteed figure. Thus the actual solvent lost
in the process may not come to more than two imperial gallons per ton of
material entering in the plant.
It would thus appear that the so called objections arc absolutely without
any foundation in the light of recent technical development of the solvent
extraction industry.
CHAPTER III
SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS AND MACHINERY
In order to have a high degree of efficiency in the process, certain pre-

liminary operations are of great necessity. It may be said that quite a number
of times in India, the failure of a certain chemical plant is due to the lack of
proper planning for the preliminary unit processes required for the main
plant. Due care, therefore, must be exercised for the shortage and handling
of raw materials and the finished products.
1) Handling
It has been found by bitter experience in many instances that the care
with which seeds are handled has a direct bearing upon the quality of the
oil that is ultimately obtained. The effect of damage encountered in handling
may manifest itself in one or more ways. Glycerides tend to hydrolyze more
rapidly in the presence of certain enzymes. Apparently these enzymes are
activated in some fashion by bruises, cuts and other damages resulting from
rough handling. Thus the free fatty acid content of oil from damaged seed
will be higher than the acid content of oil extracted from undamaged material.
Further, brown pigments of unknown composition are frequently found in
oil from damaged seeds. As this colour is very difficult to remove, the quality
of the oil is lowered by their presence. Care should be taken in handling
the seeds such as cottonseed, peanut, etc., getting in bulk. In large mills
railway cars are generally unloaded by gravity with the aid of mechanical
car dumpers. Mechnical car dumpers are also often used with trucks. Where
dumping is not feasible, use is made of vaIious types of conveyors, power
shovels, etc. The conveyors used for unloading and transferring material
within the mill are of both mechanical and pneumatic types. The latter
reqUIres more power for operation but have the advantage of dependability
and greater flexibility.
Thus the method of handling whether it utilizes the latest developments

in materials handling equipment or merely hand labour, should be such
that the minimum amount of damage is done to the seed.
2) Grading
More or less elaborate grading systems have been developed in U.S.A.

and elsewhere for determining the value of the major oilseeds. 46 In
SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS AND MACHINERY 29
India, the grading is done according to the standards set up by the local
purchasing bodies. In case of export of oilseeds, grading is done accord-
ing to the rules and regulations prevailing in the buyer's market.
It is very desirable that we should have full specifications for different

I
grades of oil-bearing materials. Since most of the solvent extraction plants
in India at present are working on oilcakes, a great difficulty is experienced
by the industry for the purchase of vegetable oilcakes from open market.
In order to facilitate the working of the solvent extraction industry, it is very
essential that certain minimum specifications should be prescribed to the
oilcakes produced by different methods in India.
3) Removal of Foreign Matter
Oilseeds arriving at the processing plant contain many foreign matters

such as dirt, stones, leaves, scrap metal etc. These foreign matters should
be removed first prior to being stored, in order to eliminate substances that
might cause heating in storage. 118
Mechanically adherent mineral or vegetable matter is removed from

the seeds in the first stage by a combination of shaking and screening
machinery.
The seed, more especially if it is of a large or nut variety, is first of all

passed through a "tumbler" (an open revolving cylinder set at an inclined
plane) or over a series of shallow steps in order to cause the individual seeds
to rub against each other and dislodge the adhering foreign matter.
It may then pass over a rough screen sufficiently coarse in mesh to allow
all the seed to pass through, but on which any large pieces of foreign material
are retained. It may subsequently be screened from fine dust etc., by passing
over a shaking tray screen or through a rotating cylinder screen of such sizes
that the seed is separated from all foreign matter other than particles ofmagni-
tude between the extreme limits of the diameter of the seeds. Then the
dean seed is passed over a magnetic separator in order to remove small particles
of iron which may have escaped separation in the cleaning process. This
is an important precaution both in view of danger to cattle from the presence
of fragments of iron in seedcake and also in view of possible damage to the
cutting and crushing roll machinery in the succeeding processes.
Magnets are particularly useful because the most common metallic

contaminant found in seed is of magnetic type (mostly iron). As a matter
of fact, magnets are commonly employed throughout the oil removal process,
one being placed near the entrance to each of the various pieces of machinery
which could be damaged by stray pieces of iron.
4) Storage
When seed is delivered to the mills in quantities greater than the daily
capacity of the plant, it is customary to store it in seed-houses or silos for future
use.
The storage of oil-bearing materials demands considerable care in order

to minimize the deterioration. The degradation of proteins, carbohydrates,
phosphatides etc., in fatty tissues serves to produce oil-soluble substances from
non-oil-soluble precursors, and hence tends to contaminate the oil or fat with
impurities which would not normally be present, and which are often dark
coloured and objectionable in odour and flavour. In addition, the process
of deterioration is invariably accompanied by a certain amount offat splitting,
with the production of free fatty acids in oil. The amount of deterioration
has a direct bearing upon the yield of usable oil from a given material. 46
The kernels of seeds with a hard, loose protective coating (husk or hard
shell) store best in the shells so long as these are whole, but on the other hand
consideration of economy in the cost of transportation especially in the case
of imported seeds, tend to cause the seeds to be shipped or railed in many
cases in the decorticated state. 110
Some slight deterioration however is to be expected in any commercial

oil-bearing material and is in fact inherent in the process by which fat isformed.
The following factors have influence on the deterioration of oilseeds

during storage:
(a) Effects accompanying deterioration :-There are two effects accom-

panying deterioration of the oil stored in oilseed. One of these is respira-
tion or the generation and evolution of carbon dioxide through atmospheric
oxidation of the constituents of seed. The other is generation of heat which
is an unfortunate concomitant, inasmuch as it tends to raise the tempera-
ture of a large seed mass and thus intensify deterioration. Cases have been
recorded of self-heating so severe as to char the seed.
(b) Relative roles of seed enzymes and micro-organism :-Since conditions

leading to intensive enzyme action are equally favourable to the growth of
bacteria and moulds, and since the two produce similar deterioration III
stored oilseeds, it is not easy to assign to each its proper role.
Altschul. A.M. and co-workers 47 working with cottonseed, have

expressed the conviction that in seed with a moisture content upto 14-15%,
native enzymes of the seed are primarily responsible for deterioration, al-
though at higher moisture contents they admit the probability of the activity
of micro-organisms being important or even a dominant factor.
On the other hand, Geddes and co-workers 144 have attributed deterio-
ration at the lower moisture levels to mould growth, and considered enzyme
action as probably important factor only when the moisture content becomes
relatively high, that is, approaching that required for germination. This
viewpoint is supported by the observation that heating and respiratory
activity increase sharply at a moisture content that is critical for each seed
and that this moisture content corresponds to hydroscopic equilibrium at the
relative humidity (74-75%) at which the most xerophytic species of common
mould (Aspergillus glancus) begins to thrive.
(c) Effect on seed composition and oil quality :-While the effect of seed
deterioration on the contained oil is evidenced most obviously in hydrolysis
to produce a high content of free fatty acids, this is by no means the only
undesirable result. Degradation of the non-glyceride constituents of the
seed invariably produces pigmented oil-soluble materials which make the
oil dark and difficult to bleach, and usually also make the colour of the oil
unstable after bleaching. Increase in diene conjugation of the oil has been
observed 46 in both cottonseed and groundnuts subjected to long storage.
In addition to its effect on oil quality, it is generally observed that exten-

sive deterioration makes mechanical processing of oilseeds difficult. It also
leads to a low oil recovery even if no oil is actually destroyed. 46
(d) bifluence oj moisture content :-Moisture content is the most important

factor in determining the ability of oilseeds to store well. Although forced
seed dryers are often a part of modern storage facilities in the foreign countries,
it is much more common for oilseeds to be air dried, in which case their
eventual moisture content is determined by the relative humidity of the
atmosphere.
As the moisture content of the non-oil portion of the seed rather than
the whole seed is the important factor in oilseed deterioration, the socalled
"critical moisture level" for the beginning of rapid spoilage is relatively high
for low oil content, and relatively low for high oil content seeds.
Sallans and co-workers have observed that for a number of oilseeds

the so called "critical moisture content" corresponds very closely to that at
32 SOLVEN'l' EXTRACTION OF VEGE'l'ABLE OILS
which the seeds are in equilibrium with air of 74-75% relative humidity. 46
This humidity in turn, is that at which species of moulds known to
contribute to deterioration begin to proliferate. Hence it seems probable
that the critical factor in the deterioration of many seeds is not moisture con-
tent of the seed per se, but the humidity of the interstitial air in the storage
bins. 46
The effect of moisture content on the growth of bacteria and of filamen-

tous yeasts and moulds in stored rice bran has been compared with the effect
on the formation of free fatty acids in the oil. 187
The investigation of the effect of heating or drying and the effect of dif-
ferent relative humidity on the storage of rice bran have shown that bran
can be stored for periods of at least four months without excessive increase
in the content of free fatty acids, provided that the bran is dried sufficiently
and is maintained at a low moisture content. An increase in the moisture
content of pre-dried bran causes a rapid increase in the free fatty acid content
of the oil in the bran. 138
(e) lrifluence oj temperature :-In the case of soyabean and similar oil-
seeds, where deterioration, appears to be primarily a result of the growth
of microflora, the storage temperature does not appear to be a major factor.
However, it is a very important factor in the storage of cottonseed. In this
case even a small increase in the temperature has a marked effect on the rate
of deterioration. It is, therefore, imperative that cottonseed storage houses
should be well equipped with aeration ducts. The insulating effect of the
adherent linters of cottonseed contlibutes to the peculiar tendency of this
seed to heat up in storage.
Cases of spontaneous combustion in oilseeds are rare except that of

cottonseed, while in the case of oilcakes the phenomena is quite common.
Mowrah and khakan oilcakes arc very susceptible to auto-ignition. In
the case of storage of oilcakes it is very necessary that ample provision is
made for ventilation purposes.
(f) lrif/uence of miscellaneous factors :-The deterioration of oilseed through

enzyme action or infestation by micro-organisms is greatly stimulated by
mechanical damage to the seed cells. The latter may occur during handling
and processing operations that break or crush the seed or from exposure
of the seed to the weather. Because of this, undecorticated seed always
keeps better than decorticated seed and deterioration is rapid after the seed
has been ground and rolled in preparation for expression of the oil.
Since heating and deterioration are essentially aerobic processes they

may be inhibited by maintaining the seed in an atmosphere low in oxygen.
Immature seeds, harvested before their enzymes have become dormant, dete-
riorate more rapidly than normal seeds.
(g) Relation to previous history of the seed:-Degradative processes in seeds

increase the supply of nutrients for the growth of microflora and stimulate
enzyme activity.
In any lot of seeds, the keeping properties depend largely upon the
extent to which deterioration has proceeded before the seeds are put into
storage. Damage to the reed, leading to poor storage characteristics occurs
when the mature seeds are allowed to stand for a prolonged period in the
fields, before they are harvested, paliicularly if this is a period of heavy rain-
fall and also when early frosts arrest growth before the seeds are mature.
S) Chemical Treatment
A highly interesting approach to the problem of oilseed deterioration

involves the chemical inhibition of biological activity. This method is still
in the development stage, but appears to offer considerable promise, parti-
cularly as applied to cottonseed of high moisture content.
The method is applicable to cottonseed containing natural enzymes

and upto about 30% moisture. The process consists in spraying the seed
with liquid ethylene chlorohydrin, in a concentration of from about 0·2
to 1% based on dry weight of the seed. 4
During the research work on inhibition of the biological changes in the

stored cottonseed by the use of chemicals it was found that the production
of heat and the rate of formation of free fatty acids were dependent on the
initial moisture and free fatty acids content. 8
Experiment was conducted on freshly harvested cottonseed of moisture

content of about 18 per cent and a free fatty acid content of about 3· 7 per
cent for the application of laboratory chemical treatment data on the mass
scale. It was found during the research work that heating can be prevented
by chemical treatment and free fatty acid formation was delayed for appro-
ximately 52 days. Further it was noted that cottonseed is not a constant
biological material. Results indicated that there are at least two types of
free fatty acids development in moist cottonseed-one type is rapid and
seems to be associated with a rapid rise in growth of micro-organisms; the
other is gradual and takes place even in sterile seeds. 124
It has been found 6 that mixtures of two chemicals inhibit heating for
much longer periods than either one when used alone. Laboratory experi-
ments have shown that a combination of mechanical aeration and chemical
treatment is much more effective than either method alone.
Ammonia treatment of mature cottonseed inhibited the respiration

and lipolysis and reduced the light absorption of the extracted oil. Similar
treatment of immature cottonseed inhibited respiration but stimulated
lipolysis and increased light absorption of the extracted oil. 6 Evidence
is presented to demonstrate that most of the deterioration occurring in store
cottonseed is due to the action of enzymes in the seeds rather than to micro-
bial activity.
It has been found out that meal from ammonia-treated flaxseed is equal
in value to commercial soya bean and cottonseed meals and superior to un-
treated flaxseed meal. The value of cottonseed meal is not affected by
ammonia treatment of the seed. 7
6) Delioting
American cottonseed and a few other seeds which possess a thick growth
of short fibrous hair on the seed cortex are frequently subjected to a process
which removes the latter prior to extraction of the undecorticated seed.
It should be noted that there is a certain demand for oilcakes in which

the fibrous matter is present, especially in extracted cakes which are to be
compounded with molasses, when the fibre 01 lint acts as a binding agent
for the latter. On the other hand, the presence of cottonseed husks in the
extracted meals finds favour with some consumers, and for this purpose unde-
corticated seed is extracted after the fibre has been removed. In this case
the fibre-covered or woolly seed is first of all delinted by mechanical or chemi-
cal means.
The mechanical methods consist of passing the seeds through a series

of rollers covered either with knife-edges, or roughened edges similar to
nutmeg grater, or, for closely adherent fine fibre, provided with carborundum
surfaces. The rolls are carefully spaced so that the largest hulls present are,
as far as possible, not cut or broken, in order to prevent exudation of oil
at tbis stage.
Another method which is largely employed is to steep the hulls in dilute

sulphuric acid for some hours, subsequently washing in water and drying.
The acid treatment loosens the fibre from the hull so that it can easily be
detached by gentle mechanical rubbing and separated from the delinted
hulls, for example by winnowing in a current of air provided by suction-
fans or blowers. 110
7) Decorticating
When it is not desired to have the ground husks present in the extracted
meal, the seed kernels are separated from the hulls by suitable decorticating
machines.
As the hull comprise a considerable portion of each of the various types

of commercially important oilseeds and in as much as the oil content of the
hull is usually quite low (as a rule not over 1 per cent), and as its tough fibrous
nature would interfere with the extraction of the oil content of the meat,
it is desirable to separate the hull fi'om the meat as one of the preliminary
processing steps. Exceptions to this practice are found in the processing of
a number of very small-sized seeds, as for example flaxseed, perillaseed,
rapeseed, mustardseed, sesame seed, in which cases the separation of the
hull is uneconomic a1 and not practicable.
The decortication is usually accomplished mechanically, usmg one of

the many available varieties of hullers, either of the bar or disc type.
After the hull has been removed from the meat, the problem of separating
the two components presents itself. Such a separation is desirable as the hull
would absorb a considerable portion of the oil, if allowed to remain mixed
with the meat, thus rendering the oil yield low. Further, their presence
would result in inefficient operation because of the requirement for process-
ing a comparatively large quantity of low oil content material. Medium-
sized seeds are separated by employing a number of devices, the majority
of which contain either vibrating screens or pneumatic lifts, or both. The
degree of separation obtained should be balanced with the economy of the
process. The attempts to effect too clean a separation will result in the loss
of an excessive portion of the oil-containing meats.
8) Pretreatment of Raw Material
Proper preparation is the most important step for the successful working
of a solvent extraction plant. A properly prepared material must be easily
extractable, easy to filter-(good draining rate and relatively incompressible,
and must have a reasonable minimum fines content and proper size distribu-
tion). The case of filtration of the material is measured by a term called
36 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VeGETABLE OILS
mass velocity, which is the pounds of liquid passing through the filter bed
per hour per square foot of filter area.
There are five steps in the accomplishment of proper prepara-

tion :. 94,05
(i) Hulling :-First determine the extent to which hulling may be

required. In the case of cottonseed, groundnuts and soyabeans some or
all of the hulls may be added to the meats prior to extracting or after, in
order to lower or control the protein content of the final meal product.
(ii) Conditioning:-The main purpose of tbis process is to help the

subsequent operation of rolling. Materials with refractory hulls, or the hulls
which contain much oil, such as flaxseed <lnd sesame, may require drying
to about two per cent moisture content. This makes the material more
frangible, increases the capacity of the rolls and reduces power consump-
tion. Fibrous materials such as milo-germ need drying. Rice bran needs
only cooking and crisping before extraction. For other oilseeds, including
cottonseed, groundnuts and soyabeans, use a. moisture content and temperature
that is below the plastic range for flaking. This uses a little more power
but promotes oil release (not actual oil flow). The optimum moisture con-
tent is roughly proportional to the oil-free, moisture-free meal content.
(iii) Rolling and flaking: -By this third step a further reduction in size
of the material is brought about. The term rolling is used when the material
is passed through the "rolling machine" (3 to 5 high) such as are usually
used for hydraulic or screw-pressing preparation. The term flaking is used
to apply to the one pair-high smooth rolls used for direct extraction or some-
times for flaking· prepressed cake prior to solvent extraction, the product
coming out in the form of thin flakes.
Rolling or flaking if carried out at temperature. 120°F or lower will have

little or no effect in reducing the alkali solubility of protein. But these opera-
tions have a profound effect on gland breakage and the final free gossypol
value of the meals. Generally speaking, for rolling the operator wants to do
the best job possible for breaking glands. On the other hand, for flaking
the operator would probably want to break as few glands as pm·sible. In
the first case some form of cooking will folloW' the rolling, and gossypol made
accessible by breaking or rupturing pigment glands which may be converted
to the bound or non-toxic condition. I~ the second case, cooking is
either not used or has been previously used as in pre-pressing and gossypol
removed from broken or ruptured glands, will appear in the solvent

extracted oil.
(iv) Cooking :-In the cooking process, the time cycle is short (15-25
minutes) for very soluble proteins such as in soyabeans and groundnuts.
Longer time (40-60 minutes) is needed for cottonseed and fibrous materials.
Rice bran requires 30-45 minutes. Temperatures need not exceed 225°F.
Moisture for most materials must be between 12 to 20 per cent, and for milo-
germ must be between 30 and 40 per cent. Moisture is affected by oil content,
protein content, protein solubility, starch content, and other characteristics
of the material.
The functions of cooking are (a) to complete the oil release started in
conditioning and rolling, and if possible to put water on the inside and oil
in the outside of the particles; and (b) to agglomerate or make big ones
out of little ones.
(v) Crisping (evaporative cooling) :-This is the last step in the series.
One per cent to three per cent of the moisture is lost during the conveying and
screening operations. Crisping gives the cooked particles their relative
incompressibility needed for higher filtration rates. As a result, each particle
appears to be separate from the other. A handful, when pressed together
can be easily separated.
Cooking and crisping are special operations in the pretreatment of vege-

table seeds. Patents covering its application to a wide range of materials
have been obtained by Mis. WUster and Sanger Inc. (U.S.A.) By this
method it is possible to prepare stable granular particles, which are porous
and which at the same time can be handled in standard equipments without
disintegration.
It may be said that in actual practice, cake breaker, meal conditioner,

and the heavy duty flaking rolls only are required fOf the direct solvent ex-
traction of the most of common vegetable oilseeds containing 2..5-40% oil,
in the modern solvent extraction plants. In the case of pre-pressed oil-
cakes containing 8-18% oil, it is possible to get continuous solvent extraction
plants of well known makers, in which the pretreatment section consists only
of cake breaker having two to three pairs of fluted rolls. The grit (granular
particles) produced in t~ is cake breaker from the fore pressed oilcakes is
generally quite suitable for their systems of extraction. Thus by eliminating
the flaking operation, it is possible to reduce the power consumption by
about 6-8 K. W.H. per ton of cake processed in the plant.
9) Types of Solvent Extraction Plants
There are a number of different makes of solvent extraction plants avail-

able at present. But they may be divided into the following three categories
depending upon the nature of the process :
(1) Batch.
(2) Semi-continuous.
(3) Continuous.
(1) BATCH PROCESS
In this a single or two extractors are working m parallel.
1. Soxhlet Type
In general, the construction of the extractor is similar to the laboratory

type of Soxhlet apparatus. The pure solvent falls by gravity on the top
of the extractor and goes down below the false bottom. In the bottom, heating
coils are provided to heat the miscella and the evaporated solvent vapour
goes to the condensers placed at a height above the extractors. The condensed
solvent again falls by gravity to the top of the extractor and the cycle is re-
peated until the oilcake is exhausted sufficiently. Afterwards open steam
is let in just below the false bottom in order to drive out the solvent adhering to
the exhausted oilcake.
This type of extractor has very high steam consumption and also very
high solvent losses. The process is completely out-of-date for a commercial
application of the extraction of oilcakes, due to the fact that with single
extractor of the batch type it is impossihle to utilize the principle of coun-
ter-current flow between the solvent and the solids, in order to achieve maxi-
mum efficiency and obtain a concentrated miscella.
2. Rotative Type
Rotary type or percolator extractors, which were widely used in U.S.A.

to extract oil from the pomace resulting from the cold (hydraulic) pressmg
of castor beans, has been described by Bailey 46 as follows:
"A large horizontal drum is mounted on rollers by means of which

the drum can be slowly rotated on its longitudinal axis. Inside the
drum is a horizontal perforated metal strainer covered with a filter mat

burlap, which extends all the length of the drum and divides it into two
compartments, one of which is smaller than the other. The larger
compartment receives a charge of 10 to 12 tons of solid material through
which the solvent is percolated, to drain into the smaller compartment
by gravity, from which it is continuously pumped during the drainage
period. Four to ~ix successive extractions su ce to reduce the oil content
of castor pomace from about 15% to 1·5 per cent.
Rotary percolator extractors are built in capaCIties of 5-10 tons charge.

The time for the complete extraction operation is between 7-12 houl'S.
(2) SEMI-CONTINUOUS PROCESS
The term "semi-continuous" is rather vague and hence a definition IS
required before anything can be said about the system.
For the sake of convenience of technical discussion, the "semi-continuous

unit" is defined as the process of extracting oil, in a series of extractors, through
which the sequence of operations is carried out in such. a way that the prin-
ciple of counter-current multiple contact of the oil-bearing material with
respect to the flow of extracting liquid (miscella or solvent) is made use of. In
practice 5-10 extractors are arranged in series and the solvent is cir culated in
such a way that fresh solvent is always going through the extractor in
which the oil-bearing material is poorest in oil content.
The "semi-continuous unit" combines the flexibility in its application

to a wide range of raw materials associated with the batch methods, with
the efficiency of the continuous process. 18
(a) Vertical Kettles with Stirrers
The original method of attaining counter-current is widely used, mainly

in Europe, and consists in the use of several batch extractors in series. Fig.
No. 7 is a drawing of all' extraction kettle of the type used in Germany. 98,911
In a typical installation in India, three extractors are undergoing extraction,
the fourth one is on "steaming" and the fifth one is either on "discharge"
or is being filled with fresh oilcake. 162 The complete description of the
process has been given by Parekh. 162,163,164
FILLING DOOR !.
I
DISCHARG
DOOR
BATCH EXTRACTION KETTLE OF THE TYPE

USED IN BATTERIES FOR MULTIPLE OPERATION
A layout for the semi-continuous unit, employing a battery of five

vertical kettle and having a continuous distilling and stripping section is shown
in Fig. No.8.
(b) Rotating Extractor
It is quite customary in France and in other parts of Europe to make

use of rotative extractor in place of vertical extractor. A typical "rotary"
extractor is shown in Plate No. 1. An installation wherein a hattery of ten
PLATE J: EGROT & GRANGE ROTARY EXTRACTOR
PLATE 2: EGROT & GRANGE

BATTERY OF 10 EXTRACTORS IN SERIES
SOLVENT ExTRACTION PROCESS AND MACHINERY 41
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such "rotary" extractors are working on semi-continuous unit basis is shown

m the Plate No.2.
A flow sheet depicting four rotary extractors in series with a continuous

distilling still is shown in Fig. No.9.
FLOW DIAGRAM OF
THE ROTATIVE EXTRACTION
Fig. No. 9
The advantages of the rotary extractor over the vertical kettle are claimed
as fellows:
(1) No stirrer inside the vessel is necessary.
(2) Power required for rotating the extractor IS quite low.
(3) Indirect heating of such exhausted meal as contain a high per-

centage of starch (e.g. groundnuts) saves the mass inside the vessel
from becoming "rubber like" plastic during steaming.
(4) Alcohol (ethanol) can be used as solvent in the process.

(5) The false-bottom of the extractor can be removed and cleaned
while the extractor is working.
Inspite of the above advantages, tht> rotative extractor suffers from

the following disadvantages:
(1) The extractor does not rotate during the extraction phase.
(2) Steaming period is very high, almost double of the vertical kettle
of the same size.
(3) It is very difficult to keep perfectly tight, the joints and stuffing
boxes at the hollow axles through which all circulation of liquid
solvents, vapour, steam, air etc., is effected.
(4) Chances for explosion are very high, especially when the air from
the atmosphere leaks inside; because of the application of vacuum
during the steaming period.
(5) Because of indirect steaming, both the steam consumption and

solvent losses are bound to be high.
(6) Round~balls of big sizes are created out of the meal due to the
rotary movement of the extractor. These balls become "stone-
like" hard, if not broken down soon after their discharge.
From the latest trend in the semi-continuous unit, it appears that the
vertical kettle is preferred to the rotative extractor, unless there IS some
special consideration for using the latter type of equipment.
In general it may be said about the semi-continuous unit that this system
of extracting oil is fast becoming obsolete in Europe-the birth place of the
process-in favour of the continuous types.
It may be of interest to note that the order for the latest four plants to
be imported in India arc all of the continuous type.
In Japan, Government is encouraging the rationalization of the semi-
continuous process by the continuous extraction method, in order that the
industry may well stand against competition. 15
In Ceylon and also in Pakistan, the trend is for the continuous extraction
process, rather than for semi-continuous method.
(3) CONTINUOUS EXTRACTION PLANT
As soon as the semi-continuous units were perfected for the industrial

exploitation of the oil-bearing materials, an urgent need was felt for the com-
mercial version of the continuous solvent extraction plant in order to show
more forcibly the competitive power of this method against hydraulic and
continuous screw-presses.
The guiding princiPle behind a continuous plant is that the solvent

should be passed through the travelling mass of the oil-bearing material con-
tinuously in counter-curre~t and/or concurrent direction.
Continuous extractors in horizontal, inclined and vertical positions

have been proposed 185 while the solvent may move through the extractor
by gravity or by means of a pump.
A very good survey of continuous extraction plants has been done by

Depmer. 79 Extractors so far developed and applied commercially may
be roughly classified as follows:
(1) Extractors in which the oil-bearing material is passed through
a solvent bath by means of horizontal, vertical or inclined screw
conveyors.
(2) Extractors conveying the oil-bearing material through a solvent
bath by means other than screw conveyors.
(3) Extractors in which the material is drawn through a bath with
buckets and after each leaching out has a part of the solvent removed
in a screw press.
(4) Extractors with various transporting devices, in which the material
is exposed to a solvent rain (percolation system).
(5) Basket extractors designed in horizontal, vertical or combined
arrangement in which the material-
(a) is exposed to a solvent rain, or
(b) remains in a solvent bath.
(6) Other types of extractors.
(1) EXTRACTORS WITH SCREW CONVEYORS
(a) Hildebrandt, (b) Krupp, (c) B.M.A, (d) Egrot & Grange, (e) Ford,
(f) Detre.x.
These extractors all operate strictly in the counter-current direction of

the passage of the solvent and the material, and in the liquid bath. The
extraction of the oil-bearing material takes place in the submerged 'condition.
The mechanical conveyance provided for the transportation of the material
invariably brings a certain amount of disintegration and it is, therefore, neces-
sary that elaborate machinery should be provided in the pretreatment sec-
tion of the plant, in order to prepare suitable flakes, as free as possible from
fines, to work satisfactorily in the extractor. Thus these types of extractors,
in general, are most suitable for soyabeans and less desirable for oilseeds that
are to be forepressed before solvent extraction; because in the operation of
pre-pressing, the material comes out weakened or disintegrated in internal
structure. By this principle of straight countercurrent operation, 'fines'
coming with the flakes, are washed away by the out-going enriched miscella ;
and thus require special type of filtration equipment.
In these extractors the conditions are less favourable for the finished
miscella to have a high percentage of oil content, because the solvent follows
a short effective path in the extractor, not strictly partitioned into sections,
allowing an interchange of concentration and thus preventing too high a
concentration gradient. The extractors require a large solvent filling, in
relation to the charge of the material, and this has the disadvantage especially
when starting up and closing down the plant. The sealing of the driving
and moving elements at the bottom of the unit against the hydraulic pressure
of the solvent, which may amount to as much as 0·5 atm. is more difficult
III the vertical types than in others.
(a) Hildebrandt (U-tube)

One of the earliest types of continuous extractors was that of Hildebrandt
(also known as U-tube) type, which was widely used in Europe and at least
in three U.S.A. mills. 90
The construction of the extractor is shown in Fig. No. 10. The extractor
consists of a vertical U-tube through which the solids are propelled strictly
...
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MEAL IN LET I-
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Fig. No. 16
U -TUBE EXTRACTOR
counter-currently to the solvent by means of slowly revolving screw conveyors,

which are perforated.
The extraction material is fed into the top of one leg where it is propelled
down and picked up by the screw-conveyor inside the horizontal tube. In
the second leg, the material is lifted up by a perforated screw-conveyor, the
movement of the solids being aided by guiding rods. The top section of
the leg, through which miscella is going out, is provided with a strainer, in
order to trap the 'fines' going along with the miscella. It may be remarked
at this stage, that mechanical filtration of the miscella is not as satisfactory
a means of trapping the 'fines' as the natural filtering bed provided by the
oil-bearing material. Bar screens, or wedge wire screens as they are some-
times called, are constructed of many small vertical bars spaced approxi-
mately 0·008 inches apart and the tapered portion of the bars is placed on
the reverse side in order to provide the quick lodging of the particles between
the bars. The down\'lard motion of the flake bed past the miscella discharge
screen and the soft non-metallic outer edge of the screw flights keeps the
internal surface of the miscella screen wiped free of 'fines'. The exhausted
meal falls from the tall towel through a tube into the drying worm
system.
(b) Krupp Extractor
This is improved Hildebrandt system. The advantage of the extractor

is that there are less mechanically operated parts and hence less troubles in
the working of the plant. The extractor does not require any extra mechani-
cally operated filling device, as it is already equipped with suitable arrange-
ment of the worm itself for feeding the desirable volume of material. The
capacity of the plant can be regulated by adjusting the speed of the worm
shaft of the short tower. This extractor ;_'oes not require any tension device
III contrast to the belt or chain type extractors.
No additional pumps are required for the circulation of the extracting

liquid.
The problem of 'fines' is minimised ill the improved Hildebrandt system

by providing a guided path for the solids in the solvent bath.
The revolutions of the worm inside the extractor are very low and thus
the material is prevented from rotating by itself. The material m the
extractor is only moved in the vertical direction.
The space required by the extractor is smaller.
(c) B.M.A -Hildebmndt
The improvement in this system, over Hildebrandt is that no screw-

conveyor is provided in the short leg of the U-tube. The material enters
straight in the short tower of the extractor and its flow is regulated by a device
attached to the outlet of the exhausted meal conveyor. The horizontal
an~ the vertical conveying worms in the extractor transport the oil-bearing
solids slowly and carefully to the outlet in the upper part of the tall extractor
tower. The solvent entering below the exhausted meal outlet and leaving
above the level of the entering material, extracts the oil on the counter-
current principle.
The admission leg of the extractor is always kept about half filled with
the material, thus providing an effective filtering medium for the out-going
miscella. A special bar strainer is provided at a certain distance above the
oil-bearing material level. Particles suspended in the miscella can be settled
by this manner and a fairly clear miscella is obtained.
The speed of the vertical worm shaft is very slow, approximately 0·6
r.p.m., thus greatly avoiding the disintegration of the flakes.
By providing the strainer at certain height above the material level and
by the slow transportation speed of the material and the out-going solvent,
the suspended particles in the misceUa, fall by gravity to the material level
in the short tower.
(d) Egrot & Grange Extractor
The extractor is shown in Fig. No. 11. The solid material is fed at the
top of the vertical column with a conical bottom. The bottom of the column
tapers into a chamber, in which the extracted material is passed through
the adjustable mechanical discharge device. The drained miscella from
the other column provided with perforated basket elevator is pumped through
this chamber and passes through the solid in the counter-current direction.
From this chamber, the extracted slurry is taken up by the elevator and
ultimately discharged into the drying equipment.
PURE SOLVENT IN LET
CAKES ARRIVAL
Fig. No. 11
(e) Ford Extractor
lhe drawing for the Ford extractor is shown in the Fig. No. 12.
EAL& FEEDER
FORD EXTRACTOR
Fig. No. 12
The description about this extractor has been given by Cofield as

under: 77
"The extractor is simply a piece of 12 inch standard steel pipe, 30

feet in over-all length and set at an angle of 10 degrees with the horizontal.
Operation is counter-current, the flakes being carried upward by a screw
conveyor and the solvent running down the inclined pipe or "percolator"
as the tube is called. Introduction of the solvent at a point about half
way down the tube allows the upper portion to be llsed as a steamer.
There, by the use of a steam jacket and live steam, the last traces of solvent
are vapourized from the meal. The steam and the solvent vapour pass
out of the upper end of the steamer to the solvent recovery system, while the
wet solvent-free meal is dropped into another steam jacketted, inclined pipe,
which acts as a dryer.
To the lower end of the extractor tube, t}1ere is welded verti.cally another
short section of 12 inch pipe, in which is set a continuous filter for the ~pent
solvent and oil mixture."
The above described extractor has not much importance as such, but it has
significance in the light of the development of really small capacity continuous
extractors in U.S.A. The plant has a capacity of 500 lbs., of ,oyaheans per
hour. The entire unit consists of a flaker, continuous extractor, filter and
solvent recovery system such as are shown.
(f) Detrex Extractor

As may be seen from Fig. No. 13, the Detrex unit bears a superficial
n:semblance to the Hildebrandt and FOld extractOls in that the oleaginous
material is propelled through the unit by means of a screw conveyor. 77
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THE DETREX SYSTEM OF EXTRACTION.
Fig. No. 13
The beans are fed directly to the bean heater, which does not materially
affect their moisture content, but merely heat them so that they become more
pliable for flaking. Mter the cracking and flaking operatiom, an elevator
f:anies the prepared flakes to the flake hopper, from which they are mechani-
cally fed into the long extraction tube.
The flakes are maintained in a loose condition while in the extraction

tube, thereby allowing complete penetr,ltion of the solvent. Since the flakes
are moved forward and constantly change their position, they come in con-
tact with newly distilled wlvent as they approach the discharge end of the
extraction tube. These extracted flakes are drawn from the extractor tube
by means of an inclined screw which allows the solvent to drain from the
flakes prior to passing them into the drier tubes.
The above extractor was fabricated by the Detrex Corporation of Detroit,

Michigan (D .S.A.) in the development of its small scale extractors (25-
200 tons capacity) specially for the use of stabilized trichloroethylene, a non-
flammable solvent.
(2) EXTRACTORS WITH OTHER CONVEYING DEVICES
(a) Bonotto, (b) Allis-Chalmer, (c) Anderson, (d) Miag, (e) Kennedy
(f) Iowa State System, (g) Gaito Buhler.
In this group, the transfer of the solids through the solvent bath is effected
by slowly running horizontal or vertical stirring mechanism or chain con-
veyors, and there is, therefore, less danger of size reduction or disintegration
of the material in the course of extraction. However, the straight counter-
current operation, requires rather comparatively extensive miscella filtering
devices; because the final miscella contains high percentage of 'fines'
coming from the flakes. These extractors, also require a big charge of solvent
for the process.
(a) Bonotto Extractor
The extractor has been shown in Fig. No. 14. The working of the
process has been described by their manufacturers as follows: 77
STATION,4~-ff
SLOT
BAFFi...E
PLATE
PATH OF
SOLVENT
BONOTTO EXTRACTO R
Fig. No. 14
"The Bonotto system of extraction consists primarily of a packed column

of oil-bearing material through which the solvent is forced counter-currently.
The material in process is subdivided into sections by means of a number of
horizontal plates, the weight of solids in each section being supported by its
respective plate. Specially shaped slots are cut in each plate, each slot being
staggered from the next, in succession. A stationary baffle is fixed to the wall
of the column above each plate. These plates are spaced according to the
physical characteristics of the process material, and are fixed to an axial shaft,
rotating at a slow speed.
"Fresh solvent enters the bottom, passing upward and out at the top
after extracting the oil by diffusion process.
"Channeling of the solvent through the material is kept under perfect

control by the creation of channels through the slots and their rotation around
the axis.
"The stationary baffle above each plate prevents rotation of the material
along with the supporting plate.
"The design of the extractor provides high counter-current speed of

the solvent through a packed column of divided material, with continually
changing channels created by the revolution of the slots in the plates. The
material descends quietly from section to section by gravity, with a minimum
of agitation."
(b) Allis-Chalmers Extractor
The Allis-Chalmers and Anderson extractors are modifications of the

Bonotto apparatus. 46
Allis-Chalmers extractor is shown in Fig. No. 15.
The working of this extractor is described as follows :77
"The extractor, a vertical cylindrical column, is divided into compart-

ments by means of a series of fixed horizontal plates. The upper surface of
each plate is wiped by a scraper arm which is fastened to a slowly rotating
central shaft.
"Two slots, diametrically opposite each other, are cut into the plates
so that during each scraper rotation, the lowermost increment of flakes in
anyone compartment is dropped on to the plate below. The screw type
feeder provided at the top of the column also functions as a vapour seal. The
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Fig. No. 15
ALUS-CH.ALMERS EXTRACTOR
top of the extractor is enlarged to serve as a settling chamber for the separa-
tion of any suspended flake material from the miscella rising in the column."
This unit works quite well on a number of oilseeds such as soyabeans,

forepressed groundnut, castor bean, cottonseed, linseed, maze germ and
fish-meal.
(c) Anderson Extractor
The design of the extractor is shown in Fig. No. 16 and the complete
layout in Fig. No. 17.
This extractor is somewhat similar to the Allis-Chalmers umt III that

the unit is housed in a vertical column and the material being extracted travels
downward through the column while the solvent flow is counter-current. 77
A further similarity between the two units is that the extractor column is
divided into compartments by horizontal slotted plates which are cleaned
periodically by rotating scraper arms.
ANDERSON EXTRACTOR
Fig. No. 16
V. D. Anderson Company in 1946 introduced the original out-door

type Anderson Solvent Extraction System. This plant was the first pre-
fabricated out-door unit with its inherent advantages.
In order to facilitate the handling of oilseeds having high percentage

of oil content, the V. D. Anderson Co. introduced in 1950, the new Exsolex
system, which is claimed to be successful with nearly all materials.
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56 SOLVENT EX'I'RACTION OF VEGE'I'ABLE OILS
Recently the V. D. Anderson designed the "Di-Sol-Ex" process, prima-

rily to permit the direct extraction of cottonseed, dry process corn germ,
rice bran and high oil press cakes to furnish meals of low residual oil. The
advantages claimed by the manufacturers are as follows:
1) Producing 75% and over soluble protein meal.

2) Reducing the gossypol con ten t to 0·04 %.
:3) Lowering the residual oil in the meal to 0·5 %.
4) Making installation easy in an existing building or out-door Sl11CC
the extractor is compact and horizontal.
It is interesting to note that the V. D. Anderson have started manu-

facturing the horizontal extractor, in line with other makers, such as De
Smet, and French Oil :Mill Machinery Co.
(d) Miag Extractor
This extractor is used both in Europe and in South America. Fig. No. 18
is a drawing of the Miag extractor.
The extractor embodies a system somewhat similar to the principle

in the Bollmann. 185
It is in the form of a vertical hollow ring consisting of stationary con-

centric short cylinders and end walls, creating thus an endless extraction
channel. Instead of being ring shaped the extractor may be elongated along
the vertical axis, thus assuming a somewhat oval shape. Inside the extrac-
tion channel rakes or sieve plates, secured to an inner rotating cylinder which
divides the channel into cells, carry the extraction material. The solvent
is introduced at the lower part of the ring and withdrawn about half way up.
The sieve plates correspond exactly to the cross section of the channel and
allow only the solvent to pass through. In this way a separate filtering
device is avoided, but there is no re-circulation of half miscella as in the
Bollmann extractor.
The diasram shows the annular chamber within which disc F with
conveyor sieves G is rotatable. The oil-bearing material enters the annular
chamber through branch H and solvent through branch 1. The extracted
meal is discharged through opening N. The mise ella in the extractor is
maintained at the height shown by dotted line. It is discharged through
the perforated wall into chamber 0 and from there through pipe P, to the
filter unit.
SOLVENT EXTRAOTION PROCESS AND Mj\CHINERY 57
Fig. No. 18
EXTRACTOR USED IN THE MIAG SYSTEM
(e) Kennedy Extractor
The extractor, named after its inventor, Angus B. Kennedy and current-
ly manufactured by the Vulcan Copper and Supply CO. (U.S.A.) is shown
in Fig. No. 19.
The plant appears to be quite versatile, as it is possible to treat in the

extractor, materials such as cottonseed, ground nut, castor bean flakes, tung-
nuts, flaxseed and sunflowerseed in addition to soyabeans. Further, no
requirement seems to exist for the oil-bearing material to be in the con-
ventional flake form, since extraction has been accomplished successfully on
material that was either granular, powdery, gelatinous, fibrous, stringy or pulpy
in nature. A variety of solvents including petroleum fractions, acetone,
alcohol, trichloroethylene and mixed solvents have been used successfully.
58 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGE'rABLE OILS
Fig. No. 19
The working of the extractor is described as follows: 77
"The continuous extractor consists of a series of enclosed extraction

chambers or sections. Into each of these is fitted an impeller wheel assembly
consisting of an enclosed hub (the lower portion of the hub is partially sub-
merged in the liquid), four curved blades of perforated metal, and a shaft
extending through bearings in the sides of the extractor walls. The impeller
wheel assemblies are driven from the outside by a common drive shaft through
a worm and gear arrangement.
"The controlled quantities of the material are fed at a constant rate by

a feed screw conveyor into the first extraction section of the extractor. The
material then is carried through the extractor in counter-current flow to the
solvent.
"Each portion of immersed solid material in a section is collected by an

impeller blade and carried through the liquid in that section. As the solids
are carried up the curved wall of that section, they are slightly compressed
between the wall and the curved blade to form a wedge, which is lifted above
the liquid level and sloughs off the blade into the next section. This slight
compression and draining through lifting the solids above the liquid level
reduce the amount of entrained liquid carried over to the succeeding section.
"On striking the liquid surface in the succeeding section, the wedge
readily breaks up and disperses. The solids immersed in the liquid of this
section as distinct particles are again collected by an impeller blade and
moved through the liquid.
"The extracted solids are gravity drained of a good part of the entrained
solvent, while being carried up the drag chain conveyor, and then are dropped
into a collecting can with a perforated false bottom for separating additional
liquid drainings."
(j) Iowa State System
The most recent addition to the small extractor field in U.S.A. is that
of the Iowa Engineering Experiment Station which has developed a 25 ton
package unit 77 capable of being operated by comparatively inexperienced
personnel.
The extractor is shown in Fig . No. 20.
MEAL
1
COOL SCR.EW
FLAKES
FLAKED BEANS
ELEVATOry
4
IOWA STATE SYSTEM OF EXTRACTION

Fig. No. 20
This unit is similar to the Detrex unit in that it employs non-flammable

trichloroethylene as a solvent, but differs in that the extractor section is a
chain conveyor in a looped tube rather than a horizontal screw conveyor.
A pilot plant having a capacity of 15 tons has been in operation at Plainfield,
Iowa (U.S.A.) for the past several years, during which time soyabeans, milk
weed seed, cottonseed, catmeal and corn germs have been processed.
(g) Caito-Buhler Extractor
This consists of an approximately O-form, essentially vertical housing

in which a chain functions as a vertical redler to draw the material coun~
ter~currently through the solvent bath.
(3) EXTRACTORS WITH SCREW PRESSES FOR SOLVENT REMOVAL
(a) Fouth Extractor
This extractor (Fig. No. 21) occupies a special position in the field of
extraction 79 using, as it does, a method of leaching out in the solvent bath
in combination with screw presses. The oil-bearing material undergoes a
26 1 I
I
THE EOUTH SYSTEM OF EXTRACTION

Fig. No. 21
number of extractions in drums provided with stirring and conveying screws

and the solvent is pressed out in screw presses after each extraction.
This system is utilized by at least two European mills. 99
The main disadvantage of this system is the disintegration of the solids

and contamination of the miscella caused by pressing. The costs of electric
power for driving the screw presses and the spare parts required are almost
equal to the cost of steam in the other extraction plants; because in this system
no evaporators are employed to remove the solvent hold-up from the meal.
It may be remarked that the theoretical advantages of the system are

counter-balanced by the number of drawbacks of the unit in the practical
working condition.
(4) EXTRACTORS OPERATING IN SOLVENT RAIN (WITH DIFFERENT CONVEYING

DEVICES)
(a) Tyca (b) De Smet (c) Rotocel Cd) Rosedown Merz
In this group of extractors, the oil-bearing material is extracted by the

rain of solvent forced through spraying nozzles either by means of pumps or
by gravity head. The greatest advantage of this type of arrangement is that
it is possible to get the final miscella in almost clear form requiring either
no filtration, or only simple polishing filters are necessary. The miscella
concentration can be very high. The latest trend both in U. S. A. and in
Europe is to go for this type of extractors, in particular the Rotocel and the
De Smet units, respectively.
(a) Tyca Extractor
This extractor bears a slight resemblance to the Allies-Chalmers model.

The Tyca Extractor is shown in Fig. No. 22.
The oil-bearing material passes down through the vertical column in

the same manner as in the Allis-Chalmers equipment, but each shelf has a
perforated false bottom. Solvent is sprayed in the form of rain on the material
as it passes stage by stage over each shelf. The concentrated miscella
is collected and recovered from the bottom of the third shelf from the top.
The half miscella collected at the bottom of the fifth shelf from the top is re-
circulated by means of a pump and sprayed on the top of the fresh material
entering in the process. The fresh solvent, coming by gravity is sprayed
over the material resting on the sixth shelf and the very weak mise ella formed,
is collected at the bottom of the seventh shelf. This very weak miscella is
d
k: flAKES
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STORAGE
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THE TYCCi EXTRACTOR

pumped from the bottom of the tower and sprayed over the material resting
on the fourth shelf.
This type of installation has been found in Harburg, Germany, after
World War II 99 in totally ruined condition.
(b) De Smet Unit
This is the most popular type of extractor among group No.4. The
first commercial installation was made in the year 1945 and the regular
64 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE 01LS
marketing of the unit was started in the year 1947. Since its first installation
till date, there are about 66 De Smet Units working or being installed all
over the world-in America, Europe, Mrica, Asia and Russia.
The entire flow-sheet for the process is shown in Fig. No. 23. The process
has been described in various journals 192,16 as given below:
"The material to be extracted is conveyed by means of a perforated band 3
through the extraction zone; this horizontal conveyor band consists of
individual flat sections covered with monel gauze. The band is automatically
washed by means of a special device on its 'return journey' 11,12 so that
it is completely cleaned before being recharged for the subsequent extraction
phase.
"The layer of material in the extractor is one metre or more in depth
and can be regulated within wide limits by the 'plough'. 4. The speed of
the conveyor band can also be adjusted. These devices permit the operation
of the extractor to be varied to suit both the quantity and the type of material
treated.
"Fig. No. 24 shows the adjustments in respect of the speed at which the
material travels through the extractor and the depth on the conveyor bank
required for throughput of material to be extracted, varying over a wide
range from one quarter to twice the rated capacity of the unit.
SHOWING THE SPEED OF THE BELT CONVEYOR

AND THE CAPACITY OF THE UNIT.
Fig. No. 24
"The layer moving in the extractor from the material inlet to the outlet
undergoes, in the first stage, spraying with richly concentrated miscella; 13
subsequently, during its further passage, with miscella of a decreasing oil
concentration; 8 and finally, with the pure solvent. 7
"After each spraying the layer of material is loosened by means of a
rake 14 to a depth of about 0·1 metre to enable the easy penetration of mise ella
and solvent through the layer of material. This layer of material forms the
best possible filter, resulting in the final miscella being practically free from
'fines.'
"Underneath each extraction zone are placed receiving sumps,9 inter-
connected by means of overflow for the miscella which percolates through
the material. The pumps 6 permit the miscella obtained to be circulated.
It is also claimed that the 'zonal' circulation can easily be regulated from
outside the casing of the unit, so that the intensity of the spraying can be
adjusted according to the permeability of the layer in each section.
"Once the circulation of the solvent and miscella is adjusted, further
regulation is very rarely called for; this means that close supervision is required
only during the initial stages of the process.
"Fig. No. 25 shows diagramatically, changes in the oil residue in the
material (shown by full line) during the various stages of extraction and the
Fig. No. 25
corresponding miscella concentration (dotted lines) during the extraction of

soyabeans. In most cases the quantity of oil in the final miscella is about
5-10 per cent by weight higher than the oil content of the original material.
The greate:t advantage of the process is that a 'fines-free' miscella can
be obtained, irrespective of the type of material extracted and the pretreat-
ment method used.
Plate No. 3 shows the model of a complete De Smet Plant.
(c) Rotocel (Blaw-Knox)
The principle underlying this extractor is almost similar to the De Smet
Unit. Instead of an endless belt conveyor, this system is provided with the
horizontally rotating "cell wheel" with hinged sieve bottoms.
The working of the extractor is schematically shown in Fig. No. 26.
!J!8'! ijE.J!.A_If€
..f.il2 ~
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ROTOCEL EXTRACTOR

Fig. No. 26
PLATE 3: MODEL OF DE SMET PLANT
PLATE 4: ROSEDOWN-MERZ SYSTEM

The process has been described as follows : -
"In the Rotocel, a slow moving rotor with 18 sectorshaped cells turns
inside a vapour-tight vessel above a stationary, inverted cone-shaped, com-
partmented bottom. Each rotor cell has a screened bottom door to retain
the flakes but allows the solvent-oil mixture (miscella) to fall through. Mis-
cella streams collected in the bottom compartments are pumped continuous-
ly through manifolds over the flakes in a direction counter-current to the
rotation of the rotor.
Fig. No. 26 is a schematic drawing of the bottom of the Rotocel. Flow

of miscella is indicated on this drawing. Manifolds are located above the
cells of the moving rotor (not shown). Flakes enter the Rotocel through
an inclined screw com'eyor, where they are slurried with miscella about to
leave the extractor. Slurrying serves two purposes: the conveyor provides
a vapour seal, and the slurried flakes spread evenly across the cell. Before
leaving the extractor, the miscella draining from the slurry is pumped over
the established flake bed to filter out 'fines' which shift through the screens
during the agitation of the filling step. After the counter-current extrac-
tion, the flakes in the rotor are drained off drain able solvent. The screened
bottom doors, which, when closed, are supported at one end by rollers riding
on tracks fall open at the proper time to discharge the spent flakes. Power
requirements are quite low, the total for rotating the Rotocel and driving the
stage pumps being less than 10 H.P. A! H.P., variable speed gear-motor
rotates the extractor through a 1200 to 1 reduction gear."
The first Rotocel was put into commission in the year 1950.
The Rotocel extractors seem to have become popular in U.S.A. At

present, about 14 units are working, having an aggregate capacity of 2,300,000
short tons annually. There is also one Rot()cel working outside U.S.A.
Just like De Smet, no filters are required in this plant.
(d) Rosedown-Merz System
In recent years, Mis. Rose Downs & Thompson Ltd., have designed the
continuous rotary extractor incorporating the Merz patents. The extractor
in its design and in principle appears to be identical to the Rotocel of Mis.
Blaw-Knox (U. S. A.). The photograph of the pilot unit is shown in
Plate No.4. So far as is known there is not a single unit of this type
working. Only a pilot unit has been constructed and technical data have
been collected on this unit.
The extractor has been described as follows by the manufacturers :
"The extractor takes a uniform feed from the rolls and fills, sector by
sector, a series of containers inside a cylindrical shell. These containers or
compartments form a series of sectors and in total make an annular ring
revolving about a centre. The bottom of each compartment is closed by
a swing door, this being permanently closed except at the meal discharge
posmon. The door will automatically close prior to receiving the next charge
of unextracted material.
"The swing door which forms the bottom closure of each sectoral com-
partment, will incorporate a suitable drainage mat for the miscella. The
compartments of the extractor will revolve about a vertical axis at a very
slow speed, and miscella will drain from each compartment into the tanks at the
bottom of the extractor. The flow of miscel1a will proceed in the opposite
direction to the rotation of the extractor as an underflow from one drainage
tank to the next. Each sectoral compartme-nt will be subjected alternatively
to a wash of miscella followed by a short drain period; immediately before
the discharge of the extracted material there will be a long drain period so
that as much solvent as possible is drained away before the meal passes from
the extractor to the desolventizer.
"At each wash position, where a compartment comes under the influence
of one of the radial sprays in the top of the extractor, miscella will be circulated
from the particular drain tank which is below the compartment, and re-
sprayed over the top of the meal contained in the compartment.
"It should be noted that the rate of circulation of miscella is quite in-
dependent of the overall flow of liquid into and away from the extractor.
This rate of recirculation is so adjusted in relation to the rate of drainage
through the meal bed and the drainage mat that the material is completely
immersed in solvent, thus obviating "channelling."
"The rate of rotation of the extractor and the speed of the feed and the
discharge worms, will be infinitely variable between wide limits and further-
more, the rate of circulation of miscella at any stage may be readily varied to
suit the required conditions."
(5) BASKET TYPE EXTRACTORS
(a) Bollmann (b) French Oil Mill (c) Lurgi (d) Bamag-Manning.
(a) Bollmann System
The Bollmann or basket type system was developed by the Hansa-

Muhle Co. of Germany, which was originally a processor of oilseed. 77
However, during the 1930's this company began to offer a design and
installation service which was continued until interrupted by World War II.
The heart of the Bollmann system is the bucket-type extractor. The

process is described as follows :
"The Bollmann system of extraction gives two passages of solvent through

the beans, fresh solvent sprayed on the partially extracted flakes as they rise
through the upside of the elevator system of the extractor. The half miscella
sprayed on the fresh flakes as they enter the extractor, flows through on the
down side to yield the full miscella, from which the oil is obtained by
evaporation.
"There are a number of advantages to the Bollmann system. These

are:
(i) Agitation of the flakes while being extracted is held to a minimum.

This allows the use of comparatively thin flakes, with a resultant
reduction in the extraction time required.
(ii) The solvent and flakes move together on the concurrent side,
which forms the best filter so far developed for clarifying the
miscella.
(iii) The power cost is low-a 1 H.P. motor will operate a 250 ton
extractor.
(iv) Solvent retention in the flakes is low. However, channelling,

which of course results in incomplete extraction of the flakes,
occurs if the baskets are not properly filled."
(b) French Oil Mill Extractor
i) Vertical Type
This system embodies the general principle of the Bollmann extractor,

but recently the method has been considerably improved after effecting a
number of changes in the process. 120
The extractor and the working of the basket of the French Oil Mill
Machinery Co. (U.S.A.) have been shown in Fig. No. 27. The pictorial
flowsheet has been shown in Plate No.5, and the complete "packaged"
extraction plant in Plate No.6.
j./VDRAlIl. fe
OOCRAT£!)
VAL V~
SOL".Nr
woRK
TA.NI(
-,t:'RFNC'H-
BAS~~A5HF7
SO",VGNT RE·DISTRIEJUTION SYS7£'N
PA rF"'GI)
Fig. No. 27
The operation of the extractor has been described by the manufacturers

as follows: 17
"In the vertical type of extractor, the flakes are conveyed carefully to
the filling column on the top of the extractor, which consists of a two com-
partment device that maintains a seal against the escape of vapour. The
basket extraction system requires an overfeed of flakes so that a small over-
flow is always returned to an over-flow bin, usually located in the prepara-
tion building. Miscella is applied with the flakes into the basket so that
uniform filling is obtained. The baskets travel down on this first side of the
extractor and the miscella filters through the material in the baskets, passing
downwards in the same direction as the flakes. This concurrent flow has,
strangely enough, proved to be as efficient in the early stages of extraction
as countercurrent flow. This concurrent flow allows repeated filtration of
miscella. The resulting final miscella is of such a clarity that cannot be
attained by the most elaborate filtration systems.
PLATE 5: PICTORIAL FLOW-SHEET
(French Oil Mill Co)
PLATE 6: PACKAGED EXTRACTION PLANTS
The horizontal extractor is designed especially for small tonnage plants

-from 25 to 200 tons capacity. It can be installed in a one-story building,
resulting in a low capital investment in buildings, foundations, and installa-
tion costs, and a minimum of supervision on the one-floor level.
(c) Lurgi Extractor
Both vertical and horizontal designed Lurgi plants are commercially

available .. The principles underlying these extractors are the same as in the
case of French Oil Mill ; however, the mechanical working and the design
of the baskets are different. The main feature of the Lurgi units is that during
the extraction process the solids contained in the baskets are washed with
solvent in such a manner that the surface of the solvent above the bed of solids
is always kept at the same level. The formation of channel within the bed
of solids, which may occur when the solvent is simply percolating through
the material, is thereby eliminated.
Thus the striking differences in the working of the French Oil Mill Unit
and the Lurgi Unit may be noted as follows:
(i) The extraction in the French Oil Mill extractor is by means of sol-
vent-rain.
(ii) In the case of Lurgi and also in Bamag-Manning designs, the ex-
traction is by submerged state of the oil-bearing material.
Horizontal Extractor
The Lurgi horizontal extractor permits the continuous step-wise counter-

current extraction of liquids from solids by means of all kinds of solvents at
atmospheric pressure.
The process has been described by the manufacturers, Gesellschaft Fur

Warmetechnik M. B. H.jGermany, as follows:
"The material to be treated is withdrawn from the charging hopper of

the extractor by a feeding conveyor that delivers it to an endless 'combined
frame and grid belt' inside the extractor. The spent material is thrown off
by the belt and then removed from the extractor by a discharging mechanism.
The solvent enters the extractor at the discharge end, where it is distributed
over the material on the belt. It flows through the material and is collected
in the corresponding compartment of a receiving box that is situated under-
neath the belt. From this compartment the solvent, which has already
taken up part of the substances to be extracted, is passed into another com-
partment and is again distributed over the material on the belt at the most
appropriate distance from the point where the fresh solvent is added.
"This step-wise distribution of the solvent, which during its passage
through the material becomes charged more and more with the substances
to be extracted, is repeated several times over the whole length of the ex-
tractor up to a short parallel-current (concurrent) section situated near the
feeding conveyor. The enriched miscella thereby undergoes an efficient
self-filtration, so that the final miscella is remarkably clear.
"During the extraction process the solids are washed with solvent in such
a manner that the surface of the solvent above the bed of solids is always kept
at the same level. A draining zone following each washing stage protects
the adjacent miscella from becoming inter-mixed.
"As the horizontal extractor can work with a small amount of fresh
solvent, (oil to solvent ratio being low) it is possible to obtain a highly con-
centrated final miscella."
(d) Bamag-Manning Extractor
Just like Lurgi, both vertically and horizontally designed basket type
extractors are available.
In this design, the extraction of the oil-bearing material is by the solvent
rain, as is the case in the French Oil Mill unit; but the working of the basket
is quite different. Even in the case of vertical basket arrangements, a number
of pumps are required to circulate the liquid from one basket to the other
basket.
The complete layout is shown in Fig. No. 28.
"The solvent which is sprayed into a basket, and percolates through its
contents, is not directed through nozzles to the next basket but passes through
an adjustable discharge orifice, fitted to the side of the basket, into gutters
fixed all along the extractor housing. From this gutter, the solvent flows
into one of the compartments of a receptacle at the foot of the extractor.
From this comrartment, the solvent is returned by mean:; of a pamp to the
extractor, where it is reinjected on another basket.
"This process is repeated several times by means of a number of pumps,
each of which draws solvent from a separate compartment at the bottom
of the extractor to return it to the top. There are a number of such circula-
tion stages through which the solvent passes in series, and hence the name
'multi-stage solvent circulation system.' The final compartment contains
full miscella which is discharged through a filtering system to the oil and
solvent recovery section."
The above description is given by the manufacturers. 19,18
The same manufacturers are also having the Bamag-Manning horizontal

extractor, using the same principle of multi-stage solvent-circulation
system. 19
It may be noted that the Bamag-Manning system maintains the method

of transporting the solid material in buckets, (in contrast to De Smet pro-
cess). It makes thereby full advantage of the fact that the small particles
inside each bucket do not change their position to each other, while the
material is carried along. Consequently the incidence of fine formation
is small and the power required to move the material is very much smaller
than with many other extractors.
(6) OTHER TYPES OF EXTRACTORS
(a) Sherwin-William, (b) "Filtration" Extraction.
This group contains the extractors which do not fit quite well in the
above mentioned five categories.
(a) Sherwin-William System
This is an American designed extractor for processing oilseeds having

relatively high percentage of oil content. The diagram of the system is
shown in the Fig. No. 29.
'----r--.,-' r$
I
-t J____ j'
Fig. No. 29
.,
,,
I
,
I
I
+
207. MISCEU.A
SHERWIN-WILUAMS SVSTEM OF EXTRACTION

In the preparation procedure, the oil-bearing material is ground in the
absence of a solvent.
The extraction system has been described as follows : 19.1
"The extraction system consists of three units in series. Each unit com-
prises of a slurry mixture and a continuous, solid bowl,-bird centrifugal
separator. Each unit is capable of extracting approximately 90 per cent of
the oil input to the unit, when the solvent feed is adjusted to produce a final
miscella of 20 per cent oil content. With three units in the system, the input
solids of the final unit carry only about one per cent of the oil and the output
solids from this unit retains only a few tenths of a percent of the oil. The
mixers are specially designed horizontal cylinders 2 feet 5 inches by 18 inches
in which are mounted rotating shafts carrying a series of screw blades. This
design of the mixers effects a forward movement of the solids and miscella,
preventing back mix and allowing the prescribed amount of time for mixing
of the solids and extracting miscella. A concurrent flow of miscella and
solids is thus achieved in the mixers, while in the extracting system, taken
as a whole, the miscella and solids flow counter-currently.
"The output of the grinding system is fed directly to the extraction system
by gravity. The feed of seed materials to the extraction system is maintained
at a uniform predetermined rate. The desired ratio of seed material to solvent
is maintained in the overall extraction system by regulating the fresh solvent
input to the system to balance the seed input.
"The slurry pumps from each of the mixers are controlled by floats placed
in domes located at the front end of each mixer. These controls plus a
foxboro flow control set at approximately 30 gallons per minute on the
entering fresh solvent stream, govern the flow of slurries and miscellas through
the extraction system. Fresh solvent entering the extraction system is heated
by steam heat-exchangers to about 170°F. The first mixer where solids
enter the system, is steam jacketed so that the proper operating temperature
can be maintained. The final miscella from the first unit is practically clear
and free from 'fines'. As a safety precaution, however, it is first run through
a clarifier and the solvent and oil are then separated."
As a speciality of the Sherwin-William extractor, it is claimed that a

heptane fraction can be used to extract castor oil, primarily because castor
oil is not miscible with hydrocarbon solvents in the range of 80-100°F.
This type of extractor has not been actively offered in U.S.A.

76 SOLVEN'l' EX'l'RACTION OF VEGE'l'ABLE OILS
(b) "Filtration" Extraction
A number of technical papers have been published on the different aspects

of the newly developed Filtration Extraction System. 93,94,133,191
The flow-sheet of the process is shown in the Fig. No. 30 while a flow-
diagram is shown in the.Fig. No. 31.
FllTREX PREPARATION 1". EXTRA~_TIO~

SECTIONS
l:=
COTTEN SEED SAFFLOWER
l
.
PEANUT
==-r =r
MOWRA
CLE'iER
L
~O"(~ CYCLONE
~
I.BAlli
I----...
.. ·HULLER
DRAG ELEVATOR -'i~-T'"

I
HULL SEPARATOR
t + T HULL BEATER
... I 4
MEATS WORK BIN HULLS
WEIGH FEEDER
'+"
CRACKING & FLAKING ROLLS
COOKER
1
Fig. No. 30
COTTEN SEED RE-ROLLS
~-I
EXTRACTOR
!
HORIZONTAL FILTEP.
r
MISCELLA TO OIL & SOLVENT
-r
MEAL TO DESOLVENTIZER
RECOVERY
Filtration extraction is based on principles resulting from several years

of intense research by the U. S. Department of Agriculture's Southern Re-
gional Research Laboratory (U.S.A.). The objects of the research work were
as follows:
1. The process should be within the economic reach of all

processors.
2. The process should be versatile, one originally designed to effectively

process several materials during the year.
FILTREX PLANT
SCHMETIC FLOW DIAGRAM
FILTREX SOLVENT EXTRACTION
0-EXTRACTOR, 0- EVAPORATOR SEPARATOR,
®-- "LTER, (!g-EVAPORATOR CONOENSER,
0- OESOLVENTI2ER, @--OIL STRIPPER,
0-MEAL COOLER, ®- OIL COOLER.
@-OESOLVENTI2ER CONOENSER, @-STRIP1'ER CONDENSER
@-MISCELLA CLARIFIER @-VENT CONDENSER.
0- MISCELLA PREHEATER. @-SOlV6.NT~WATER SEPARATOR,

®- EVAPORATOR, ®-- WATER STRIPPER.
Fig. No. 31
3. The process should effectively solvent extract oil from very high oil
content materials, without forepressing in the mechanical presses.
4. Oil and final meal quality had to be equal or superior to the best
obtainable from the then existing processes.
With the above aims in view, a continuous semi-commercial scale

pilot plant was demonstrated to the industry in the year 1953. The process
called Filtration Extraction, has been used to solvent extract soyabeans,
cottonseed, groundnuts, milo-germ, flaxseed, sesame seed, copra, castor
beans, sunflowerseed, press cakes and other materials. The commerciali-
sation of the process has aroused great interest throughout the world and at
least six United States engineering firms have applied for licenses to offer
the system to U.S.A. processors. WUrster and Sanger's commercial version
of the process is trademarked 'Filtrex'.
The process Filtrex has been described by the manufacturers as

folle. ws : 191
"Filtrex effectively combines the steps of extraction, filtration and

washing. High extraction rates are combined at low solvent ratio with
corresponding high miscella concentrations. Thorough washing with effec-
tive filtration insures low residual oil and solvent in the marc. Efficient
solvent removal in the marc desolventizing system results in meal commercially

free of solvent. Filtrex is designed for compactness of operation, accurately
controlled with provisions for safety and easy operation.
"Cooked and crisped material is slurried in the extractor with miscella

using positive, gentle agitation. The extractor is of special design, providing
efficient mixing and ample contact time. Temperature control, speed control
and control of solvent ratio allow optimum conditions to be established.
The slurry leaving the extractor in a continuous steam is deposited on the
horizontal rotary vacuum filter. Here efficient separation of miscella from
the meal is effected. An automatic feeding device is used to maintain even
distribution of slurry on the filter screen. Meal is discharged at a low solvent
and oil content to the desolventizer. Miscellas from various stages are allo-
wed to drain into the miscella tank and are recycled for counter-current stage-
wise washing. Automatk devices are also provided for removal of spent
meal. The filter screens are cleaned free of entrapped particles by means
of a blow back system utilizing solvent vapours. This also aids in the distri-
bution of the slurry on the screen.
"The miscella tank is provided with liquid controllers to maintain the

correct solvent ratio and discharge rate of miscella to the Wiirster and Sanger
oil and solvent recovery plant."
Technically the system Filtrex appears to be very sound; however in

practice so far only one commercial unit is functioning in U.S.A.
10) Recovery of Solvent
There are a variety of extracting systems available; but the processes

used for the recovery of solvents from the miscella and the exhausted meal
(marc) are remarkably few in number. The reason for this is that the pro-
blem of extracting oil-bearing materials has not been solved completely.
On the other hand, the unit processes employed for the evaporation of the
solvent from the miscella and the marc are technically highly advanced,
as these processes are subject to the rigid principles of chemical engineering.
The solvent recovery system can be divided into following groups:

I. Distillation of miscella (evaporation and stripping).
II. Recovery of solvent from the marc (desolventizing).
III. Solvent vapour recovery system (by refrigeration or by adsorp-

tion method).
SOLVENT EXTRAC'l'ION PROCESS AND MACHINERY 79
(I) Distillation of Miscella
The miscella concentration depends upon the percentage of oil in the

enteIing seed-material, the solvent ratio employed in the process, the time
of contact and on the efficiency of the extracting process. In general the
percentage of oil in the miscella would vary from 10 to 50. Modern and
efficient direct solvent extraction process of oilseeds having high percentage
of oil content may even yield miscella upto 70% of oil.
Generally the process of distillation is divided into two stages:
(a) Evaporation.
(b) Stripping.
In old plants three-stage solvent recovery system used to be incorporated;

but in recent years almost all the solvent extraction plants of modern design
replace the old system by the two stage process. The cost of present equip-
ment is only half that of present-day cost of the old three-stage system.
The evaporator or calandria is heated by closed steam. The evaporator

may be either of the falling film or the rising film type. The hot vapour of
the outgoing solvent is utilized to heat the incoming miscella in the heat-
exchanger.
It is advisable to maintain a vacuum in the evaporator in order to get

a high quality oil and to effect saving in the steam consumption. With
high vacuum it is possible to get the advantage of the "Flash-evaporation"
and also to cut short the time of contact of miscella in the evaporator, thus
eliminating the possibility of charring of the oil.
The solvent remaining in the oil, after passing through a fairly efficient
unit, should not exceed 4-6 per cent maximum.
The oil containing maximum up to 6 per cent solvent goes to the stripping
section, directly or through the heater.
Sometimes the "Flash-evaporating" chamber IS provided between

the evaporator and the stripping column.
Recently the design of the distillation equipment has been made stream-
lined (see Plate 6) to make each unit self-supporting to allow the elimination
of structural supports.
The stripping section may be either a "packed column" or a "cap and

plate" type arrangement.
The open steam is always injected into the bottom of the stripping sec-
tion in order to drive out the last traces of the solvent from the finished oil.
In the case of De Smet unit, the hot liquid is sprayed with atomizer,
thus giving a uniform repatriation of the oil on a large number of vertical
sheets, providing ample contact surface between the oil and the live steam
injected in the counter-current direction. A high degree of vaccum is
generally mantained in the stripping section in order to produce final oil
of prime quality and also as dryas possible.
(II) Recovery of Solvent from Meal (Marc)

This unit process of desolventizing extracted meal has been improved
in the last ten years. 120 Ten years ago all solvent plants used steam-
jacketed tubes called "sneckens" for removing solvent from extracted marc.
The scheneckens are steam-jacketed paddle conveyors. The deoiled

meal from the extractor is fed by the COtlVeyor or by gravity into a series of
meal dryers. Generally these tubes are placed horizontally, one above the
other. These dryers consist of steam-jacketed cylinders in which are fitted
a series of rotating blades. The blades agitate the meal and, at the same
time, move it along the length of the cylinder. Finally the meal enters the
finishing dryer, which is a large steam-jacketed cylinder with a provision
for live steam inlet. Live stripping steam removes the last traces of the solvent
from the deailed meal.
It is sometimes desired to get a deailed meal far some special industrial

uses. In this case, the exhausted meal should be desolventized at a low
temperature under vacuum. This type of treatment to the marc, will result
in the final deoiled meal containing proteins in the most unmodified state.
For the subsequent recovery of proteins from the deoiled meals, it is sine quo
non condition that the proteins should be as little denatured as possible and
that they should be recoverable into a good coloured product.
The whole bank of tubes is connected to one dust-catcher arrangement.

In this, the vapours from the extracted meal, during the desolventizing process,
are scrubbed in order to remove the dust and to prevent the fouling of
the condensers.
The most successful of several improvements are the superheated vapour

desolventizer 120,17 and the vertical cooker desolventizer, which IS umver-
SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS AND MACmNERY 81
sally called as DT (Desolventizer Toaster). The DT uses sparging steam in

varying quantities to supplement indirect heat to desolventize flakes and
follow with such additional heat treatment or toasting as is desired.
This new combination of Desolventizer and Toaster of the French Oil

Mill Machinery Co., has the following advantages.
(1) Improved solvent recovery.
(2) Finished meal discharged is guaranteed to contain no solvent.
(3) Solvent vapours scrubbed by solvent-wet flakes, making the best

type of vapour scrubber.
(4) Minimum of fouling of condensers.
(5) Proper humidification of meal during desolventization (separate

humidifier not necessary).
(6) Steam economy by utilizing steam for both processes.
(7) It is possible to get white, extracted flakes for industrial uses or for
protein production.
It is claimed that this development alone cut 25% from previous solvent
extraction plant costs. Results from processor plants are stated to show
solvent losses cut by 50% and even up to 75% of previous losses.
III. Solvent Vapour Recovery System
In a country like India, every precaution must be taken to get solvent

losses as low as possible because the price to be paid for the solvent is very
high and at the same time, unfortunately, the only product which will com-
pensate the extraction costs and will bring some profits to the manufacturers,
namely, the final extracted vegetable oils, sell very cheap in the home-market,
compared to the prices prevailing in the world market.
In a good continuous solvent extraction plant, having an efficient vapour

recovering system, the average working solvent loss in India should not
be much more than half a per cent on the weight of the entering material.
For a semi-continuous unit, this loss should not be more than one per
cent.
The solvent losses may occur in the following three main ways:
(a) Solvent going with the final deailed meal.

(b) Final oil may contain some solvent.
(c) Solvent going into the atmosphere. ("Breathing" of the plant).
Since in recent years technological improvements have been made to

reduce the solvent losses on account of (a) and (b) almost to zero, the only
solvent loss to bc encountered in practice is the "breathing" of the plant
itself.
All parts of the equipment, storage-tanks etc. are connected to a central

solvent recovery system.
There are two types of solvent recovery systems in vogue today, one in
which refrigerated liquid is used as the absorption medium and the second
in which the solvent vapours are adsorbed by a solid-bed. Vegetable
oils or mineral oils or chemicals such as tetraline, may be used as liquids in
latter case. W'hile for the refrigerant, liquid ammonia may be used for open-
type compressor unit or some patented gas (such as freeon) is employed
for the sealed units. In practice, more often, a refrigerated brine at a tem-
perature of-100to-20°C is used which gives very good results.
For solid-bed adsorption, generally activated carbon is employed. Al-

.vays there are two beds of activated material in the plant. One bed is in
the actual process of adsorption of the solvent vapours, while the other bed,
which is in the exhausted condition is being regenerated by means of steam.
No data are available about the comparative working of the two systems.
The main item of cost in the first recovery system is the power to drive the
compressor while in the second method, cost of steam is the principal item.
It may be said that looking to the general conditions in India, the first system
is to be preferred to the latter for the recovery of solvent vapours in the extra-
action plant.
Petroleum ether has a relatively high vapour pressure, and consequently

about a quarter of the solvent is lost at an air temperature of 60°F. 185
It is, therefore, advisable to work at about 40°F. solvent air temperature.
Great care must be exercised, particularly with regard to solvent vapour

from the meal desolvcntizing section. This vapour usually contains a certain
amount of 'fines' which it is desirable to eliminate from the vapour before
this enters the vapour recovery tower.
The purpose of the solvent vapour recovery system is not only to have
economical solvent losses in the process, but to a certain extent to eliminate
the bad effects of the vapours on health and fire hazards.
All the vents in the plant are connected to a common pipe leading to
a vapour-receiver. The vapours are first cooled in two condensers working
in series. The first condenser is supplied with cool water while in the second
case brine, before it goes to the refrigerating system, is circulated. There-
after the cooled vapours are stripped of the solvent va pours by scrubbing
against chilling brine (-20cC) falling by gravity into a packed tower.
Generally this tower is packed with Raschig rings.
In tropical India, the solvent vapour recovery system should be made

as efficient as possible. If need arises, this should be made compulsory by
the Government of India in order to reduce the fire and the health hazards
to the minimum.
11. Technical Control and Management
The technical control and management may be divided broadly into

two parts:
(a) Problems outside the actual working of the solvent extraction

plants.
(b) Problems facing day to day management and which are technical
111 nature, within the four-walls of the factory.
(a) The outside problems which influence the efficiency of the working
of the plants are as follows in India:
(i) Getting of standard quality raw-materials.
(ii) Availability of the solvent at an economical price and the storage

of the solvent.
(iii) Safety practices 111 the premlses.
(iv) Control over the end products.
(v) Market for the deoiled meal.
(vi) Transportation facilities for the movement of deoiled meals.
As the above problems are dealt with in detail in other chapters, no

attempt other than an indication of the same has been made here.
(b) Internal problems are mainly due to troubles croppmg up on

account of the use of solvents for extraction.
The solvent extraction plant, inspite of its many advantages and greater
operating efficiency, is subject to some special problems that are peculiar
to the use of solvent themselves. The field of troubles shooting in a solvent
extraction plant, therefore, is very broad and in many particulars, varies
considerably from plant to plant, depending upon the particular circumstances
which exist at the individual plant. Here only an attempt has been made
to deal with the general type of problems likely to come up in any solvent
extraction plant at one or the other time.
The problems encountered by using the non-inflammable solvents such

as trichlorethylene, carbon tetrachloride and others of the same nature, will,
of course, reduce the fire hazards in the plant, but will greatly increase the
problems of health hazards etc.
Since all plants that are working at present in India are making use of
petroleum cuts as the extracting solvent, the discussion will be confined to
the troubles likely to arise in plants utilizing this type of solvent.
Thus after fire and health hazard probleIlls, the others inside the plant
can be classified generally as follows : 139
1. Solvent loss.
2. Removal of solvent from extracted oils and meals.
3. Effects of dust or 'fines'.
4. Problems of solvent recovery.
5. Odour and taste.
6. Efficiency of oil extraction.
7. Corrosion of the operating equipment.
The solvent loss problem is one of the severe headaches with which the
extraction plant operator has to contend and it is a never-failing source of
discussion whenever the extraction men get together.
The solvent employed in the process no doubt has an influence, some-

times a critical influence, on solvent losses at all extraction plant; but abnor-
mally high percentage of solvent losses generally are traceable to operating
conditions at the plant, rather than due to the characteristics of the solvent
in the process.
SOLV.ENT EXTRACTION PROCESS AND MACHINERY 85
Abnormal solvent losses may result from a variety of causes, among

which might be mentioned the following:
1. Losses due to solvent remaining moil.
2. Losses due to solvent remaining in meal.
3. Losses of solvent in the water separator.
4. Losses of solvent in the condensing or recovery system.
5. Losses of solvent due to leaks in equipment.
6. Losses of solvent in making mechanical repairs.
Although removal of practically all solvent from the solvent-oil solution

is successfully accomplished in well designed and operated extraction plants,
it so happens that the flashing or separating of the solvent from the extracted
oil is always a potential problem and develops into quite a serious matter
at most plants at one time or another. Solvent remaining in the oil represents
not only a loss but also may have deleterious effect on the oil, possibly causing
purification or hardening troubles and increasing the fire hazard if the
amount is large. Therefore, each plant should be operated to the end that the
solvent left in the oil or fat is reduced to a minimum. Although there are
only incomplete data on which to base conclusions, it appears that vaporiza-
tion of the solvent from the extracted oil involves more than simple distilla-
tion and fractionation.
It is frequently observed that the first portions of the solvent are easily
distilled off from the miscella, but the final portions of the solvent become
increasingly difficult to remove to an extent that makes it appear as though
there is some type of chemical combination between compounds occurring
in the solvent and those occurring in the oil, a condition that perhaps is an-
alogous to water of hydration or crystallization. In any case, it occasionally
happens that the last portions of the solvent require heating to as high as
about 300°F. for complete vaporization and apparently cannot be
removed from the oil by prolonged heating at normal distillation temperatures
even if the extracted oil is mechanically agitated or blown with steam so
as to facilitate the vaporization. This condition seems to be aggravated
if the extraction solvent contains sizeable quantities of certain high boiling
sulphur compounds and unsaturated hydrocarbons, particularly hydrocar-
bons of the olefin and aromatic types.
If, after ascertaining that the extraction solvent is of suitable type, one
continues having difficulty in removing the solvent from the extracted oil,
the situation may be improved by,-regulating the flow of the solvent oil solu-
tion into and through the distillation unit; more accurate control of the rate
of temperature increase throughout the distilbtion in order to avoid violent
boiling and entrainment; providing for distillation under vacuum if not
already installed and, if so, checking vacuum gauges and pumps or jets to
make sure that the still or distillation unit is under a vacuum of, say, 16 to 24
inches; providing deflecting plates or spiders on the solution inlet or spray
head so as to thin out and spread the stream to give more even distribution
of the solution across the column; using live steam in the stripping operation
with several openings for the introduction of steam into the still or column
bottom in order to obtain more complete agitation and distribution; examina-
tion of the fractionating column to be sure that proper temperature gradients
are maintained and to see that packing does not allow channelling, if the
column is of the packed type, or that trays and caps are functioning properly,
if the column is of the plate or bubble type.
Incomplete removal of solvent from the extracted meal is well recognized

as another source of solvent loss and, since the meal from the driers ordinarily
is conveyed from the extraction assembly to another part of the plant for
bagging or further processing, it also may create an additional fire hazard
at points where solvent vapours should not ordinarily be expected. In shoot-
ing up of troubles of this type, one should determine that no stone is left
unturned to provide adequate stripping. A simple solution that frequently
presents itself is to provide enlarged vapour lines from the driers so as to permit
more rapid flow of solvent vapours from the drying units.
In stripping solvent from the oil, the use of steam and partial vacuum
facilitates removal of solvent from the meal. Where solvent remaining in
the meal is a critical problem, the use of these tools, should be carefully in-
vestigated to be sure that vacuum equipment is functioning properly and
that live steam is being injected uniformly and in adequate amount. In
continuous plants where a series of drying drums is used, the vapours from
the final drying or deodorizer unit frequently pass counter-current to the
meal into other drying drums and thence to the dust collectors or condensers,
a condition that generally causes a slightly elevated pressure to exist in the
final drying unit with a tendency for vapors to be forced out through the air-
lock with the dried meal. Installation of a direct vapor outlet from the final
drying unit tends to reduce this pressure and helps to facilitate removal
of last traces of solvent from the meal. Again, this probably tends to in-
crease the dust problem, which largely can be solved by dust collectors.
Frequently it happens that the steam pressure or temperature on the
drying unit is lower than it should be, because of limits placed by the tempera-
ture and quantity of the cooling water for the condensers, but where cooling
water or condenser capacity is adequate, raising the steam pressure from,
say, 60 pounds to 75 pounds gauge should facilitate removal of last traces
of solvent from the meal.
Grain size of the oil-bearing material affects the drying time and deodori-
zing effect. If the flakes are too thin, such, for example, as below 0 ·005
inches in the case of soyabeans, there generally is formed an excess amount
of 'fines' wl?-ich tend to cake or stratify thereby hindering uniform treatment
of the meal with the steam and making the driving off of vapors more difficult.
On the other hand, if the flakes are too thick, such, for example, as above
0·015 inches in the case of soyabeans, or, if the flakes are of very non-uniform
size, such as is frequently encountered in cottonseed flakes, the difficulty of
removing last traces of solvent is aggravated and usually result in reduced
throughput. Obviously it takes longer to remove the solvent from a large
diameter grain than a small diameter grain and, to be effective, the drying
schedule has to be adjusted to the larger diameter particles or thicker flakes.
As in the case of oils and fats, it seems as though certain unsaturated

and sulphur compounds that exist in the solvent form a loose chemical com-
bination with the proteins and other compounds that make up the meal
or with the oils and fats that remain in the meal. Therefore, in troubles
connected with the deodorization of the meal, it is well to check the solvent
source to be sure that there has not been any contamination, particularly
from a greasy residue or high sulphur standpoint, and that the solvent is
composed of paraffin and naphthene hydrocarbons insofar as practicable.
Although there is a well-known saying to the effect that "gasoline and

water do not mix," it is a fact that even the paraffin and naphthene hydrocar-
bons are soluble in water to a small extent. Actually a petroleum naphtha
of the hexane type will dissolve in water to the extent of about 0 ·02 gallon
of solvent per 100 gallons of water at 80°F. This is a negligible amount
for all practical purposes in considering solvent loss at most plants, and can
be disregarded unless the loss of solvent in the water is aggravated by colloidal
suspension, faulty water separator design, or careless operation.
The dust or 'fines' will cause an emulsion of the petroleum solvent and
water, thus causing loss of solvent in the overflow water. This trouble can
be removed by installing efficient dust collectors, by more effective elirnina-
88 SOLVENT EX'rRAC'rION OF VEGE'rABLE OILS
tion of 'fines', by regulating moisture content of the meal, by closer control of

flake size, and by installing more effective filtering equipment.
The condensation of the solvent is made more difficult, if the solvent

vapours are diluted with air and steam, with the result that 100% recovery
in the condenser is seldom accomplished. In this connection, it might be
mentioned that each 100 cubic feet of air that is taken into the system has
a potential carrying capacity at 80°F of about 0 ·75 gallon of hexane type
extraction solvent. Therefore, to reduce, if not completely to eliminate,
losses of solvent that fail to condense in the condenser, resort can be made to
the use of some type of secondary recovery system, such as venting all vapors
throuS'h a charcoal recovery unit. Charcoal has the ability to remove hexanes,
heptanes and other hydrocarbons, even including the quite volatile propane
and butanes, from the vapor steam by adsorption. The hydrocarbons can
be removed from the charcoal by introducing steam into the unit followed
by subsequent condensation of the vaporized solvent in an ordinary condenser.
Other types of recovery systems may be used, such as refrigerated water
spray system, a compression system, or an oil absorption system which may
utilize either mineral seal oil or the type of oil being extracted.
Continuous vigilance should be exercised around a solvent extraction

plant to the end so that leaks in equipment are kept at a minimum because,
small as individual leaks may appear to be, they constitute an additional
fire hazard and, in the aggregate, can account for a sizeable percentage of
the total solvent loss. Packing glands on pumps frequently show a tendency
to leak, this being particularly true if rods are rough, making it difficult to
maintain packing in good condition. Every threaded and flanged connection
is a potential source of leak so that welded construction should be used as far
as possible. Valve stems should be watched as they too, show leaks from time
to time. It frequently happens that slow leaks are hardly detectable because
the solvent vaporizes as fast as it leaks through, and vapor leaks are insidious
source of solvent loss; many of these leaks however can be detected by bubbles
when a soap and water solution is applied to the suspected area. In many
extraction plants, the plan is to have a slight vacuum on the system so as to
reduce to a minimum the likelihood of vapors leaking out, but this vacuum
tends to pull air into the system, thereby diluting the vapors and making
their condensation more difficult. However, as previously mentioned,
any solvent vapors that fail to condense for this reason can ordinarily be reco-
vered in the charcoal or other vapor recovery system. In any event, the
introduction of excessive amounts of air into the extraction system should be
avoided as far. as practicable.
It will be worth while to note that running 1000 gallons of solvent into
a tank will force out of the tank 1000 gallons of vapor saturated air which,
at 60°F., may represent as high as 5·3 gallons of liquid hexane type
solvent. Also, if the vapor in the tank increases in temperature as a result
of the introduction of warm solvent or as a result of atmospheric conditions,
the vapor will expand and be lost unless vented into the vapor recovery
system. Combined losses of thi5 nature can represent a significant solvent
loss in a plant and should be taken into account whenever one is considering
shooting trouble of a solvent loss nature.
The effectiveness of oil extraction depends upon a number of factors

among which might be mentioned the following:
1. Flake or grain size.
2. Moisture content of flakes.
3. The chemical nature of the extraction solvent.
4. Temperature during extraction.
5. Ratio of solvent to flakes or grain.
6. Time of expo sure of flakes to the solvent.
7. Moisture content of the solvent.
I t, of course, has long been known that the chemical nature of the solvent
has a bearing on the effectiveness and efficiency of oil and fat removal from
the various oil-bearing materials, solvents of the chlorinated and aromatic
types being recognized as having greater solvency for the oils and fats than
the light petroleum naphthas of the paraffin and naphthene type. And
even among the light petroleum naphthas, there is some variation in solvent
action which results from a somewhat different chemical make-up of the
napthas. However, it is generally recognized that the pentane type naphthas
have a lower order of solvency than the hexane type naphthas, and these in
turn are more than the heptane type naphthas, this being particularly true
if consideration is given to the increased effectiveness that results from the
higher extraction temperatures that ordinarily would be employed with
the higher boiling solvents. In fact, at elevated temperatures when using
petroleum naphthas of comparatively high olefinic and aromatic contents
or the more active solvents of the oxygenated, aromatic and chlorinated
types, it frequently happens that the solvency is actually greater than necessary
or even desirable for satisfactory extraction plant results. Increased solvency

usually results in extraction not only of the desired fats and oils but also of
more of the oleoresins, coloring matter and other materials that generally
complicate the oil refining operation. In case an oil of poor refining charac-
teristics is being produced or an oil with darker colour than expected is being
obtained, or if too much oil is being left in the meal or flakes, one would give
special consideration to the solvent being used.
If the solvent carrying a high percentage of water in suspension as a

result of phosphalid type 'fines', is employed in the process, high percentage
of oil is likely to be left in the final deoiled meals because of low effectiveness
of the solvent with a high percentage of moisture content. This trouble can
be corrected by redistilling the solvent so as to remove the moisture, followed
by subsequent improvement of dust collecting and filtering facilities.
An effect of similar nature is that of excessive moisture in the flakes or

grain. The proper moisture content for best overall operating conditions
varies considerably from plant to plant, depending upon the type of oil-bearing
material being extracted, the chemical nature of the extraction solvent being
used, the type of extractor, and the type and condition of flaking and other
similar preparation machinery. However, as a general statement, it may
be mentioned that moisture content of the flakes or grains should be in the
order of 8 to 12%, a figure of about 9·5% being satisfactory for soyabeans.
If the moisture content is reduced much below 8%, the flakes or grains tend
to become more friable, thereby aggravating the tendency to form dust and
'fines' .
Increase in extraction temperature results in increased effectiveness and

efficiency of extraction, perhaps because of decreased viscosity of both oils and
solvent as well as an increased solvency at more elevated temperatures. This
is particularly marked where difficult soluble materials, such as castor oil,
are concerned. In extracting castor oil, it is necessary to keep the tempera-
ture of the solvent and flakes at a temperature not lower than IOO°F.,
and better results are obtained when temperatures considerably in excess
of that are maintained. In fact, due to the cooling action of freshly intro-
duced flakes, heat losses from the extractor and so forth, particularly in batch
and poorly insulated units, it may be necessary to introduce solvent at a tem-
perature of, say 170°F. in order to maintain the best operating tem-
peratures in the extractor. In this connection, it might be mentioned that
continuous type plants using a hexane type solvent and operating on soya-
beans, cottonseed and similar easily extracted oil-bearing materials, obtain
good results by introducing the solvent into the extractor at temperatures of
130° to 140°F., these temperatures being such that excess pressure difficul-
ties are not encountered. However, if it is desired to operate at tempera-
tures of, say 170°F., in the type extraction equipment ordinarily being built
today, it is necessary that a heptane type naphtha or other higher boiling
solvent be used.
The ratio of solvent to flakes or grain and the time of exposure of the
flakes to the solvent vary a great deal from plant to plant, depending among
other things upon type of solvent being used, the type of flakes being extracted,
as well as the type of extraction equipment being used, and so forth; and it
almost goes without saying that these things should be adjusted in each in-
dividual plant so as to give the best overall operation.
Corrosion problems directly traceable to the solvent are reduced to a

minimum when hydrocarbon solvents are used in an extraction plant, par-
ticularly when the paraffin and napthene type naphthas are used. These
materials are quite stable and any corrosion effect results principally from
sulphur compounds of a deleterious nature that may accompany them.
Sometimes ammonia and amine compounds that are generated from
proteins in the meal may cause corrosion difficulties, particularly where brass
and copper metals are used. Likewise, some corrosion results from fatty
acids and compounds of a similar nature, as well as water used in condensers
and other parts of the plant but, in general, it can be said that corrosion pro-
blems around a solvent extraction plant are a relatively non-serious matter.
However, when encountered, the type of solvent should be considered and,
if an investigation eliminates this source of trouble, the problem then should
be traced and handled as any similar corrosion problem encountered in a
mechanical type plant.
Thus it will be seen that technical control and close management are
required at the points, where the trouble is likely to shoot up due to the
employment of the petroleum solvents in the plant. Of course, there are
other points where technical controls are necessary, such as, health and fire
hazards, quality of raw materials, etc., but as stated earlier, they have been
dealt with elsewhere in the discussion.
12. Flow-Sheets, Photograpbs and Quotations
In order to get a complete picture of the solvent extraction process, flow-

sheets for some of the typical plants have been given in Figs. Nos. 8, 9, 23,
28, 30 and 31, and in Plate No.5. These flow diagrams are only for the
purpose of studying the process and they should not be considered as
absolute and final for the solvent extraction plant in India.
Photographs of various units and commercial solvent extraction plants

working at present in India have been given in Plates Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13 and 14.
In Appendix III, quotations received from some foreign firms have been
given. The quotations invited are for continuous solvent extraction plant
treating groundnut oilcake containing 8-10% oil by weight. These quota-
tions have been split up into separate main items in order to get an idea of how
final price structure has been arrived at.
Appendix I gives a list of manufacturers of solvent extraction plants in

foreign countries. It should be noted that this list is by no means complete.
PLATE 7: FIVE EXTRACTORS IN SERIES
[Bhavnagar Chemical Works (1946 Ltd .• Vorte), (Saurashtra)]
PLAY He- 8.
PLATE 8: SE.TTLlNG, MISCELLA & OIL STORAGE TANKS

[The Jagdish Industries (Private) Ltd .• Porbandar, (Saurashtra)]
PLATE 10: v. D. ANDERSON 'OUT-DOOR' PLANT
(Tata ai/ Mills. Bombay)
PLATE II: BORS/G ROTATIVE EXTRACTORS
[Veraval Oil Cake Co. Veraval, (Saurashtra)]
,
PLATE 12: PILOT UNIT

(Jadaypur University. Calcutta)
PLATE 13: PILOT SOLVENT EXTRACTION UNIT
(C. F. T. R. I., Mysore)
PLATE 14: PILOT UNIT
(H. B. Technological Institute. Kanpur)
CHAPTER IV
APPLICATION OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS TO

VARIOUS OILSEEDS
1. Introduction
Since the late 1920's, when, for the first time, the practical possibility of
continuous solvent extraction was demonstrated on a commercial scale, the
ever improving technique in this field marks one of the most spectacular
developments in oil technology. 133 In the beginning however, the ex-
tractors were built only for the extraction of soyabeans. Early attempts to
direct solvent extraction to medium and high oil containing materials present-
ed difficulties, which ultimately led to forepressing followed by solvent ex-
traction.
Until quite recently, Germany was the recognized leader in this branch
of oil technology. 97,08 As a result, we find today all types of oilseeds
processed in Europe on a commercial scale by solvent extraction. However,
according to the survey by Goss, 99 forepressing is used with practically
every oilseed except soyabeans. Quite recently, however, new extractors
have been installed which are working successfully on materials rich in oil
such as palm kernel.
In America, which has now definitely taken the lead from Germany,
trend from the beginning was to develop extractors which could handle oil-
seeds without recourse to the prevalent European practice of forepressing.
Several firms have tackled the problem of one step extraction of materials
rich in oil. Cottonseed, ground nut seed, castorseed, copra etc., are amongst
the materials for which continuous extractors are being erected or have been
put into operation. There is not yet sufficient data available to enable judge-
ment as to whether direct extraction of seeds rich in oil is more economical
than forepressing-cum-extraction. However, there is undeniably a definite
trend towards direct extraction. 185
Direct solvent extraction has not, as yet been successfully applied on a

commercial scale to all the oilseeds. The reasons for this delay are partly
economic but mostly technological, the most fundamental reason being the
fact that there are many variations in the physical structure of various
oilseeds. 77
For efficient and rapid extraction, the seed must be rolled into a thin
flake. Some seeds, noticeably soyabeans, produce tough, plastic flakes which
are ideal for use in almost all the extractors. However, other seeds, especially
those with high oil content, either cannot be flaked or form flakes that have
a tendency to disintegrate into powder as the oil is gradually removed. The
explanation of this is that the oil is distributed fairly evenly through the pro~
teins, fibres, carbohydrates etc., of the seed flake. If the proportion of the
oil extracted is large then, the residue is a fluffy friable, non-coherent sponge
which disintegrates readily. 185 The formation of fine particles creates
many problems. The 'fines' are many times, extremely difficult to separate
from the miscella. Moreover, they also impede the uniform circulation of
solvent through the seed mass. The gravity of the problem of 'fines' can be
grasped from the fact that, for example, whereas in soya bean solvent extrac-
tion the miscella usually contains 'fines' less than 0 -2 % by weight of the extrac~
tor feed material, in case of groundnuts, cottonseeds, okraseed, rice-bran,
'fines' in miscella can be as high as 5-0%.102
Thus, each oilseed presents its own peculiar problems. Therefore,

in determining the applicability of solvent extraction to various oleaginous
materials, it is necessary to consider each type of oilseed individually.
The extension of solvent extraction to oil crops other than soya beans and
press-cakes is still in its infancy. Modification of extractors already known
for soyabeans and also newly invented systems have lately appeared and are
claimed to be suitable for the direct extraction of seeds rich in oil.
Today the oil industry has reached a new turning point. It is now set
on the path of direct continuous solvent extraction which has already seriously
challenged existing processing methods for all types of seeds.
Let us now consider the application of the solvent extraction process-

direct or forepressing cum-extraction as applied to the various oilseeds.
2. Groundnut
The only full~time commercial groundnut oil solvent extraction plant

to be in operation is of Sessions Brothers Company, Enterprise, Alahama,
(U.S.A.) This plant has 50 tons capacity and has been in operation since
1946. One other installation, that of the Victory Mills, Toronto, Canada,
which utilizes a French extractor, processes groundnuts, but only on a part-
time basis. 77
Quite a number of solvent extraction plants are working in Europe and

tlsewhere on forepressing groundnut oilcakes (containing 18-22% oil by
weight.)
APPLICATION OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS 95
Many of the solvent extraction systems which have been used success-
fully for other oilseeds are totally unsuitable for the processing of ground-
nuts. The main reason for this is the very high content of oil in the seed,
with the result that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to produce flakes
that will not disintegrate when brought in contact with a solvent. Generally,
groundnuts disintegrate to virtual powder in the extractors. 46
Due to this troublesome problem of 'fines', percolation systems of extrac-
tion are preferred to immersion systems in the extraction of groundnuts.
Even in the percolation systems, filtration-extraction process is probably
the only process that can be applied with some reliability to the extraction
of decorticated ground nuts directly. With most other systems, a portion of
husks has to be mixed with undecorticated seeds to increase the characteristics
of percolation. De Smet 80 has claimed good results with a homogenous
mixture of 90% of decorticated nuts and 10% of husks. On the basis of
nuts, this mixture comes out to be 65% of decorticated and 35% of undecorti~
cated seeds. However, this mixture was found to be the limit, after which
extraction was either too slow or incomplete.
For the preparation of flakes, some pretreatment or conditioning step
is necessary. A relatively tough and stable flake can be formed by adding
moisture to the kernels, followed by a heat treatment upto 170°F prior to
flaking. The heated meats with their moisture content reduced to approxi-
mately 7% can then be cracked and flaked to 0·01" thickness.
In their experiments on the effect of particle size on extraction rate,
Coats et at. 75 found that at a flake thickness of 0·01" groundnuts are
most readily extracted, followed by soya beans, cottonseed and flaxseed in
that order.
Groundnut is the most important oil crop of India. There are about
seven solvent extraction plants working almost exclusively on groundnuts.
But the method that is followed is forepressing-cum-extraction. The seeds
are first pressed by mechanical means to oil content of about 8-18% depend-
ing on various factors. The pressed cake is then extracted with solvent.
By applying forepressing-cum-extraction process to the white decorticated
and deskined groundnuts, it is possible to get the white defatted flour suitable
for human food and also for the industrial exploitation of the groundnut pro-
teins, for making plywood, glue or for making the synthetic protein fibre known
as "Sarelon" in U.S.A. and "Ardil" in U.K.
Forepressing-cum-extraction is more economical in India than direct
e;xtraction of the groundnut seeds.
96 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OlLS
Recently work has been done to extract the groundnut oilcake by means
of ethanol on a pilot plant scale, with some success, in the Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore (India).
3. Cottonseed
Although direct solvent extraction has been recommended by many

as a method for processing cottonseed for oil; it has been applied on an in-
dustrial scale in the U.S. only recently, that is, in the immediate post-war
period, and does not appear to be widely practised in other coun-
tries. 148,115,170
The very considerable amount of research and development work done

recently on the factors involved in the solvent extraction of cottonseed is
indicated by the numerous patents and publications covering various phases
of the problem. 115 This interest, however, is not new as is attested by the
fact that David Wassen 47 for many years advocated the adoption of solvent
extraction by the cottonseed industry and in 1930 published an article in which
he outlined the conditions that an acceptable solvent extraction process should
meet.
All of the difficulties involved in the direct extraction of high oil content
seeds at e inherent in cottonseed and in addition there are a number of others
which are peculiar to this seed. 9~
These problems include the collection, tr(tnsport and storage of adequate

quantities of seed to supply an extraction plant of economical size. 145
The technical problems stem from higher oil content and consequent fragi-
lity of the flaked seed meat resulting in the production of 'fines' and the pre-
sence in· the seed of complex pigment system peculiar to the species. 115
The pigment content of cottonseed is unusually high and variable. Gossy-

pol, the principal pigment of cottonseed is found to occur in concentrations
as high as 2 % of the weight of .the kernel, depending on a variety of
factors. 54,173
To this light yellow, polyphenolic pigrnent, has been attributed the

multitude of colour problems associated with cottonseed and its products.
More recently, evidence has been obtained of the presence in cottonseed

of no less than eleven pigments in additioI1 to gossypol. 77,145 Most of
these pigments are found to reside in special organs of the cottonseed which
are generally referred to as pigment glandS. 96
The peculiar properties of both the glands and their pigmented contents
contribute to the difficulties of applying solvent methods to the extraction
of cottonseed. The pigment glands have high mechanical strength and are
relatively resistant to rupture especially by rolling and similar mechanical
treatment. 65 These glands are likewise resistant to the action of solvents,
being attacked only by water, ethyl ether and a few low molecular weight
solv~nts. They are particularly resistant to attack by petroleum naphthas,
higher chlorinated hydrocarbons and many other organic solvents. How-
ever, if these relatively inert solvents are moist, they slowly attack the pig-
ment glands at rates which are proportional to the moisture content of the
latter and the temperature of the solvent. The distribution, between oil
and meal of the pigment in the glands, will therefore depend primarily on
the solvent used. 145 It also depends on the extent to which tbese glands
are exposed to the action of the solvent, which in turn depends on the degree
of subdivision of the seed being extracted. 55 If cottonseed is extracted
with ethyl ether the pigments are found primarily in the oil; if it is extracted
with moisture-free petroleum naphtha the pigments would remain primarily
with the meal. If moist petroleum naphtha is used, some of the pigments
would be found in the oil but principally in the meal with deleterious
effects on both products. 17l,1~5
These deleterious effects arise from certain characteristics of the pigment

which are relatively unstable and therefore readily undergo conversion into
a series of other coloured products, some of which are more deleterious than
the original pigments. The pigments which are extracted with the oil,
undergo degradation (colour fixation) when the miscella is distilled according
to conventional practice, with the result that the oil produced is difficult or
impossible to refine and bleach. 171,195 This difficulty can be mini-
mized or avoided by distillation under reduced pressure. 195 Boatner
suggests the addition of oxidizing agents to solvent so that light colour bleached
oil may be obtained from the extracted oil. 54
On the other hand, if most or all of the pigments remain in the meal,
they exert a deleterious effect on the nutritional quality of the meal and may
render it unfit for industrial use. Part of the pigments remaining in the
meal would be destroyed or converted into other pigments during the desolven-
tizing of the meal. The degree to which this occurs depends on the condition
of desolventisation, especially upon the temperature, moisture and time. If the
destruction of the pigments is not complete during desolventisation, the meal
must be subjected to additional treatment to complete the process. 145
Researches 56,69,85,108 indicate that the toxicity of cottonseed pigment

glands is attributable either to some component or components of the

glands other than or in addition to gossypol and gossypurpurin or to
one which enhances their activity. Thermally, toxic material is relatively
stable, but it is partially inactivated by the combined action of heat and water.
It is extracted partially by ethanol and completely by diethyl ether and
acetone.
Olcott 165 recommends cooking of cottonseed prior to solvent extrac-

tion in order to obtain meals suitable for livestock feed. However, cooking
also denatures the protein, partially or completely, destroys other thermally
unstable, nutritive constituents of the seed and darkens the meal so that it is
unsuitable as a source of protein for industrial use.
Goldovaski and Podolskaya have reported that steaming of the meal

converts practically all of the residual gossypol to a form which cannot be
extracted with diethyl ether.
The Southern Regional Research Laboratory, U.S.A., has developed

on a laboratory and pre-pilot scale an entirely new and unique method of
processing cottonseed. 56,19M3 In this process, the cottonseed meals
are rolled to form very thin flakes and then disintegrated by violent agita-
tion, in an inert liquid medium which makes possible their separation by
flotation into (a) intact pigment glands, (b) an oil-solvent mixture and
(c) meal free of oil and pigment glands. The liquid medium, comprising of
chlorinated and unchlorinated solvents is adjusted to a specific gravity that
allow the pigment glands to float to the surface and meal to sink to the bottom
leaving the miscella or oil-solvent mixture between the two. 55 Since
practically all the gossypol groups of pigments are removed in the form of the
intact glands, the meal and oil are relatively light coloured.
If this process can be made to operate continuously on a large scale, it

will be of extreme importance to cottonseed industry.
Traditionally, cottonseed is solvent extracted by three methods (i)

forepressing-cum-extraction. (ii) direct extraction of raw meats, and
(iii) direct extraction of cooked meats. The first is the most widely applied
method and uses pre-pressed cake containing 15-20% oil. In the second
method raw meats obtained after cleaning, dclinting and hulling, are condi-
tioned in a cooker-dryer type of unit or a stearn tube dryer. The conditioning
consists in heating the meats to 120-150° F., and raising the moisture to 9-10%
which is the optimum level according to Reuther. 182 These meats are
then flaked to around 0·005-0·006" and sent to the extractor. The cooked
meats process utilizes crushing rolls and cookers of an existing hydraulic

press mill and the meats are sent directly to the extractor. This process has
had a number of plant scale trials by various processors but is not presently
being used to any great extent. 117
Hutchins 117 has described the three methods and has given tables
to make a comparison of installation costs, operating costs, extraction efficiency
and product quality.
Rea lU has discussed a modification of the Skipin process to include

moderate pressing and its application to high oil content seeds such as cotton-
seed meat.
A novel approach to the solution of the problems encountered in the

conventional solvent extraction of cottonseed meats is the solvent extraction
of oil from cottonseed before the removal of linters and treatment of the residue
to effect separation of meal, hulls and linters. 74 Hulls with most of the
lint attached to them is a new product of this process and the success of the
process will depend on finding new uses for it.
Research work has been carried out in U.S.A. for the solvent extraction
of cottonseed oil with isopropanol as solvent. 106
4. Soyabean (Glycine ma.~)
The advantage of solvent extraction over mechanical pressing can be

clearly shown in the case of soyabean by the fact that oil recovery is over 97%
when solvent extraction is used as against about 80% when mechanical pres-
sing is used.
In Europe, soyabean is almost entirely processed by solvent extraction.

However in the U.S.A. only about 40% of the total quantity is processed
by this means.
Soyabeans produce tough, plastic flakes which do not easily disintegrate

and are, therefore, ideal for use in virtually all extractors which have been
designed.
Thus, solvent extraction is definitely an established commercial method

as far as soyabeans are concerned. 132
5. Castor Bean (Ricinus communis)

Solvent extraction of castor bean is an example of the application of this
process in the recovery of oil that is expensive.
As far as solvent extraction is concerned, the practice that is universally

followed consists of cold pressing in a hydraiIlic cage press followed by solvent
extraction of this resulting pomace by using a batch process. 77
Bailey 48 recommends higher boiling naphthas for the extraction of

castor oil, as it is not miscible with hydrocarbons at low temperatures. How-
ever, since the castor oil contains about 87-92% of ricinoleic acid,-a hydroxy
acid-alcohol can be used for its extraction with advantage.
G. Sly 190 has described a process in which castor bean solids are leach-
ed with a solvent e.g. heptane, at a temperature above the critical miscibility
temperature for the solvent and castor oil and the mixture is then cooled to
produce, an oil-rich phase and an oil-poor phase, the latter being reused in
a further extraction.
Castor cake is nonedible. The toxic substance in the protein of castor

cake is a highly poisonous nitrogenous substance "Ricin." "Ricin" loses its
toxicity when treated (a) with oxidizing agents, (b) with ultra violet rays,
(c) by boiling with aqueous solution. 10
Solvent extracted castorseed pomace has been shown to have a high

acute oral toxicity. Autoclaving for 15 minutes at 125°C produces essentially
complete destruction of ricin with minimum change in the physical character
of pomace. 11
Raymond Borchers 11 has suggested the repeated extraction of castor

cake or meal by hot 95% alcohol. It is said to detoxify the meal completely.
Castor cake is never used in India as livestock feed. However in the

U.S.A. it is said to be used even for human consumption after suitable treat-
ment by patented processes. 120
Castor bean is not a difficult oilseed to work in the solvent extraction

plant, especially after forepressing. The solvent to be used for this is a
heptane cut rather than the usual hexane cut employed for other oilseeds.
One solvent extraction factory in India has had no difficulty with castor
cake extraction.
6. Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum)
Flaxseed is another of the high oil content seed which successfully resisted
application of commercial solvent extraction for a number of years. 77,168
Although flaxseed may be directly extracted, it is usual to forepress

it to redu~e the oil content in the pressed cake to about 18%. There are
two methods, both commercially used, for forepressing flaxseed, namely
cold pressing and hot pressing. The pre-pressed cake has then to be con-
ditioned for proper flaking. 167
One obstacle in the solvent extraction of flaxseed is the presence

of toxic principle. Flaxseed contains a cyanogetic glucoside, "Linamarin"
along with an enzyme which under favourable conditions, hydrolyses the
glucoside setting free "prussic acid", which is toxic to animals. 10
During the processing, such as hot expression of the seeds in expellers,

the enzyme is destroyed and the forepressed cake is free of toxic principle. 11
Otherwise, solvent extracted deoiled meal must be detoxified by the
application of heat before it can be used for stock-feeding purposes. 77
Sometimes, glucose and molasses are added to macerations of the cake

which appear to exercise protective action against HeN pOIsomng. The
cake has laxative effect on the animal. 11,12
7. Sesame (Sesamum orientale)
Sewme seed also called til seed is one of the oldest oil seeds known
to man. Sesame seed contains approximately 50% oil and 20-25% pro-
tein. 14~
Sesame seeds require no decortication or preparation. Mter fore-

pressing, sesame seeds can be flaked and then extracted very well in the con-
ventional type of extractors.
The meal, which contains 50-55% proteins is a good stockfeed and is

especially high in methionine. 14~
During recent years, the annual world production of sesame seed has
been approximately 1·5 million tons, of which one-third is contributed by
India. 13
8. Copra (Cocos nucifera)
In addition to their use as an oil producing material, coconuts are grown

and consumed as a staple article of diet by many millions of people.
An average nut yields about 0·5 lb. of dried copra which in turn yields
about 63% oil. '8
102 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OlLS
The principal use for coconut oil is in the manufacture of soaps while
the oilcake is used in India, Europe and U.S.A., in considerable quantities
as a livestock feed.
The solvent extraction process can be applied to copra as well as poonac

without much difficulty.
There was some controversy over merits and demerits of deoiled poonac.
It is now proved that poonac with only 1 % oil is better for cattle feed than
that containing higher percentage of oil. 156
Ceylon Government have decided to start a complete oil project 29

which will have, amongst other units (i) a continuous solvent extraction
plant with a capacity of 120 tons/day of poonac containing about 10% oil;
(ii) batch solvent extraction plant with capacity of 50 tons of copra per day.
The Ceylon Extraction Company (division of British Ceylon Corpora-

tion) have already started 100 tons/day capacity their continuous solvent
extraction plant and are producing deoiled coconut poonac containing 24%
protein and less than 1 % oil. It is claimed to be an ideal cattle feed. 156
9. Mowra (Bassia latifolia)
Mowrah is obtained in large quantities in India. Mowrah seed contains

about 50-55% oil. 110 In view of the high percentage of oil in the seed,
forepressing cum-extraction can be used with advantage.
Mowrah cake contains a poisonous glucoside "mowrin", a saponin which

is poisonous to cattle and is toxic to soil micro-organisms. Further it is re-
ported to retard the decomposition or nitrification of the oilcake in the
soil. 10
The production of mowrah seed in India is estimated at 60,000 tons

annually. Solvent extraction process should be applied to the resulting oil-
cake in order to stop the wastage of oil in the residual oilcake as mowrah
oilcake finds a very limited market either in India or out!>ide. Mowrah
cake is being successfully extracted in India.
10. Rice Bran (Ory;:a sativa)
Rice is not only one of the world's oldest cultivated crops but also
a basic food of more people than any other cereal grain.
Rice bran is a by-product of the rice milling industry. The bran which
.
consists essentially of the outer portions and germ of the dehulled rice grain,
amounts on an average about 8·5% of the rough rice. Fresh rice bran
contains 18-20% edible oil, 3-5% sugars, some 8 varieties of B-vitamins and
0·5-1 % rice wax. 175
A simple method consists of treating fresh bran with steam or other
indirect source of heat, till the temperature is over 100°C for a period of 4-30
minutes. The heat treatment destroys the active lipase and then bran may
be cooled and stored for several days without ill effect. 175
Solvent extraction is the most promising method for removing oil from
rice bran since bran is bulky and usually contains comparatively small per-
centage of oil. 181 Rice bran can be readily extracted in a static-type
extractor in small batches and with the use of high ratios of solvent to bran.
However, it presents serious problems in the case of large scale operation
in agitated batch or some types of continuous extractors. These difficulties
arise almost entirely from the large amount of fine materials in the bran
and the difficulty or impossibility of producing large flakes of optimum thick-
ness and required mechanical strength to withstand the stresses to which they
are subjected during processing.
Experiments of Morris et al 153 indicate that it is preferable to extract

rice bran conditioned to high (16%) rather than low (below 10%) moisture
if it is desired to keep the amount of 'fines' in the miscella to a minimum.
During the processing, after the solvent is evaporated off the miscella,
the oil that separates out may contain also sugar syrup. The oil is decanted
from a heavy syrup. 175
The dark green oil so obtained contains rice-wax. Rice bran oil however,
can be 'winterized' rapidly and with a high yield of winterized oil. 88
Proper extraction produces a meal with 1-1·5% of residual lipids, prin-

cipally waxes.
Except that this oil is coloured leaf green instead of bei~g light yellow
or brown, it is quite similar in composition and taste to groundnut oil. 175
Special characteristic of rice bran oil is the very marked resistance to oxidative
rancidity. The stabilities of the un-refined, bleached, and deodorized rice
bran oils and the hydrogenated products are approximately twice those of
comparable, commercially acceptable vegetable fats. 88
A residue of syrup, as mentioned above, is left along with crude oil during
the processing. The crude syrup which is dark and forms 3-9% of the bran,
is treated further to give a final product, a light red-brown sweet syrup, which
contains all the B-vitamins and 60% of natural sugar, mainly sucrose and
glucose, present in bran. 175
Thus, the advantages to be gained by processing rice bran are: (i)

recovery of an oil adaptable to a wide variety of uses, (ii) production of
a valuable syrup rich in natural B-vitamins, sucrose and glucose. In addition,
industrially useful rice-wax and fatty acids are also produced.
It is interesting to note that India produces 2·5 million tons of bran

every year, from which it is possible to extract oil to the tune of 250,000 tons
for edible purposes. The value of the oil salvaged from the rice bran may
be well placed at 20 crores of rupees.
It may be noted that although rice oil is new to India, it is a common

salad or edible oil in Japan which has been extracting rice bran for many
years nOw. In recent years, interest has been shown in U.S.A. to solvent
extract the rice bran oil by employing the petroleum cuts, such as
hexane. 175
It is quite possible to get the needed machinery for the processing of the
bran from the f(;reign countries. De Smet claim that rice bran can be satis-
factorily treated in their plant.
11. Okraseed (Hibiscus esculentus)
It has been shown that among the various oilseed bearing plants, okra
(popularly called lady's finger) possesses in itself one of the potential sources
of valuable edible oils, capable of supplementing or replacing cotton-
seed. 147
Lady's finger, which gives the okraseed is generally cultivated for the
fruits which are edible and are widely used as a vegetable. These fruits are
gathered while still green and tender. When cultivated for seed purposes
or as an oilseed crop, the pods and seeds are allowed to mature fully before
harvest. Until recently, it has been impractical to cultivate okra as an oil
crop, because of the loss of seed incurred by shattering of the pods during
maturation and harvest. However, several new non-shattering varieties
have been developed which are suitable for oilseed production. 73 But
there are still agronomic and technological problems that will first require
solution. 147
Oil percentage of okraseed is somewhat lower than that of cottonseed,

being about 15-20%.
Okraseed is cracked between rolls and unseparated kernels and hull

are flaked to thickness of 0 ·01". 116
Protein content of okraseed is slightly greater than that of cottonseed

and so far as is known, it probably does not contain gossypol or other toxic
substances. Dehulled and extracted okraseed meal would prove valuable as
protein supplement in feeds and may prove valuable for industrial purposes.
Okraseed oil is somewhat similar to cottonseed oil in properties. How-

ever, because of its lower iodine value, it is classified as a non-drying oil and
in this respect, it may be considered better suited for edible purposes than
cottonseed oil.
Okraseed meal IS comparable to other meals now III commercial use

for feeding livestock.
Solvent extracted okraseed oil is reddish brown in colour while cold

pressed oil is green due to the presence of pheophytin A.
Solvent extracted okraseed oil gives a very low refining loss and the
refined and bleached oil is light coloured. m
Refined okraseed oil resembles a good grade ground nut oil and the
hydrogenated oil has good flavour and keeping quality, thus favouring its
unlimited use in shortenings.
12. Gokhru (Xanthium strumarium)
Potentialities of gokhru (Xanthium strumarium) , also called gadardi, as

a source of vegetable oil were reported by Shrivastava. 188
These plants grow abundantly throughout the hotter parts of India.

The yield of seeds vary betwen 500-600 lb., per acre as against 150-500 lb.,
of common oilseeds such as sesame, linseed, mustard and castor. At present
they are more of a nuisance than a help.
The seed contains 30-33% oil. The seed is enclosed in a thorny cover,
which is hard and tenacious and is difficult to remove by mechanical means.
A chemical treatment can, however, be used for taking out the seeds. The
other alternative is to apply direct solvent extraction to partially broken
gokhru fruit.
Gokhru seed is rich in phosphoric acid. The oil obtained by solvent

extraction on the laboratory scale was found to contain lecithin (0·94%)
comparable to that of maize oil (1 %) and soyabean oil (1·5-2·5%). 188

There is, therefore, a possibility that exploitation of the gokhru oil may
open up a new source for the production and utilization of lecithin in the
country.
Shrivastava 188 has given analytical data of gokhru cake from different
sources along with other common cakes (oil-free basis).
It was found that gokhru cake is the highest in nitrogen content and also
m phosphoric acid content. Moreover, from the manurial point of view,
it was found that the rate of nitrification and the total nitrification of gokhru
cake are sufficiently high.
Gokhru cake has thus a very high manurial value and this fact should,
to some extent, make extraction of gokhru oil an economical proposition.
It seems, therefore, that encouraging results might be obtained and

it would be worth while to conduct further experiments on a pilot plant scale
In order to exploit commercially gokhru seeds by solvent extraction.
The solvent extracted oil lends itself for easy refining and it is more than
likely that the refined oil can be used for edible purposes. It is also possible
to make a good quality washing soap out of the solvent extracted gokhru
oil.
The production of gokhru in India is not known, but it can be well

predicted that thousands of tons can be collected in the country, if proper
impetus is given to the commercial exploitation of the seeds.
13. PUu (Kbakan) (Salvadora oleo ides)
Pilu oil, also known as khakan fat, IS a potential substitute in India

for coconut oil in soap making.
The oil 1 is obtained from the seeds of large evergreen shrubs or trees
(Salvadora oleo ides and Persica) that grow in many parts of India.
The seeds are small and greenish yellow and contain 40-43% of a yellowish
green fat. Pilu oil contains 74-75% oflauric and myristic adds, two important
acids for soap, as against 50-69% in coconut oil. Thus, for soap making
pilu oil is even better than coconut oil.
These seeds are forest products and inspite of their merits, no organised
attempt has been made so far for their commercial exploitation.
It should be quite possiDle to apply direct solvent extraction to the pilu

seeds. This can be well predicted from the practical experience gained in
the solvent extraction of the pilu oilcakes in India. It may be remarked
that the solvent extraction of pilu oilcake containing 8-10% oil is perhaps
the most simple operation compared to other oil~eed cakes. The solvent
extracted oil has a good commercial demand in India. 1
14. Miscellaneous Oilseeds
There are quite a number of oil-bearing materials in India, to which

the solvent extraction process can be well applied directly or after forepressing.
The production figures of all these materials are not known, but they can be
well imagined to be produced in sizable quantities. No attempt wIll be
made to describe the solvent extraction of oils from these materials.
The following is the list of probable materials which may be handled

In the solvent extraction plant :-
(a) Neem seed. (b) Kardi seed.
(c) Niger seed. (d) Maize germ.
(e) Tobacco seed. (f) Tea seed.
(g) Rubber seed. (h) Karanjia seed.
(i) Kamala seed. ()J, Tamarind seed.
(k) Bhilawan seed (1) Cashewnut shell.

CHAPTER V
SOLVENTS
1. Introduction
The solvent employed in the solvent extraction plant plays a very im-
portant role for the efficient and satisfactory working of the factory. It
may well be said that the selection of the solvent for the solvent extraction
process may make or mar the future of the industry. With the right selec-
tion of the solvent, the plant will work like a "push-button" factory and the
final products recovered will be of very good quality, especially because
efficient solvent extractors are now available.
One reason for the failure of early efforts has been ascribed 184 to the
lack of a really satisfactory solvent, which resulted in oils that were difficult
to be refined satisfactorily.
Just as there have been various types of equipment and plants designed,
so also quite a variety of solvent has been used in the solvent extraction process.
Among the solvents that have been used may be mentioned benzene, methyl
alcohol, diethyl ether, trichlorethylene and petroleum naphthas, of different
boiling ranges, including high test gasolines, mineral spirits, lacquer diluents,
heptanes fractions and so forth. 86
In practice, however, only a few solvents are used commercially in the

plant, namely, benzene, ethyl alcohol, trichlorethylene and petroleum cuts of
different boiling range.
2. Characteristics of an Ideal Solvent
The ideal solvent, both from the theoretical and the practical point of
view should meet with the following requirements. 185,194,57
(a) Selective solvent action :-It should thoroughly dissolve oils and fats
and as far as possible should not dissolve other constituents contained in the
oil-bearing material. If a solvent is not sufficiently selective in its actions,
dark coloured oils will be obtained which may offer difficulty in refi ning.
(b) Ease of removal :-It should be volatile and should not disintegrate
on distillation, volatility being useful to remove the last traces from oils and
the meal.
• SOLVENTS 109
(c) Corrosive tendencies :~The solvent must not chemically react either
with the materials from which the processing equipment is fabricated or with
any oilseed component.
(d) Boiling point :-It should have a constant boiling point. It is

desirable that the solvent should be removed at the lowest practicable tem-
perature; otherwise the application of excessive heat may have adverse effect
on oils and fats as well as on meal. Economic considerations also indicate
the removal of the solvent at a relatively low temperature. A solvent should
therefore have low specific heat, low latent heat of vapourization and low
boiling point. Most of the commercially available solvents are mixtures
of several compounds. In the selection of the solvent, the boiling range
therefore assumes considerable importance. It should be noticed that ex-
ceedingly low boiling range results in considerable loss of solvent during
solvent separation process.
(e) Stabiliry :-The solvent should be recoverable in the same stable

state so as to allow the same solvent to be used, repeatedly.
(f) Availabiliry ;-It should be easily available. It should not deteriorate

during storage.
(g) Price structure:-It must be cheap, and should be available in large

quantity.
(h) Toxiciry :-It should not be toxic and should have no deleterious
effect on either the residue or the oil. Its vapours too must not create any
toxic effect when inhaled.
(i) Solubiliry in water :-It should be insoluble in water.
It may be remarked that no ideal solvent is at present available which

would comply with the conditions stipulated as above.
In actual solvent extraction plants the following solvents are employed :-
1. Petroleum solvents, 2. Non-flammable solvent (Trichlorethylene),

3. Alcohols, 4. Others.
3. Petroleum Solvent
From practical point of view, it may be said that petroleum solvents

come next to the ideal solvent as defined above. Its main disadvantage is
its high inflammability but with the development of "out-door" units and
with the proper safety devices and careful operation control, the chances for
the fire-hazards involved in the process are no more than in other chemical
plants.
Although a commercial process recently has been worked out for the
use of extremely volatile petroleum hydrocarbons, namely, propane for the
refining of vegetable and animal oils, (Liquid-liquid extraction) no equipment
or plant designs have yet been developed to utilize liquefied petroleum gases
in the solvent extraction industry, even though their low boiling points and
ready volatility offer remarkable advantages from the point of view of low
temperature, odour and taste. Resenthal and Trevithick, while recommend-
ing the use of propane and butane remark as follows: 141
"In all the tests which have been made with these solvents, the
crude oils,-cottonseed, soyabean, ground nut and so forth,-have been
very light in colour and of good appearance, refining easily with low losses
to very light coloured refined oils. The meal is also very light in colour,
of good texture and appearance, suitable not only for animal feed but
even for human consumption."
However, the high vapour pressures of the liquefied gases, necessitating

the use of high pressure storage and processing equipment, have militated
against their adaptation to the extraction of oil-bearing material in a large-
scale commercial way.
From the standpoint of solvent extraction of vegetable oils, the following

three petroleum cuts are preferred :-
1. Hexane type of boiling range 146 to 157 of.
2. Heptane type of 192 to 208°F.
3. Pe~tane type of 96 to 138° F.
These solvents are quite stable, being fractions of practically pure paraffin
type hydrocarbons. They are of unusually narrow boiling range, thereby
containing a minimum of extremely volatile compounds along with a minimum
of heavy greasy compounds and they are exceptionally good from the stand-
point of evaporation, residue, odour and taste.
The solvent extraction industry is greatly obliged to petroleum refineries

of U.S.A., for producing really "tailor made" solvents for extraction purposes.
In India, the choice is to be made out from the limited number of solvents
currently available from the stockists.
SOLVENTS 111
Two petroleum cuts of very good quality are available from Mis Standard
Vacuum Oil Company (India). They observe as follows for their products: 21
1. "Commercial normal hexane is our regular recommendation

though we can supply commercial normal heptane for the purpose if re-
quired. As their names indicate, their chemical structure consists mainly
of hexane or heptane with small quantities of pentane.
2. The current price for either of these solvents is Rs. 3-12-0 per im-
perial gallon packed in new non-returmlble 18 gauge drums f.o.r. Bombay.
This price is, of course, subject to fhlctuation.
3. The current import duty on either of these solvents is three annas

per imperial gallon.
4. The average densities of these solvents (lbs. per Imp. gallon) are
as follows (at 20°C):-
Commercial normal hexane 7 ·03
Commercial normal heptane 7·25
5. The commercial normal hexane is usually readily available ex-stock
though some advance indication is necessary if large quantities are required.
The product can be imported and supplied on our import licences.
Commercial normal heptane is not usually held in stock. The product

can, however, be imported and supplied regularly if some advance intim-
ation is given regarding requirements.
6. The technical data regarding these solvents IS as follows :-
TYPICAL INSPECTIONS
Normal hexane Normal heptane
Sp. Gravity 20/20°C 0·703 0·725

Flash (Tag closed cup) Below O°C --6°C
Colour Saybolt +30 +30
Doctor Pass Pass
Corrosion (ASTM D268) Pass Pass
KB Solvent Power (Toluol= 100) 37 36
Aniline Point (ASTM D611) 48°C 54°C
Approximate composition :
% Aromatics 4·1 3·1
% Paraffins 85·1 63·0
% Napthenes 10·5 33·9
7. The residue left after complete evaporation is non-acidic and non-

toxic to human beings as well as warmblooded animals. Due to the extremely
low sulphur content in these solvents, even the possibility of sulphur toxicity
is eliminated. This is one of the key advantages of using these highly refined
solvents as against conventional oil extraction solvents of wider boiling range.
8. The deoiled meals after using hexane or heptane in the extraction,

are being used as cattle feed and human food to a large extent in U.S.A.
where these solvents are produced and are exceedingly popular.
9. The precautions to be taken in handling these solvents are the same

as those concerning any dangerous (i.e. inflammable) petroleum material
such as motor gasoline. AI1 petroleum safety regulations should be adopted
III the storage and handling of these solvents.
10. Any petroleum vapour, if inhaled in excess, can produce toxic

systems. Care should be taken to ensure that the workers are not exposed
to the vapours from the solvents.
11. Both these solvents are classified as 'dangerous petroleum,' from

the fire hazard point of view. The same precautions as in the case of motor
gasoline should, therefore, be adopted.
"No difficulty is being experienced normally in our securing adequate

import licences for these solvents. In the actual import, however, we do
come across a few difficulties. Thus the Suez Canal regulations restrict the
quantity of packed dangerous solvents that can be brought on board ships
through the canal. If the drums are to be brought in the holds then these
should be well ventilated according to certain regulations. A few shipping
lines have equipped their ships according to these regulations to carry packed
solvents. There may be a little delay in arranging for such ships to pick up
the packed solvent cargo at the particular U.S.A. Gulf Ports where the solvents
are available. Normally, all these factors are taken into consideration by
us when we arrange for stocks and we also normally carry enough stocks
always to meet the customers' requirements and to maintain continuity of
supplies.
"Recently we have made some attempts to bring in these packed solvents

on board tankers so that we can pass on the benefit of the resultant lower
freight rates to our customers in the form of lower prices. These have not
been always successful since such tanker opportunities from U.S.A. ports are
few and far between, especially after the new refineries were started in
Bombay to meet most of India's requirements.
SOLVENTS 113
"The present volume of trade for these solvents does not justify bulk
importation and storage and such a practice may be adopted at a later date
when the solvent extraction industry expands. As nearly one third of the cur-
rent price of these solvents is due to the high freight involved from U.S.A.
such bulk importation and storage will considerably assist in lowering the
prices of these solvents."
Mis. Burmah-Shell (India), are also quoting for two petroleum cuts for the
solvent extraction plants in India. They observe for their products as follows: 20
1. Solvents Used for Oil Extraction and Their Specifications

"SBP 62j82°C is the grade we have been recommending for use in oil ex-
traction plants and is being imported for this purpose. Some oil extractors
have however preferred using our S.B.P. 60j120°C in view of its lower price.
Typical properties of these two grades are as under :-
SBP 62j82°C SBP60j120°C
Sp. Gravity at 60°F. 0·684 0·72

Appearance Clear Clear
Odour Sweet Sweet
Doctor Test (IP 30) Negative Negative
Colour Saybolt eIP 18) plus 25 plus 25
Corrosion [Copper Strip] (IP 64) No change No change.
Flash Point Below OaF. Below OaF
Aromatic content (by vol.) 3% 8%
Distillation (IP 123)
I.B.P. 64°C 55°C
10% recovered at 66°C 67°C
20% 66ioC 69°C
"
30% 66ioC 72°C
" 66Q4 oC 74ioc
40%
" 67°C 77.l°C
50% 2
"
60% 67ioC 80°C
" 68°C 82°
70%
80%
" 68i oC 85!OC
"
90% 70°C 92°C
" 82°C 115°C
F.B.P.
Recovery 01 ,0 Vol. 98·5 98·5
Residue 1·0 1·0
"
Loss 0·5 0·5
"
Lbs. per gallon (approx.) 6·84 7·2
2. Price and Packing
"SBP 62J82°C is now imported in barrels and is currently sold atRs. 2-14-6
per imperial gallon in 40/45 I.G. nonreturnable barrels f.o.r. our in-
stallation in Bombay.
SBP. 60j120°C is imported in bulk and our current selling rates are as
under :-
Rs. 1-8-9 per gallon for supplies Il1 tankwagons f.o.r. our installa-
tion in Bombay.
Rs. 1-9-0 per gallon in buyer's barrels fo.r. installation Il1 Bom-
bay.
All prices are exclusive of sales tax and are subject to revision without
notice."
3. Import Duty per Gallon Paid to the Government
"SBP 60/120°C paid at 3 annas per gallon.
SBP. 62/82°C. paid at 3 annas per gallon for the oil and at approxi-
mately Rs. 0-3-9 per gallon for the containers.
SBP 60j120°C is imported in bulk under our blanket licence and sufficient
stocks are maintained.
SBP 62j82°C our present imports are in barrels against packed import
licences issued by the Government ofIndia. Arrangements are
however planned to have bulk storage for this grade in the
near future whereafter our imports will be in bulk and the
prices should become about Rs. 1-12-0 to Rs. 1-14-0 per
gallon in bulk."
Looking to the general conditions prevailing in India, it is best to use

heptane type petroleum solvent for the solvent extraction of vegetable oils.
However, the only point against this solvent (and this is very solid reason)
is the price structure in India. It is not at all possible to counterbalance the
exhorbitant price for the solvent to be paid against its advantages in the work-
ing of the plant. At present in India the possibility of N-hexane or of heptane
being employed as solvent in the plant is completely ruled out, unless the
marketing company feels it interesting to import these cuts as "bulk cargo"
and thereby reduce the prices substantially.
SOLVENTS l1S
The sole consideration for the use of S.B.P. 60/120°C as the extracting
solvent is its cheap price factor. The solvent is not so bad in practice, as
it may appear from its wide boiling range.
The best all-round solvent for the country seems to be S.B.P. 62/82°C
when it is made available in India at a price of Rs. 1-11-0 to Rs. 1-12-0 per
imperial gallon, loose.
In order to end with problems in the solvent extraction plants, it is always

best to choose good quality solvent consummate with its economical aspects.
It'is high time that one of the petroleum refineries in India engages its
attention to produce the right type of petroleum cut for the industry.
The target fixed in the First Five-Year Plan for the solvent extraction
industry is four lakh tons of oilcakes annually. In the Second Five-Year
Plan the target set out is eight lakh tons. Thus it will mean that the re-
quirements of the solvent for the industry will be to the tune of at least two
million gallons per annum at the end of the Second Five-Year Plan, as it
is assumed that this new type of industrial development in India, will not
fail to keep pace with the planned goal.
It will be certainly interesting for one of the petroleum refineries in

India to put up the extra facilities in the plant in order to produce aN-hexane
or heptane cut, whose potential market in India is well above 12 million
gallons per year, as the ultimate aim of the industry should be to treat 6 million
tons of oil-bearing materials in the country (reference Table 4).
With the production of the solvent in India, the solvent extraction in-
dustry in this country will have one of its major problems solved completely
to its satisfaction. 116
4. Non-flammable Solvents
These solvents are best to be used in the solvent extraction plants, where
fire hazards are to be eliminated completely in the process. When employ-
ing these groups of solvents, one should not lose sight of the problems to be
faced due to the health hazards involved in the process.
Trichlorethylene is generally considered to be most satisfactory for sol-

vent extraction particularly for vegetable oils. 198 Its high stability in the
presence of water and relatively low boiling point permit ready recovery from
oil and meal using live steam as the sparging agent. At the same time its
boiling point is sufficiently low to permit recovery in standard water cooled
condensers. A number of commercial soyabean extraction plants in U.S.A.

now use trichlorethylene as the solvent.
In many types of equipment trichlorethylene can be substituted for

petroleum solvents, with a minimum of mechanical changes. For example
in some batch equipment it is only necessary to redesign the solvent-water
decanter to permit recovery of the solvent as the bottom layer (rather than
as the top layer in petroleum solvent plant). In case of continuous extraction
system, sometimes, considerable alteration is necessary due to the fact that
trichlorethylene is much heavier than water.
Installation of a suitable recovery system to permit recovery of solvent

is necessary in the case of trichlorethylene plant. In order to further improve
solvent recovery a small blower is frequently installed after the vapour re-
covery plant, to insure maintenance of a slight negative pressure (approxi-
mately i" water) throughout the system.
With a suitable efficient solvent recovery system, solvent loss of the order
of 12 to 18 pounds per ton (short) of cake processed in the batch unit is possible.
The chief characteristics of the solvent commercially available are as

follows. 23
Boiling range 86°·5C to 87°·5C

Specific gravity 1·472 to 1·476
Free halogen Nil
Residue on evaporation 0·0007% by wt. (max).
Because trichlorethylene has a density at 68°F of 1·464, soyabean and

other meals do not readily sink in this solvent and extraction equipment using
trichlorethylene cannot depend on meal sinking in the solvent for control of
materials flow. Now, however, a number of prominent extraction equipment
manufacturers are prepared to supply the needed plant.
There is a definite trend in U.S.A. for the employment of non-flammable

solvent, trichlorethylene. The chief interest in solvent extraction has been
shown towards soyabean, meat scrap, cottonseed, and a few of the larger
volume seeds. Seven soyabean extraction plants designed for the use of
trichlorethylene are in operation or near completion. Three large-scale
solvent extraction plants went on "stream" in the year 1951. 26
Vegetable oil which is to be hydrogenated should not contain excessive

amount of residual trichlorethylene (below 100 p.p.m. 0·01 %). Commercial
SOLVENTS 117
plants are now available to produce oil containing only 20-40 p.p.m. (0·002%
to 0·004%) trichlorethylene.
Approximately 20,000 tons of trichlorethylene extracted soyabean meal

has been sold in U.S.A. for animal fodder. 23
The disadvantages of trichlorethylene are as follows :-
1. High cost.
2. Toxic effect.
3. Health hazard.
4. If not "stabilized" sufficiently, chlorine \vill be liberated in the

process, thus attacking the materials of construction. 22,14Q
5. Specific gravity is more than double that of petroleum solvents,

so that the dead load on supporting structure would be considerably
higher.
6. Poor availability.
7. Special changes in the continuous solvent extraction plant are

necessary.
The outstanding advantage of trichlorethylene for extraction is its safety

in use. An extraction system using trichlorethylene can be located in convenient
proximity to other processing operations and does not require high invest-
ment costs for fire protection and fire-fighting equipmen,t, extra buildings,
or extended facilities for steam, power, water, etc. The fire hazard is practi-
cally eliminated and this advantage is reflected in lower insurance rates.
The high price of trichlorethylene makes efficient solvent recovery

mandatory.
Trichlorethylene has been unfairly criticised by some as being too good

a solvent for extraction purposes, claiming that dark coloured oils result from
its use. It has been shown definitely that this criticism is without founda-
tion ; prime oils are being produced continuously in several trichlorethylene
plants both in U.S.A. and Europe. 81
The other non-flammable solvent which may be used for extraction pur-
poses is the carbon tetrachloride. Little is known about the commercial
exploitation of this solvent. Trichlorethylene is the only non-ftammble solvent

. known to have been employed on a fairly large industrial scale.
In India, since trichlorethylene is not available at a reasonable price,

there is no immediate possibility of using this solvent for the process. The
current quotations for trichlorethylene by Mis Imperial Chemicals Industries
(India) Ltd., is Rs. 78jI3/-per cwt. f.o.r. Bombay, which works out to
Rs. 10-5-3 per gallon against Rs. 2-12-0 per gallon for the commonly used
petroleum solvent.
5. Alcobols as Solvents
(a) Ethanol :-In Asiatic countries, such as India, China, Japan, etc.,
where natural resources for ethanol production are much greater than those
for petroleum solvent, alcohol has potentialities to become popular as a sol-
vent, if an economical process for its use is worked out. 180,134
Work carried out on soyabean extraction in U.S.A. points to the fact,

that soyabean oil is soluble in ethanol (96-97 %) in practically all proportions,
when it is heated to 90°C under a pressure of about 15 pounds per square inch.
(see Fig. No. 32). The solubility of vegetable oils in alcohol increases very
much when working at temperatures up to 121°C under pressure. An excep-
tion is castor oil which dissolves quite well in cold ethanol. 49,50,5l
Fig. No. 32
Pilot plant data have been worked out at Central Food Technological
Research Institute, Mysore, for various oleaginous materials, employing
SOLVENTS 119
alcohol as solvent. 177 By this method it is possible to get cottonseed oil

of light colour, groundnut meal best suited for human consumption, and to
get cottonseed deoiled meal quite low in the gossypol content. The method
can also be worked out for the solvent extraction of rice bran oil. While
employing ethanol as solvent, it is necessary to reduce the moisture content
of the flakes to be extracted to less than 3 per cent, otherwise the alcohol
will be diluted and so become a much poorer oil solvent. 51
When using alcohol as the solvent, the routine distillation of the miscella
is no more necessary, because on exposing the miscella at ordinary temperature
and pressure the oil automatically separates out from the mixture. The
bott?m layer, which is oily in nature is separated and worked out independently
while the top solvent-layer is recycled in the process. 176.,18
Mter several recycles, the contaminated alcohol must be redistilled.

Instead of ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol can be used advantageously. 185
A commercial plant was working in Manchuria in the year 1936, using

ethanol as solvent for soyabean extraction. The plant employed a number
of rotative extractors in series. 165 This plant at Dairen, according to
Chinese Government, was destroyed by Japanese at the end of the last world
war.
There are numerous difficulties other than technical which have to

be overcome before the use of alcohol as process solvent can be taken up as
a practical proposition.
6. Handling of Industrial Solvents
(a) Introduction
The potential fire and health hazards are always present in a solvent
extraction plant; but it is comforting to know that very few accidents are
of the "just happened" variety. Instead, most accidents are "set up" and
result from a chain of circumstances. 140
Proper utilization of correctly designed equipments and processes is

a long step in the direction of a good safety record at any plant, using volatile
solvents.
It is needless to say that a simple but thorough programme of safety in-

struction for all employees handling extraction solvents and working
inside the plant, should be organized and vigorously prosecuted. Danger
of explosion (or of toxicity) must be duly emphasized, but not made an object
of exaggerated fear, which give the impression that the man is powerless.
The psychological feeling of the worker should be that he is working in a
plant having all the safety devices that science is able to produce and that
no known danger will come from that end-the only dangerous part of the
plant is the worker himself.
The ability to understand safety instructions and to appreciate their

importance is a function of general intelligence and education; therefore,
insofar as practicable, one should employ men with as much education as
possible. The "floating type" of labour generally employed in the present-
day oil mills of India, is no good for the solvent extraction industry. Reliable,
steady and intelligent workers would go a long way in the smooth working
of the plant than probably all the safety devices put together.
It is found in practice that certain people are always prone towards

accidents ; perhaps they are careless; perhaps they have poor muscular
co-ordination; perhaps they have so many off-duties, worries or pleasures
that they are fatigued upon reporting for duty; or perhaps they are just
unlucky. Whatever the reason may be, any employee with a bad accident
record should not be assigned the work involving the use of solvents. Aside
from mechanical injury, possible injury to personnel and plant by extraction
solvents revolves principally around the hazards of fire and toxicity resulting
from fairly large amounts of solvent vapours in the plant atmosphere since
solvent vapours of fairly definite concentrations are involved, and since most
solvents or solvent vapours have a noticeable odour at concentrations far
below the lower explosive limit and below the minimum amounts likely to
injure health, the nose usually gives some warning of approaching danger.
Since it serVes as an elementary warning, odour in a solvent should be con-
sidered an asset from the fire hazard and health hazard standpoints; in fact
if a hazardous solvent employed in the process is odourless, one should seriously
consider the possibility of adding high smelling substances to it.
Tables No. 5 and 6 show the various data and conclusions connected
with the health and fire hazards arising from solvents currently used in the
solvent extraction industry. In these tables, arbitrary designations of "very
flammable" "flammable" and simply "combustible" are given to solvents
with flash points below 20°F., between 20°F and 80°F and above 80°F
respectively. 142
SOLVENTS 121
Table 5: Probable Safe Concentration Limits of Exposure for Gases in Air.
State of State of Dalla Valle Flury

California Massach usetts
No. Solvent mg.jeu. ft./PPM mg./cu. ft./PPM mg./cu. ft./PPM mg./cu. ft./PPM.
1. Benzene 9·6 100 7·1 75 9·6 100 2·8 31
2. Benzene 113 1000 113 1000 170 1500 28 250

(Gasoline, Heptane)
3. Ethyl Alcohol 14·2 250 57 1000 59·2 1064
4. Trichloroethylene .. 31·1 200 31·1 200 15·6 100 28·3 186
By courtesy of Skelly Oil Co., U.S.A.
Table 6: Some Data Pertaining to Fire Hazard of Various Solvents
Distillation Range OF Sp. Gr. of Auto Ignition

No. Solvents pure commercial liquid (water Temperature OF.
equals=-1.)
1. Benzene 176°P 172 to 248°F. 0·880 1,076 to 1,213°F.
2. Carbon disulphide 114 1·256 271 * to 649
3. Cyclohexane 177 175 to 18PF. 0·783
4. Cycloheptane 244 0·817
5. Ethyl alcohol 173 169 to 175 0·790 738* to 1,052
6. N-Heptane 209 194 to 210 0·683 484* to 843
7. N-Hexane 156 146 to 156 0·661 516* to 968
8. Petroleum ether 96 to 139 0·636 579*to 1,053
9. Trichlorethylene 188 188 to lUi) 1·464
10. Iso Propyl alcohol 181 0·789 852 to 1,173*
Explosive Limits Sp. Gr. of Tagliabue

in Air as per cent Gas Air closed cup Remarks about liquid
by Volume Equals flash point
1 OF
No. Solvents Lower Upper
Limit Limit
1. Benzene .. 1·4% 9·5% 2·77 12°F Very flammable.
2. Carbon disulphide 1·0 50·0 2·64 -22 Very flammable.
3. Cyclohexane 1·3 8·4 2·91 2 Very flammable.
4. Cycloheptane 3·50 Flammable.
5. Ethyl alcohol 2·3 19·0 1·59 55 Flammable.
6. N-Heptane 1·0 6·0 3·46 25 Flammable.
7. N-Hexane 1·2 (j.!) 2·97 -7 Very Flammable.
8. Petroleum ether I· -1 5·!) 2·5 -60 Very Flammable.
9. Trichlorethylene 4·54 Non-flammable.
10. Iso Propyl alcohol 2·5 2·07 53 Flammable.
------
Note :-* Air from steel surface.
.
By courtesy of Skelly Oil Co., U .S.~ .
122 SOLVENT ExTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS
Table No. 7 summarises the possible general psychological effects and

general extent of industrial poisonings of various extraction solvents, and also
indicates the range of maximum allowable concentration of solvent vapour in
air for probable safety over short periods of time for good ventilation.
Table 7: Some Data Pertaining to Possible Health Hazard of Various Solvents
Maximum all ow- For good ventila-

able-concentration-concentra- Possible general physiological
No. Solvent tion of Gas in Air tion of Gas in Air effects
as P. P. M. as P. P. M.
1. Benzene 30 to 100 PPM 25 PPM Definitely poisonous; headache;

loss of appeti te ; irritant;
blood damage; dermatitis;
narcotic.
2. Carbon Disulphide 3 to 15 3 Definitely poisonous j narcotic j
mental derangement, nervous
disorders, and blindness.
3. Cycloheptane .. .. 250 to 800 200 Somewhat more toxic than cyela-
hexane; irritant to mucous
membrane; dermatitis head-
ache; narcotic.
4. Cyclohexane .. 500 to 1000 500 Almost only half as poisonous as
benzene; irritant to mucous
membranes, dermatitis; narco-
tic.
5. Ethyl alcohol .. .. 400 to 1060 250 Digestive and nervous disturb-
ance; narcotic; mental de-
pressant; irritant to mucous
membrane.
6. N-Heptane ., 500 to 1000 500 Narcotic; dizziness; intoxica-
ting; dermati tis; i rri tant to
mucous membranes and lungs.
7. N-Hexane .. 500 to 2850 500 Irritant to mucous membranes,
and lungs; mild dermatitis j
intoxi ca ting.
8. Petroleum ether .. 500 to 7250 500 Anaesthetic; irritant to mucous
membranes and lungs, mild
dermati tis; intoxicating.
9. Iso-propyl alcohol .. 400 to 1000 150 Digestive and nervous disturb-
ance; narcotic; mental de-
pressan t; irri tan t to mucous
membranes.
10. Trichlorethylene .. 186 to 200 100 Mildly poisonous; narcotic,
anesthetic; nausea; irritant to
mucous membranes, dermatitis.
(b) Health Hazard
Petroleum solvent vapours are not poisonous and if any toxic effect IS
produced on workers, it is in all probability due to inadequate quantity of
air in the surrounding atmosphere of the area. If proper ventilation is main-
tained, there is little health hazard for workers in the solvent extraction house
when the plant is working normally.
SOLVENTS 123
Figure 33 humourously illustrates what may happen to unmasked

workman.
BY COIIRTGSY Fig. No. 33

SKELLY OIL COMPANY
SOLV1'NT £}IVISION
CANSAS CITY MO
The most economical and certain way of providing adequate ventilation,

both from health hazard and fire hazard standpoint is to utilize the "open-
air" type of plant and building. In the case of "indoor type" plant, the
natural ventilation provided by windows, and doors, if not considered ade-
quate, may be boosted up with exhaust fans or other mechanical means.
(c) Fire Hazard
In general, the lower the flash point of an extracting solvent, the more
likely the liquid is to be set on fire by a lighted match, static spark, hot piece of
metal, or other source of intense heat.
In case of simple fire, the combustible liquid simply is consumed gradually

by the flames and burns itself out, unless extinguished by fire fighting measures.
It will be noticed from Table 6, that the explosive limits of solvent gases in
air vary considerably from compound to compound but in general, they
are comparatively narrow with the lower explosive limit, being in the neigh-
bourhood of 1·2 per cent or 12,000 parts per million for the hydrocarbon
solvents and 2·5 per cent, or 25,000 parts per million for the oxygenated
solvents. Thus it will be seen that empty solvent tank is much more dangerous
than the full solvent tank.
In taking precautions to prevent solvent explosions, activity sh

centre around preventing the accumulation of solvent vapours, particu
in providing su fficient ventilation to insure that the gas-air concentr;
is far below the lower explosive limit so that, if fire does occur, expll
will not follow. To prevent accumulation of solvent vapours "ope
type" solvent extraction plant is by far the best arrangement. In
of "closed type" plant, adequate ventilation is very desirable. I
desirable to incorporate in the buildings a relatively large window
since windows let in light and assist in ventilation.
All the combustible solvents in the vapour or gaseous state are inRe
able and may form explosive mixtures with air. That is, there is but
if any, practical difference in the fire hazard of a solvent extraction
regardless of whether butyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, heptane, or hexar
employed. 142
In a properly designed and ventilated and well-operated plant

chance of a fire is small indeed, if all flame or intense heat that 1
start it is kept away. Almost needless to say, such sources ofRame and s
as ordinary lanterns, cigarette smoking, lighted matches, blow torches,
electric lights and switches, metal welding and cutting operation and han
ing of metal equipment should be kept away, as far as possible. Both
able and stationary, continuous types of apparatus are available for 1
quickly testing gas-air concentrations at any desired point in the plan
is advisable to check periodically the working of such instrument, to b(
that it is functioning properly.
Figure No. 34 humourously illustrated what may happen when

flame is brought into an extraction house.
{;!
* ("\
GI;l; {JUT ITS OIlRJ< TO MIGI-/T, ( '
MY LANTERN SURf: COME ~ ~
IN ~AN()Y ,,'
Fig. No. 34
Spark-proof tools, prybars, and so forth, such as those made of [1

plastic, wood, bronze or brass, should be used in making repairs wh
SOLVENTS 125
practicable. Sparkproof shoes are recommended, but rubber shoes should

not be worn by workers, unless they are made of "conducting" rubber. Hot
sparks or cinders from coal-burning locomotives and grass fires, are a remote
but possible causes of fires; so they should be kept in mind when considering
a safety programme. Nails in shoes may cause sparks when scraped on
steel gratings and concrete floors.
All the electrical equipment and wiring is a potential fire hazard because
of occasional generation of intense heat, due to overloading, as well as sparks.
AU the electrical fittings should be of the approved explosion-proof type
imide the solvent extraction house.
Of all the sources of fire and explosion, the static or friction sparks un-
doubtedly is the most insidious. It is difficult to control and unless controlled
completely, is likely to strike without warning at any time. Static elec-
tricity is produced by the moving parts of machinery and by the material
beirrg processed. It is, consequently, of first importance to ground the frames
of ull machines, including all metal rolls, metal parts of reels, and receptacles.
The movement of the solvent itself through pipes and other equipment
may create sufficient static electricity to cause sparks under certain conditions,
and therefore cause a fire. It is, therefore, necessary that the equipment
or receptacles into which any appreciable quantity of solvent is to be poured,
should be adequately grounded, as well as the units from which it is to flow.
Although it is a relatively minor problem in most extraction plant opera-

tions, the fact that workmen through body electrification may create a fire
hazard should not be overlooked.
The enclosing walls of the solvent extraction building should be of light
construction, with non-combustible materials, and provided with ample
window area, to serve as a pressure release in case of an explosion. Above
ground floors stairs should be of the grill or open type insofar as practicable
to lessen the chance of pockets into which liquids or vapours may collect.
Bonotto has made the interesting observation that the solvent extraction
building limited to the steel frame supporting the processing equipment,
with siding and roof of light sheet metal, well bounded and grounded, will
act, also as a protection against lightning. 142 It is a good idea to use
welded assemblies as much as possible in order to reduce possibility of leaks
at pipe joints.
Special attention should be given to the sewer system, particularly where

the water coming from the water separator is carried away. A suitable
trapping arrangement should be incorporated in the line.
However, it may be mentioned that the working of a solvent extraction

plant comes under the Indian Petroleum Act and the building and plant in-
stallation are officially inspected before permission is given to start the opera-
tion of the plant. l\loreover, the suppliers of reputed solvent extraction
plants see that all the equipment is in accordance with the requirements of
the law and contribute to maximum safety.
(d) Solvent Storage
The solvent storage tanks have to be installed strictly in accordance with

the directions given in the Petroleum Rules. Both underground and over-
ground installations are permitted, though the usual practice in India is to
have underground installations for bulk storage of solvents.
It is interesting to note that recently a kind of floating screen of plastic

material is reported to be available which traps the vapour from the storage
tank by 80-90 per cent. The screen has to be placed above the level of the
liquid. The screen is a French product and the price quoted in U.S.A.
is $ 1·25 per sq. ft. f.o.r. France. 25
(7) Explosive Rules and Regulations
Since all the solvent extraction plants now working in India, are employ-
ing petroleum cuts as solvents, every solvent extraction plant has to fulfil
the rules and regulations according to the Chapter I, IV, VI of the Petroleum
Rules 1937. It is necessary to have all electrical motors and fittings within
30 feet of main solvent extraction plant of approved flame proof type. 143
In Ceylon, where Government has sponsored two solvent extraction

plants for its vegetable oil project, 29 the rules and regulations prevailing
there follow British and European practice. As rules already framed were
designed more for petroleum installations, they are to be amended with
special reference to the operation of solvent extraction plant. In particular,
all motors in the solvent plant building after "dead-wall" need not be of
flame-proof type. 27
Conditions for the special license for a typical solvent extraction plant
In India are given in Appendix II.
CHAPTER VI
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS
1. Introduction
In the preceding section, it has been shown that a number of oil-bearing

substances can very well be extracted in a continuous solvent extraction plant.
However, an operation cannot be said to be successful, unless it is also eco-
nomically feasible. It is also necessary to take into account the general
attitude of the Government of India, about the new industrial development
in the country. As far as possible, no new developments are to be encouraged
at the cost of prevailing industry unle~s it is in the interest of the country
at large. A process may be economical in terms of returns likely to be gained
by its functioning in the country, but its introduction may be harmful to the
economic conditions prevailing in India.
It may be said that the case for the solvent extraction process is well
established, because, by its introduction in the country, no harm is likely to
be done to any section of the prevailing industries; in fact, the function-
ing of solvent plants in India would actually result in some gain accruing.
In recent years especially after World War II, when demand for both
oil and meal has grown considerably, the expansion of solvent extraction
processes in other parts of the world has been spectacular. 71,197
In considering the purely economical feasibility for the solvent extrac-

tion process, one should take into account the most unfavourable conditions
likely to be present in the country, say, over a period of 25 years.
The most important items which must be considered while evaluating

the ecnomical aspects of the solvent industry, are the relative yields and price
of oil, meal and by-products (if any) which can be obtained; the relative
operating costs, and, at least in so far as amortization is concerned, the installa-
tion costs of the competitive processes. 2,77
2. Relative Yields
It has been stated previously that the chief advantage of the solvent
extraction process is the relatively high efficiency attained in the extraction
of oil from oil-bearing materials. The usual oil content of the expeller oil-
cakes in India, is between 6-8 per cent by weight; while the deoiled meal
has always less than one per cent residual oil content. Table 8 gives the
relative yields of the products by different methods employed, for the recovery
of oil from ground nut kernels. Table 9 shows comparative incomes by
different methods employed.
The relative prices of oil and meal are subject to some fluctuations but
usually for edible oilcakes the ratio of price of oil to oilcakc is generally 6: 1
(for example groundnut products) : while in the case of non-edible oilcakes,
this ratio may go as high as 10:1. Since it is assumed that normally the
deoiled meal will command a higher price than ordinary oilcake, because
of its high protein content the adva~1tage to be achieved by the solvent extrac-
tion process is quite evident. However, in practice, quite a number of pro-
blems are to be solved for the successful marketing of dcoiled meals in India.
For the sake of argument, in all the calculations that follow, the price of deoiled
meal (edible or non-edible) has beell assumed to be the same as the ruling
price of oilcake in the market. It may be remarked that for the successful
advancement of solvent extraction industry in India at least the price for the
deoiled meal should be the same as oilcake, if not at a little premium.
From Tables No.8 and 9, it will be found that of all methods, solvent
extraction is the most efficient and highly remunerative process for the country.
Table 8: Comparative Yield of Products by Different Methods: Processing Groundnut Kernels

(50 per cent oil by weight)
Component
Yield per cent of total
__L______~
I I
Ghani Screw-press Sol vent-Extraction
Oil 42·5 45·5 49·5
Meal (by difference) .. 57·5 5i·5 50·5
Per cent Efficiency 85·0 91·0 99·0
Table 9: Comparative Incomes for Different Methods

Income per ton of seeds Ghani Screw-press Solvent-Extraction
Rs. as. ps. Rs. as. ps. Rs. as. ps.
Oil 344 4 0 368 8 0 401 0 0
Meal 63 4 0 60 0 0 55 R 0
Less-Cost of seed per ton .. 400 0 0 400 0 0 400 0 0
Material margin 7 8 0 28 8 0 56 8 0
Taking price of oil as Rs. 810/- per ton and meal as Rs. 110/- per ton.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS 129
3. Operating Cost
It is very difficult to arrive at the true actual operating cost per ton of
the material treated in the solvent extraction plant in India. Because of the
yastness of the country, the prices for basic raw materials and the utilities
required in the process fluctuate widely.
While giving the cost of production and finding the margin of profit,
prices for oil and meal have been taken at the rock-bottom prices that prevailed
in the country for a short period in the first quarter of 1955. Since all the
extraction plants in India are treating groundnut oilcakes more or less ex-
clusively, the same has been considered as the oil-bearing material for the
estimated operating cost. From the cost data given in Table No. 10 and
11, it will be seen that solvent extraction process working on the outside bazar
oilcake is less than one third as remunerative as the forepressing-cum-solvent
extraction process.
Table No. 10. Cost Data for SO Tons/Day Capacity Solvent
Extraction Plant Working on Outside Groundnut Oilcake
Basis :-300 working days.
50 tons G. N. Oil-cake. (8% oil by weight)

I
On Extraction
I
I I
3·75 Crude Oil. 46·0 tons De-oiled meal.
3·4 tons marketable oil.
COST OF EXTRACTION
1. Solvmt Loss. Rs. as. pt.
(a) 0·6 per cent on weight of cake treated.
(b) Price of Solvent Rs. 2-6-6/Gallon.
Sp. Gr. of Solvent 0·7.
0·6 x 50 x 320
96 gallons/day 230 0 0
100
2. Steam Cost.
(a) 0·5 ton per ton of cake treated.
(b) Price of steam Rs. 7/- per ton.
50 x 0·5: 25 tons/day. 25 x 7: 175 0 0
3. Labour Cost.
Skilled labour -10 @ Rs. 4/- each 40/-
Unskilled labour 75 @ Rs. 3/- each 225/- 265 0 0
•• Power Cost.
(a) 20 KWH/Ton.
(b) Price Rs. 0-2-0 per unit.
20x50x2
1215 0 0
16
5. DtJ!reciation oj /l;fachinery. RI. as. ps.

Price Rs. 7 lakhs. 7,00,000 x 10
235 0 0
100 x 300
6. Depreciation of Buildings.
(Storage godowns included)
3,00,000 x 5
Rate of depreciation @ 5 % =----- 50 0 0
100 x 300
7. Co•.1of Water.
(a) 40,000 gallons per day. 20 0 0

(b) Rate Rs. 0-8-0/1000 gallons.
8. IflSUrance.
@ Rs. 100/- per day: 100 0 0
9. Interest on working Capital.
@ 6 per cent on Rs. 4,00,000/-
4,00,000 x 6
80 0 0
100 x 300
10. Fixed Charges.
(a) 1 Chief Chemist @ Rs. 25/day - 25/-
(b) 1 Chief Engineer @ Rs. 20/day - 20/-
(c) 1 Manager @ Rs. 20/day - 20/-
(d) 4 ~hift Chemists @ Rs. lO/each - 40/-
(e) Office staff and Office allowance @ Rs. lOO/day. 100/-
(f) Miscellaneous staff @ Rs. 45/day - 45/-
250/-
250 x 365
305 0 0
300
11. Mi.lcellaneous Expenses. 100 0 0
Grand Total 1,685 0 0
Cost per ton of entering material:

1,685
33 12 0
60
Expenses Per Day.
(a) Cost of Extraction 1,685 0 0
(b) Loss of 4 tons cake @ Rs. llO/- per ton 440 0 0
Total 2,125 0 0
Revenue per Day.

Extracted Marketable oil 3·4 tons.
Price of oil Rs. 810/. per ton 3'4 x 810 : .. 2,754 0 0
Difference of Revenue ('ver Expenses

2,754-2,125 : 629 0 0
Prdit per Day is Rs. 620/-.
Table 11: Forepresslng-cum-extraction. 50 Tons/Day

Capacity Continuous Plant Will Handle 40 tons/day Oilcake Containing 18-20% Oil by Weight
A. Expelling.
(a) 30 tons groundnut-seed and 30 tons groundnut whole. The mixture will contain 45% of oil
by weight.
60 tons Mixture
I
Expelling.
I
I 011.
. I 1st pressing onl y
20 tons 40 tons oil-cake
(17'5% oil)
B. Elltraction.
40 tons oil-cake (17·5% oil)
I
Extraction.
,--
6·6 tons Crude oil.
I
33·4 tons deoiled meal.
6·3 tons marketable oil.
Cost Q/ Extraction.
1. Solvent £Ms.
(a) 0·75% on weight of cake treated.
(b) Price of solvent Rs. 2-6-6/gallon.

0·75 x 40 x 320
96.
100 Rs. as. ps.
Cost per day: 96 x 2-6-6 : 230 0 0
2. Steam Cost.
40 x 0·5 x 7: 140 0 0
3. Labour Cost.
Skilled 10 @ Rs. 4/- each 40/.
Unskilled 50 @ Rs. 3/- each 150/.
Total 190/- 190 0 0
4.. Power Cost.
@ 20 KWH per ton. 20 x 4~ x 2 100 0 0
16
5. Depreciation of Machinery.
7,00,000 x 10 235 0 0
100 x 300
6· Depreciation of Buildings.
3,00,000 x 5 50 0 0
100 x 300
7. Cost of Water. Rs. as. pl.
40,000 'It 8 20 0 0
16 x 1000
8. Insllraml Cost.
Rs. 100 per day. 100 0 0
9. Interest on Working Capital.

4,00,000 x 6 80 0 0
100 x 300
10. Fixld Chargls.
Chatge1l pet day R!. 250/- 250 'It 365 305 0 0
300
11. Mistellaneous Expenses 100 0 0
Cost per ton of entering material

1,550
- - : 38-12-0
40
EKpenses per Day.

(a) Groundnut seeds 30 tons @ Rs. 400/- per ton .. 12,000 0 0
(b) Groundnut (whole) 30 tons @ Rs. 300/- per ton 9,000 0 0
(c) Expelling cost of lst pressing (including everything) 20 x 25 500 0 0
(d) Extraction cost per day. 1,550 0 0
Rlvenu, Per Day.

(0) Total Oil produced 20 + 6·3: 26·3 tons.
@ price of oil Rs. 810/- per ton.
810 x 26·3 21,303 0 0
(b) Deoiled meal 33·4 tons.

@ Rs. 110/- per ton
110 x 33·4 .. 3,674 0 0
Total 24,977 0 0
Difference of Revenue over Expenses :

24,977 - 23,050 : 1927.
Profit per day Rs. 1,927/-.
Usually the cost of transportation of the raw cake and the deoiled meal
and the handling losses will come to Rs. 4 to 6 per ton of material treated in
the plant. Thus it will be seen that the entire profit in the case of outside
oilcake extraction process is wiped out if the prices realized for the deoiled
meal is Rs. 6/- per ton less than the ex-factory cost of the raw cake.
Table 12 shows the approximate difference in the cost of production

between the semi-continuous and· continuous units, both having 50 tons/
Table 12. Difference in the Cost of Production of a Continuous Unit and
a Semi-continuous Unit, having SO Tons/Day Capacity for each Plant
1. Solvent Loss (saving)
1·0 - 0·6: 0·4 per cent.
• R.. as. ps.
50 x 0·4 x 320
64 Gallons.
100
64 x 2-6-6 155 0 0
2. Skarn Cost (Saving)
1·0 - 0·5: 0·5 tons steam
extra per ton of oil-cake.
50xO'5x7 175 0 0
3. Labour Cost (saving)
Unskilled 40 x 3 120 0 0
4. Power Cost (saving)
.
40-20 : 20 KWH per ton.
20x50x2
16 125 0 0
5. Depreciation of Machinery (extra expenditure)
7,00,000-4,00,000: 3,00,000.
@ rate of depreciation and interest on
Rs. 3,00,000 at the rate of 15 per cent.
3,00,000 x 15
100 x 300 150.0 0
6. Deprecialion of Buildings.
Nil.
7. Cost of water. Nil.
S. Insurance (saving)
125 -100 : 25 25 0 0
9. Working Capital. Nil.
10. Fixed Charges. Nil.
11. Miscellaneous. Nil.
Total 600 0 0
Less Expenditure: 150 0 0
Saving per day. 450 0 0
Saving per ton: 450
: IU.9
day capacity. In the case of the semi-continuous, the cost of production

is Rs. 9/- more per ton of entering material than in the continuous plant.
Thus it will be seen that the semi-continuous unit cannot make any profit
per ton if the price of oil is Rs. 810/- per ton. In other words, the approxi-
mate costs of extraction of one ton of oil by the semi-continuous and continuous
units are Rs. 810/- and Rs. 650/- respectively. In the case of continuous
plant, working on forepressing-cum-extraction, the cost of extraction per
ton of oil recovered may be taken as well below Rs. 550/-. In all the above
cases, it is assumed that the price of deoiled meal is at least the same as that
of the expeller oilcake in the market.
.
The percentage of the total cost for various main items has been given
in Table No. 13. It will be seen that the cost due to solvent loss is not very
high compared to other cost figures. Labour cost is high because of the
handling of 100 tons of cake per day, inside and outside the factory, by hand
labour. For a 50 tons/day capacity plant, it is not advisable to have com-
pletely mechanical handling equipment for the cake. The two items which
account for more than 40 per cent of the total cost are fixed charges and de-
preciation and amortization.
Table 13. Percentage of Total Cost for a Continuous
Solvent Extraction Plant, having 50 Tons/Day Capacity
Name of Item Cost per cent
Solvent loss 13·5
Steam 10·5
Labour 16·0
Power Cost 7·5
Depreciation and Amortization .. 20·0
Repairs and Insurance 9·0
Fixed Charges 23·0
Water 0·5
Total lOO·O
4. Installation Cost
The installation cost of the solvent extraction plant will naturally vary
from place to place in India, but not to a very great extent because it is the
policy of the Government of India to see that the same prices for iron,
steel and cement prevail all over India.
The complete quotations for a 50 tons/day capacity continuous solvent
extraction plant received from foreign suppliers have been given in the
Appendix III.
The average price for a continuous solvent extraction plant imported

and after erection, will be about Rs. 7 lakhs ; while for the semi-continuous
plant, it will be about Rs. 4 lakhs. It is quite possible to reduce the invest-
ment cost by partially fabricating the equipment in India.
Table 14 shows approximately the percentage of the total investment for

a typical solvent extraction plant in India. From this table, it may be seen
that the heart of the establishment, the processing equipment, represents
about one third of the total fixed investment.
Table 14. Percentage Cost of Installation for
50 Tons/Day Capacity Solvent Extraction Plant
Item Percentage qf
total cost
Land 2·3
Building 9·1
Processing Equipment 36·3

Cost of Electric Installation 2·3
Erection 13·6
Fire Protection 2·3
Storage and Godowns 18·2
Boiler 4·5
Laboratory & Offices 2·3
Transportation, Trucks and Rail-Siding .. 6·8
Maintainence Workshop .. 2·3
Total 100·0
While installing a solvent extraction plant, it should be borne in mind

that vegetable oil refinery should be the integral part of the entire scheme.
No solvent extraction plant can hope to succeed without an efficient oil re-
finery. Of course, the entire equipment required for a complete refinery
can very well be manufactured in India, without any technical difficulty.
At this state, it will be worth while to note that a continuous miscella refining
plant is available for eliminating the free fatty acids present in the extracted
oil, at the stage of miscella. This process is quite new and hence if it is found
economical for Indian conditions, the same may be allowed to be imported
for the time being.
As there is no ready-made market either for the soap stock or for the
acid oils in India, particularly of the extracted oil (always inferior in colour),
it is advisable to install a complete soap unit in the oil refinery section. The
final settled soap prepared out of the most dirty soapstock is always fairly
good in appearance. The soap unit required for the plant, can be easily
manufactured in the Indian workshops.
It is a good idea to install a high speed centrifuge in the refinery, such as

is marketed by De Laval or Sharples, because the extracted oil contains
fairly high percentage of mucilagenous substances 166 which necessitate
the step of hydration and subsequent centrifuging. By installing a suitable
type of centrifuge, the refining losses are reduced to a minimum.
5. Selection of the Solvent Extraction Plant
A critical study of different solvent extraction plants reveals the fact

that all the units, marketed by the well known firms, are quite safe to work
with; but in actual practice hardly four or five firms are able to submit the
best possible quotations with the accompanying technical services and
"know-hows" that would merit serious consideration in India.
In the first place, it is completely out-of-date to consider the quotations

for the batch unit. This type of plant appears to be very uneconomical
in working and the fire and health hazards involved in the process are quite
great.
The semi-continuous units are not known to be working in U.S.A.,

on common variety of oilseeds. These units were developed in Europe
after World War I ; but at present there is a definite indication that this
process of extraction is fast becoming obsolete in Europe and in other parts of
the world, the main reason being the fact that continuous plants down to
the capacity of 25/30 tons/day are available at a reasonable price. Thus
it will be seen, that unless there are some special reasons for the installation
of semi-continuous units it is always advisable to go for the highly efficient
and safe-working continuous plants. It will be interesting to note that Go-
vernment of Japan is seriously thinking of rationalizing the present "baterry
method" (semi-continuous) by the continuous extraction process. 15
While selecting the continuous unit, the following factors should be

borne in mind for the efficient and rapid extraction of the oil-bearing ma-
terials. 72
There should be suitable arrangement for the replacement of the oil

in the meal cell by miscella of continuously weaker strength and finally by
pure solvent. .
The continuous solvent extraction plants available, may roughly be

divided into the following two categories :-
1. Submerged type.
2. Percolation type.
In the submerged type, the soaking of the meal is done by passing flakes
into a liquid bath. In this case, both the meal and the solvent are moving
continuously in the counter-current direction to one another.
In the case of percolation system, the meal is contained either in the

basket or on the endless belt conveyor, with false bottoms and the solvent
is sprayed over the meal. The receptacles which contain the meal are moving
slowly and continuously, while the liquid drains down from the perforated
bottoms. The flow of solvent may be in counter-current direction or it may
be counter-current in one section of the equipment and concurrent in the
other section of the extraction.
The advantages claimed in the submerged type are :-
(a) Each meal particle is completely wetted.
(b) Time of extraction is less than in the case of percolation system.
(c) Residual oil left in the final deoiled meal is low.
The main disadvantages in practice appear to be :-
(a) The requirements for a complete and exact pre-treatment section.
(b) High capacity efficient filters; as it is more than likely that a large
amount of 'fines' will be coming up in the full miscella.
In the case of percolation system, there are no particular disadvantages

and the advantages to be achieved, are:-
(a) The meal itself works as an excellent filtering medium, so that

in the latest type of units, working on percolation system, no filters
are necessary for the full miscella.
(b) The process is very much simplified due to the elimination of

filters.
(c) It is possible to get highly concentrated miscella in the process.

138 SOLVENT EXTRACTWN OF VEGETABLE OILS
Looking to the modern trend in U.S.A. and Europe, it may be said with
confidence that the solvent extraction plant working on the percolation system
is to be preferred to the submerged type when all other factors weigh equal
in importance.
While choosing the plant best suited for a country like India, it will be
of sufficient importance to take into consideration the capacity of the plant.
A survey of the oil milling industry in the country will at once reveal the
fact that it is not advisable to have a solvent extraction plant of a capacity
much higher than 100 tons/day, as the greater part of the expression of oil-
seeds is done in India on a pretty small scale. Furthermore, there is al-
ways the great problem for the disposal of deoiled meal in India, at an econo-
mical price. At the moment the home market for deoiled meal is very limited
and unless the Government of India does something to create new demands
for the deoiled meals, it is feared that the market will soon be saturated.
It is quite possible to have continuous plants of 25/30 tons/day capacity

working economically in the country as "family units." In this case, it is
supposed that the entire plant will work as a family concern having a very
high order of personal supervision. This small capacity unit will also be
paying, if the solvent extraction process is to work as a subsidiary in a big
oil-milling factory. In this case, forepressing-cum-extraction is the ideal
cycle of operation. For solvent extraction plant working as the main unit,
the minimum economical capacity under average Indian conditions may
well be taken as 50 tons/day. The most desirable capacity for such a unit
is of course 7S tons/day. A 100 tons/day capacity may be considered ideal
if the market for the deoiled meal is found.
To summarise the recommendations to industry :-
(a) Other things being the same, select the percolation system of solvent
extraction plant.
(b) Choose 25/30 tons/day capacity, if the plant is to be worked on

a "family basis" or if it is to function in collaboration with a big
oil mill.
(c) Do not go for a solvent extraction plant having a capacity of less.

than 50 tons/day.
(d) The best all~round solvent extraction plant is one having a capacity
of '75 tons/day.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCEiS 139
(e) Unless the market (home or export) for the deoiled meal is assured
by the Government, do not select a plant having a capacity more
than 100 tons per day.
Complete quotations for a 50 tons/day capacity plant from U.S.A.,

Japan, and France appear to be very high. They vary between the limit
Rs. 6,50,000 to Rs. 8,50,000 f.o.b. seaport. Competitive prices are at present
being quoted by Belgium and West Germany. Their price for complete
plant with steel structure for the building is about Rs. 5,50,000 on f.o.b.
basis.
6. Plant Location
The problem of the choice of suitable locations for the units of production
in any industry is not merely technical but also largely economic. 53
At present the development of industry for the solvent extraction plant

has been done regionwise as desired by the Ministry of Food and Agricul-
ture. 150
It may, however, be added that the Ministry of Food and Agriculture

have agreed to the solvent extraction only of such oilcakes which are either
non-edible or are partly used as cattle feed and partly for manurial purposes.
A number offactors that have economic significance and are of importance

in determining the location of a solvent extraction plant, are as follows :
(a) Transport Facilities

In addition to merely having sufficient facilities to deliver raw materials
and the operating supplies to the plant, and to remove processed products,
the application of "milling-in-transit" privileges should be considered. The
importance of such privileges which are extended to the processors, in case
where the raw materials, shipped or railed from some distant point, are un-
loaded at the plant, solvent extracted and the resulting deoiled meal is shipped
or railed to some ultimate destination further along approximately the same
route as was used to bring the raw material to the plant, should not be under-
estimated. This type of location is quite good, but the only thing to bear
in mind is that the raw oilcakes coming to the plant should not get old in
transit. Treating of old oilcakes in the plant creates a number of problems
in the process.
The transportation cost is one of the main items to be considered for the
location of the plant. A little extra cost of say Rs. 3/- per ton of material
handled will inflict a loss of about 300 rupees per day for a 50 tons/day capacity
plant.
(b) Water Facility
Water requirements will vary to some extent according to the type of

plant selected, but should not present any major problem if no attempt is
made to locate the plant in an arid region. A 50 tons/day capacity plant can
be worked with 25,000 gallons of water per day. For efficient working of
various condensers in the plant, it is obligatory to have soft water available
or else a suitable type of water softening plant may be considered as a necessity.
Water cost of the total expenditure is quite negligible (Table 13).
(c) Power Facility
It is desirable to have cheap and easily available power. Power cost

comes next to the water cost.
(d) Labour
Actual number of labourers employed in the extraction plant is very

low; but it should be noted that operators have to be trained personnel
and that the "floating labour" which is frequently employed in oil mills would
not he suitable in this plant. The percentage cost of labour is high because
large amount of labour is required for the handling of raw oilcake, the final
deoiled meal and the refined oil. I t is highly desirable to engage fairly
intelligent labour in the plant, especially for the batch and the semi-con-
tinuous plants, because of the hazards involved in the processes.
(e) Raw Material
It is highly important that only fresh oilcake should be treated in the

plant. Thus for solvent extraction plants working on outside oilcakes, it
is of utmost importance that the location of the plant is as near as possible
to the oilseed crushers. For forepressing-cum-extraction units, it is desirable
to have the location as near as possible to the oilseeds producing centres,
with relation to the transport facilities available for the deoiled meal. These
types of plant may well choose a location near market for the deoiled meals.
Among other things, successful operation is contingent upon continuous

operation. The standard practice is to operate the plant as far as possible,
continuously for 300 days in a year, and to close down the plant for repairs
etc. during the remainder of the year. Therefore since starting and stopping
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF 'l'HE SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS 141
of the continuous operation are always expensive both in the quantity and
quality of material produced during such a period, a sufficient supply of fresh
raw materials must be maintained, to meet the full requirements of the plant
capacity.
(f) Market for Deoiled Meals
The use of solvent extracted oilcake is not yet popular in the country and
a good deal of propaganda is necessary for this purpose. 166 For this
reason, quite often, the deoiled meal accumulates in Indian solvent extrac-
tion plants, sometimes necessitating the closure of the units. It is therefore
desirable to have the location as near as possible to the market for the deoiled
meal or at a place from where the deoiled meal can be shipped very easily, in
case an outside market is created.
7. Utilization of Products and By-Products
The main products for the solvent extraction plants are deoiled meal
and oil.
(a) Oil
The refined oil finds ready market in India. Nothing therefore need be
said about this here. However, in recent times, Government of India have im-
posed an excise duty on the solvent extracted non-essential oils. In order to
give encouragement to the industry, Government should seriously consider
the reduction of excise duty to 2S per cent, just as they have reduced the same
to 50 per cent, in the case of cottonseed oil production. It is interesting to
note that there is no cess for the solvent extracted groundnut oil in India. In
the same manner, the excise duty on the solvent extracted vegetable oils may
be removed or lowered substantially.
(b) Deoiled Meal
The greatest problem before the existing and the proposed solvent extrac-
tion plants in India is the problem of finding a steady economical market for the
deoiled meals. 1GS.166
In order to help the industry, Government of India have kept the export
of deoiled groundnut meal free without any restriction. However, the export
duty ofRs.175J-per ton fixed, although acting as a buffer, in order to regulate
the price structure in India, is not always kept "active" by the Government.
As a result, the export of de oiled meal becomes completely non-paying, as
soon as the price of oilcakes in India goes up and because of the very limited
market for the deoiled meal in India, a huge stock of the product piles up in the
processors' godowns. It may be worthwhile for the Government of India
to make it compulsory that a certain amount of deoiled meal must be used in
the manure mixtures, so that a ready market may be found in the country, in
case the export is non-paying. Failing this, Government should reduce the
export duty from 175/- per ton, in accordance with the percentage fluctuation
of price in relation to the price prevailing at home and abroad, at the time when
the export duty of Rs. 175/- per ton was fixed. This type of adjustment,
in the initial stage of the solvent extraction industry in India is very important.
It may be mentioned that the deoiled meal for export should contain less
than 1·5 per cent of residual oil. This limit, till April 1957 was 1·0 per
cent only.
Deoiled groundnut meal which is used as manure, is a much better fertili-

ser than the ordinary oilcake; because the process of extraction increases
the percentage of nitrogen and at the same time renders the proteins in such
a form that they become easily available to the soil. Residual oil in the cake
forms an oily film around the protein particles and thus causes a delay in the
plant germination process.
The minimum amount of oil in the oilcake required for cattle feed is
still a matter of controversy. Experimental work is in progress at the Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, on the suitability of solvent extracted
oilcake as a cattle feed.
Deoiled vegetable meals produced from edible oilseeds, such as ground-

nut, sesame, coconut, soyabean, etc., if processed under hygienic conditions, can
be well utilized as human food. It is advisable in a country like India, where
millions of people go without milk, to utilize defatted groundnut flour with
the cereal grain up to 20 per cent, in order to get proteins combination, which
comes next to milk proteins. 169,160
Groundnut white flour can also be utilized for the production of dietetic
preparations.
(c) By-Products
The main by-product in the solvent extraction of groundnut is the tank
sludge, which settles at the bottom of the tank containing the extracted oil,
or is recovered during the process of degumming in the refinery. The compo-
sition of the sludge as determined in the laboratory is as follows :-
1. Phosphatides
2. Insolubles 3·5%
3. Oil 23·5%
4. (Water by balance) 48·0%
The main constituents of the phosphatides are cephalin and lecithin.

It is a great problem how to recover these phosphatides in the form of articles
of commerce. 166 A 50 tons/day capacity plant may produce 10-20 tons
of such sludge per annum. Taking the price of recoverable phosphatides as
Rs. 5/- per pound, the annual loss will amount to Rs. 60,000 per plant. ule
if no use is made of it.
Groundnut protein glue and fibre can be easily prepared on commercial

scale. In U.K. groundnut protein fibre is produced by M/s. Imperial Chemi-
cal Industries, and exported to India, under the name of "Ardil". Water
paints from proteins can also be prepared.
CHAPTER VII
REVIEW OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION INDUSTRY IN INDIA
1 Introduction
There is no chemical industry in India, which had to struggle for half a

century to estab}jsh itself as the solvent extraction industry. The first solvent
extraction plant was imported into India in the year 1905, but it was only
after 1950. that solvent extraction industry was recognised in its proper pers-
pective.
Solvent extraction industry is still very little understood in India. The

layman has no idea at all that further oil can be recovered from the ordinary
bazar oilcake, and when he is told the story of the solvent extraction process,
he feels that the deoiled cake is rendered useless as cattle feed. He thinks
that the deoiled meal, since it retains only one per cent of oil, is useless as cattle
feed and can be used only as a cheap fertilizer for the soil.
The deoiled vegetable meals from edible oilseeds are universally used
as animal feed in practically all countries of the world, where the solvent
extraction industry has advanced to a great degree. In fact Becker is of the
opinion that due to solvent extraction process, some alkoloids or glycosides
are removed or destroyed so that the extracted meal is actually more suitable
for feeding than the pressed cake. 52
The purpose of any oilcake used as animal feed, is of course to provide

a feeding stuff rich in protein. The solvent extracted meal serves this purpose,
ifnot better, at least as well as the pressed oilcake. Thehigher total nutritive
value of materials with large fat contents is surely indisputable but it is too ex-
pensive from the national point of view to be of any economical value in the
case of cattle other than milch animals.
The Ceylon Government have greatly encouraged the solvent extrac-

tion of the coconut oil and they are of the opinion that deoiled coconut meal
makes a better cattle feed, than coconut poonac containing 8-10 per cent
oil. 150
During the last World War, attempts were made in U.S.A., and France
to produce defatted white ground nut flour for human food by the solvent
extraction process. The research work done in Central Food Technological
REVIEW OF' SOLVENT EXTRACTION INDUSTRY IN INDIA 145
Research Institute, Mysore, and in the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,

definitely indicates great possibilities of making use of vegetable deoiled pro-
tein flour as human food.
In U.K., synthetic fibre known as <cArdil" is manufactured from the pro-
teins of solvent extracted groundnuts. Recent exhibition held in Bombay has
revealed the fact that there are 25-30 textile mills in India, which are interestetl
in incorporating this "Ardil" fibre in their cotton, silk or woollen fabrics.
Thus it may be realized that the solvent extraction industry can play
a very important role in the national economy and in the organised planning
of the country.
2. History or the Early Development or Solvent Extraction Process
The early history of the solvent process in India is very discouraging

and highly disheartening.
The following is the· chronological development of solvent extraction

industry in India as described by Dr. Chatterji, a well-known oil technologist
of India. 70
"The first solvent extraction plant is understood to have been imported

in India about 1905, by a petroleum company and put up in Narkeldanga,
Calcutta. Little is known about its working at this place, but some time about
1927, the plant found its way to Kanpur, and was installed at Juhi Oil Mills,
Kanpur. It was used only for a few months for the extraction of mohwa
cake but the operation had to be discontinued, chiefly on account of the
unavailability of a suitable solvent. During its short period of working
ordinary petrol had been used as the solvent but the results were not at all
satisfactory. The plant was ultimately scrapped and sold off in parts.
"Chronologically, the second plant to be worked in India, is the one at

Kalyan, near Bombay.
"The first modern type of batch plant, manufactured by Bamag A. G.,

Berlin, was imported about 1929, by the firm of Ramdas Mahadeo Prasad,
Calcutta and was installed in their Swaika Oil Mills, Lilloah, near Calcutta.
This plant was perhaps the first or second one made by Bamag; and though
sound in design, required skill and experience of the technique for economic
working.
"The technical staff was not available, while at the same time it was
difficult to procure the right quality of the petroleum solvent. Besides these
technical difficulties other extraneous considerations seemed to have come
"
J~
in, and it looked as if the management were more interested in the failure
of the plant than otherwise. The plant was never given a fair trial and the
working stopped in a year's time after its installation. The result was
disastrous, to say the least, for the solvent extraction process in India. The
impression got firmly rooted that the oil extraction process was not suitable
for Indian conditions, and it is unfortunate that oil technologists of India
due to their paucity of technical and practical knowledge of this particular
branch lent support to this view. The very few technologists who had
practical experience of the process tried to raise their voice in opposition but
it was a cry in the wilderness,
"A pilot solvent extraction plant, designed and supplied by Borsig,
Berlin, was installed in Oil Technological Laboratories of Jadavpur Techni-
cal Institute, J adavpur, Calcutta. The design of the plant was quite modern
for that time, and a number of industrial plants of this design were at that
time working quite satisfactorily in Europe. The Borsig plant operated on
the semi-continuous system, the special feature being the use of a larger number
of extractors of smaller size than in the case of the Bamag plant. The mis-
cella travelled continuously from the last extractor to the first, containing
fresh meal. The recovery of the solvent vapour from the escaping air was
by washing with a mineral oil of much higher boiling point, in a tower filled
with Raching rings and then recovering the solvent by vapourising and
condensing the same in a separate still. The plant was used only for demon-
strational purposes to students of oil technology.
"Thus from about 1931 to 1945, there was a virtual taboo of the solvent
extraction process in India. But the few advocates of the process did not
give up their attempt and slowly succeeded in cleaning up the prejudicial
atmosphere. The era of solvent extraction process may veritably be con-
sidered to have started from 1949 with the installation of the semi-continuous
type of plant (designed and supplied by Bamag (V.K) Ltd.) at Bhavnagar
Chemical Works (1946) Ltd., Vartej, Saurashtra."
f;HORT DESCHIPTION OF THE ABOVE MENTIONED PLANTS
(i) The Kanpur Plant
(a) The filling of the extractors (3 in number) had to be done by

manual labour. The meal was carried in bags to the top and
then emptied into the vessels.
(b) After extraction was completed, the emptying of the vessels was
done by opening a manhole near the bottom and by manual
labour.
REVIEW OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION INDUSTRY IN INDIA 147
(c) There was no provision for the recovery of solvent vapours

whether by refrigeration or absorption in higher boiling mi-
neral oil.
(d) The condenser for the solvent vapour from the distillation
still was the coil type submerged in a tank of flowing cool-
ing water.
(ii) The Kalyan Plant

(a) This was the original Merz patent type, working on almost exactly
the principle of a Soxhlet apparatus. Exch extractor consisted
of the upper half holding the meal and the lower for distilling
the miscella. In the middle there was a sloping partition of a
sieve plate to hold the meal. The condenser for the vapour
was a little away from the extractor vessels.
(b) The filling of the extractors with meal had to be done by manual
labour as also the emptying out of the extracted meal.
(c) There was no special provision for the recovery of the solvent
vapours.
(iii) The Calcutta Plant

(a) Capacity 25 tons per 24 hours.
(b) Practically of the same design as the one installed at Vartej.
(Bha vnagar) .
(c) The recovery of the solvent vapour was done by washing with
ordinary (unrefrigerated) water.
(iv) The Jadavpur Universiry Pilot Unit

(a) Year of installation 1927.
(b) Erected by the Indo-Swiss Trading Co., under the direction
of Prof. Baneswar Das.
(c) Capacity i ton oilcake per day.
(d) A battery of three extractors.
(e) Complete with distillation, stripping and absorption units.
3. Introduction of Modern Solvent Method in India

The starting of a semi-continuous solvent extraction plant of modern
design and 50 tons/day capacity by Mjs. Bhavnagar Chemical Works (1946)
Ltd. Vartej (Saurashtra) no doubt, marks the new era of industrial develop-
ment in India, but the history of the Company may be well compared
with the early history of the process in India.
The Company had to face a number of difficulties because of the pioneer-

ing type of chemical factory in India. 162,163,165 The main technical
trouble with the plant was that the stirrer arrangement was never designed
for the groundnut oilcake and as a result of this mistake, the stirrer shaft
used to bend down as soon as it engaged with the driving clutch.
The initial difficulties that the factory had to face were of such magnitude
that at one time it was feared that "the baby" would surely die of the "teething
trouble." If these fears had proved true, the development of solvent extrac-
tion industry would have suffered such a severe blow that the clock of in-
dustrial expansion in this direction would have been shifted back by about
10 to 15 years.
The first semi-continuous automatic solvent extraction plant of India,

imported as a complete unit, works as follows :-
The raw oiIcake from ghanis and expellers is broken into small pieces
and passed through magnetic separators to remove any iron pieces which
may be present in the cake. Mter further disintegration, the material is
conveyed to a high level travelling hopper and charged into five extractors
installed in series. Solvent is fed to the extractor from a nearby storage tank.
The five extraction vessels are charged with prepared cake and fresh solvent
is pumped into vessel No.1. The solvent finally driven out from vessel No.
5 has the maximum oil content. Vessel No. 1 is drained off and is ready
for steaming. Mter steaming and discharging, the vessel is recharged, and
in the next sequence of operations, it forms the end vessel or vessel No.5.
The oil-bearing solvent (miscella) is pumped to a high level distillation

tank after filtering and setting. It passes through a pre-still where it is stripped
of a part of the solvent. Further stripping of the solvent (to the extent of
95 per cent takes place in the calandria) and the last traces of solvent are
removed in the distilling column. The temperature at Vartej during summer
rises to 112°F., and in order to reduce the solvent losses to the minimum,
a refrigerating system is provided. The vents from the condensers are con-
nected to a vapour duct which opens out at the bottom of a spray tower filled
with Raching rings. Brine, cooled below the freezing point of water, is
spr~lyed from the top of the tower. The mixture of condensed solvent and
brine goes to the brine decanter in which the solvent and brine separate into
distinct layers. The solvent is led to an underground tank (14,000 gal).

The separated brine is cooled and pumped to the top of the tower.
The deoiled meal is dried and packed in the bagging house which is
equipped with automatic packing and weighing machines.
Next, the first continuous "outdoor" unit was introduced in India by

Mjs Tata Oil Mill Ltd., Bombay, which, it is understood, is working almost
exclusively on mowrah cake.
The credit for making the obsolete designed plant of Kalyan, a commercial
success in India goes to Mis Ulhas Oil & Chemical Ltd., Bombay. The
plant appears to work quite satisfactorily even today.
The plant of Mis Vegetable Vitamin Food Co., Ltd., having 100 tons/
day capacity is the largest unit working at present in India. The plant is
completely continuous and highly automatic in working. This is probably
the second largest plant in Asia.
There are at present four De Smet continous solvent extraction plants

under erection or in operation and at least 8 to 10 active inquiries for the
continuous process, with various suppliers of the machinery are in the negotia-
tion stage. Thus it will be seen that the solvent extraction industry has
taken firm roots and promises to thrive well.
4. Present Position of Solvent Extraction Plants

At present (May 1957) nine units having a little more than 400 tons per
day installed capacity, are working in India. Seven solvent extraction
plants, having about 300 ton per day capacity, are under erection and it is
hoped that all these plants will be on stream before the dosing of the year
1957. (see Table 15).
Twenty-seven units for the solvent extraction of oilcakes have been re-
gistered or licenced under the Industries (Development and Regulation)
Act so far, with a total capacity of 1095 tons of oilcakes per day. (See Ap-
pendix IV).
The development of the industry for the solvent extraction plant has
been planned regionwise as desired by the Ministry of Food and Agricul-
ture 160 and at present 4 lakh tons of oilcakes have been allowed to be
solvent extracted.
The target fixed for the Second Five-Year Plan is 8lakh tons per annum
in terms of oilcake. A few more cases of the firms who had applied for
Table 15. List of Solvent Extraction Plants that are Working and Under
Erection at Present
(May 1957)
---------"
Approx. capacity
Name of Firm~ Location of Plant of plant per 24 Remarks
hours
---.-------"_---
1. Bhavnagar Chemical Vartej, Saurashtra 50/60 tons. Working. semi-continuous
Works (1946) Ltd. with vertical kettle and
stirrers.
2. Jagdish Industries Ltd., Porbunder, Sau- 30/40 Do. do.

rashtra
3. Veraval Oil-cake Co. Veraval, Saurashtra 25/30 \'Vorking Semi-continuous,

" rotative extractors in
series.
•• Tata Oil Mills Co. Bombay 25/30 Working, continuous,

"out-door" type
II. Vegetable Vitamin Food Sion, Bombay 100 Working, continuous.

Co., Ltd.
6. Ulhas Oil and Chemical Kalyan (C. Rly.) 30/40 Working, Batch unit.
Industries Ltd. (Near Bombay)
7. Madras Oils and Fertili- Villivikam, Madras 40/50 " (?) Working, semi-continuous.
zers Ltd., Madras (?)
8. Bhikaji & Sons Warangal, (Hyder- Not known Erected but not working.
abad) 30,40 tons?
9. K. C. P. Ltd. Vijyawada Vuyyuru Not known Erected (?) Working,

(Andhra) 30,40 tons? Semi-continuous?
10. Jalejar Oil Mills Jalejar Not known Erected (?) Semi-cont;-
30/40 tons? nuous (?)
11. Swastik Oil Mills Bombay 60 tons. Working, Continuous.
12. Dulichand Omraolal Kanpur 50 Working, Continuous.
13. Walchand Industries Walchandnagar 40 Erection completed, Con-

tinuous.
14. Prag Ice & Oil Mills Aligarh 40 Under erection. Contin-
" uous.
16. Sonawala Industries Kalyan (C. Rly) 60 Under erection. Semi-

(Private) Ltd. (Near Bombay) continuous Vertical ket-
tles with stirrers.
16. Indian Extractions Ltd., Jamnagar (Sau- 50 Erected. Semi-continuous

rashtra) Vertical kettles withou t
stirrers.
licence under the Act for setting up solvent extraction plant are at present
under the consideration of the Government. The question of achieving
the target fixed for the Second Five-Year Plan is also being considered.
As already mentioned, it is the policy of Government of India at present,

that only non-edible oilcakes or edible oilcakes partly used for manurial
purposes be allowed for the solvent extraction purposes. The Ministry of
Food and Agriculture are not yet decided whether the solvent extracted
oilcake is suitable for cattle feeding.
Right now, almost all the solvent extraction plants are working on ground-
nut oilcake. The greatest problem that the industry is facing is the disposal
of deoiled groundnut meal at the right price.
Solvent Oil Extractors' Association has been formed with a view that
the problems of the industry may be well represented to the Government
of India, and that mutually agreed solutions may be arrived at in the larger
interest of the nation. A memorandum has been submitted by the Associa-
tion to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, espe-
cially to help the industry for the disposal of their de oiled groundnut meal
stock in the plants. It is said that almost all the plants at present (July
1956) have been temporarily closed down mainly due to the heavy accu-
mulation of the deoiled groundnut meal production. The value of the
stock carried over by all the solvent extraction plants is to the extent of
Rs. 50 lakhs. The demand for the internal consumption of deoiled meal is
very limited and hence the industry at the moment is passing through
hard times.
Thanks to the policy of the Government of India to encourage export of

the deoiled meal (containing less than 1 % oil) in preference to expeller ground-
nut oilcake, last year, it was possible to export almost all the production
made during the year 1955 to Belgium, United Kingdom and to other parts
of Europe at a profitable price.
The present attitude of the Indian Government appears to be fairly

encouraging for the solvent extraction industry, since it is the recognized
policy of the Government to consider deoiled vegetable meal as the finished
product and the oilcakes in any form as raw material for the extraction
process.
As said above, at present, only ground nut oilcake is being extracted

in India, but with further encouragement from the Government, cottonseed
152 SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGE'I'ABLE OILS
oil can also be extracted in the plant. The main difficulty anticipated is
in the marketing of the deoiled cottonseed meal. There is no ready market
in India and it will have to be created by propaganda and by usual business
methods. As long as the Government do not allow the deoiled cottonseed
to be used as cattle feed to milch animals, the export for the deoiled meal
should be kept open on long term basis so that the plants may be tuned up
accordingly.
The four continuous plants that are under erection, are of the latest
type and completely automatic in their operation. Thus it will be seen that
the present trend in India definitely favours the introduction of most modern
continuous solvent extraction plants. This is a move in the right direction,
because, recent technological developments in the process indicate that semi-
continuous units are fast going out-of-date and becoming uneconomical
III their working.
The progress of the industry at the present rate is very slow. Hardly
50 per cent of the target will be achieved at the end of the First Five-Year
Plan. As far as the role of the solvent extraction industry in the Second Five-
Year Plan is concerned, some formula would have to be devised to solve
the marketing problems of deoiled meal at economical prices inside the country
and to regulate the export of deoiled meal to the best interest of the country
in general and of the industry in particular.
5. Future of the Solvent Extraction Industry in India
The future of the solvent extraction industry in India appears to be

very bright.
Out of2· 4 million tons of edible oilcakes produced in India, it is possible

to deoil 1 ·75 million tons of Gilcakes annually. Besides this quantity a large
volume of oilcakes is produced from the non-edible vegetable oilseeds,
such as castorseed, mowrahseed, kardiseed, neemseed, gokhruseed, khakan-
seed, etc. It is estimated that the production of these oilseeds will be about
0·5 million tons.
According to the recommendations of the Committee SG half the produc-

tion of cottonseed can be made available for the extraction purpose, producing
about 1,00,000 tons of oil.
Rice bran is produced in India to the extent of2· 5 million tons, containing
about lO% recoverable oil by the solvent process. 178
Apart from these oil-bearing materials, there may be some other resources
e.g. coconut waste, filter muds, etc. whose production it is very difficult to
estimate at the present juncture. 157
A glance at Table No 4. indicates that the ultimate raw material for the
extraction industry in India will be easily 6·0 million tons, producirlg at least
0'60 million tons of vegetable oils otherwise going as waste when oilcakes
are employed either as fertilizers or as feed for animals other than milch
cattle.
Taking the average price of vegetable oil as Rs. 1,000/-per ton, a national
loss of 60 crores of rupees can be stopped annually.
The average capacity of the solvent extraction plants may be considered

as 50 tons per day and taking 300 working days, there will be required 400
plants to deoil 6·0 million tons of oil-bearing materials.
Thus the ultimate future of the solvent extraction industry in India can
be envisaged as follows :-
(1) The total number of solvent extraction plants working will be

about 400.
(2) The amount of vegetable oils recovered annually will be 0·60

million tons, valued at Rs. 60 crores.
(3) The capital outlay in the industry will be about 50-60 crores
of rupees.
(4) The new jobs created directly or indirectly will be at least 40,000.
The above figures do not give the full picture of the future extraction
industry in India. As mentioned in Chapter No. VIII, there are immense
possibilities of reviving the bullock-driven village ghanis in India if one solvent
extraction unit is incorporated in each centre, on co-operative basis. This
appears to be the best method for making ghanis self-sufficient units without
exercising any undue burden on the organized oil-milling industry in India.
The picture is further modified due to the fact that there is good scope
for the manufacture of vegetable protein fibre (particularly groundnut protein
fibre, known as "Sarelon" in U.S.A. and "Ardil" in U.K) in India, especially
in view of the fact that we import pulp for the manufacture of artificial fihres
in the country.
Recent work done on the nutritive value of "balanced food" from deoiled
vegetable meals, definitely establishes the great potentiality of preparing
a "food for millions" in India.
It is hoped that after the introduction of solvent extraction process in

India, no edible oilcakes will be utilized as cheap manure but as food for
human beings, as fortified feed for cattle and as protein source for some im-
portant industrial purposes.
6. Conclusions
The solvent extraction industry has come out successfully from a great
ordeal, and the industry could be said to have firmly planted its roots.
It is doubtful whether more than 50 per cent of the target fixed in the
First Five-Year Plan for the industry will ultimately be achieved. The rate
of progress of the industry is too slow to be commensurate with its ultimate
future.
The target of 8 lakh tons of annual production of deoiled cakes at the

end of the Second Five-Year Plan cannot be achieved unless suitable measures
are adopted for the economical disposal of the deoiled meal.
It is quite possible to revive the once flourishing bullock driven village

ghanis, by establishing a solvent extraction plant in the centre of vegetable
oilseeds producing areas working on co-operative basis.
Research work should be carried out in a pilot unit for the preparation
of protein fibre.
Steps should be taken to prepare white defatted vegetable oilseeds

flours for human consumption.
CHAPTER VIII
APPLICATION OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS TO

VILLAGE GHANI
1. Introduction
In a country like India, where socialistic pattern of society is the declared

policy of the Government, due attention should be paid to the economics
of the cottage and small scale industry, especially when the industry is located
in villages. With about 7 lakh villages scattered all over the country, India
must, of necessity, explore all avenues for linking village uplift to industrialisa-
tion. It is not an easy task to strike a balance between encouragement
to village industry and progress of the country as a whole in an era of large
scale industrialisation. It is patent that some kind of protection should be
granted to cottage industry so that the organised bigger industries do not
stifle it ~ut of existence. The correct policy is to define their distinct spheres
and let them both function in co-operation with each other to the great na-
tional good.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the possibilities of reviving the

bullock driven village ghanis by relating their working to recent technological
researches.
Much has been said in recent times about the introduction of improved
ghanis in India to lessen the percentage of unemployment prevailing in the
country.
Rightly, the Second Five-Year Plan attaches great importance to the

creation of new jobs during the currency of the plan.
The All India Khadi and Village Industries Board has recommended
a number of measures for the revival of bullock ghanis. Without going
into the merits and drawbacks of the proposed measures, an attempt is made
here to investigate an altogether new aspect of the question of reviving the
once flourishing village ghanis.
2. Revival of Bullock gbanis
Oil is an indispensable cooking article in every home in India. No

matter whether the cooked food is vegetarian or non-vegetarian and the
homes are ofthe rich or of the poor, oil is a "must." It is an article of universal
use in cities, towns and villages. Great care has therefore to be taken in the
selection of edible oils and ensure its purity. 14
The aims of the All India Khadi and Village Industries Board are (1)
to give full employment to the existing 4,00,000 ghanis and (2) to install 2
lakhs of improved ghanis. It is hoped that ultimately 6 lakh people will be
engaged by the village ghanis, thus providing bread to 30,00,000 souls in
the country.
The greatest advantage of the revival of ghanis in India is undoubtedly

the additional jobs it provides. A glance at Table No. 16 will show that the
employment potential of the village ghani is five times that of the small scale
power driven mills and twenty times that of the large scale oil mills, having
highly automatic continuous presses.
Table 16: Showing the Employment Potential in Various

Types of Oil-Milling Operations in India
Employment poten-
Type of Crushing tials one job per maunds
of oil produced
1. Continuous Automatic Presses 10-15.

2. Small scale Power driven Mills 2·0-3·0
3. Village Ghani 0·4-0·6
The investtnent per ton of oil produced by the village ghani is Rs. 250/-
to 275/- while for the mill sector it is about Rs. 460/-. Thus less investment
cost is incurred in processing oilseeds in ghanis, than in the organized oil
mills in India. 28
The inefficiency of the village ghani cannot be overlooked in these days

of competition. India earns a large volume of foreign exchange by exporting
oilseeds, vegetable oils, and oilckes to foreign countries. It is quite likely
that ghani oil in competition may not be as remunerative as the oil produced
at a much lower cost by the organized oil mills in the country. Hence due
caution is necessary before high cess on mill-produced oil is thought of to pro-
vide subsidies to village ghanis.
It should be remembered that the high percentage of oil remaining

in the ghani oilcake is not at all fully utilized when employed as cattle feed.
Oilcakes are primarily given to cattle for'their protein contents, rather than
for the residual oil. Some amount of oil in the cattle feed is certainly highly
desirable, but an excess of oil in the diet even in the case of milch animals is
not to be encouraged specially in a poor country like India which can ill
afford even small waste.
Table 17 shows that 1,80,000 tons of oils can be recovered annually from
the oilcakes produced in ghanis, by simply applying the process of solvent
extraction. Incredible as it may sound the value of oil reclaimed from the
ghani oilcake by the solvent extraction process, would be in the region of
18 crores of rupees. Reviving ghanis is all right, but the recoverable oil
should not be allowed to go as waste.
Table 17. Showing the Crushing of Oil seeds in Ghanis and the
Importance of Solvent Extraction Process
1. Number of Ghanis working .. 4,00,000
2. Total oil-seeds crushed by ghani per year .. .. 30,00,000 Tons .
3. Oil-cakes produced annually .. 18,00,000 Tons .
4. Per cent oil in the oil-cake .. 11·0
5. Amount of oil recoverable by solvent extraction .. 1,80,000 Tons.
6. Value of the extracted oil in Rs. .. 18 crores •
7. 25 tons/day capacity solvent extraction plants required .. .. 288
3. Working of Solvent Extraction Plant on Co-operative Basis
India has a long though not always bright, history of organized co-
operative effort, in the fields of agriculture, industry and finance and is natur-
ally inclined towards co-operative efforts.
In order to transform the inefficient working of village ghanis into efficient

ones and at the same time to stop the national wastage of residual oils in
the ghani oilcakes, the working of small solvent extraction plant on co-opera-
tive basis in a group of villages producing oilseeds, appears to be indispensable.
A chart showing the working of a solvent extraction plan in the centre

of a number of villages is given in Figure No. 35.
l. .... ::l!A........................... __ ...... _ ........... _ 'l"IQ.IroIU.fl.

2. VILLAGEl __ ................... __ ............. _ .... __ ..... .
J. POII1)L,I;TION. ____________ ...... __ .. _ .. __ .. _ .. a.ooo.'[~t.
4. CONSUMPTION 01 CER[AI. C;,_AlN._ .... _______ 'I.O~L.I ••
S. AfQUIQE"'[NT 0' O[OH.ED"", "'l..OO'I(JO/~a.T~' OAI~".

~. Aj3.E:A OF I..ANI) ___ .. ____________ ... ____ .... ~"'OO ••fO;,lC:"",
7. YlEl.D 0' GROUNO NVT ON 14111 OF t,t, AREA
,,'1\10£11 CULT1YAl'10N. ___ .... __ ................ ___ ")"O.TONI,
.. '''''ACITY OF PLANT. __________ .... _____ .. aS.toNI04Y(iIOJ,4OS.OM')
t. WORKING 1),I;"I, _____________________ 150.0An.
10. TOrAL AMOUNT Of' eME "'EQUI,:!tO FORlSOOAVI.•'.:iI:$o.TONI.

11. TO'TAL os N. ICE~NAL.S AEQI.::RtO....... __________ 11.)41. TOHI.(lt1so,T'OHS-
WHOU G.H)
1::1 NLlMlt$! OF GHANI!. ("'X9}~ ..... ~.w •.•• _•• 7" GHANI I.
EACH CHANI CRUSHES 1201.fI$ OF GROUNONUT IN 6 CHAAGts """_

• HOU!'.! PP.QOUCU "'SOYT 81 L8S. 9ft Oll CAKE ..,.0 ) t LH M OIL,
£,ASH VILlAqIij SHOU!"O 'hllol • GHANI'
10.
~ ... VILlAGES It\JHNING' GHANIS O"I\..'f',
m SOLVENT EXTRACTION PLANT U TONI C"_AC;ITY OAtU.
CHART SHOWiNG THE

SOLVENT EXTRACTION PLANT
WORI(ING ON CO-OPERATIVC .ASIS.
Fig. No. 3S
25 tons/day capacity continuous solvent extraction plant is supposed to

be working in an area where groundnut oilseeds are cultivated and crushed
locally by the bullock driven ghanis. Taking the plant in the centre, a radius
of 10 miles covers an area of 314 square miles. Considering, on an average,
one village with a population of 500 people, at a distance of two miles apart,
there will be 84 villages having a total population of 42,000 people in the
circle, with a 20 mile diameter. Further, it is assumed that out of 2 lakh
acres of land, one third of the area is under groundnut crop, thus producing
about 19,140 rons of whole groundnuts.
The requirements of the solvent extraction plant, working for 250 days
m a year is 6,250 tons of oilcakes annually. Installing on an average
8 ghanis in each village working for 8 hours, will be just enough for the pro-
duction of 25 tons oilcake per day. However, to allow for breakdown etc.
nine ghanis would be installed in each village, instead of eight.
The total requirements of groundnuts for the working of 756 ghanis is

15,150 (11,363 tons of seeds) tons annually, while the production in the area
under consideration is 19,140 tons, which is quite adequate for the smooth
running of the. entire project.
APPLICATION OF SOLVEN'I' EX'I'RACTION PROCESS 159
The capacity of each modified ghani is taken to be about 120 lbs., of

ground nut seeds, crushing in 8 hours shift, and producing about! maund
of oil and one maund of oilcake.
It is hoped that the solvent extraction plant will always get the fresh
oilcake, because the longest distance through which the raw mat~rial has to
travel is only 10 miles. This distance can be easily covered in a day by th~
bullock driven cart in the village. Wherever possible, the teli will deliver
the oilcake to the central solvent plant and on his return journey, will carry
the deoiled meal required for fertilizer and other purposes in the village.
The solvent plant should preferably be of the continuous type so that

the fire and health hazards involved are at their minimum. The plant should
be of "out door" type. In U.S.A. small scale continuous extractors have
been developed. The description of these plants has been given in Chapter
III. These plants are as follows:
(i) Ford extractor.
(ii) Detrex extractor.
(iii) Iowa state extractor.
Currently it is possible to get down to 25/30 tons/day capacity continuous

unit from the following manufacturers.
1. V.D. Anderson.
2. French Oil Mills Machinery Co.
3. De Smet.
Let us now consider the economics of the solvent extraction plant working
on the co-operative basis. Table No. 18. shows the cost of production and
the margin of profit per day.
Taking the refined oil price at Rs. 1000/- per ton and the oilcake at
Rs. 150/- per ton the net profit per day comes to about Rs. 1000/-.
Thus we see that in the working of the combined project, a teli gives
his 25 maunds of oilcake to the Central plant and in return gets about 22
maunds of deoiled meal containing almost all the nitrogen that was present
in the 25 maunds of raw cake and a cash of Rs. 37-8/- from the profit of the
company. Thus each ghani, producing one maund of oilcake, gets a rebate
of Rs. 1-8-0 per day. The rebate secured by each ghani, comes to Rs. 3/-
Table 18. Treating 11 % G. N. Cake (Bullock Ghani) in 2S tons of Extraction Plant

25 tons Groundnut oil-cake.
(11% oil by weight)
I I
Crude Oil Meal
2·7 tons 22·3 tons.

(2· 5 tons marketable)
COST OF EXTRACTION
(1) Solvent LoS>' :
0·75 per cent on WI. of cake treated.
Price of solvent Rs. 2-6.6 Rs. as. ps.
0'75 x 25 x 320
------=60 .. Rs.144 6 0
100
(2) Steam:
0·5 tons per ton of cake treated.
Price of steam Rs. 7/· per ton.
12·5 x 7 85 8 0
(8) Labour:
Skilled labour 8 Rs. 3/- each: 24} 104 104 0 0
Unskilled labour 40 Rs. 2/- each: 80 =
(4) Power:
20 K. W. H.lton 20 x 25 x 2 62 8 0
16
(5) Depr~ciation on Machi~ry:
4,00,000 x 10
160 0 0
100 x 250
(6) Depredation on Building:
2,00,000 x 5
40 0 0
100 x 250
(7) WatM:
20,000 gallong per day.
Price Rs. 0-8-0 per 1000 gallons: 10 0 0
(8) Insurance: 60 0 0
(9) Working capital -Interest charge:
3,00,000 x 5 60 0 0
100 x 250
(10) M,,"ll~otIJ: 60 10 O.
Rs. as. ps.
(11) Fixed Charg,s :
1 Chief Chemist @ Rs. 25/- day Rs. 25
1 Chief Engineer @ Rs. 20/- day Rs. 20
1 Manager @ Rs. 20/- day Rs. 20
3 Shift Chem!sts @ R~. 10/- each Rs. 30
Clerical staff @ Rs. 5/- each Rs. 5
Miscellaneous charges Rs.50
Rs.150
150 x 365 219 0 0
250 1,006 0 0
Cost per ton: 1006/25 : 40 4 0
Expenses per day :

(1) Cost of extraction per day. .. 1,006 0 0
(2) Loss of 3 tons of cake.
Price of cake Rs. 150/- ton 450 0 0
Total Cost. .. 1,456 0 0
Revenue per day:
Crude on produced 2·5 tons.
price of oil Rs. WOO/ton .. 2,500 0 0
PTofit Per Day:
2,500 - 1456: 1044
say 1,000 0 0
per maund of oil produced, since the rate of production of oilcake is double
than that of oil. (see Fig. No. 35).
The All India Khadi and Village Industries Board has proposed a cess of
Rs. 1-4-0 per maund of oil produced in the mills to offset the price difference. 14
The same object can very well be achieved without taxing the or-
ganized section of oil-milling in India.
It will be interesting to note that a small extraction plant working on

ghani oilcake is more profitable than 50 tons/day capacity plant, working
on bazar expeller oilcake because, the ghani oilcake, on an average, contains
about 35-40 per cent more oil than the expeller bazar oilcake. This fact
IS very important in considering the economics of the extraction process.
One problem that the village ghani usually faces is the disposal of the
oilcake. It is always easy to sell oil but the residual oilcake market is rather
uncertain in India. Only during 4-6 months in a year, there is a good de-
mand for oilcakes, while for the rest of the period, the demand is very slack.
With solvent extraction plant in the centre, a teli, if he so chooses, can easily
sell his oilcake to the plant at least at the same rate as the market price of
the expeller oilcake and in return still get Rs. 1-8-0 per maund of oilcake
delivered to the plant, on the assumption that deoiled meal gets the same price
as the market rate of expeller oilcake.
The oil produced after refining, is of excellent quality and is likely to

fetch a higher price than does the ordinary expeller oil in the market.
For the teli, it is quite possible to treat nice clean groundnut seeds 111
the ghani and thus produce the oilcake, suitable for human food. This
edible oilcake can be easily treated in the central solvent extraction plant.
The defatted meal produced under certain hygienic conditions, is best suited
as edible flour.
From the chart (Fig. No. 35) it will be seen that the consumption of cereal
grain is about 21,000 lbs., per day, taking the requirement as lIb., per day
per head, in the area under consideration. Assuming that 20 per cent defatted
white groundnut flour can be admixed ,vith the cereal grain flour, with the
best possible advantage, the requirements of edible meal come to be roughly
two tons per day. It is needless to say that the production of defatted flour
for human food is more paying than the treating of ordinary ghani oilcake
i.n the plant because the price of cereal grain is about 2-3 times higher than
the oilcake price.
The central plant should therefore treat 3-4-days in a month, the edible
ghani oilcake; thus producing about 730 tons of defatted groundnut flour
annually. It will suffice, if one ghani in each village is working fully on
the edible variety of groundnuts, for 250 days in a year.
The production of groundnut husk per ghani will be about i maund

per day. This can easily be purchased by the central plant at a price of
Rs. 0-8-0 per maund,· because it is assumed that 12t tons of husk produced
per day will be quite enough to meet the requirements of steam and power,
which in aggregate comes to Rs. 148/- (see Table No.3) per day of 24 hours.
It is sincerely hoped that the scheme suggested above will receive due
consideration from the All India Khadi and Village Industries Board, the
body which is wholly devoted to the revival of village ghanis in the country,
in the best interest of the nation.
4. Conclusion
The following conclusions may be drawn from the above discussion
where we considered the possibility of reviving and working efficiently the
village ghani in collaboration with the solvent extraction plant.
(1) High potential rate of employment in reviving the village ghani

IS a vital factor in favour.
(2) Nation as a whole, need not, however, suffer heavily for the revival
of ghanis.
(3) Organised section of oil-milling in India should not and need not
be over-burdened by the imposition of a heavy cess.
(4) Hitherto the oilcake in India has been valued only in terms of
protein content and never on the basis of residual oil percentage. This out-
look must change.
(5) Ghani oilcakes contain approximately 35-40 per cent more oil
than do expeller oilcakes.
(6) 25 tons/day capacity solvent extraction plant working on a co-
operative basis, can make a profit of "Rs. 1,000/- per day.
(7) Taking the price of deoiled meal the same as that of raw oilcake
a teli can hope to get a rebate ofRs. 1-8-0 per maund of ghani oilcake treated
in the plant, which in terms of oil produced comes to Rs. 3/-per maund.
(8) Defatted white groundnut flour, best suited for the fortification of
the cereal grain proteins, can· be easily manufactured under the project.
(9) With the help of the smallest practical size solvent plant available
756 ghanis can be efficiently revived.
(10) The teli has not to face the problem of the disposal, at the most
economical price of the ghani oilcake.
(11) Husks, which generally go as waste, can be utilized in the boiler
generating steam for the central plant.
(12) The production of 12l tons of husk per day in the area, should
be quite enough for the entire requirements of steam for the project.
(13) It is possible to generate enough power for the project from the
surplus steam generated by burning 121 tons of husk per day.
(14) The only major raw material that requires importation within
the area is the required quantity of the solvent for the extraction process.
About 60 gallons per day would be required to make up the working loss.
(15) The case for the scheme is strong enough to IFerit serious considera-
tion.
CHAPTER IX
RECENT RESEARCHES AND LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
1. Fabrication of Solvent Extraction Plants in India
From the practical experience gained, it may be said that most of equip~
ment such as, conveyors and elevators, cake breaking machine, vertical kettles
with stirrers, continuous distillation still, refrigerating tower, oil-cooler,
various condensers and heat-exchangers, storing tanks for miscella and solvent,
travelling and stationary hoppers, etc., can very well be manufactured in
the country. Thus it would be seen that most of machinery needed for semi-
continuous solvent extraction plant may be with advantage manufactured
in India. However, it is advisable to import at present technical controls
required for the smooth and efficient working of the process as also the flame-
proof equipment.
Looking to the workshop facilities available, it may be said that roughly

70-80% of the total cost of semi-continuous plant machinery can be fabricated
in India.
Regarding the manufacture of some parts of continuous units m the

country, it is estimated that 30/40 per cent of the total value of the complete
plant can be easily fabricated from the workshop drawings. After going into
details, the Government of India may make it compulsory, just like imports
of cane-sugar manufacturing plant, that 40 per cent of the total value of
complete plant be fabricated in India.
In case of continuous units, the most difficult machinery to be fabricated

in India at present is the complete continuous extractors with the accom-
panying desolventizer. The rest of the equipment can be efficiently manu-
factured in the country in big workshops from the complete fabricating draw-
ings of the foreign plant suppliers.
A committee of suitable personnel may be appointed by the Govern_

ment of India to investigate into the possibility of manufacturing complete
continuous solvent plants in the country, in collaboration with foreign manu-
facturers. In case su~h committee is able to achieve active participation
of foreign concerns in India, there are good reasons to believe that at the end
of Second Five-Year Plan, the country would be able to fabricate continuous
solvent extraction plants of very high efficiency.
RECENT RESEARCHES AND LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 165
In view of the fact that the ultimate requirement of solvent extraction

plants in India is to the tune of four hundred units of an average capacity
of 50 tons per day, necessary steps may be taken in the matter of fabricating
complete units in India.
2. Ileoiled Meal as Human Food
Groundnut, soyabean, cottonseed, and other edible oilseeds, ofter ex-

cellent possibilities for supplying in large quantities proteins having superior
nutritive value and which are suitable for use as human food in a variety
of ways.
It is generally recognized, however, that lysine is an outstanding amino

acid deficiency in wheat flour. Available data leave little doubt that the
protein of the oilseed, flours contain sl1fficient lysine to compensate for its
ddiciency in wheat flOt,r. 123,126
Groundnuts and soyabeans have several characteristics in common.

They are both legumes, they have a high content of protein and oil, and
contain very little starch. Their proteins are also quite similar with respect
to their chemical and physical properties. 127
The protein content of groundnut kernels ranges from 28 to 35 per cent.

About 82 per cent of the total nitrogen of the ground nut is accounted for by
two proteins, arachin and conarachin, which occur respectively, in the
ratio of about 3 to 1. 126
Analytical data indicate that arachin is deficient in methonine and

tryptophane; conarchin, on the other hand, contains an abundance of the
amino acids that are deficient in arachin. A mixture of these two proteins in the
same proportions that they occur in groundnut will enable young animals
to grow at a very satisfactory rate. We have in groundnut an interesting
illustration of protein supplementation within the same seed.
Groundnut flour offers a source of very good dietary protein for extend-
ing and partially replacing protein foods of animal origin. At high protein
level (15 per cent) groundnut protein appears definitely superior to that of
the soyabean. 127
The nutritive value of a protein is dependent on two factors, its digesti-

bility and quality. Scientific experiments have shown that groundnut proteins
are not only highly digestible but they rank among the highest in
quality. 125
Solvent-extracted groundnut meal has the same nutritional value as

a protein supplement as hydraulic pressed groundnut meal. 8
The method for the production of edible groundnut flour was developed
in U.S.A. in 1942. The specifications for flour produced from white Spanish
type groundnuts are as given below 127
Protein 55-62%
Fat 5- 9%
Fiber 2- 3%
Water 2-10%
In France several attempts have been made to find out the best possible
method for the preparation of groundnut flour most suited as human food.
The heating of meal to 130-150° C during second pressing of groundnut
seeds in expellers, renders the quality of the oilcake useless and destroys the
attractive whiteness of the cake flour. 78 For this reason, low pressure
expelling-cum-solvent extraction method is suggested. The percentage
of groundnut flour to be added to wheat and other cereal grains is placed at
15-20 on the weight basis. A formula suggested for biscuit manufacture is
as follows :-
Wheat flour 22 Kgs. 500
Deoiled groundnut meal 5 Kgs.
Casein 2 Kgs. 500
Margarine 3 Kgs.
Sugar 5 Kgs. 500
Salt 0 Kgs. 370

Bi-carbonate of ammonia 0 Kgs. 125
Bi-carbonate of soda 0 Kgs. 125
Water 5 Kgs. 500

These biscuits should be baked at a slightly lower temperature than
biscuits which are only caseined. 78
Excellent research work has been done about nutritive value of deoiled
vegetable meals. in India. 179
In the light of the work carried out by the "Meals for Millions Founda-
tion" under the guidance of Dr. Barsook, work was undertaken at Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore to obtain a balanced food using some of the
deoiled meals as protein sources and tuber flours as carbohydrate source.
The best proportions of various ingredients suggested are as follows :-
Groundnut cake flour 30%

Sesame cake flour 10%
Soya bean cake flour 10%
Wheat flour .. 10%
Tapioca flour 35%
Yeast 2%
Common salt & condiments 3%
In processing the balanced food, ghani oilcakes were solvent extracted
to below one per cent oil content.
The composition of the balanced foods investigated is given in Table
No. 19. The composition of the American Multi-purpose Food is also given
for comparison.
Table 19. Composition or Balanced Foods
Constituents Processed Food Processed Food
'A' 'B' M.P.F.
Moisture 3·1 3·3
Protein (N x 6·25) % .. 33·1 32·8 42·3
Fat % ., 1·9 2·0
Mineral Matter % 5·8 5·9
Crude fibre % ., 2·5 2·45
Carbohydrate % 53·6 53·0
Calcium mg. % 353·0 473·2 470·9
Phosphorous mg. % ., 453·1 450·0 440·9
Iron mg. % 5·3 7·1 7·05
Thiamine BI mg. % 0·22 0·76 0·7
Riboflavin B2 mg. % ., 0·25 1·2 1·18
Nicotinic acid mg. % ., 7·14 7·2 7·05
Vitamin A and Carotene LV. % 140·5 3001'0 2940·0
Processed food A = without vitamins and minerals.
Processed food B = with vitamins and minerals.
M.P.F. ... Meal for Millions foundation.
168 SOLVEN'!' EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS
The conclusion arrived at is that deficiency diseases brought about by

lack of or inadequacy of vitamin could be remedied by supplementing the
processed food A to the diet.
Vegetable proteins have been found to possess excellent supplementary

value to cereal grains.
Mixtures produced by adding 10 parts of cottonseeds, groundnut or

soyabean flour to 90 parts of wheat flour contained a much higher percentage
of proteins, than wheat flour alone. Further, the mixtures showed practically
the same supplementary value as skimmed milk powder. 12e
Research carried out in the Central Food Technological Research In-

stitute, Mysore, reveals the possibility of preparing "synthetic rice" by making
use of deoiled vegetable meals on a commercial scale.
The best method to produce quality groundnut oil and also the residual
deoiled meal excellent for human food, is to treat nice clean (red skin
removed) gently cooked groundnut seeds in expellers under low-pressure and
the oilcake (containing 18-22% oil) in efficient solvent extraction plant, using
then to defat petroleum cuts as solvent. 160,169
Research work on a commercial scale should now be carried out in

India in one of the solvent extraction plants in the country with a view to
produce cheap white deoiled meals for mixing with cereal grain flours. The
advantages of adding deoiled vegetable flours with the everyday prepara-
tions of cereal grain flours, should be well advertised in the country as there
is a common belief in India that deoiled meals are worth nothing and that
they can be made use of only as chea p fertilizers.
3. Deoiled Meal as· Cattle Feed

The primary consideration for giving oilcakes to animals is not for the
residual oil content of the cake, but for the proteins present in the cake. Of
course, oil in the cake is always desirable for animal feed and especially for
the milch cattle but large amount of oil in the final feed may not be advisable
on certain important considerations. It has been found out in practice that
the composition of the butter is affected by feeding milch cattle with materials
too rich in oil percentage. 52
The information published in India 30 has been to the effect that

deoiled vegetable meals can be utilized as feed for all classes of stock except
milch animals after adding iso-dynamic proportions of cereal grain like maize
to the extent to which the oil is removed from the oilcakes.
Dr. Schiffman, a senior member of the Agriculture Department of

U.S.A. remarks as follows for the nutritive value of deoiled vegetable
meals. 29
"No evidence is available that the nutritive value of extracted

meal, if properly prepared and made palatable by an efficient stripping
and, if necessary, toasting, is in any way inferior to an expelled cake."
Mitchell and Butler have investigated the nutritive value of copra meal
and have had an opportunity of testing meals from commercial extraction
plants. Their findings with regard to the protein content and digestibility
of the protein and the biological value of the digested protein seem to bear
out the views of the Agriculture Department of U.S.A. in that respect. 29
Newland recorded that tests made on young cattle with extracted

meal gave better results, although the oil content was less than 2 per cent,
whilst the pressed cake contained 6 per cent. Further tests on sheep
showed that the extracted meal was superior. It is also stated that
extracted meal is an excellent base for feeding pigs. 29
Experiments conducted in U.S.A. by Altschul et at on the nutntIve

value of groundnut cake, meal, protein and non-protein residue for chicks
have revealed the following facts 8 :-
(a) Groundnut meal support chick growth equally as well as commer-

cial screw-pressed soyabean meal.
(b) Solvent extracted groundnut meal has the same nutritional value
as a protein supplement as hydraulic pressed groundnut oilcake.
(c) Isolated protein prepared by alkali extraction of groundnut meal,

has relalively the same nutritional value as protein supplement,
as the original meal from which it was produced.
Cd) The meal residue remaining after extraction of protein from solvent-
extracted ground nut meal can be used as a protein supplement
in chick feeds, since it supports growth equal to that obtained by
feeding the original meal or corresponding isolated protein. The
residue remaining after extraction of protein from hydraulic-
pressed groundnut meal is considerably inferior to the original
meal as a protein supplement.
Research work has shown that more milk protein was produced from
each pound of total crude protein from groundnut meal than from either
cottonseed or soyabean meal protein. 'Vhen considered from the digestible

crude protein standpoint the order of efficiency was groundnut meal first,
cottonseed meal second, and soyabean meal third. 80
It has been said that by adding crude phosphatides (lecithin) to the deoiled
ground nut meal, the nutritive value is increased as cattle feed.
There had been some discussion on the nutritive value of deoiled coconut
poonac (meal) in Ceylon, but the veterinary profession is unanimous in their
agreement that poonac with only one per cent oil is better for cattle than
poonac with any higher proportion of oil residue. 156
The Government of Ceylon observe as follows 27:
"The main use of the deoiled coconut meal in Ceylon is for animal
food, but certain other ingredients will be added to prepare a balanced
meal. The advantages of the deoiled coconut meal are that it increases
the protein content and reduces the oil content, which is of some advan-
tage to cattle breeders, but it is just possible that owing to the com-
parative absence of residual oil in the poonac, there is a tendency for
cattle to become costive. To surmount this, the British Ceylon Cor-
poration blends the deoiled poonac with ordinary poonac. As far as
it is known, both milch cow and buffalo benefit from the use of deoiled
poonac food."
At present the use of deoiled vegetable meals for cattle feed in the country
is banned. It is very satisfactory to know that experiments are being carried
out at Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar for the suitability
or otherwise of deoiled meals as cattle food. It is expected that the report
on the research work conducted in India will be out in the near future.
It will be in the interest of the country at large and also of the solvent
extraction industry, if exhaustive research work be carried out, especially
in the light of modern knowledge acquired, to find out the optimum condi-
tions for the processing of groundnut, cottonseed, sesame seed, mustard seed
and other edible oilseeds and oilcakes in the solvent extraction plant, to
produce the deoiled meals best suited for cattle food in India.
Analysis of proteins of oil cake for es~ential amino acids 1S given m

Table 20.
RECENT RESEARCHES AND LINES OF FU'l'URE DEVELOPMl'NT 171
Table 20: Analysis of Proteins of Oil cake for Essential

Aminoacids (% calculation based on 16% Nz). 123
Aminoacids Soya Groundnut Cotton Linseed Copra Rapeseed
Arginine 7·1 g.!) 7·4 6·9 7·1 6·6

Cystine 1·9 1·6 2·0 1'9 1·8 2·4
Histidine 2·3 2·1 2·6 1·9
Isolencine 4·7 3·0 3·3 3·4
Lencine 6·6 7·0 5·0 7·5 11·3 6·9
Methionine 2·0 1·0 2·1 2·3
Lysine 5·8 3·0 2·7 2·0
Phenylalamine .. 5·7 5·4 6·8 5·8 5·2 1·9
Threonine 4· 2·4 3·0 4·5 3·3
Trypbphane .. 1·2 1·0 1·3 1·6 1·6 1·2
Tyrosine 4·1 4·4 3·4 5·1
Valine 4·2 g·O 3·7 5·g 2·4 4·2
It will be very interesting to note that almost all the deoiled groundnut
meals exported so far from India, mainly to U.K. and Europe-have been
utilized as cattle feed in those importing countries, without any complaint
about the suitability of the products whether manufactured by the batch,
the semi-continuous and the continuous solvent extraction plants in India.
It may be mentioned that European importers purchase oilcake or extracted
meal on the same basis of "oil plus protein" value of the product.
Production Of Vegetable Protein Fibre
In recent times, quite a number of synthetic fibres have been produced

both in the laboratory and on commercial scale.
It may be said that the history of the artificial fibre begins after the in-
troduction of "Lanital" a casein-base fibre, developed in Italy about 1935.
Since then, synthetic fibres of similar type have been produced from many
other raw-materials such as soyabeans, groundnuts, cottonseed, corn, egg
white, feathers, and fish albumin. The base of all these fibres is protein and
they are currently referred to technically as synthetic, or "man-made" protein
fibres, in distinction to the natural protein fibres, such as wool, hair and silk.
The commercial production of casein-base fibre, "Aralac" was begun

in U.S.A. in 1941. About the same time pilot plant production of protein
fibre from soyabean was started, and it has been reported that plans are now
under way for the commercial production of this fibre. Semi-commercial
production had taken place in England of a fibre made from protein derived
from groundnut. 18ft
The production of the protein fibres at this stage can be well compared
with the development of rayon some 20 years ago. The fibres are compara-
tively weak, especially in regard to their wet strength, and are in general,
used in textiles only when blended with other fibres. From a technical stand-
point, however, the industry would seem to be potentially in a much more
advantageous position than rayon was in the early days because in the pro-
duction of synthetic fibres there are many technical problems common to all
types, and those working with protein-base fibres have a mass of accumulated
knowledge and technique from which to draw in their research and deve··
lopment work.
In the development of a groundnut protein fibre, the first problem to

be solved is the successful removal of the colouring matter in the red-skin.
It has been found that this object can be well achieved by washing the kernels
in a dilute lye solution, rinsing, and drying. A very effective method for
the physical removal of the skins by first dipping the kernels in hot water for
one minute and then drying at low temperature prior to mechanical blanching,
is reported to be working quite well in a s,andard splitnut blancher with an
efficiency up to 98 per cent. 172
The second major problem is that of obtaining an oil-free (deoiled)

meal from which a satisfactory protein could be extracted. With the advance-
ment of present day continuous solvent extraction units, it is quite possible
to get final groundnut deoiled meal containing a high economical percentage
of unmodified .(not denatured) protein by the fore-pressing-cum-extraction
process.
Solvent-extracted peanut meal contains 50 per cent protein. In the

process developed at the Southern Regional Laboratory, about 33 pounds
of protein are obtained for each 100 pounds of meal processed. Mter the
protein is extracted, the remainder consists of about 42 pounds of meal residue
having a feed value equal to about 33 pounds of the original meal, and a
supernatant liquid containing about 16 pounds of solids in the form of minor
soluble protein components, non-protein nitrogen, carbohydrates, minerals,
and other non-protein materials present in the original meal. The super-
natant liquor can be converted into an excellent medium for yeast propaga-
tion in the production of feed yeasts. In the laboratory experiments, there
RECENT RESEARCHES AMD LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 173
was a~ overall processing loss of 9 pounds, which can probably be reduced

in larger scale operation.
The preparation of the protein itself is simple, consisting of extraction

of the protein from the oil-free meal by means of dilute alkali, and precipita-
tion of the extracted protein followed by drying.
It is interesting to note that if the extraction process is not properly carried

out, only inferior fibres can be produced from the isolated protein. 186
The equipment used in the production of fibres from peanut protein

is similar to that used in the production of rayon, and the processing itself
is somewhat similar, except that different chemicals are used in the prepara-
tion of the spinning solutions and in the treatments used on the spun fibres.
Essentially, the production of fibres from peanut protein involves the

following steps: (1) dispersion of the peanut protein in strong alkali to
form a spinning solution; (2) extrusion of the spinning solution through
a spinnerette into an acid coagulating bath; and (3) stretching and chemically
treating the fibres to give them the desired properties.
Protein molecules as they occur in peanuts are generally considered to

have a globular, coiled structure, which they retain after the usual extraction
and purification processes. In a somewhat over-simplified statement of the
problem, the object is to uncoil and orient the protein molecules in the direc-
tion of the fibre filament and stabilize their orientation by interaction between
adjacent groups in the parallel-oriented molecular chains. This is the struc-
ture of the natural protein fibres, such as silk and wool, and the process is
similar to that already achieved in the production of high-tenacity rayon,
nylon, and other high-strength synthetic fibres. In the production of high-
tenacity rayon, it has been found possible to accomplish this by stretching
the rayon filaments while they are in a plastic state, but so far, high orienta-
tion of peanut protein molecules has not been achieved by this com-
paratively simple process. If synthetic protein-base fibres are ever to be
produced with strength and other properties comparable to those of the
natural protein fibres, it is believed that more molecular orientation than is
obtained now will have to be effected.
The pilot plant process developed in U.S.A. has been described as

follows 186 :
"In the production of peanut protein fibres at the Southern Regional

Research Laboratory the spinning solutions are usually prepared with a
protein concentration of from 18 to 24 per cent. At this stage, various oils,

emulisifiers, and plasticizers are added as desired and any entrapped air or
other gas is removed by centrifuging. Best results to date have been obtained
with a spinning solution containing dibutyltartrate, diglycol laurate, and
peanut oil adjusted to a pH of approximately 12·0 with a 2·4 N. solution
of sodium hydroxide.
"After aging a short time, the spinning solution is pumped through

a spinnerette into a coagulating bath containing sulfuric acid, sodium sulfate,
and dextrose. If the yarn is washed and dried at this stage, it becomes hard
and brittle, crumbling into powder upon handling. Instead, the yarn is
given a series of stretching and curing treatments which gives it properties
suitable for handling on standard textile machinery. The process now used
consists of subjecting the yarn to a low stretch (about 15 per cent) as it goes
through the coagulating bath, followed by two successive stretches of ap-
proximately 100 per cent and 150 per cent each, resulting in an overall stretch
of about 470 per cent. During each of these latter two stretches, the yarn
is washed with aqueous curing solutions of formaldehyde, sodium sulfate,
and aluminum sulfate the first solution containing also a small percentage of
sulfuric acid. Mter the final stretch, the yarn is wound on to a bobbin with
very low tension and given a final curing treatment, usually in an aqueous
acid solution containing halide ions, metal ions, and formaldehyde. The
yarn is then washed and dried and is ready for textile processing.
"Peanut protein fibre produced in our laboratory according to the fore-

going process has been given the name of "Sarelon". "Sarelon" is a light cream-
coloured fibre with a soft, pleasant handle intermediate between that of silk
and wool. Upon contact with the skin it has a warm feel, and it absorbs
moisture in a manner similar to wool. Since the yarn is relaxed when
removed from the spin-bobbin, it has a high degree of dimensional stability
and does not shrink appreciably in hot water. Peanut protein fibre has an
affinity for dyes normally used on natural protein fibre~, but the rate of dye
absorption is greater than on wool. Solid shades may be obtained by dyeing
wool and "Sarelon" unions with a level-dyeing acid dye from a boiling dye
bath containing Glauber's salt and acid. "Sarelon" may be successfully dyed
with vat and direct cotton dyes; this characteristic makes possible, by the
selection of suitable dyes, the production of a cellulose and peanut-protein-
fibre union having solid shades.
"In regard to physical properties, "Sarelon" has approximately the same

wet and dry strengths as fibres made from casein and soyabean protein; that
is, dry strengths up to about 0·9 gram-per-denier, and wet strengths up to
REGENT RESEARCHES AND LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 175
about 0·4 gram-per-denier. The principal deficiency of "Sarelon" for use in

ordinary textiles is its low wet strength, a characteristic of all present types
of synthetic protein fibre. The dry strength also is lower than wool, which
has a strength of 1·0 to 1·5 grams-per-denier, and from 2·0 to 6·0 grams-
per-denier. Low elongation at low loads and low recoverable elongation
at high loads are also undesirable properties of present types of synthetic
protein fibres. As a consequence these fibres have only a very limited use
by themselves in standard textile fabrics, but they can be used in blends with
other fibres to give fabrics adequate strength which possess properties not
obtainable with these other fibres, or, in the case of wool, obtainable only
at higher cost."
It will be noted that here is a very close parallel to the early history of
rayon, when it was possible to make a satisfactory fabric with it only in
blends with other yarns. Used first as a cheap imitation of silk, rayon has
now been developed to the point where it is recognized as having distinct
and useful properties of its own.
The schematic outline of the production of ground nut protein fibre is

shown in the Fig. No. 36. 152
PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN
SULFURIC ACID
PEANUT 011- SODIUM SULFATE
ALUMINUM SULFAT E
PROTEIN EXTRACTION TANK. SULFURIC ACID

MEAL SEPERATOR SODIUM SULFATE
WET MEAL RESIDUE
ALUMINUM SULFATE
FORMALDEHYDE
SODIUM SULFATE
ALUMINUM SULFATE
FORMALDEHYDE
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
SODIUM CHLORIDE
FORMALDEHYDE
DRY PROTEIN
SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF Pr=lODUCTION OF PEANUT PROTEIN FIBER
Fig. No. 36
The ground nut protein fibre is manufactured on the commercial scale

in U.K. by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., under the trademark
"Ardil" .
An exhibition of this fabric was held at Bombay by Messrs. Imperial

Chemical Industries (India) Ltd., wherein the successful uses of "Ardil"
as a blended fabric with cotton, wool, cellulosic fabrics, etc., were ex-
plained. It is said that there are about 25/30 textile mills in India, which
are planning to incorporate, the groundnut protein fibre "Ardil" with
their own fibre. The current quotation for "Ardil" is Rs. 3-9-0 per pound.
The percentage of the protein fibre to be admixed with the other fabrics,
varies from 30 to 70, depending upon the quality of the other fabrics in the
mixture and on the final uses of the products desired.
The properties of the groundnut protein fibre, "Ardil" have been

described as follows 32:
1. "Blended with other fibres-particularly cotton, cellulosic fibres

or cross-bred wools-"Ardil" confers on the resulting fabrics
a soft, smooth handle, together with warmth, drape and crease-
resistance.
2. "Blended with high-grade wools, "Ardil" fully maintains their

attractive handle and at the same time shows useful economical
advantages.
3. "It has a high moisture-absorbency; denier and staple are con-

trolled and its price is stable. The new fabric is readily worked
on all the normal textile systems, and its fire risk is no greater than
that of wool.
4. "Ardil" has been developed from groundnut protein, which

closely resembles wool protein."
"Ardil" fibre is available in the following mam types for the cotton
system :-
(a) "Ardil" Fibre B.

This fibre is of a pale cream colour. It is used when blending with
cotton that does not require bleaching or with viscose staple fibre.
(b) "Ardil" Fibre F.

This. fibre is of a fawn colour. It is recommended for use where
the cotton with which it is to be blended requires bleaching. It

is a little cheaper than "Ardil" fibre B.
It may be said that the groundnut protein fibre manufacturing in India

has a great future. Research work for the production of this protein fibre
should be carried out on the pilot unit scale in India with a view to study
the properties of the fibre produced from different varieties of groundnut
in the country and to establish the commercial success of the operation in
India. It will be interesting to note that two pounds of ground nut meal is
required to produce one pound of groundnut protein best suited for
industrial purposes. 61
Thus it will be seen that the cost of raw material is practically

negligible in the production of the groundnut protein fibre.
The production of soya bean protein fibre was started in Japan in the year
1938. The capacity of the plants was 10 tons per day. 18t In U.S.A.,
production was carried out in the year 1939 by the Glidden Co., of Cleveland.
The cottonseed protein fibre was investigated in U.S.A. by Arthur ].C.,

and Many H.G. 39
Zein protein fibre is worked on pilot plant scale in U.S.A., by Northern

Regional Research Laboratory. 189
In India, the most economical method to produce vegetable protein

fibre is from deoiled groundnut meal and hence research work may be
started in this direction.
At present in India, the raw pulp required for the production of rayon
fibre is imported. It will certainly be very helpful to produce groundnut
protein in the country best suited for production of fibre.
5. Production and Uses of Vegetable Lecithin
(a) Introduction
Very probably all oilseeds contain a group of substances known as phos-

phatides. These are removed in part with the oil from the seed in process-
ing.
These phosphatides are a group of fatty materials in which fatty acids,

phosphorus and nitrogen are constituents. Glycerol, sugars, and a number
of other constituents may also be present, depending upon the particular
phosphatide in question The better known phosphatides are the compounds

lecithin and cephalin. 103
Although lecithin is present in appreciable quantities in several commer-

cially processed seeds, the technical difficulties of preparing it have restricted
its manufacture on a volume basis to that obtained from soya beans and corn
in U.S.A. 103
Table No. 21 shows the yield of phosphatides from commercialoilseeds.

Commercial phosphat ides are categorically termed "Lecithin" and contain,
in addition to phosphatides 35 to 40 per cent oil which is believed to exert
a stabilizing influence on these moisture and oxygen sensitive products. The
article of commerce is ordinarily a waxy, sticky, dark yellow or orange-
brown-solid. Commercial phosphatides from soyabeans are reminiscent in
appearance and odour of the parent oil. 200
Table 21: Yield of Phosphatides from CommercIa) Oilseeds. 200
Name of Seed Per cent

Phosphatides
Soyabean 0·45-0·50
Rapeseed 0·35
Linseed 0'25
Groundnut •• 0·25
Palm kernel .. 0'10
(b) Production
The commercial manufacture of vegetable lecithin on a plant scale began

in Germany shortly after World War I. Soyabeans were extracted with hydro-
carbon solvents to yield an oil containing 1 to 2 per cent phosphatidic material.
The early German practice using the single solvent of a hydrocarbon

nature is essentially the same as it was used widely in U.S.A. The major por-
tion of the solvent is evaporated with jacketted steam and then open steam is
blown into the oil-solvent-phosphatides mixture, which step causes vaporiza-
tion of the remainder of the solvent, and hydrates the lecithin, thus rendering
it insoluble in the oil. The precipitated phosphatides usually contain about
50% moisture, which permits them to be centrifuged from the main mass of
oil, as a relatively thin emulsion of oil, water and phosphatides. Vacuum
drying of the mass at low temperature produces a stable lecithin product con-
taining about 65 % acetone-insoluble material.
Lighter coloured lecithin may be obtained by bleaching the undried

product with hydrogen peroxide, benzoyl peroxide, or sodium chlorite.
A patent issued to Stifferd (1945) describes the removal of phosphatides

from oil "foots"or sludge by treatment of these residues with ethylene dichlo-
ride. 200
Gehrke (1935) proposed that the sludge which collected in unrefined

soyabean oil be converted to an edible phosphatide product by treating it,
while fresh, with glycerol at about 60°C. On cooling, an aqueous glycerol
layer separates and is removed to have a phosphatide-oil layer suitable for
use in food. Sugar may also be employed with the glycerol. 200
After the work of Serensen and Beal 144 the solvent finally adopted in
U.S.A., is N-hexane. This solvent extracts only about half the total phospha-
tides of the soyabean, but the lecithin produced contains less carbohydrates,
bitter principles and colour.
(c) Refining of Phosphatides
It is obvious that phosphatides intended for edible use should be as free

as possible from unpleasant odour and taste. !The use of hydrocarbon solvent
alone for the extraction of soya beans provides phosphatides relatively free of
bitter taste, whereas the presence of alcohol during the extraction appears
to cause bitter substances to concentrate in the phosphatide fraction.
The most important means for the removal of odour and taste from phos-
phatides is by use of steam under vacuum ; inert gases could be used in addi-
tion to steam, if desired. Steam distillation, in commercial practice, has
proved to be an inexpensive and effective means for removing most of the
offensive impurities from phosphatides.
A unique and simple process for the refining of phosphatides, said to be

used commercially in Denmark, is described in a patent issued to Christiansen
(1944). In this method, oil-containing phosphatide mixtures, which may
also contain water, are combined with 10 to 20 per cent of a solvent such as
methyl or ethyl alcohol or acetone which is somewhat compatible
with oil as well as water. The mixture is heated to 60 0 to 70°C. to cause flui-
dity, whereupon addition of water causes a stratification, the lower layer
consisting almost wholly of phosphatides, water and alcohol and the upper
layer consisting of oil and impurities which impart odour, bad taste and
colour. Separation of the lower layer, possibly with the aid of a centrifuge,
and removal of the solvent provides a purified phosphatide which may be
further purified by repetition of the above process. It may be used as such or

may be mixed with various oil carriers. 200
(d) Properties
The approximate chemical composition of soya bean lecithin has been

given in the Table No. 22. 144
Table 22: Approximate chemical composition of Soyabean Lecithin 144
Constituent Per cent
Phosphatidylcholine 21
Phosphatidylethanolamine 8
Phospheinoeitides, lipositol, etc. 20
Phosphatides, others 11
Soyabean oil 33
Sterols, tocophereis, etc. 2
Carbohydrates, free 5
Total 100
Specifications for commercial lecithin, as developed in U.S.A., have been

shown in the Table No. 23. 144
Table 23: Specification for Commercial Lecithins. 144
Unbleached Single Bleached Double Bleached

Determination
Plastic Fluid Plastic Fluid Plastic Fluid
Acetone-insoluble, per cent 65·0 62'0 65·0 62·0 65·0 62·0

Acetone-soluble, 34·0 37·0 34·0 37·0 34·0 37·0
"
Moisture, 1'0 1·0 1·0 1·0 1·0 1·0
"
Phosphorous, 2·2 2·0 2·2 2·1 2·2 2·1
"
Nitrogen 0·9 0·8 0·9 0·8 0·9 0·8
"
Ether-Insoluble 0·2 0·2 0·2 0·2 0·2 0·2
"
Acid value 20 30 20 30 20 30
Colour, Yellow/red (a) 30/2·5 30/2 ·5 20/1·5 20/1·5 10/0·5 10/0·5
(a) The colour is determined in a 1 per cent solution in colourless mineral oil using a 5·25 in.
Lovibond cell. .
Lecithin is readily soluble in hydrocarbon solvents of both aliphatic and

aromatic types.
It is hygroscopic and absorbs moisture readily from the atmosphere or

from other substances in contact with it with the formation of a hydrate.
Lecithin, because of its peculiar molecular structure, has the dual

property of being able to attach itself to both oil and water. Thus lecithin
links harmoniously together as in all living cells, fats, water, carbohydrates
proteins, and minerals, a problem common to the manufacture of many food,
and industrial products.
Lecithin is readily soluble in animal, mineral and vegetable fats and oils
and practically all organic solvents with the exception of acetone and ethyl
acetate.
Lecithin is insoluble in water, but reacts with it to form lecithin hydrate,

which is insoluble in fats and oils.
Lecithin is neutral in character and will not normally function in a

highly acid or alkaline system. II
(e) Applications
Lecithin is one of the most versatile commercial products known.
The ability of phosphatides to function as protective colloids in both
aqueous and fatty media, as wetting and emulsifyIng agents, as moisture
absorbents, and as antioxidants, contributes to its wide variety of industrial
uses.
(A) FOOD USES
(i) Chocolate.
Phosphatides are used extensively in U.S.A. as additives to chocolate,
principally because they act as viscosity reducing agents. The phospha-
tides facilitate the wetting action and, in general, assure more complete
mixing of the other ingredients which may include shortening, butter
and water. As a result, when approximately 0·3 per cent phosphatides
is used, a viscosity reduction as great as 50 per cent may result. 200
(ii) Margarine
One of the earliest commercial application of lecithin in the food field is
m margarine manufacture. The incorporation of 0 ·1-0·2 per cent lecithin
in the fat stabilizes the dispersion of the aqueous phase and results in impro-
ved physical properties in the product.
The addition of phosphatides is said to impart uniform, butter like texture

and better spreading consistency and shortening value to the margarine.
The phosphatides may also exert antioxidant properties.
(iii) Shortening
Although the use of phosphatides in shortenings has been advocated

rather extensively, their use in such materials, other than as an antioxidant,
appears to be rather limited. They appear to be effective in lowering the inter-
facial tension of shortening 46 but do not appear to be as effective as other
materials in making the shortening sufficiently "strong" so that a higher than
ordinary ratio of sugar to flour may be used.
(iv) Antioxidant for Edible Oils and Fats

When lecithin is dispersed in a fat or vegetable oil, it distributes itself
throughout the material and forms a molecular, protective film around the
oil or fat at all points where it would normally come in contact with air,
water or other substances. The phosphatides form a film which acts as a
sort of oxygen filter, absorbing the oxygen from the air before it can come in
contact with the fat or oil. Therefore, the onset of rancidity is inhibited until
the phosphatides become saturated with all the oxygen they can absorb.
(v) Bakery Goods

In baking, lecithin is used in nearly all types of goods. When used in
bread it enhances the effectiveness of the shortening thereby giving more
tender crusts, and better freshness retention.
In bread and other yeast-raised goods generally, between 0·1 to 0·5%

lecithin on the flour basis is mixed with the shortening or dispersed in the
yeast emulsion.
Lecithin retards the syneresis of the starch gel and in this manner
keeps the bread fresh longer.
(vi) Macaroni and Noodles
It is definitely established that soyabean lecithin improves macaroni

products. About 0·5 % is used, preferably in the form of a premix with
flour. In macaroni products the emulsifying, interfacial, and antioxidant
properties of lecithin are effective.
The fact that cooked lecithinated macaroni is less susceptible to syneresis

makes it ideal for use in canning. However, the addition of lecithin has no
effect on the loss of vitamin B because of leaching during cooking. 144
(vii) Confectionery and Ice-cream
The use of lecithin in oil containing candy is now so well established

that the manufacturers of oils and fats for the confectionery industry add
lecithin to their products whether the customer specifies it or not.
The phosphatides are used in this case for their emulsifying and anti-
oxidant properties. The addition of 1 % soyabean lecithin to the oil or fat
makes the latter disperse and emulsify into hot sugar syrup rapidly. The cooked
product is thus prevented from greasiness, graining and streaking. Since the
fat does not come to the surface, the freshness of the candy is maintained.
Soyabean lecithin may also be used as a fixative for volatile flavours used
m candy.
Much work has been done in the application of lecithin to ice-cream

and sherbets as a stabilizer, emulsifier, etc. The addition of 0·5 per cent phos-
phatides to ice-cream, increases the smoothness of the product and prevents
sandiness on storage, even when the solids content is high. Phosphatides,
therefore, make possible an ice-cream of higher serum solid thereby adding
to the nutritive value of this product and furnishing an additional outlet
for nonfat milk solids which are ordinarily difficult to dispose of. 1((
(viii) Miscellaneous Uses
Commercial lecithin is not suitable to replace egg yolk in salad dressing

manufacture. It is highly probable that the difference in behaviour of the
two materials is due to the fact that whereas most of the lecithin of egg is
loosely bound to protein and is not soluble in hydrocarbon solvents, the
commercial soyabean lecithin is that portion of the total in the bean that is
in a free state. Those hexane soluble phosphatides that can be obtained
from yolk are equally ineffective as the soyabean lecithin.
Before leaving the subject of food uses of phosphatides, mention should

be made of their nutritional significance. It is established that both choline
and inositol are essential for normal growth and well-being of at least some
animals and birds. 103
Experimental work should be made to find out the beneficial effects

of adding crude phosphatides to the deoiled vegetable meals employed as

animal feed.
(B) NON-FOOD USES
(i) Petroleum Derivatives
The petroleum industry has a number of uses for phosphatides. Among

those better known are: (1) antioxidant for lubricating oils, (2) stabilizer
for gasoline containing antiknock agents, and (3) wetting agent for cutting
oils. It has been pointed out that 1 to 10 pounds of phosphatide per 1000
barrels of gasoline stabilizes lead tetraethyl containing gasolines against
cloud formation, colour change, and aluminum and other metal corrosion.
It has also been found useful in asphalt for its effect on adhesion of the
material to stone aggregates.
(ii) Textiles and Leather
Many patents have been issued on the utilisation of phosphatides in

the textile industry. It has been recommended for use with textile oils for
improved penetration and for better lubrication. The presence of the
lecithin is also said to make the oil more easily removed during the scouring
operation. Lecithin is particularly suitable for incorporation in starch warp
sizes as a plasticizer and conditioner. Unlike most of the derivatives it
does not inhibit the gelatinisation of the starch.
Phosphatides also serve as stabilizing agents in the bleaching of rayon

and other synthetic yarns.
Mixtures of phosphatides and cation-active substances are useful for

treating both textiles and leather since they impart to these substances a
soft feel and good draping qualities. 200
Phosphatides were originally proposed in the leather trade as a substitute

for the more costly egg yolk which was widely used in tanning processes.
About 1 per cent of lecithin imparts softness to the leather without im-
pairing tensile strength.
Rewald has proposed for use in the leather and textile industries a mix-
ture of phosphatides from which the oil has been removed and an emulsifying
agent such as sulphonated castor oil has been added. 200
(iii) Protective Coatings and Printing Inks ,
Phosphatides function as interfacial agents in paints, lacquers, and

printing inks, as v\-ell as an excellant dispersing agent in water-thinned paints.
Large amounts of lecithin have been used in these industries since its efficacy
was proved. 144
Ordinarily about 1 per cent phosphatides is uesd on a pigment basis.
The presence of phosphatides helps to correct "flooding" especially-

with chrome pigments. The covering power of such enamels is also improved
by the presence of phosphatides. 200
(iv) Rubber and Resins

It has been observed that phosphatides incorporated into rubber com-
positions prior to vulcanization serve as accellerators and as softening agents
III addition to facilitating the mixing process_
-In the fabrication of plastics and resins, phosphatides have been used
as mould lubricants. Usually about 0-5 per cent phosphatides is used for
this purpose.
(v) Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics and Soaps

The manufacture of cosmetics and pharmaceutical products utilises
lecithin in such preparations as ointments, salves and lotions where maximum
skin penetration is desired. It likewise is incorporated in fatty emulsions
when stability and smoothness of feel and appearance is obtained. Finer
grades of toilet soaps and shaving preparations frequently employ lecithin
for its emollient effect on the skin.
The phosphatides improve the keeping characteristics of soap, especially

if the oil present is replaced by stable fatty substances such as glyceryl
monostea rate, lenolin, wool wax or petroleum jelly. 200
C. MISCELLANEOUS USES
Many miscellaneous uses of phosphatides depend on their ability to

function as emulsifiers and as agents for lowering surface tension. No attempt
will be made to give details for the sundry uses of phosphatides, except to
enumerate the various fields of application.
(a) Manufacture of DDT.

(b) Wood preserving.
186 SOLVEN'!' EX'!'RACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS
(c) Insecticidal and fungicidal sprays.

(d) Ore floatation
(e) Explosives.
(f) Photographic material.
(g) Cattle foods.
Research Work In India

Very little research work has been done in this country regarding the
recovery of phosphatides from solvent extracted vegetable oils.
Some work has been carried out in the Department of Chemical Techno-
logy, Bombay, on the recovery of phosphatides from the sludge obtained during
the storage of solvent extracted groundnut oil. The problem was set to the
Research Institute by one of the solvent extraction plants working in India. 166
The results obtained are not quite conclusive, but from the preliminary
data collected it may be said that commercial quality phosphatides may be
well recovered economically from the "tank sludge" of the solvent recovered
groundnut oil.
Research work for the recovery of lecithin from the solvent extracted
vegetable oils, is at present being carried out at Oil Technological Institute,
Anantapur. No data have been published so far.
It is needless to stress the importance of active research work to be carried

out in India, at some of the research centres of the country, for the recovery
of phosphatides from solvent extracted vegetable oils and particularly from
the "tank sludge" and "foot&" from the oil-refinery. Usually the produc-
tion of the phosphatides 'sludge' and 'foots' in the solvent extraction plant in
India, treating groundnut oilcake is about 0·2 to 0·3 per cent on the weight
of entering material. Since the target fixed for the Second Five-Year Plan
is 8,00,000 tons of oilcake, it may be said that every year crude vegetable
phosphatidic 'sludge' to the extent of 1600 tons will be produced. The average
recoverable phosphatides will be about 20 per cert on the weight of crude
'sludge' and 'foots'. The price of refined edible phosphatides is Rs. 4 to
5 per pound. Thus the intrinsic value of one ton of sludge is Rs. 2,000 while
the present ruling price for this 'sludge' is not even Rs. 100 per ton.
It may be appreciated that if the problem for the recovery ofphosphatides

from the by-products of solvent extraction plants in the country, is solved
successfully, the national saving effected will be to the tune of Rs. 36,00,000
annually.
RECENT RESEARCHES AND LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOPNENT
I
187
It is high time that research work on the semi-pilot scale for the recovery
of phosphatides in India, be started in the near future. It is also necessary
to plan the research work for the successful utilisation of vegetable phosphatides
in the coun4'Y. In the initial stage, it may be necessary to carryon the pro-
paganda work on government level about the advantages of phosphatides in
human food.
There is also a good field in India for the industrial utilization of the
vegetable phosphatides.
(6) Industrial Utilization Of Groundnut Protein
In India at present since mainly groundnut oilcake is being extracted,

detailed study ofliterature has been made only for the industrial uses of ground-
nut protein.
(a) Introduction
Mter the extraction of the oil from the groundnut kernels, a meal residue
is left which contains most of the protein. At present this deoiled meal is
utilised only as fertiliser in India; while same deoiled meal, if exported,
is mainly used as livestock feed in foreign countries. A considerable number
of research investigations have demonstrated that this groundnut meal is a
good source of protein for use in the manufacture of such industrial products
as adhesive paper and textile sizes, water paints, synthetic fibre etc. 37,63,39,40
The groundnut meal which is produced during the removal of the oil
from the kernels by means of organic solvents at low temperatures contains
a high quality protein. The protein contained in hydraulic or screw-
pressed meals is satisfactory for the manufacture of fibres, adhesives and
sizes. 45,37,34,183,53,39
The chemical and physical properties of the protein constituents of solvent-

extracted groundnut meal are affected by temperature, humidity, moisture
content, and length of treatment process controls during the removal of oil.
The effects of these factors upon the peptis ability of the nitrogenous con-
stituents of groundnut meal have been investigated by various wor-
kers. 90,37,38,121,89,40,41
Fontaine and Burnett 89,91 have shown that more than 80 per cent
of the nitrogenous constituents are peptised upon the addition of water at
pH 6·64; minimum peptisation occurs in the pH range of 3·5 to 5 ; more
188 SOLVENT :EXTRACTION .OF VEGETABLE OILS
than 90 per cent of the total nitrogen is peptised at pH 7·2 and above; and
about 80 per cent of the total nitrogen is peptised at pH 1·5.
The most effective salts used for peptisation at pH values between 5

and 6 were calcium, barium, and magnesium chlorides in the concentra-
tions of 0·25 to 1· O. For industrial protein manufacture more than 80
per cent of the total nitrogen may be peptised at pH's ranging from 5 to
6·2 by means of 1 ·0 N solutions of salts, such as sodium chloride, bromide,
iodide, and sulphate.
The peptisation of the nitrogenous constituents of heat-treated solvent-

extracted groundnut meal does not differ materially from that of heat-treated
flaked groundnut meal. As the time of heating was increased, a gradual
degradation of the protein occurred as shown by the gradual decrease in
nitrogen solubility. With an increase in the temperature of heating at 100
per cent relative humidity, the peptis ability of the total nitrogen decreased
sharply. Fontaine, Samuels and Irving 90 concluded that critical denatur-
ing temperatures for groundnuts protein are above 118°C at 100 per cent
relative humidity.
It may be remarked that the production of deoiled meal for use as a

source of industrial protein must be carefully controlled in order that mini-
mum denaturing of the protein will occur. Lower temperatures of wet-
heating, and lower temperatures of whole groundnut curing, are conducive,
to the manufacture of deoiled meals which contain proteins that are more
soluble and less modified than proteins contained in oilcakes produced by
different methods.
(b) Manufacture OJ Groundnut Protein

An outline of the various steps required for the production of groundnut
protein has been shown in the Figure No. 36.
There are quite a number of investigators 37,38,40,64,186.61 who have

reported the isolation of groundnut protein from hydraulic pressed,
screw-pressed and solvent-extracted ground nut meal or cakes.
The various steps required in processing ground nut meal for proteins
and by-products are:
(1) Preparation of the water-meal suspension and addition of protein

peptising agents, allowing time for reaction.
(2) Clarification of the suspension by means of screening, filtering

and/or centrifuging.
(3) Precipitation of the protein by the addition of coagulating agents,

allowing time for the reaction and settling of the protein curd.
(4) Isolation of the protein curd from the mother liquor by means
of filtration or centrifugation techniques.
(5) Drying of the protein curd.
An improved proc~ss 38,42 for the isolation of protein from solvent-

extracted groundnut meal on a pilot plant scale has been reported.
An optimum density and settling rate of the protein curd was obtained
with a rate of addition of sulphur dioxide of 0·23 pounds per minute per 100
pounds of groundnut meal, and a temperature of the extract liquor of 85°
to 90°F. Spray washing of the extracted meal was more efficient than dilu-
tion with large excesses of water and resulted in protein yields of 40·8 per
cent by weight from 100 pounds batches of ground nut meal.
Opper and ter Horst 37 have patented a process similar to the above;
but in order to increase the yield of isolated protein to 75 to 80 per cent of
the nitrogenous content of the meal they incorporated different amounts of
urea with groundnut meal or with the meal-water-alkali suspension.
The production of groundnut protein having a light colour has been

a problem in the utilisation of groundnut meal resulting from the removal
of oil from the kernels of red-skinned varieties of groundnuts, since a con-
siderable amount of the red-brown colouring matter contained in the cuticles
is extracted and precipitated with the protein. In order to utilise the
isolated protein in products, such as paper coatings and synthetic fibres, the
objectionable colour must be removed. Several processes 61,92,37,9,42 have
been proposed to accomplish this.
Burnett 61 reported the removal of the colouring matter from the skins
of the kernels by means of a dilute alkaline wash prior to processing them
into oil and meal. The proteins contained in the meal were light in colour.
Bonotto (U.S. Pat. No. 2,101,805, Dec. 1937) proposed a process for
removing acrid-tasting and dark coloured substances by pre-washing the
meal with a dilute solution of sulphur dioxide, prior to isolation of the pro-
tein. He claimed that the protein was greatly improved in colour.
190 SOLVENT EXTRAC'I'ION OF VEGETABLE OIU
McLean 37 claimed that if the protein was isolated from oil-free meal
by means of an alkaline solution maintained at a pH between 8·0 to 8·5,
the skin colour was not extracted. 37
Arther proposes 38 the mechanical removal of the red skin. The

kernels are dried at 140 0 to 150 0 F until the skins could be removed by aera-
tion.
Pominski et at have described a very effective method of skin removal.172
The method consists of pre-treating the kernels by hot water-dip-
ping and drying at low temperatures prior to mechanical blanching to remove
the skin. By this method it is possible to get the skin removal with 98 to
99 per cent efficiency.
The waste liquors resulting from the manufacture of protein, may be

. utilized as media for the propagation of yeast. 37
(c) Properties of ProteinJ

The properties of ground nut protein which are important for its industrial
utilisation are primarily physico-chemical. Heretofore the amino acid com-
position of the isolated protein has not been shown to contribute to its industrial
uses; however, future research may show that the relative proportion of
polar and non-polar groups and variations in amino acid content are signi-
ficant factors in commercial applications. 37
It has been reported that about 96 per cent of the total nitrogen of the
groundnut occurred as proteins. 87
Irving et ai, 121,122 electrophoretic ally analysed groundnut meal

extracts to determine the composition of several ground nut protein fractions.
They reported the presence of two major protein components which occurred
in the ratio of 7 to 1 and comprised 87 per cent of the protein in an ammonia
buffer extract; Arachin, which comprised 63 per cent of the protein, con-
sisted of two major components, and Conarachin, which comprised about
33 per cent of protein, consisted of several minor components.
Burnett et al 62 have reported that the protein isolated from commer-

cial hydraulic-pressed meals, when dispersed in aqueous sodium hydroxide,
resulted in protein dispersions having higher initial viscosities than proteins
isolated from solvent-extracted meal.
(d) Groundnut Protein Products

The development of industrial uses for vegetable proteins in the manu-
facture of plywood, adhesives, rewettable adhesives, paper and textile sizes,

and synthetic fibres has been stimulated in recent years. This development
has been principally due to the increasing availability of commercial quantities
of oil-free (deoiled) meals containing high percentage of unmodified proteins.
(i) Plywood Adhesives
Several investigators 60,61,63,37,112.128 have reported the use of groundnut

meal in plywood adhesives. Burnett and Parker 63 reported the
specifications for groundnut meal suitable for plywood glue, the
effect of pror:essing conditions on the characteristics of the glue, and
the comparison of groundnut meal glue with other water-resistant
glues.
In the case of solvent extracted meal, it is necessary to add oil in order

to prevent the glue from foaming in the spreader.
The complete specifications for meal which have uniformly given good
results when used as plywood glue are as follows:
Protein (N x 6·25) .. 50% minimum

Percentage of total meal
N soluble in 1 M 70% minimum
Sodium chloride solution More than 80 %
Sieve test Passing mesh 200 mesh
,Oil 6% minimum
The formula recommended by these workers 63 for preparing plant-

scale batches of glue are :-(1) 200 pounds of water plus 100 pounds
of groundnut flour stirred to a smooth paste; (2) then add 55 pounds
of water, 15 pounds of lime mixed with 35 pounds of water, 4 pounds
of caustic soda dissolved in 11·5 pounds of water, 3 pounds of tetrasul-
phide (equal parts of carbon disulphide and carbon tetrachloride),
then stir for 2 minutes; (3) then mix in 15 pounds of ~ilicate of soda
for a few minutes and the glue is ready for use. Narayanmurthi and
co-workers 87 reported similar adhesive data for ground nut protein
glues and that the strength of the glue may be increased by adding for-
maldehyde to the glue formations.
(ii) Paper Coatings
Coatings containing groundnut proteins, prepared from solvent-exract-

ed groundnut meal have been developed 40 and a comparison of these

coatings have been investigated.
Groundnut protein coatings have the adhesive strength slightly better

than soya bean protein coatings.
With neutralized groundnut protein used as the adhesive coating, slips

containing 40 per cent solids were prepared with pH values as low as
6 '3, and when these slips were applied to raw stock, the coating had
wax pick values satisfactory for many printing operations.
(iii) Glues
Burnett and others 66,67,65,37,42 have prepared readily soluble glues from
the deoiled groundnut meal proteins.
These glues are suitable for making gummed tape and paper and for
making flexible or non-warping glues.
Glues prepared from proteins contained in pressed meal were reported

to have adhesive strength as high as 78 per cent of that exhibited by
animal glues while glues prepared from the proteins of deoiled ground-
nut meal, exhibited the adhesive strength as high as 82 per cent of that
of animal glue.
(iv) Sizes
The use of groundnut protein in the sizing of papers has been reported
by Corwin and Dunham (U.S. Pat. No.2, 421, 113, May 1927). They
prepared a product suitable for sizing paper for lithographing by ex-
tracting oil-free ground nut meal by means of alkaline solutions such as
ammonium hydroxide or borax. The resulting protein extract liquor
was clarified by means of filtration or centrifugation and concentrated
by evaporating some of the solvent. The solution of protein may be
used as a size or dried to a powder which is readily soluble in water.
(v) Protein Fibres
In 1937, Traill in England reported the extrusion of groundnut protein

urea solutions into an acid coagulating bath to form a new fibre. 37
Since that time a great number of investigators have reported
progress m making fibre from solvent extracted groundnut
meal. 186,32.39,189
The method has been dealt with in detail elsewhere in this chapter.
(vi) Fire-fighting Compound
Levin (U.S. Pat. No.2, 405, 438, Aug. 1946) patented a process for the
preparation of fire-extinguishing liquid utilizing groundnut cake. One
hundred pounds of cake were suspended in 50 gallons of water contain-
ing 15 pounds of hydrated lime. This mixture was heated to 95°C
for 2 hours to hydrolyse the proteins, filtered and neutralized by an acid.
The solution was then concentrated to 35 to 40 per cent solids; when
it was agitated it was claimed to be dense and comparatively permanent.
(vii) Moulding Powder
A moulding powder prepared by mlxmg synthetic resins, such as the

condensation products of phenols and formaldehyde, with finely ground
oil-free ground nut meal has been described (Fr. Pat. No. 846, 314, Sept.
1939). The powder is claimed to be water-resistant.
(yiii) Hydrolysates
Groundnut meal has been used as raw material for the preparation of
protein hydrolysates. 37 The preparation of culture media by the
action of pepsin on groundnut meal has been reported. 37
(ix) Protein Paints
Mechanically refined soya bean protein has been produced in commer-

cial scale in U.S.A., by Spencer Kellogg and Sons Inc. 34 This can
be used successfully to supplement or replace casein or other protein
binde~ in water emulsion paints. The composition of this very fine
light coloured soya protein is as follows :-
Moisture 8·84%
Fat 0·58%
Protein (N x 6·25) 53·90%
Crude Fibre 2·15%
Ash 5·54%
The cooking temperature in case of soya protein is somewhat less than in

the case of casein emulsions.
194 SOLVENT EX'rRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS
(e) Cost of Production
Burnett has estimated the cost of production of deoiled ground nut meal
III terms of the meal used and the by-products recovered. M,61
Yield values and nitrogen distribution for the products obtained in the
manufacture of groundnut protein on a semi-pilot plan scale are shown
in Table No. 24. The loss of material in processing is probably greater than
would be encountered in large scale operation.
Table 24: Yield Values and Nitrogen Distribution in the ManuCacture of Protein Crom Deoiled
Groundnut Meal containing 9·8% N (a) 61 (1% Moisture Basis)
Yield calculated to 7% Nitrogen Nitrogen Lb.

Moisture lb., or %
Meal (100·0) 9·80 9·80

Meal residue 42·2 7·70 3·25
Protein 33·0 15·56 5·14

Solids in supernatant liquor ..
from protein precipitation .. 15·7 5·00 0'79
Lost (CaIed.) ., 9·1 0·62
(a) Extracted at pH 8'0 with 10 Parts of dilute sodium hydroxide to 1 part mea!. Protein
precipitated with sulphur dioxide at pH 4 ·8.
Table published in Chern Engr. News, Vol. 24; No.4. Feb. 1946.
The solvent-extracted meal used contained 61·3% protein. The meal

and products obtained are adjusted to a 7 % moisture basis.
The dried residue has approximately the same feed value as the original
meal when placed on an equivalent protein basis; 42·2 lb. of meal residue
containing 7 ,7% nitrogen are equal to 33 lb. of the original meal, or about
2 lb. of meal used per pound of protein obtained.
It may be seen from the above data that the cost of the deoiled meal
required to produce one pound protein is only two annas in India. To this
must be added the cost of drying of the residual meal.
From the propagation of yeast on the supernatant liquor, it is possible

to get 2 to 2·5 lb. of dried yeast, per 100 lb. of deoiled meal extracted for
protein. 64,61
RECENT RESEARCHES AND L1NES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 195
Thus it will be realised that the cost of raw material employed in the
production of groundnut protein from deoiled groundnut meal is very low,
especially when the prices for the by-products are taken into consideration.
(f) Research In India
Practically no work has been done in the country for the production
of groundnut proteins of industrial value from the solvent extracted ground-
nut meal.
From the recent work carried out and the cost of production estimated
on the se'ni-pilot unit in foreign countries, it may be said that systematic
research programme for the production and utilization of proteins from
deoiled ground nut meal produced commercially in India, should be started.
Looking to the fact that India is the largest producer of ground nuts in the
world today, that almost all the solvent extraction plants working at present
(having 300-400 tons daily capacity) are treating groundnut oilcake, and
that deoiled meal is considered as "inedible" in the country, attention should
be paid for the utilization of groundnut proteins for industrial uses. It is desir-
able that pilot plant scale manufacture of groundnut protein, from deoiled
meal be started in the near future with a view that final proteins produced,
are of quality, best suited for various industrial uses.
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(87) Fan., H. P., et. a!., "Diffusion Phenomena in Solvent Extraction of Peanut Oil." Ind. & Eng.
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(88) Feuge, R. 0., & Reddi, P. B. V., "Rice Bran Oil-III. Utilization as an Edible Oil." A.O.C. S.
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(89) Fontaine, T. D., and Burnett, R. S., "Peptization of Nitrogenous Constituents of Solvent
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(108) Hexwang, et. al., "The Effect of Pure Gossypol on Egg Hatchability and 'Veight.".S. R. R. L.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 201
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(1951).
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June. 1950.
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(156) Parekh, H. V., "Vegetable Oil Project of Ceylon," Oil and Oilseeds J. May 1954.
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(160) Parekh, H. V., "Production of Defatted White Groundnut Flour." Oil and Oilseeds J. Sept.
1952. P. 11.
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(162) Parekh, H. V., "Modern Solvent Extraction Plant in India." Oil and Oilseeds J. June 1951.
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1952.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 203
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ApPENDIx-I
Partial List of Manufacturers of Solvent Extraction Plants in Foreign Countries
Name and Address of Name and Address of Type of Plant

Manufacturers Indian Representative
1. Rose Downs & Thompson Larsen & Toubro Ltd., Semi-continuous and continuous
Ltd., 39 Victoria St., Ballard Estate, rotary type.
London, SW-l (U.K.) Bombay 1.
2. Bamag (1953) Ltd., Optimum Corporation, Semi-continuous and continuous

Roxy Place, Fulham, 18, Hamam Street, basket type.
London, SW-6 (U.K.) Bombay 1.
I. Egrot & Grange, The Bombay Co. Ltd., 1. Semi-continuous with rotative
23, Rue Mathis, Paris, 9, Wallace Street, extractor,
(France) Fort, Bombay. 2. Continuous extractor.
4. S. A. Edouard Bataille, Nil 1. Semi-continuous with vertical

11, A. V. Raym-Poincare, kettles in series. No continuous
Paris-16, (France) extractor.
5. Establisements A. Olier, Nil 1. Semi-continuous with rotative

12, Avenue George-V, extractors in series.
Paris, (France) 2. Continuous vertical extractor.
6. Krupp-Indien-Handels- Cambata Industries 1. Semi-continuous vertical kettles.

gesellschaft, (Private) Ltd., 2. Continuous submerged type.
Buro Hamburg. 42, Queen's Road, !'vfodified Hilderbrandt system.
Hamburg, Germany Bombay 1.
7. "Lurgi", I. A. E. C., Continuous extractor BMA-Hilder-

G esellschaft Fur Industrial Development brandt system. Submerged type.
\\'armetechnik, Divil.ion, 43, Forbes
M.B.H./Frankfurt AmMain Street, Bombay 1.
(Germany)
8. BMA Escort (Agents) Private Ltd., Continuom extractor BMA-Hilder-

Braunschweigische 148, Mahatma Gandhi Road, brandt system.
Machinenbauanstalt Bombay 1. Submerged type.
Postfach (Post Box),
295, Braunschweig,
(Germany)
9. Extraction Continue De Oil Corporation of India Continuous extractor; horizontal

Smet, 38, Avenue de (Private) Ltd., Hindw.tan conveyor type.
France, Anvers, (Belgium) Buildings, 4, Chittaranjan
Avenue, Calcu.ta 13.
10. Borsig Aktiengesellschaft, K. G. Khosla & Co., 1, Desh- Semi-continuous with rotative ex-
Gladbek/w, bandhu Gupta Road, tractors in serie,. No continuous
(West Germany) New-Delhi 1. extractor.
APPENDIX 205
Name and Address of Name and Address of Type of Plant

Manufac turers Indian Representative
11. Wuster & Sanger Bapasola Trading & Continuous f'xtractor,
International, Engineering Co., "Filtrex" system.
Chicago-I5, 79-81, Gowalia Tank Newly developed process.
Ill, (U.S.A.) Road, Bombay, 26.
12. Allis-Chalmers Indequip Ltd., Continuous extractor.

Manufacturing Co., Hamam House,
Milwaukee-I. Hamam Street,
(Wis.) U.S.A. Bombay 1.
13. French Oil Mill Nil Continuous extractor basket type.

Machinery Co.,
Piqua, Ohio (U.S.A.)
14. V. D. Anderson Co., 1935 Voltas Limited, Bombay. Continuous extractor submerged
W. 96th St., Cleveland-2, type.
Ohio (U.S.A.)
1.5. Blaw-Knox Company, Nil Continuous extractor, "Rotocel."

New York, 17, N. Y.,
(U.S.A.)
16. Tsukijirr.a Machinery 1'\ot known. Not 1.nown.

Co., Ltd., No.9, 5-Chome, Most probably semi-continuous
Tsukijimadori, Chuo-ku, only.
Tokyo (Japan)
17. Mitsubishi Chemical Not known. Not known.

Industrial Machinery Co., Most probably semi-continuous
Ltd., Building No. 13, only.
Mitsubishinaka, Marunou-
chi, Chiyoda-ku,
(Tokyo) Japan.
ApPENDIX Il
Conditions of SJlecial Licence in India for Solvent Extraction Plant

1. Petroleum shall be stored only in the stora:5c tank and extraction plant specified for the
purpose on the plans attached hereto.
2. (a) The tank shall be sunk completely underground, the tank being packed round with sand,
earth or clay so that no air space is left below ground level and the tank is not visible. The filling
and dipping pipes in the lank shall be carried down to the bottom of the tank.
(b) Except for the necessary pipes and \'alves the space within an enclosure and not occupied
Ly the tank or ttlI1ks, shall be kept entirely clear and unoccupied.
3. All tanks and vessds in which petroleum is stored or handled shall be fitted with a vent pipe
leading into the open air, the open end being covered with fine copper or other non-
corroding metal wire gauge of mesh not less than 28 to the linear inch, and fitted with a hood or the
tank and/or \'essels shall be fitted with an approved rclief\'31\'e or other approved means for preventing
dangerous internal or external pressures being produced.
4. Cast iron valves are not permitted on any tank, pipe or vessel and all valves in an installation
must be permanently marked in a manner clearly indicating the direction of opening and IIhutting
the valve.
Provided that tested cast iron \'<lIves could be used if it is proved to the satisfaction of the licensing
authority that the use of such val\'es shall not endanger safety.
5. Pumps shall be placed only in the position shown on the plan att'lched hereto and they shall
together with all connections and fittings be so constructed and maintained as to prevent leakage of
petroleum.
6. Not more than 4, persons shall be permitted within the extraction plant at anyone time.
7. The plant shall be erected on a proper foundation which shall be surrounded by a low wall
suitably finished to form a sump or enclosure. The enclosure or sump thus formed shall be of sufficient
capacity to contain the total quantity of petroleum liable at any time Lo be present in the plant and
shall be so constructed and maintained as to prevent the escape therefrom of any petroleum in the form
ofliquid whether under the action of fire or otherwise. The floor of the sump shall further be finished
to form a gentle slope leading into a catch-pit to hold small collections of oil.
8. The extraction plant shall be adequately ventilated.
9. All pipes, stills, condensers, filters and all other receptacles in the licensed premises shall be so
constructed and secured as not to be liable, except under circumstances of gross negligence or extra-
ordinary accident, to become defective, leaky or insecure.
10. All pipes, stills, condensers, filters and all other receptacles in the licensed premises shall be
electrically bounded together and grounded outside the extraction plant premises.
11. All pipes carrying petroleum shall be visible so that any escape of petroleum may be at once
noticeable.
12. All waste products shall be so regulated that no petroleum shall be carried off the premises
in drainage or otherwise.
13. No fire or light except electric light conforming to condition 17 shall be allowed at any time
within the licensed premises.
14. The licence holder is prohibited from delivering to any other person any quantity of
petroleum.
111. If the licensing authority calls upon the holder of a licence hy a notice in writing to execute
any repairs or alterations to the licensed premises or any fittings thereon or to take such additional
precautions, which are in the opinion of such authority necesoary for the safety of premises, the holder,
of the licence shall execute the repairs or alterations or conform to such precautions within such period
not being les., than one month from the date of receipt of the notice, as may be fixed by the notice.
16. No alterations shall be carried out in the installation or in the structures and/or other facili
ties within 30" thereof without the previous sanction in writing of the liceming authority. Such altera-
tions 50 sanctioned 5hall be shown on an amended plan to be attached to this licence.
17. (i) Electric motor, control switch-gear and starting apparatus shall be of flame proof con-
struction satisfying the requirements of the British Standard Specification No. 229 or any other speci-
fication approved by the licensing authority.
(ii) All electric wires installed in the licensed premises shall consist of insulated cables, en-
closed in matallic coverings which shall be ga~-tight, electrically and mechanically continuous through-
out, and effectively earthed outside the building.
(iii) No electric wire shall pass over the extraction plant.
(iv) All electric motors, distribution board5, switches, fuses, plugs, and sockets shall be placed
outside the building and shall be of flame proof construction satisfying the requirements of the B.S.S.
No. 229 or any other ,pecification approved by the licensing authority. The frames of all electric
motors etc., shall be effectively earthed:
Provided that the licensing authority may in specific case~ permit installation of starters and
switches of the approved flame proof type inside the extraction house.
(v) All electric fixed lamp' shall be enclosed in a wall glass flame proof fitting, either doubly
APPENDIX 207
enclosed with subotantial metal protection; such lamps shall be installed at 12 feet where possible,
bu t in no case less than 8 feet, above the floor level.
(vi) No single fixed lamp shall exceed 200 watts.

(vii) All dectric portable hand lamps of the self-contained pattern shall be of a type
approved by the Chief Inspector.
18. The responsible agent or supervisor referred to in rule 92 .hall not allow any person to enter
a tank, which has contained petroleum unles~:-
(a) Such pf'rson wears a safety helmet of a description approved by the Chief Inspector, or
(b) (i) the responsible agent or supervisor has certified in writing as the result of an exa-
mination of the tank by himself or by some other competent person, that the atmos-
phere in the tank is fit for persons to enter, and
(ii) at least one safety helmet of a pattern approved by the Chief Inspeclor shall have
been kept ready for instant use at the manhole of the tank which is being cleaned or
repaired.
19. No work, involving the use of fire, welding or hot rivetting, shall be performed in any tank
until the tank has been certified in the manner laid down in clause (b) of condition, 18 to be free from
petroleum vapour. When any water is pumped into or withdrawn from the tank no further work of
the above description shall be done until the tank has been retested and a fresh certificate issued.
When a tank is open for cleaning or repair no lamp.s of any description either ordinary or electric,
electric torches, electric cables or fans other than of a flame proof type satisfying the requirements of
the B.S.S No. 229 shall be brought near the tank.
20. No person shall repair or cause to be repaired any receptacle or pipe in which, to his know-
ledge, any petroleum is or has been kept until he has taken ail reasonable precautions to ensure that
the receptacle or pipe has been rendered free from petroleum and any inflammable vapour.
21. Adequate precaution shall be taken at all times for the prevention of accident by fire or
explosion.
22. Adequate number of portable fire extinguishers for use against oil and electrical fires shall be
provided in different parts of the extraction plant and the plant operator trained in the me thereof.
23. Every care shall be taken to prevent any petroleum or material containing petroleum, escap-
ing into any drain, sewer, harbour, river or water course and enclosure or ~umps must not be
permanently connected with any drain or sewer. Drain water shall be freed of petroleum before it is
let out of the licensed premises.
24. Any accident, fire or explosion occurring within the area specified in the licence, which is
attended with loss of human life or serious injury to person or property shall be reported to the nearest
Magistrate or to the Officer-in-Charge of the nearest Police Station immediately and by telephone
where such means of communication are available.
25. Free access to the licemed premises shall be given at all rea~onable times to any Inspector
or Sampling Officer and every facility shall be afforded to such officer for ascenaining that the rules
and the conditions of this licence are duly observed.
ApPENDIX III
Quotationsfor Solvent Extraction Plants Receivedfrom Foreign Countri,s
1. Wiister & Sanger (U.S.A.)
"FILTREX" 50 Tons/Day Capacity.
(a) Solvent Extraction.
(b) Marc Desolventization. $ 1,29,445'00
(c) Oil & Solvent Recovery. } F.A.S. vessel.

(d) Solvent Storage & Handling.
Brought Forward £ ~tg. 24,730-0-0
This quotation is without Pretreatment Section.
2. French Oil Mill Machinery Co. (U.S.A.)
50 Tons/Day Capacity
(a) Preparation Equipment. 19,382 ·25

(b) Extraction Equipment.
(e) Evaporation System.
(d) Solvent Recovery System.

1
1,21,850'00
f'J
(e) Tanks.
(j) Pumps.
(g) Instruments etc.
Grand total F.A.S. Kew York s 1,41,232 ·2,'5
3. Krupp-Indien-Handelsgesellschaft.
Hildebrandt System~-
50 Tons/Day Cajlacity
(a) Crushing & Flaking. £stg. .:;,:366-U-0

(h) Continuous Solvent Extraction 19,364-0-0
24,730-0-0
(e) Miscella Distillation. 5,396-0-0
(d) Solvent Recuperatioll. 2,983-0-0
(e) Oil Treatment. 2,468-0-0
(f) Meal Cooling & Bagging. :1,123-0-U

"
(g) Tubes & Filtim;"_ 4,O:H-O-0
(It) Electric,,\ Equipnv:nt & L(Jeking Dey;c" 1,022-0-0

GRA;\;D TOTAL £' stg. 43,753-0-0
(i) Conveying Equipment Extra price 1'.0. h. Hamburg. 4,:!00'0-0
4. De Smet.
CAPA.CITY
·;0 Tons/Da), 25 Tons(Da)1
Rs. Rs.
(a) Pretreatment Section. 1l,0()1I 8,000
(b) Extraction & Refrigeration 4,40,000 3,60,00U
(e) ~eal Cooling & Humidifying. 11,1)1)0 IV,OOO
(d) Steel Structure for "Out-door." 1\J,UUO 18,000

-----
Total f.o.h. price. 4,81,000 3,96,000
APPENDIX 209
ApPENDIX IV
The following is the List of Licence holders for Solvent Extraction Plants in India:-
1. Mis Tata Oil Mills, Bombay House, Bruce Street, Bombay.
2. Mis. Vegetable Vitamin Food Company, Plot No. 101, Sion, Bombay.
3. Sundatta Cottonseed Utilisation Ltd., New Citizen Bank House, Palton Road, Bombay.
4. Ravalgaon Sugar Farm Ltd., Construction House, Ballard Estate, Bombay .
.>. Mis Deccan Fertilisers, P. B. No. 31, Hubli.

6. Mis Walchandnagar Industries, Construction House, Ballard Estate, Bombay.
,. Mis Swastik Oil Mills, Salt Pan Road, \\'adala, Bombay 15.
8. Mis Sonawala Industries Ltd., 137 Sheikh Memon Street, Bombay 2.
!l. Mis Bhavnagar Chemical Works (1946) Ltd., Varlej.
10. Mis Dhoraji Gin Mills Co., P. B. No.4, Dhoraji.
11. Mis Vcraval Oil Cake Co., Veraval.
12. Mis Bhavnagar Vegetable Products, Bhallnagar.
1'. Mis Bhikaji & Sons, Warangal,
U. Mis Arvan Industries, 108, '\'alker Town, P. B. No. 60, Secunderabad.
15. Mis Prag Ice & Oil Mills, Barafkhana, Aligarh.
16. Mis Dulichand Omraolal, Hindustan Building, 4, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta.
17. Mis Dulichand Omraolal, 50 Mill Area, Kanpur.
18. Mis Rohtas Industries Ltd., Dalmianagar, (Rly. Stn. Dehri-on-Sonc-:;.
19. Mis K. C. P. Ltd., Vijayawada,
20. Mis H. B. Chawda & Sons, Rajkot.
21. Mis Mansukhlal Dayabhai Shah, Bhojpura Ginning Mills, Gondal.
22. Mis Morvi Vegetable Products, MOTl·i
23. Mis Jalejar Oil & Rice Mills, radgiri,
24. Mis Madras Oils & Fertilizers Ltd., Gurubhavan, Chepauk, Madras.
25. Mis Ulhas Oil & Chemical Industries, 16, Apollo Street, Bombay.
26. Mis Jagdish Industries, Porbunder,
27. Mis Jagannath Bhagwan vas, Indore.
28. Mis Gandhi Oil Mills, Baroda.
29. ~f/s Bhanusali Industries, Bombay.
30. Mis Mandalia Oil Mills, Bombay.
31. Mis Ahmed Oomerbhoy, Bombay.
32 MIs Bramhappa Tavanappanavar (Private) Ltd., Davangere.

33. Mis Purshotamdas Nathobhai & Sons, Himatnagar (Bombay).
34. Mis Kanyaka Parameswari Rice & Oil Mills, Secunderabad.
35. Mis Faruk Anwar Co., Raichur.
36. Mis Tata Industries (Private) Ltd., Tatapuram, Ernakulam
:ri. Mis New Laxmi Oil & Chemicals (Private) Ltd., Bombay.
38. Mis Hyderabad Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd., Secunderabad.
39. Mis Madhusndan Industries Ltd., Agra.
40. Mis B. V. Bhoomreddi & Co., Kurnool.
41. Mis Kusum Products Ltd., Calcutta.
-12. Mis National Paints & Industrial Works, Ratlam.
43. Mis Jam Oil Products, Jamnagar.

44. Mis Jayant Oil Mills, Jamnagar.
45. Mis Ramanlal P. Shah, Veraval.
,\CKNOWLEPGMENTS
The author is highly obliged to the following for their valuable help. But for their active co-
operation, this monograph would not have been cornpleted.
1. American Oil Chemists Society. (U.S.A.)

2. Bhavnagar Chemical Works (1946) Ltd. Vartej
3. Blaw-Knox Company (U.S.A.)
4. Borsig Aktiengesellschaft
5. BMA-Braunschweigische Maschinenbauanstalt
6. Burmah-Shell, Bombay
7. Central Food Tech. Re. Inst., Mysore.
S. Chinese Embassy, New Delhi.
9. Ceylon Government, Colombo.
10. Consulting Associates, Bombay.
ll. Costain-John Brown Ltd., London.
Proprietors ofBamag (1953) Ltd.
12. Department of Chemical Tech., Bomba)'.
13. Egrot & Grange, France.
14. Establishments A. Olier, France.
15. Extraction Continue De Smet, Belgium.
16. French Oil Mill Machinery Co. (U.S.A.).
17. Government of India, New Delhi.
IS. H. B. Tech. Inst., Kanpur.
19. Indian Central Oilseeds Committee, H,yderahad.
20. Indian Inst. of Science, Bangalore.
21. Indian Veterinary Research Institute, h,atnagar.
22. Imperial Chemical Industries (India) Ltd .. Bombay.
23. Jadavpur University, Calcutta.
24. Japanese Embassy, New Delhi.
25. Krupp-Indien-Handelsgeslischaft.
26. Lurgi-Gesellschaft Fur Warmetechnik.
27. National Chemical Laboratory, Poona.
2S. National Dairy Research Inst., Kamal.
29. Oil Corporation ofIndia Ltd., Calcutta.
30. Oil Technological Inst., AnantapuL
31. Parekh Brothers Ltd., Bombay.
32. Prag Ice & Oil Mills, Aligarh.
33. Rose Downs & Thomson Ltd., London.
34. S. A. Edouard, France.
35. Skelly Oil Company (U.S.A.).
36. Solvent Oil Extractors Association, Bhamagar.
37. Sonawala Industries Ltd., Bombay.
3S. Speichim-France.
39. Standard-Vacuum Oil Co., Bomba)'.
40. Tata Oil Mills Co., Ltd. Bombay.
41. Texas Engineering Expt. Station, (U.S.A.).
42. Trade Commissioner for France, Bombay.
43. U. S. Depart. of Agriculture, (U.S.A.).
44. V. D. Anderson Co., (U.S.A.).
45. Veraval Oilcake Co., Vtra.'al.
46. WUster & Sanger (U.S.A. \. . / ' -.;~ ~~~7~~~Z'''':>.
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EXHAUPEO MEAL
fROM EXTRAcrOA
ORYINC TUBES
0': ..?AMAG LON])ON.

UNlV. OF AGRIL. SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, BANGALORE-560024
This book should be returned on or before

the date mentioned below; or else the
Borrower will be liable for overdue charges
as per rules fmm the DUE "DATE.
Cl. No. 06 y - .-> Ac. No. ~ 03~-
1 t'1AH 1991
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SOLVENT EXTRACTION

M. S. RANDHAWA, D.Sc., F.N.I., I.C.S.

CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUCTION OF

I. Mechanical Expression of Oil [>

(a) Cottage Oil Milling 5

III. Solvent Extraction of Oilseeds and Oilcakes 9

CHAPTER II. SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE OILS 11

(a) Value of Deoiled Cakes 25

CHAPTER Ill. SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS AND MACHINERY 28

(a) Effects Accompanying Deterioration. . 30

(2) Extractors with Other Conveying Devices 51

(a) Bonotto Extractor " " 51

(a) Tyca Extractor 61

(6) Other Types of Extractors 74

(10) Recovery of Solvent 78

(11) Technical Control and Management 83

CHAPTER IV. ApPLICATION OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS TO

CHAPTER V. SOLVENTS 108

(1) Introduction 108

CHAPTER VI. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS 127

(1) Introduction 127

(a) Transport Facilities 139

CHAPTER VII. REVIEW OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION INDUSTRY IN INDIA 144

(1) Introduction 144

(i) Kanpur Plant 146

CHAPTER VITI. ApPLICATION OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS TO

(1) Introduction 155

CHAPTER IX. RECENT RESEARCHES AND LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOP-

\ 1) Fabrication of Solvent Extraction Plants in India 164

B-Non-food Uses 184

C.--Miscellaneous Uses 185

(6) Industrial Utilization of Groundnut Protein 187

(a) Introduction 187

(i) Plywood Adhesives 191

Appendix I List of Manufacturers of Solvent Extraction Plants 204

do. II Conditions of Special Licence in India for Solvent

do. III Quotations for Solvent Extraction Plants Received

do. IV Solvent Plant Licence holders. . 209

PLATES After Page

11. Veraval Oilcake Co. Plant 92

REVIEW OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRODUcnON OF

The recovery of oils from oilseeds constitutes a distinct and specialised

Various methods of extraction employed today have their own degrees

In as much as vegetable oils are derived from a wide variety of oleaginou;;

An oilseed (olive and palm fruit excepted) may well be considered

Name Q/ Material Percentage Q/ Oil

Castor llean (Ricinus communis) 44-45**

Teaseed (Camellia sasanqua) .. 48

.. Oil content of meat.

From a chemical standpoint, oil seeds are extremely complex substance:;

In general it may be said that the protective coating consists largely

Oilseeds contain also a number of minor components which, in many

A number of unidentified substances (presumed to be mainly ketonic

Another series of substances which are of considerable importance are

of the living plant from rancidity. 46 This conclusion is based on a

Sterols, which are hydroaromatic alcohols containing 26-30 carbon

Vegetable oils are rather complex mixtures of glycerides (glyceryl esters

A number of processes are used to recover oil from oil-bearing materials

1. Mechanical expression by pressure of oil from oil-bearing materials.

II. Aqueous displacement method.

IV. Solvent extraction of oilseeds and oilcakes.

T. MECHANICAL EXPRESSION OF OIL

(a) Cottage Oil Milling