c06.

qxd 3/6/06 10:54 AM Page 388

388 Chapter 6 j Introduction to Convection

measured in the boundary layer is correlated by an
expression of the form T(°C) 5 20 1 70 exp (2600xy),
where x and y are in meters. Determine and plot the
manner in which the local convection coefficient h
varies with x. Evaluate the average convection coeffi-
cient h for the plate.
The heat transfer rate per unit width (normal to the
6.9
Determine the value of the average heat transfer coeffi-
cient for the entire exposed surface (that is, averaged
over all four faces) of a c 5 40-mm wide, d 5 30-mm
tall rectangular rod. The rod is exposed to air in cross
flow at V 5 10 m/s, T` 5 300 K. Provide a plausible
explanation of the relative values of the face-averaged
heat transfer coefficients on the front, side, and back
faces.

page) from a longitudinal section, x2 2 x1, can be

expressed as q912 5 h12(x2 2 x1)(Ts 2 T`), where h12 is Experiments to determine the local convection heat
the average coefficient for the section of length (x2 2
6.11

transfer coefficient for uniform flow normal to a heated

x1). Consider laminar flow over a flat plate with a uni- circular disk have yielded a radial Nusselt number dis-
form temperature Ts. The spatial variation of the local tribution of the form
convection coefficient is of the form hx 5 Cx21/2, where
h(r)D
C is a constant. NuD 5
k 3 1 24
5 Nuo 1 1 a r
r n
o
dq'
where both n and a are positive. The Nusselt number at
u∞, T∞ the stagnation point is correlated in terms of the
q'12 Reynolds (ReD 5 VD/n) and Prandtl numbers
x1 dx x2 h(r 5 0)D
Ts Nuo 5 5 0.814Re1/2
D Pr
0.36
k

x x1 x2 L

(a) Beginning with the convection rate equation in the ro

form dq9 5 hx dx(Ts 2 T`), derive an expression V D
T∞
for h12 in terms of C, x1, and x2.
(b) Derive an expression for h12 in terms of x1, x2, and
the average coefficients h1 and h2, corresponding to
lengths x1 and x2, respectively. Ts
6.10 Experiments have been conducted to determine local
heat transfer coefficients for flow perpendicular to a Obtain an expression for the average Nusselt number,
long, isothermal bar of rectangular cross section. The NwuD 5
w hD/k, corresponding to heat transfer from an
bar is of width c, parallel to the flow, and height d, normal isothermal disk. Typically, boundary layer development
to the flow. For Reynolds numbers in the range 104 # from a stagnation point yields a decaying convection
Red # 5 3 104, the face-averaged Nusselt numbers are coefficient with increasing distance from the stagnation
well correlated by an expression of the form point. Provide a plausible explanation for why the oppo-
site trend is observed for the disk.
Nud 5 hd / k 5 CRedm Pr1/3 6.12 An experimental procedure for validating results of the
The values of C and m for the front face, side faces, and foregoing problem involves preheating a copper disk to
back face of the rectangular rod are found to be the an initial elevated temperature Ti and recording its tem-
following: perature history T(t) as it is subsequently cooled by the
impinging flow to a final temperature Tƒ. The measured
Face c/d C m temperature decay may then be compared with predic-
tions based on the correlation for w NwuD. Assume that val-
Front 0.33 # c/d # 1.33 0.674 1/2 ues of a 5 0.30 and n 5 2 are associated with the
Side 0.33 0.153 2/3 correlation.
Side 1.33 0.107 2/3 Consider experimental conditions for which a disk
Back 0.33 0.174 2/3 of diameter D 5 50 mm and length L 5 25 mm is pre-
Back 1.33 0.153 2/3 heated to Ti 5 1000 K and cooled to Tƒ 5 400 K by an
impinging airflow at T` 5 300 K. The cooled surface of
c06.qxd 3/6/06 10:55 AM Page 392
392 Chapter 6 j Introduction to Convection
recirculating (closed) wind tunnel using hydrogen as
the working fluid. If the wind tunnel operates at a
hydrogen absolute pressure of 0.5 atm and velocity of
V 5 0.5 m/s, find the required hydrogen temperature
and characteristic dimension of the scale model, Lm.
Reynolds Analogy
6.34 A thin, flat plate that is 0.2 m by 0.2 m on a side is ori-
ented parallel to an atmospheric airstream having a
velocity of 40 m/s. The air is at a temperature of
T` 5 20°C, while the plate is maintained at Ts 5 120°C.
The air flows over the top and bottom surfaces of the
plate, and measurement of the drag force reveals a
value of 0.075 N. What is the rate of heat transfer from
both sides of the plate to the air?
u∞ = 2 m/s
6.35 Atmospheric air is in parallel flow (u` 5 15 m/s, T` 5
15°C) over a flat heater surface that is to be maintained
at a temperature of 140°C. The heater surface area is
0.25 m2, and the airflow is known to induce a drag force
of 0.25 N on the heater. What is the electrical power
needed to maintain the prescribed surface temperature?
6.36 For flow over a flat plate with an extremely rough sur-
face, convection heat transfer effects are known to be
correlated by the expression of Problem 6.21. For air-
flow at 50 m/s, what is the surface shear stress at x 5 1
m from the leading edge of the plate? Assume the air to
be at a temperature of 300 K.
6.37 A thin, flat plate that is 0.2 m by 0.2 m on a side with
extremely rough top and bottom surfaces is placed in a
wind tunnel so that its surfaces are parallel to an atmos-
pheric air stream having a velocity of 30 m/s. The air is
at a temperature of T` 5 20°C while the plate is main-
tained at Ts 5 80°C. The plate is rotated 45° about its
center point, as shown in the schematic. Air flows over
the top and bottom surfaces of the plate, and measure-
ment of the heat transfer rate is 2000 W. What is the
drag force on the plate?
L = 0.2 m
Air
T∞, u∞
Ts
Top view of thin, flat plate
6.38 As a means of preventing ice formation on the wings of
a small, private aircraft, it is proposed that electric resis-
tance heating elements be installed within the wings. To
determine representative power requirements, consider
nominal flight conditions for which the plane moves at
100 m/s in air that is at a temperature of 2237C and has
properties of k 5 0.022 W/m z K, Pr 5 0.72, and n 5
16.3 3 1026 m2/s. If the characteristic length of the air-
foil is L 5 2 m and wind tunnel measurements indicate
an average friction coefficient of Cf 5 0.0025 for the
nominal conditions, what is the average heat flux needed
to maintain a surface temperature of Ts 5 57C?
6.39 A circuit board with a dense distribution of integrated
circuits (ICs) and dimensions of 120 mm by 120 mm on
a side is cooled by the parallel flow of atmospheric air
with a velocity of 2 m/s.
Air
Integrated circuit (IC)
Circuit board
From wind tunnel tests under the same flow condi-
tions, the average frictional shear stress on the upper
surface is determined to be 0.0625 N/m2. What is the
allowable power dissipation from the upper surface of
the board if the average surface temperature of the ICs
must not exceed the ambient air temperature by more
than 257C? Evaluate the thermophysical properties of
air at 300 K.
Mass Transfer Coefficients
6.40 On a summer day the air temperature is 27°C and the
relative humidity is 30%. Water evaporates from the
surface of a lake at a rate of 0.10 kg/h per square meter
of water surface area. The temperature of the water is
also 27°C. Determine the value of the convection mass
transfer coefficient.
6.41 It is observed that a 230-mm-diameter pan of water at
23°C has a mass loss rate of 1.5 3 1025 kg/s when the
ambient air is dry and at 23°C.
(a) Determine the convection mass transfer coefficient
for this situation.
(b) Estimate the evaporation mass loss rate when the
ambient air has a relative humidity of 50%.
(c) Estimate the evaporation mass loss rate when the
water and ambient air temperatures are 47°C, assum-
ing that the convection mass transfer coefficient
remains unchanged and the ambient air is dry.
6.42 The rate at which water is lost because of evaporation
from the surface of a body of water may be determined
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W-34 6S.1 j Derivation of the Convection Transfer Equations

6S.6 Consider Couette flow for which the moving plate is
maintained at a uniform temperature and the stationary
plate is insulated. Determine the temperature of the
insulated plate, expressing your result in terms of fluid
properties and the temperature and speed of the moving
plate. Obtain an expression for the heat flux at the mov-
ing plate.
6S.7 Consider Couette flow with heat transfer for which the
lower plate (mp) moves with a speed of U 5 5 m/s and is
perfectly insulated. The upper plate (sp) is stationary
and is made of a material with thermal conductivity ksp 5
1.5 W/m z K and thickness Lsp 5 3 mm. Its outer surface
is maintained at Tsp 5 40°C. The plates are separated by
a distance Lo 5 5 mm, which is filled with an engine oil
of viscosity m 5 0.799 N z s/m2 and thermal conductivity
ko 5 0.145 W/m z K.
y Lsp Stationary plate, ksp Tsp
Lo
Oil (o)
ko, µ
0 U
Moving plate, insulated
(a) On T( y)–y coordinates, sketch the temperature dis-
tribution in the oil film and the moving plate.
(a) Determine the viscous dissipation, mF (W/m3), in
the lubricant.
(b) Determine the rate of heat transfer (W) from the
lubricant, assuming that no heat is lost through the
shaft.
(c) If the bearing housing is water-cooled, such that
the outer surface of the bearing is maintained at
30°C, determine the temperatures of the bearing
and shaft, Tb and Ts.
6S.9 Consider Couette flow with heat transfer as described in
Example 6S.1.
(a) Rearrange the temperature distribution to obtain
the dimensionless form
u(h) 5 h[1 1 2Pr Ec(1 2 h)]
1
where u ; [T( y) 2 T0]/[TL 2 T0] and h 5 y/L. The
dimensionless groups are the Prandtl number Pr 5
mcp/k and the Eckert number Ec 5 U2/cp(TL 2 T0).
(b) Derive an expression that prescribes the conditions
under which there will be no heat transfer to the
upper plate.
(c) Derive an expression for the heat transfer rate to the
lower plate for the conditions identified in part (b).
(d) Generate a plot of u versus h for 0 # h # 1 and
values of Pr Ec 5 0, 1, 2, 4, 10. Explain key fea-
tures of the temperature distributions.
Consider the problem of steady, incompressible lami-
6S.10

nar flow between two stationary, infinite parallel plates

(b) Obtain an expression for the temperature at the lower maintained at different temperatures.
surface of the oil film, T(0) 5 To, in terms of the plate
T1
speed U, the stationary plate parameters (Tsp, ksp, Lsp) Infinite
and the oil parameters (m, ko, Lo). Calculate this tem- L
parallel
plates
perature for the prescribed conditions.
y, v dp < 0
6S.8 A shaft with a diameter of 100 mm rotates at 9000 rpm in __
dx
a journal bearing that is 70 mm long. A uniform lubricant x, u
gap of 1 mm separates the shaft and the bearing. The 0
lubricant properties are m 5 0.03 N z s/m2 and k 5 0.15
W/m z K, while the bearing material has a thermal con- T2
ductivity of kb 5 45 W/m z K. Referred to as Poiseuille flow with heat transfer, this
y(mm) Bearing, kb special case of parallel flow is one for which the x
Tb velocity component is finite, but the y and z compo-
1
Lubricant
nents (v and w) are zero.
Bearing, kb
0 Ts
(a) What is the form of the continuity equation for
x this case? In what way is the flow fully developed?
Shaft
(b) What forms do the x- and y-momentum equations
Lubricant
take? What is the form of the velocity profile?
Shaft Note that, unlike Couette flow, fluid motion
100 mm
diameter
Water-cooled surface, between the plates is now sustained by a finite
Twc = 30°C
200
mm
pressure gradient. How is this pressure gradient
related to the maximum fluid velocity?
c07.qxd 3/6/06 10:56 AM Page 458
458 Chapter 7 j External Flow
Beginning with the momentum integral equation
(Appendix F), show that
d/x 5 0.376Re2x 1/5.
Determine the average friction coefficient Cf, x.
(b) Beginning with the energy integral equation, obtain
an expression for the local Nusselt number Nux and
use this result to evaluate the average Nusselt num-
ber Nux.
7.7 Consider flow over a flat plate for which it is desired to
determine the average heat transfer coefficient over the
short span x1 to x2, h122, where (x2 2 x1) ! L.
T∞, u∞
Ts
x x1 x2 L the critical Reynolds number corresponding to 105,
Provide three different expressions that can be used to
evaluate h122 in terms of (a) the local coefficient at x 5
(x1 1 x2)/2, (b) the local coefficients at x1 and x2, and (c)
the average coefficients at x1 and x2. Indicate which of
the expressions is approximate. Considering whether the
flow is laminar, turbulent, or mixed, indicate when it is
appropriate or inappropriate to use each of the equations.
7.8 A flat plate of width 1 m is maintained at a uniform surface
temperature of Ts 5 150°C by using independently con-
trolled, heat-generating rectangular modules of thickness
a 5 10 mm and length b 5 50 mm. Each module is insu-
lated from its neighbors, as well as on its back side. Atmos-
pheric air at 25°C flows over the plate at a velocity of
30 m/s. The thermophysical properties of the module are
k 5 5.2 W/m z K, cp 5 320 J/kg z K, and r 5 2300 kg/m3.
T∞ = 25°C Insulation Module, q
• cient, hx(x), with distance along the plate for three
u∞ = 30 m/s Ts = 150°C
a = 10 mm
L = 700 mm b=
x
50 mm
(a) Find the required power generation, q̇ (W/m3), in a
module positioned at a distance 700 mm from the
leading edge.
(b) Find the maximum temperature Tmax in the heat-
generating module.
7.9 An electric air heater consists of a horizontal array of
thin metal strips that are each 10 mm long in the direc-
tion of an airstream that is in parallel flow over the top of
the strips. Each strip is 0.2 m wide, and 25 strips are
arranged side by side, forming a continuous and smooth
surface over which the air flows at 2 m/s. During opera-
tion, each strip is maintained at 500°C and the air is
at 25°C.
(a) What is the rate of convection heat transfer from the
first strip? The fifth strip? The tenth strip? All the
strips?
(b) For air velocities of 2, 5, and 10 m/s, determine the
convection heat rates for all the locations of part (a).
Represent your results in tabular or bar graph form.
(c) Repeat part (b), but under conditions for which the
flow is fully turbulent over the entire array of
strips.
7.10 Consider atmospheric air at 25°C and a velocity of
25 m/s flowing over both surfaces of a 1-m-long flat
plate that is maintained at 125°C. Determine the rate of
heat transfer per unit width from the plate for values of
5 3 105, and 106.
7.11 Consider a flat plate subject to parallel flow (top and
bottom) characterized by u` 5 5 m/s, T` 5 20°C.
(a) Determine the average convective heat transfer
coefficient, convective heat transfer rate, and drag
force associated with a L 5 2 m long, w 5 2 m
wide flat plate for air flow and surface temperatures
of Ts 5 50°C and 80°C.
(b) Determine the average convective heat transfer
coefficient, convective heat transfer rate, and drag
force associated with a L 5 0.1 m long, w 5 0.1 m
wide flat plate for water flow and surface tempera-
tures of Ts 5 50°C and 80°C.
Consider water at 27°C in parallel flow over an isother-
7.12
mal, 1-m-long flat plate with a velocity of 2 m/s.
(a) Plot the variation of the local heat transfer coeffi-
flow conditions corresponding to transition Reynolds
numbers of (i) 5 3 105, (ii) 3 3 105, and (iii) 0 (the
flow is fully turbulent).
(b) Plot the variation of the average heat transfer coef-
ficient, hx(x), with distance for the three flow condi-
tions of part (a).
(c) What are the average heat transfer coefficients for
the entire plate, hL, for the three flow conditions of
part (a)?
7.13 Explain under what conditions the total rate of heat
transfer from an isothermal flat plate of dimensions
L by 2L would be the same, independent of whether
parallel flow over the plate is directed along the side of
length L or 2L. With a critical Reynolds number of
c07.qxd 3/6/06 10:56 AM Page 461

j Problems 461

7.22 Consider weather conditions for which the prevailing (a) Determine the relationship between the electrical
wind blows past the penthouse tower on a tall building. power dissipation per unit width of the strip in the
The tower length in the wind direction is 10 m and there transverse direction, 9 (mW/mm), and the airstream
P

are 10 window panels. velocity. Show this relationship graphically for the
specified range of `. u

(b) If the accuracy with which the temperature of the

operating strip can be measured and maintained
constant is 60.2°C, what is the uncertainty in the
airstream velocity?
(c) The proposed design operates in a strip constant-
temperature mode for which the airstream velocity
is related to the measured power. Consider now an
alternative mode wherein the strip is provided
Ambient
air with a constant power, say, 30 mW/mm, and the
airstream velocity is related to the measured strip
temperature . For this mode of operation, show
Ts

(a) Calculate the average convection coefficient for the
first, third, and tenth window panels when the wind
speed is 5 m/s. Use a film temperature of 300 K to
evaluate the thermophysical properties required of
the correlation. Would this be a suitable value of the
film temperature for ambient air temperatures in the
range 215 # ` # 38°C?
T
7.31
(b) For the first, third, and tenth windows, on one
the graphical relationship between the strip temper-
ature and airstream velocity. If the temperature can
be measured with an uncertainty of 60.2°C, what
is the uncertainty in the airstream velocity?
(d) Compare the features associated with each of the
anemometer operating modes.
Steel (AISI 1010) plates of thickness d 5 6 mm and
length 5 1 m on a side are conveyed from a heat
L

graph, plot the variation of the average convection treatment process and are concurrently cooled by
coefficient with wind speed for the range 5 # ` #u atmospheric air of velocity ` 5 10 m/s and ` 5 208C
u T
100 km/h. Explain the major features of each curve in parallel flow over the plates.
and their relative magnitudes.
Conveyor
7.23 The proposed design for an anemometer to determine
the velocity of an airstream in a wind tunnel is com-
prised of a thin metallic strip whose ends are supported
by stiff rods serving as electrodes for passage of current
used to heat the strip. A fine-wire thermocouple is
attached to the trailing edge of the strip and serves as T
i
L

the sensor for a system that controls the power to main-

tain the strip at a constant operating temperature for
variable airstream velocities. Design conditions per- L

tain to an airstream at ` 5 25°C and 1 # ` #

T u
δ
50 m/s, with a strip temperature of 5 35°C.
Ts

Air ∞, T∞
u

Air stream
For an initial plate temperature of 5 3008C, what is the
Ti

rate of heat transfer from the plate? What is the corre-

T
s

T
∞, u
∞
= 20 mm
sponding rate of change of the plate temperature? The
velocity of the air is much larger than that of the plate.
L

In the production of sheet metals or plastics, it is cus-

Strip
7.25
Support rod and
current lead tomary to cool the material before it leaves the produc-
tion process for storage or shipment to the customer.
Typically, the process is continuous, with a sheet of
thickness d and width cooled as it transits the
W
c07.qxd 3/6/06 10:56 AM Page 462

462 Chapter 7 j External Flow

distance between two rollers at a velocity . In this

L V

problem, we consider cooling of an aluminum alloy Surroundings, T

sur Plain carbon steel
(2024-T6) by an air stream moving at a velocity ` in u L

counter flow over the top surface of the sheet. A turbu- x T

o

lence promoter is used to provide turbulent boundary T

i

layer development over the entire surface. W

L
x T
o

T
i
T
∞
W
u
δ
∞ Air
Turbulence Air
V
promoter
u T
∞ ∞
Aluminum alloy Turbulence
δ
2024-T6 promoter distribution, ( ), along the sheet. Consider the
T x

effects of radiation, as well as convection, and

V
express your result in terms of the velocity, thick-
(a) By applying conservation of energy to a differential ness, and properties of the sheet ( d, r, , «), the V, cp

control surface of length , which either moves

dx
average convection coefficient associated with hW

with the sheet is stationary and through which

or
the cross flow, and the environmental temperatures
the sheet passes, derive a differential equation that ( `, sur).
T T

governs the temperature distribution along the (b) Neglecting radiation, obtain a closed form solution
sheet. Because of the low emissivity of the alu- to the foregoing equation. For d 5 3 mm, 5 0.10 V

minum, radiation effects may be neglected. Express m/s, 5 10 m, 5 1 m, ` 5 20 m/s, ` 5 208C,

L W u T

your result in terms of the velocity, thickness, and and a sheet temperature of 5 5008C at the onset
Ti

properties of the sheet ( d, r, ), the local con-

V, cp of cooling, what is the outlet temperature ? To

vection coefficient associated with the counter

hx
flow, and the air temperature. For a known temper-
ature of the sheet ( ) at the onset of cooling and a
Ti
negligible effect of the sheet velocity on boundary
Assume a negligible effect of the sheet velocity on
boundary layer development in the direction of air
flow. The density and specific heat of the steel are
r 5 7850 kg/m3 and 5 620 J/kg z K, while proper-
cp

layer development, solve the equation to obtain an ties of the air may be taken to be 5 0.044 W/m z K,
k

expression for the outlet temperature . To n 5 4.5 3 1025 m2/s, 5 0.68. Pr

(b) For d 5 2 mm, 5 0.10 m/s, 5 5 m, 5 1 m,

V L
u ` 5 20 m/s, ` 5 208C, and
T 5 3008C, what is
Ti
the outlet temperature ? To
In the production of sheet metals or plastics, it is cus-
W (c) Accounting for the effects of radiation, with « 5
0.70 and Tsur 5 208C, numerically integrate the dif-
ferential equation derived in part (a) to determine
the temperature of the sheet at 5 10 m. Explore L

the effect of on the temperature distribution

7.26

tomary to cool the material before it leaves the produc- V

tion process for storage or shipment to the customer. along the sheet.
Typically, the process is continuous, with a sheet of 7.27 A steel strip emerges from the hot roll section of a steel
thickness d and width cooled as it transits the distance
W mill at a speed of 20 m/s and a temperature of 1200 K. Its
L between two rollers at a velocity . In this problem,
V length and thickness are 5 100 m and d 5 0.003 m,
L

we consider cooling of plain carbon steel by an air respectively, and its density and specific heat are 7900
stream moving at a velocity ` in cross flow over the top
u kg/m3 and 640 J/kg z K, respectively.
and bottom surfaces of the sheet. A turbulence promoter
is used to provide turbulent boundary layer development Atmospheric air,
over the entire surface. T = 300 K
∞

(a) By applying conservation of energy to a differential Steel strip (1200 K)

control surface of length , which either moves
dx
V = 20 m/s
with the sheet is stationary and through which
or
L

the sheet passes, and assuming a uniform sheet δ

temperature in the direction of air flow, derive a Atmospheric air,
differential equation that governs the temperature T = 300 K
∞
c07.qxd 3/6/06 10:56 AM Page 469

j Problems 469

controlled by monitoring its electric resistance, and sponding error in the velocity measurement? Note:

with concurrent measurement of the electric current, conduction across the deposit may be approxi-
the power dissipated in the film may be determined. mated as that across a plane wall.
Fluid Quartz rod, D = 1.5 mm 7.62 In a manufacturing process, a long coated plastic rod
k = 1.4 W/m•K (r 5 2200 kg/m3, 5 800 J/kg z K, 5 1 W/m z K) of
c k
V, T∞ = 20°C
diameter 5 20 mm is initially at a uniform tempera-
D

ture of 25°C and is suddenly exposed to a cross flow of

Power leads, thick air at ` 5 350°C and 5 50 m/s.
T V

films, no power
dissipation
(a) How long will it take for the surface of the rod to
reach 175°C, the temperature above which the spe-
Hot-film sensor, T
s
= 50°C cial coating will cure?
(b) Generate a plot of the time-to-reach 175°C as a
w = 0.3 mm
function of air velocity for 5 # # 50 m/s. V

Proper operation is assured only if the heat generated in 7.63 In an extrusion process, copper wire emerges from the
the film is transferred to the fluid, rather than conducted extruder at a velocity and is cooled by convection
Ve

from the film into the quartz rod. Thermally, the film
should therefore be strongly coupled to the fluid and
weakly coupled to the quartz rod. This condition is sat-
isfied if the Biot number is very large, 5 h /2 @ 1,
Bi
heat transfer to air in cross flow over the wire, as well
as by radiation to the surroundings.
D k

where h is the convection coefficient between the T

sur
fluid and the film and is the thermal conductivity of
k

the rod. x
L

(a) For the following fluids and velocities, calculate T Wire, ε T

and plot the convection coefficient as a function

i o
D

of velocity: (i) water, 0.5 # # 5 m/s; (ii) air, 1 #

V V
e

V # 20 m/s.
(b) Comment on the suitability of using this hot-film
sensor for the foregoing conditions. Extruder

7.61 Consider use of the hot-film sensor described in Prob- Air V , T∞

lem 7.60 to determine the velocity of water entering the

cooling system of an electric power plant from an (a) By applying conservation of energy to a differential
adjoining lake. The sensor is mounted within an intake control surface of length , which either moves
dx

pipe, and its controls are set to maintain an average hot- with the wire is stationary and through which the
or

film temperature that is 58C larger than the fluid temper- wire passes, derive a differential equation that gov-
ature ( hf 2 ` 5 58C).
Ts, T erns the temperature distribution, ( ), along the T x

(a) If an independent measurement of the water temper- wire. In your derivation, the effect of axial conduc-
ature yields a value of ` 5 178C, use the Churchill–
T tion along the wire may be neglected. Express your
Bernstein correlation to estimate the velocity of the result in terms of the velocity, diameter, and prop-
water under conditions for which the power input erties of the wire ( , , r, , «), the convection
Ve D cp

to the sensor maintains a heat flux of 0hf 5 4 3 q coefficient associated with the cross flow ( ), and h

104 W/m2 from the film to the water. the environmental temperatures ( `, sur). T T

(b) If the sensor is exposed to the water for an (b) Neglecting radiation, obtain a closed form solution
extended period, its surface will be by an
fouled to the foregoing equation. For 5 0.2 m/s, 5 5 Ve D

accumulation of deposits from the water. Consider mm, 5 5 m/s, ` 5 258C, and an initial wire tem-
V T

conditions for which the deposits form a 0.l-mm- perature of 5 6008C, compute the temperature
Ti To

thick shell around the sensor and have a thermal of the wire at 5 5 5 m. The density and specific
x L

conductivity of 5 2 W/m z K. For ` 5 178C

kd T heat of the copper are r 5 8900 kg/m3 and 5 400 cp

and the flow velocity determined in part (a), what J/kg z K, while properties of the air may be taken
heat flux must be supplied to the sensor to maintain to be 5 0.037 W/m z K, n 5 3 3 1025 m2/s, and
k

its temperature at hf 5 228C? What is the corre-

Ts, Pr 5 0.69.
c08.qxd 3/6/06 10:57 AM Page 543
j Problems
8.52 Exhaust gases from a wire processing oven are dis-
charged into a tall stack, and the gas and stack surface
temperatures at the outlet of the stack must be esti-
mated. Knowledge of the outlet gas temperature Tm,o is
useful for predicting the dispersion of effluents in the
thermal plume, while knowledge of the outlet stack sur-
face temperature Ts,o indicates whether condensation of
the gas products will occur. The thin-walled, cylindrical
stack is 0.5 m in diameter and 6.0 m high. The exhaust
gas flow rate is 0.5 kg/s, and the inlet temperature is
600°C.
Outlet
Thermal plume
Diameter,
0.5 m
Stack Height, 6 m
Building
Stack base
Inlet
Oven
Oven exhaust gases
(a) Consider conditions for which the ambient air tem-
perature and wind velocity are 4°C and 5 m/s,
respectively. Approximating the thermophysical
properties of the gas as those of atmospheric air, esti-
mate the outlet gas and stack surface temperatures
for the given conditions.
(b) The gas outlet temperature is sensitive to variations
in the ambient air temperature and wind velocity.
For T` 5 225°C, 5°C, and 35°C, compute and plot
the gas outlet temperature as a function of wind
velocity for 2 # V # 10 m/s.
8.53 A hot fluid passes through a thin-walled tube of 10-mm
diameter and 1-m length, and a coolant at T` 5 25°C
is in cross flow over the tube. When the flow rate is
ṁ 5 18 kg/h and the inlet temperature is Tm,i 5 85°C,
the outlet temperature is Tm,o 5 78°C.
Assuming fully developed flow and thermal con-
ditions in the tube, determine the outlet temperature,
Tm,o, if the flow rate is increased by a factor of 2. That
is, ṁ 5 36 kg/h, with all other conditions the same.
The thermophysical properties of the hot fluid are
543
r 5 1079 kg/m3, cp 5 2637 J/kg z K, m 5 0.0034 N z
s/m2, and k 5 0.261 W/m z K.
Tube, D = 10 mm,
L=1m
Coolant
T∞ = 25°C
Tm,o = 78°C
Hot fluid
Tm,i = 85°C
m• = 18 kg/h
8.54 Consider a thin-walled tube of 10-mm diameter and
2-m length. Water enters the tube from a large reservoir
at ṁ 5 0.2 kg/s and Tm,i 5 47°C.
(a) If the tube surface is maintained at a uniform temper-
ature of 27°C, what is the outlet temperature of the
water, Tm,o? To obtain the properties of water, assume
an average mean temperature of T m 5 300 K.
(b) What is the exit temperature of the water if it is
heated by passing air at T` 5 100°C and V 5
10 m/s in cross flow over the tube? The properties
of air may be evaluated at an assumed film temper-
ature of Tƒ 5 350 K.
(c) In the foregoing calculations, were the assumed val-
ues of T m and Tƒ appropriate? If not, use properly
evaluated properties and recompute Tm,o for the con-
ditions of part (b).
8.55 Water at a flow rate of ṁ 5 0.215 kg/s is cooled from
70°C to 30°C by passing it through a thin-walled tube
of diameter D 5 50 mm and maintaining a coolant at
T` 5 15°C in cross flow over the tube.
(a) What is the required tube length if the coolant is air
and its velocity is V 5 20 m/s?
(b) What is the tube length if the coolant is water and
V 5 2 m/s?
8.56 Consider a thin-walled, metallic tube of length L 5 1 m
and inside diameter Di 5 3 mm. Water enters the tube
at ṁ 5 0.015 kg/s and Tm,i 5 97°C.
(a) What is the outlet temperature of the water if the
tube surface temperature is maintained at 27°C?
(b) If a 0.5-mm-thick layer of insulation of k 5 0.05
W/m z K is applied to the tube and its outer surface
is maintained at 27°C, what is the outlet tempera-
ture of the water?
(c) If the outer surface of the insulation is no longer
maintained at 27°C but is allowed to exchange heat
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546 Chapter 8 j Internal Flow

Stack 8.70 Ground source heat pumps operate by using a liquid,

rather than ambient air, as the heat source (or sink) for
Surroundings winter heating (or summer cooling). The liquid flows in
Ds
a closed loop through plastic tubing that is buried at a
Thermocouple
Dt Tt, ε t Ambient depth for which annual variations in the temperature of
ht air, T∞
tube Tsur
the soil are much less than those of the ambient air. For
Ts, εs example, at a location such as South Bend, Indiana,
deep-ground temperatures may remain at approxi-
hi ho
mately 11°C, while annual excursions in the ambient
air temperature may range from 225°C to 137°C.
Flue gas
m• g, Tg

(b) Assuming the flue gas to have the properties of

atmospheric air, evaluate the error for Tt 5 300°C,
Ds 5 0.6 m, Dt 5 10 mm, ṁg 5 1 kg/s, T` 5 Tsur 5
27°C, «t 5 «s 5 0.8, and ho 5 25 W/m2 z K.
8.69 In a biomedical supplies manufacturing process, a
requirement exists for a large platen that is to be main-
tained at 45 6 0.25°C. The proposed design features
the attachment of heating tubes to the platen at a rela-
tive spacing S. The thick-walled, copper tubes have an
inner diameter of Di 5 8 mm and are attached to the
platen with a high thermal conductivity solder, which
provides a contact width of 2Di. The heating fluid (eth-
ylene glycol) flows through each tube at a fixed rate of
ṁ 5 0.06 kg/s. The platen has a thickness of w 5
25 mm and is fabricated from a stainless steel with a
thermal conductivity of 15 W/m z K.
T∞, h
y
T (x, w)
Platen
2Di
Solder
Insulation
Air Tube Di
S/2
T∞, h
Platen
Insulation S smooth circular tube at Reynolds numbers of 4000, 104,
Considering the two-dimensional cross section of the
platen shown in the inset, perform an analysis to deter-
mine the heating fluid temperature Tm and the tube
spacing S required to maintain the surface temperature
of the platen, T(x, w), at 45 6 0.25°C, when the ambient
temperature is 25°C and the convection coefficient is
100 W/m2 z K.
Heat
pump
Tm,i Tm,o
m•
Polyethylene tubing
(k, t, Di, L)
Consider winter conditions for which the liquid is
discharged from the heat pump into high-density poly-
ethylene tubing of thickness t 5 8 mm and thermal con-
ductivity k 5 0.47 W/m z K. The tubing is routed through
soil that maintains a uniform temperature of approxi-
mately 10°C at the tube outer surface. The properties of
the fluid may be approximated as those of water.
(a) For a tube inner diameter and flow rate of Di 5
25 mm and ṁ 5 0.03 kg/s and a fluid inlet temper-
w ature of Tm,i 5 0°C, determine the tube outlet tem-
perature (heat pump inlet temperature), Tm,o, as a
x function of the tube length L for 10 # L # 50 m.
(b) Recommend an appropriate length for the system.
How would your recommendation be affected by
variations in the liquid flow rate?
8.71 Compare Nusselt predictions based on the Colburn,
Dittus–Boelter, Sieder and Tate, and Gnielinski correla-
tions for the fully developed turbulent flow of water in a
and 105 when the average mean temperature is 295 K
and the surface temperature is 305 K.
8.72 For a sharp-edged inlet and a combined entry region,
the average Nusselt number may be computed from
Equation 8.63, with C 5 24Re D20.23 and m 5 0.815 2
2.08 3 1026ReD [20]. Determine NuD /NuD,fd at x/D 5
10 and 60 for ReD 5 104 and 105.
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602 Chapter 9 j Free Convection

the exterior surface of emissivity 0.85 to large sur-

roundings, also at 25°C; and (ii) the thermal resis-
tance of a 20-mm-thick wall with a thermal
W conductivity of 0.25 W/m z K. Represent the system
by a thermal circuit and estimate the wall tempera-
tures and the heat transfer rate.
Air, T∞
H 9.31 In the central receiver concept of a solar power plant,
Refrigerator
compartment
many heliostats at ground level are used to direct a con-
centrated solar flux 0 to the receiver, which is posi-
qS

Polypropylene tioned at the top of a tower. However, even with

surface,
Ts,i absorption of all the solar flux by the outer surface of
the receiver, losses due to free convection and radiation
Insulation,
Steel
surface,
Surroundings,
Tsur reduce the collection efficiency below the maximum
k Ts,o, ε possible value of 100%. Consider a cylindrical receiver
L of diameter 5 7 m, length 5 12 m, and emissivity
D L

« 5 0.20.
(a) Estimate the heat gain through the door for the
worst case condition corresponding to no insula- D
Ambient air
tion (L 5 0).
(b) Compute and plot the heat gain and the outer sur- T
∞, h

face temperature Ts, o as a function of insulation

thickness for 0 # L # 25 mm. Central
9.30 Air at 3 atm and 100°C is discharged from a compressor L receiver

into a vertical receiver of 2.5-m height and 0.75-m diam- G

S

eter. Assume that the receiver wall has negligible thermal

resistance, is at a uniform temperature, and that heat
q"
S

transfer at its inner and outer surfaces is by free convec-

tion from a vertical plate. Neglect radiation exchange and T

any losses from the top.

s

Heliostats

Air Air
(a) If all of the solar flux is absorbed by the receiver and
T∞,i = 100°C T∞,o = 25°C a surface temperature of 5 800 K is maintained,
Ts

Receiver pi = 3 atm po = 1 atm what is the rate of heat loss from the receiver? The
ambient air is quiescent at a temperature of
T y 5 300 K, and irradiation from the surroundings

Receiver wall
may be neglected. If the corresponding value of the
solar flux is 0 5 105 W/m2, what is the collector
qS
Compressor
connection
efficiency?
(b) The surface temperature of the receiver is affected
by design and operating conditions within the
power plant. Over the range from 600 to 1000 K,
(a) Estimate the receiver wall temperature and the heat plot the variation of the convection, radiation, and
transfer to the ambient air at 25°C. To facilitate use total heat rates as a function of . For a fixed value
Ts

of the free convection correlations with appropriate of 0 5 105 W/m2, plot the corresponding variation
qS

film temperatures, assume that the receiver wall
temperature is 60°C.
(b) Were the assumed film temperatures of part (a) rea-
sonable? If not, use an iteration procedure to find
consistent values.
(c) Now consider two features of the receiver neglected
in the previous analysis: (i) radiation exchange from
of the receiver efficiency.
9.32 An experimental apparatus is shown in the schematic for
measuring the local convection coefficient and the
boundary layer temperature distribution for a heated ver-
tical plate immersed in an extensive, quiescent fluid. The
plate is maintained at a uniform temperature by circulat-
ing a thermostatically controlled fluid through imbedded
c09.qxd 3/6/06 10:59 AM Page 605
j Problems
values of the convection coefficient and the temper-
ature of the surroundings. How does the convection
coefficient compare with predictions by an appro-
priate correlation?
9.40 A circular grill of diameter 0.25 m and emissivity 0.9 is
maintained at a constant surface temperature of 130°C.
What electrical power is required when the room air
and surroundings are at 24°C?
Many laptop computers are equipped with thermal man-
9.41
agement systems that involve liquid cooling of the cen-
tral processing unit (CPU), transfer of the heated liquid
to the back of the laptop screen assembly, and dissipa-
tion of heat from the back of the screen assembly by
way of a flat, isothermal heat spreader. The cooled liq-
uid is recirculated to the CPU and the process continues.
Consider an aluminum heat spreader that is of width
w 5 275 mm and height L 5 175 mm. The screen
assembly is oriented at an angle u 5 30° from the verti-
cal direction, and the heat spreader is attached to the
t 5 3 mm thick plastic housing with a thermally conduct-
ing adhesive. The plastic housing has a thermal conduc-
tivity of k 5 0.21 W/m z K and emissivity of « 5 0.85.
The contact resistance associated with the heat spreader-
housing interface is Rt0,c 5 2.0 3 1024 m2 z K/W. If the
CPU generates, on average, 15 W of thermal energy,
what is the temperature of the heat spreader when T` 5
Tsur 5 23°C? Which thermal resistance (contact, con-
duction, radiation, or free convection) is the largest?
9.42 Consider the roof of the refrigerated truck compartment
described in Problem 7.20, but under conditions for
which the truck is parked (V 5 0). All other conditions
remain unchanged. For aS 5 « 5 0.5, determine the outer
surface temperature, Ts,o, and the heat load imposed on
the refrigeration system. Hint: Assume Ts,o . Ty and
RaL . 107.
9.43 The 4-m by 4-m horizontal roof of an uninsulated alu-
minum melting furnace is comprised of a 0.08-m-thick
fireclay brick refractory covered by a 5-mm-thick steel
(AISI 1010) plate. The refractory surface exposed to
the furnace gases is maintained at 1700 K during oper-
ation, while the outer surface of the steel is exposed to
the air and walls of a large room at 25°C. The emissiv-
ity of the steel is « 5 0.3.
(a) What is the rate of heat loss from the roof?
(b) If a 20-mm-thick layer of alumina–silica insulation
(64 kg/m3) is placed between the refractory and the
steel, what is the new rate of heat loss from the
roof? What is the temperature at the inner surface
of the insulation?
(c) One of the process engineers claims that the tem-
perature at the inner surface of the insulation found
605
in part (b) is too high for safe, long-term operation.
What thickness of fireclay brick would reduce this
temperature to 1350 K?
9.44 A stereo receiver/amplifier is enclosed in a thin
metallic case for which the top, horizontal surface is
0.5 m 3 0.5 m on a side. The surface, which is not
vented, has an emissivity of « 5 0.8 and is exposed to
quiescent ambient air and large surroundings for which
T` 5 Tsur 5 25°C. For surface temperatures in the
range 50 # Ts # 75°C, compute and plot the total heat
rate from the surface, as well as the contributions due
to convection and radiation.
9.45 At the end of its manufacturing process, a silicon wafer
of diameter D 5 150 mm, thickness d 5 1 mm, and
emissivity « 5 0.65 is at an initial temperature of
Ti 5 3257C and is allowed to cool in quiescent, ambient
air and large surroundings for which Ty 5 Tsur 5 257C.
Quiescent air
T∞ Tsur
Silicon wafer
D, δ , ε , T
(a) What is the initial rate of cooling?
(b) How long does it take for the wafer to reach a tem-
perature of 507C? Comment on how the relative
effects of convection and radiation vary with time
during the cooling process.
9.46 A 200-mm-square, 10-mm-thick tile has the thermo-
physical properties of pyrex (« 5 0.80) and emerges
from a curing process at an initial temperature of
Ti 5 140°C. The backside of the tile is insulated while
the upper surface is exposed to ambient air and sur-
roundings at 25°C.
Tsur = 25°C
Ambient air
T∞ = 25°C
Tile, Ts
(a) Estimate the time required for the tile to cool to a
final, safe-to-touch temperature of Tƒ 5 40°C. Use
c09.qxd 3/6/06 10:59 AM Page 608
608 Chapter 9 j Free Convection
time required to completely liquefy the paraffin, for the
prescribed conditions. Thermophysical properties asso-
ciated with the liquid state of the paraffin are k 5 0.15
W/m z K, b 5 8 3 1024 K21, r 5 770 kg/m3, n 5 5 3
1026 m2/s, and a 5 8.85 3 1028 m2/s.
9.58 A long, uninsulated steam line with a diameter of 89 mm
and a surface emissivity of 0.8 transports steam at 2008C
and is exposed to atmospheric air and large surroundings
at an equivalent temperature of 208C.
(a) Calculate the heat loss per unit length for a calm
day.
(b) Calculate the heat loss on a breezy day when the
wind speed is 8 m/s.
(c) For the conditions of part (a), calculate the heat loss
with a 20-mm-thick layer of insulation (k 5
0.08 W/m z K). Would the heat loss change signifi-
cantly with an appreciable wind speed?
9.59 A horizontal tube of 12.5-mm diameter with an outer
surface temperature of 240°C is located in a room with
an air temperature of 20°C. Estimate the heat transfer
rate per unit length of the tube due to free convection.
9.60 Saturated steam at 4 bars absolute pressure with a mean
velocity of 3 m/s flows through a horizontal pipe whose
inner and outer diameters are 55 and 65 mm, respec-
tively. The heat transfer coefficient for the steam flow is
known to be 11,000 W/m2 z K.
(a) If the pipe is covered with a 25-mm-thick layer of
85% magnesia insulation and is exposed to atmo-
spheric air at 25°C, determine the rate of heat
transfer by free convection to the room per unit
length of the pipe. If the steam is saturated at the
inlet of the pipe, estimate its quality at the outlet of
a pipe 30 m long.
(b) Net radiation to the surroundings also contributes
to heat loss from the pipe. If the insulation has a
surface emissivity of « 5 0.8 and the surroundings
are at Tsur 5 T` 5 25°C, what is the rate of heat
transfer to the room per unit length of pipe? What
is the quality of the outlet flow?
(c) The heat loss may be reduced by increasing the
insulation thickness and/or reducing its emissivity.
What is the effect of increasing the insulation
thickness to 50 mm if « 5 0.8? Of decreasing
the emissivity to 0.2 if the insulation thickness is
25 mm? Of reducing the emissivity to 0.2 and
increasing the insulation thickness to 50 mm?
A horizontal electrical cable of 25-mm diameter has a
9.61
heat dissipation rate of 30 W/m. If the ambient air tem-
perature is 27°C, estimate the surface temperature of
the cable.
9.62 An electric immersion heater, 10 mm in diameter and
300 mm long, is rated at 550 W. If the heater is hori-
zontally positioned in a large tank of water at 20°C,
estimate its surface temperature. Estimate the surface
temperature if the heater is accidentally operated in air
at 20°C.
9.63 The maximum surface temperature of the 20-mm-
diameter shaft of a motor operating in ambient air at
27°C should not exceed 87°C. Because of power dis-
sipation within the motor housing, it is desirable to
reject as much heat as possible through the shaft to
the ambient air. In this problem, we will investigate
several methods for heat removal.
Air
T∞ = 27°C
Ts ≤ 87°C
Ω (rad/s)
Shaft, D = 20 mm
(a) For horizontal rotating cylinders, a suitable correla-
tion for estimating the convection coefficient is of
the form
NuD 5 0.133Re2/3
D Pr
1/3
(ReD , 4.3 3 10 , 0.7 , Pr , 670)
5
where ReD ; V D2/n and V is the rotational veloc-
ity (rad/s). Determine the convection coefficient
and the maximum heat rate per unit length as a
function of rotational speed in the range from 5000
to 15,000 rpm.
(b) Estimate the free convection coefficient and the
maximum heat rate per unit length for the station-
ary shaft. Mixed free and forced convection effects
may become significant for ReD , 4.7(Gr D3 /Pr)0.137.
Are free convection effects important for the range
of rotational speeds designated in part (a)?
(c) Assuming the emissivity of the shaft is 0.8 and the
surroundings are at the ambient air temperature, is
radiation exchange important?
(d) If ambient air is in cross flow over the shaft, what
air velocities are required to remove the heat rates
determined in part (a)?
9.64 Consider a horizontal pin fin of 6-mm diameter and
60-mm length fabricated from plain carbon steel (k 5 57