Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
2 Overhead Lines
2.1 Typical Constructions
2.2 Conductor Data
2.3 Line Impedances
2.4 Simplified Line Impedance Calculations
2.5 Line Impedance Tables
2.6 Conductor Sizing
2.7 Ampacities
2.7.1 Neutral Conductor Sizing
2.8 Secondaries
2.9 Fault Withstand Capability
2.9.1 Conductor Annealing
2.9.2 Burndowns
2.10 Other Overhead Issues
2.10.1 Connectors and Splices
2.10.2 Radio Frequency Interference
References
3 Underground Distribution
3.1 Applications
3.1.1 Underground Residential Distribution (URD)
3.1.2 Main Feeders
3.1.3 Urban Systems
3.1.4 Overhead vs. Underground
3.2 Cables
3.2.1 Cable Insulation
3.2.2 Conductors
4 Transformers
4.1 Basics
4.2 Distribution Transformers
4.3 Single-Phase Transformers
4.4 Three-Phase Transformers
4.4.1 Grounded Wye – Grounded Wye
4.4.2 Delta – Grounded Wye
4.4.3 Floating Wye – Delta
4.4.4 Other Common Connections
4.4.4.1 Delta – Delta
4.4.4.2 Open Wye – Open Delta
4.4.4.3 Other Suitable Connections
4.4.5 Neutral Stability with a Floating Wye
4.4.6 Sequence Connections of Three-Phase Transformers
4.5 Loadings
4.6 Losses
4.7 Network Transformers
4.8 Substation Transformers
4.9 Special Transformers
4.9.1 Autotransformers
4.9.2 Grounding Transformers
4.10 Special Problems
4.10.1 Paralleling
4.10.2 Ferroresonance
4.10.3 Switching Floating Wye – Delta Banks
4.10.4 Backfeeds
4.10.5 Inrush
References
5 Voltage Regulation
5.1 Voltage Standards
5.2 Voltage Drop
5.3 Regulation Techniques
5.3.1 Voltage Drop Allocation and Primary Voltage Limits
5.3.2 Load Flow Models
5.3.3 Voltage Problems
5.3.4 Voltage Reduction
5.4 Regulators
5.4.1 Line-Drop Compensation
5.4.1.1 Load-Center Compensation
5.4.1.2 Voltage-Spread Compensation
5.4.1.3 Effects of Regulator Connections
5.4.2 Voltage Override
5.4.3 Regulator Placement
5.4.4 Other Regulator Issues
5.5 Station Regulation
5.5.1 Parallel Operation
5.5.2 Bus Regulation Settings
5.6 Line Loss and Voltage Drop Relationships
References
6 Capacitor Application
6.1 Capacitor Ratings
6.2 Released Capacity
6.3 Voltage Support
6.4 Reducing Line Losses
6.4.1 Energy Losses
6.5 Switched Banks
6.6 Local Controls
6.7 Automated Controls
6.8 Reliability
6.9 Failure Modes and Case Ruptures
6.10 Fusing and Protection
6.11 Grounding
References
7 Faults
7.1 General Fault Characteristics
7.2 Fault Calculations
7.2.1 Transformer Connections
7.2.2 Fault Profiles
8 Short-Circuit Protection
8.1 Basics of Distribution Protection
8.1.1 Reach
8.1.2 Inrush and Cold-Load Pickup
8.2 Protection Equipment
8.2.1 Circuit Interrupters
8.2.2 Circuit Breakers
8.2.3 Circuit Breaker Relays
8.2.4 Reclosers
8.2.5 Expulsion Fuses
8.2.5.1 Fuse Cutouts
8.2.6 Current-Limiting Fuses
8.3 Transformer Fusing
8.4 Lateral Tap Fusing and Fuse Coordination
8.5 Station Relay and Recloser Settings
8.6 Coordinating Devices
8.6.1 Expulsion Fuse–Expulsion Fuse Coordination
8.6.2 Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination
8.6.3 Recloser–Expulsion Fuse Coordination
8.6.4 Recloser–Recloser Coordination
8.6.5 Coordinating Instantaneous Elements
8.7 Fuse Saving vs. Fuse Blowing
8.7.1 Industry Usage
8.7.2 Effects on Momentary and Sustained Interruptions
8.7.3 Coordination Limits of Fuse Saving
8.7.4 Long-Duration Faults and Damage with Fuse
Blowing
9 Reliability
9.1 Reliability Indices
9.1.1 Customer-Based Indices
9.1.2 Load-Based Indices
9.2 Storms and Weather
9.3 Variables Affecting Reliability Indices
9.3.1 Circuit Exposure and Load Density
9.3.2 Supply Configuration
9.3.3 Voltage
9.3.4 Long-Term Reliability Trends
9.4 Modeling Radial Distribution Circuits
9.5 Parallel Distribution Systems
9.6 Improving Reliability
9.6.1 Identify and Target Fault Causes
9.6.2 Identify and Target Circuits
9.6.3 Switching and Protection Equipment
9.6.4 Automation
9.6.5 Maintenance and Inspections
9.6.6 Restoration
9.6.7 Fault Reduction
9.7 Interruption Costs
References
12 Lightning Protection
12.1 Characteristics
12.2 Incidence of Lightning
12.3 Traveling Waves
12.4 Surge Arresters
12.4.1 Ratings and Selection
12.4.2 Housings
12.4.3 Other Technologies
12.4.4 Isolators
12.4.5 Arrester Reliability and Failures
12.5 Equipment Protection
12.5.1 Equipment Insulation
12.5.2 Protective Margin
12.5.3 Secondary-Side Transformer Failures
12.6 Underground Equipment Protection
12.6.1 Open Point Arrester
12.6.2 Scout Arresters
12.6.3 Tapped Cables
12.6.4 Other Cable Failure Modes
12.7 Line Protection
12.7.1 Induced Voltages
12.7.2 Insulation
12.7.2.1 Practical Considerations
12.7.3 Shield Wires
12.7.4 Line Protection Arresters
12.8 Other Considerations
12.8.1 Role of Grounding
12.8.2 Burndowns
12.8.3 Crossarm and Pole Damage and Bonding
12.8.4 Arc Quenching of Wood
References
14 Distributed Generation
14.1 Characteristics of Distributed Generators
14.1.1 Energy Sources
14.1.2 Synchronous Generators
14.1.3 Induction Generators
14.1.4 Inverters
14.1.5 Modeling Small Generators
14.2 Islanding Issues
14.2.1 Effect of Transformer Connections on Overvoltages
14.2.1.1 Overvoltage Relays and 59G Ground Fault
Detection
14.2.1.2 Effectively Grounding a Grounded-Wye –
Grounded-Wye Transformer Connection
14.2.1.3 Sizing a Neutral Grounding Reactor on a
Grounded-Wye – Delta Connection to Maintain
Effective Grounding
14.2.2 Anti-Islanding Protection
14.2.3 Active Anti-Islanding
14.2.4 Relaying Issues
14.2.5 Self-Excitation
14.2.6 Ferroresonance
14.2.7 Backfeed to a Downed Conductor and Backfeed
Voltages
14.3 Protection Issues
14.3.1 Tradeoff Between Overvoltages and Ground Fault
Current
14.3.2 Fuse Saving Coordination
14.4 Power Quality Impacts
14.4.1 Voltage Regulation
14.4.2 Harmonics
14.4.3 Flicker
14.4.4 Other Impacts on Power Quality
14.4.5 High Quality Power Configurations
14.5 Generator Reliability
References