DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ADVANCED STRUCTURAL DESIGN

TITLE: AQUATICS CENTRE PROJECT REPORT

GROUP 1

Team: Aaron Raphael Joseph (18023268)

Marwan Tarek Ellaban (18024142)
Muhammad Taquiddin Tamunif (18815057)
Omar Ayman Abdulfattah (18814627)
Simon Muff Laporte (20110353)

Lecturer: Dr. Phan Thanh Duoc

Submission date: 10 / 12 / 2018
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Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4
2. Conceptual Design .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1) Description of structural arrangement .................................................................................. 5
2.1.1) Transfer of lateral loads ........................................................................................................ 6
2.2 Appraisal of alternative schemes ............................................................................................ 7
2.21) Conceptual Design 1 .............................................................................................................. 7
2.22) Conceptual Design 2 .............................................................................................................. 7
2.23) Conceptual Design 3 .............................................................................................................. 9
2.24) Justification for final proposed design ................................................................................. 10
2.24)a) Aesthetics ......................................................................................................................... 12
2.24)b) Imaginative and innovative use of structural steelwork .................................................. 13
2.3 Outline of design process ....................................................................................................... 14
3. Loading .............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.1 Loads ....................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Load combinations ................................................................................................................. 15
3.31 Summary of actions .............................................................................................................. 16
4. Economic Design ............................................................................................................................... 16
4.3 Design Selection .......................................................................................................................... 17
5. Frame Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 18
5.1 SAP2000 Results ......................................................................................................................... 18
6. Frame Design .................................................................................................................................... 19
6.1 Member Design ........................................................................................................................... 19
6.2 Design Checks ............................................................................................................................. 21
6.2.4 Column Bases ....................................................................................................................... 22
6.3 Assessment of sway sensitivity ................................................................................................... 22
7. Buildability ........................................................................................................................................ 24
7.1 Safety in Construction Sequence ................................................................................................ 25
7.2 Construction Method .................................................................................................................. 26
7.3 Detailed method of construction of elements............................................................................ 27
7.3.1Base plates ............................................................................................................................ 27
7.3.2Columns ................................................................................................................................ 28
7.3.3 Rafters .................................................................................................................................. 29
7.3.4 Bays ...................................................................................................................................... 31
7.3.5 Panels ................................................................................................................................... 32
7.4 Problems during construction..................................................................................................... 33

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8. Foundation Loads .............................................................................................................................. 34

8.1 Lateral stability ............................................................................................................................ 34
8.1.1Longitudinal lateral stability ................................................................................................. 34
8.1.2 Transverse lateral stability ................................................................................................... 35
8.1.3 Vertical load ......................................................................................................................... 35
8.2 Foundation loads schedule ......................................................................................................... 35
9. Sustainability ..................................................................................................................................... 36
9.1 Material considerations .............................................................................................................. 37
9.2 Construction technique implemented ........................................................................................ 37
9.3 Energy usage ............................................................................................................................... 37
10. References ...................................................................................................................................... 39

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1. Introduction

The project brief requires the design of an aquatics centre able to house an Olympic sized

swimming pool as well as an ice rink as the primary requirement. The spatial requirements of these

elements need to be satisfied allowing appropriate dimensions to be formulated for the centre.

This project is to be carried out in a regional city in the UK. The aquatics centre is to also

include secondary volumes such as such as offices, plant rooms, stores, toilets and changing

facilities. Furthermore, the brief also required the inclusion of an upper floor café and not to

mention features such as flumes, Jacuzzis and etc. to attract more visitors.

The structure is to be constructed utilising structural steel. Steel structures have become

more predominantly used in the construction industry over the recent years. Structural steel offers a

range of lightweight but structurally stable structures and with the combination of creative

innovation and the pursuit of excellence, the use of steel structures will only continue to grow. There

is a plethora of reasons why steel was opted for instead of concrete. Steel has considerably higher

strength than concrete allowing for large spanning structures to be built. Steel also does not buckle

easily.

The content of the report outlines a detailed overview of several design schemes proposed

with focus on the final chosen scheme. Detailed drawings and calculations will be done for the final

scheme. Likewise, other aspects related to the project such as construction method, wind forces

assessment, sustainability and buildability will also be considered. The design of the members

including the design checks will be done with reference to Eurocode.

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2. Conceptual Design

2.1 Description of structural arrangement Commented [AJ1]: Maybe refer to drawings

A symmetrical portal frame with a pitched roof was utilized as the main structural system for the

proposed construction of the aquatic centre in the UK. Portal frames were chosen for its obvious

benefits ranging from structural efficiency, cost effectiveness to ease of maintenance. The

longitudinal span for the structure is supported by 15 steel columns; with a span of 9m for columns.

On the other hand, the transverse span is 45m.

Inside of the structure, there are a total of 15 steel columns which are 9m apart from each other

with the exception of the mezzanine floors to support the upper floor café. This allows an open

space concept to be fully realized and ensures that movement throughout the entire structure flows

smoothly with no obstructions. This will then provide good accessibility for audiences, clients and

players to walk through the ground floor of the aquatic centre. It was proposed that a concrete wall

is to be constructed to separate the swimming pool and the ice rink and provides thermal and

acoustic separation. This wall also improves the overall stability by carrying some of the load applied

onto the structure.

Cross bracings will be installed on both sides of the frame. The function of a bracing is to resist

lateral loads such as wind and earthquakes as well as transferring the loads from these forces

efficiently to the building foundations. The bracings will be installed diagonally to prevent the

structure from twisting and bending due to wind actions.

Wind bracings also takes the large amount of the heavy ceilings and floors and transfer it to one

another. Rather than building an auxiliary support structures, cross bracings utilises and applies the

support already available. In addition, purlins and side rails will be installed to help support the sheet

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cladding. It is believed that purlins are the perfect material to cover your open space gracefully and

stylishly whereby it is designed by the use of high tensile steel.

2.1.1) Transfer of lateral loads Commented [AJ2]: Where is transfer through frame?

Lateral loadings are generated from wind or an earthquake. Wind loads will hit the side of

the building horizontally. To encounter this load, cross bracings are designed and implemented into

our design to resist lateral wind loads acting on the proposed aquatic centre. Structural integrity for

lateral loads in the longitudinal direction is proven by proving the integrity of the elements of the

lateral load system.

Figure 2.1: Wind actions on bracing

Railing - As for the longitudinal lateral stability, rails transfer wind loads to the structural system.

These members are mainly subjected to bending moments and should be checked as beams both in

ULS and SLS. These members should also be checked for lateral buckling. These members are

arranged vertically on the end frame to ensure the lowest span possible with a spacing of 2 m.

Longitudinal beams - The beams transfer the lateral wind load hitting the end of the building to the

wind bracing system in the end of the building. These members are mainly subjected to compression

loading as well as bending moment when wind on the other side of the building is considered. The

beams should be checked as columns subjected to one-directional bending. These members should

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also be checked for buckling. Two beams go around the full circumference of the building to ensure

a low span for railings as well as provide buckling support for the columns in the portal frame

system.

Wind bracing - The flat steel bracing system transfer the lateral loads from the longitudinal beams to

the foundation. These members can only be subjected to tension loading and should be checked as

normal tension bars. Two elements working in opposite directions are placed in all four corners of

the building to ensure structural integrity for lateral loads in both directions. Fly bracings are to be

included to provide some torsional restraint against the uplift action.

2.2 Appraisal of alternative schemes Commented [AJ3]: Reduce in size – valued low in grading

In our design process, we have come up with a few ideas to include different types of

structural systems such as trusses, portal frames, 2D and 3D space frames to ensure we produce the

preferred economical and sustainable design. There are 3 conceptual designs that will be explained

below. We have identified the advantages and disadvantages of each conceptual designs and came

up with the justification of our final design as proposed below.

Note: Refer to Progress Report 1 regarding the pros and cons of each design scheme.

2.21) Conceptual Design 1

Figure 2.2: Concept Design 1

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Truss and cable systems were proposed in this conceptual design. Trusses are defined as an

interconnection of triangular structures that gives strength to withstand more heavy and dynamic

loads. The cable system will be anchored on tall columns and will support a lightweight and flexible

tent-like roofing structure. The cable system will be supported by the internal truss system.

One of its advantage is that trusses are extremely strong as it can resist both compression and

tension besides being able to withstand extreme conditions. However, columns bearing cables will

need to be internal thus restricting the open space of the arena. Regarding this issue, it will definitely

not be suitable for our design as space is limited in the aquatic centre.

2.22) Conceptual Design 2

Figure 2.3: Concept Design 2

As for conceptual design 2, we explored the possibility of including space frames in our

design. The design utilizes a 3D space frame bended in two directions which allows for a bold

architectural expression. The design utilizes heavy internal concrete walls for lateral stability.

Space frames helps in utilizing spaces as it can provide freedom of movement due to having minimal

columns. Throughout our research, space frames will be more preferable because the deflections

are lesser as compared to trusses. This proves that space frames can withstand heavier loads with

huge spanning even though it is lightweight

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2.23) Conceptual Design 3

Figure 2.4: Structural system and arrangement of design 3

Figure 2.5: Cross section showing bracings and triangular configuration columns and beams

For design 3, we considered a combination between a portal frame system and 2D space frames as

the main structural elements. The space frame replaces the elements of the portal frame so that we

can make use of their lightweight attributes which are well suited for the long span required for the

aquatic center, while still maintaining the practicality of the portal frames.

The 2D space frames are designed as three-chord trusses connected by slanted bars. This design

allows for a good resistance to bending while the triangular shape makes the cross-section resistant

to buckling. This results in a lightweight structural system that is discreet and leaves room for the

spectators to view the sporting events. This solution is however more expensive than an ordinary

portal frame design as we cannot utilize ordinary cross-sections for the rafter.

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2.24) Justification for final proposed design

Note: For the final design, the project was designed as simple portal frames to be able to meet the

project scope as well as simplification of calculations.

Careful consideration was taken and it was decided that conceptual design 3 was to be

chosen as the proposed design for the aquatic centre. Based on the conceptual design 3, it has

strongly proven that there are more pros than the cons as compared to the other conceptual

designs. First and foremost, we can save a lot on the maintenance cost and the project time

completion due to the ease of construction and installation of portal frames as compared to cable

structures in conceptual design 1.

Although space portal frames have a higher construction cost than the conventional portal

frames, it allows the use of a smaller cross section because it can support a larger span. Therefore,

there will be lesser columns in the aquatic centre thus, providing bigger interior space and

minimising costs on constructing columns. Construction of space frames are generally more labour

intensive meaning the cost-benefit analysis would have to take into consideration the labour

costs compared to the material costs.

The design was also picked due to its overall stability through the provision of a concrete

shear wall in the structure which also encloses and separates the space between the Olympic pool

and the ice rink. Due to its structural indeterminacy, space frames are generally more robust and in

the event of any collapse or accident, the truss will be able to redistribute the loads to the other

members in the structure.

Space frames are considerably stronger due to the rigidity of the triangular pattern. Space

frames are only subjected to axial tension and compression not to mention, torsional moment and

bending can be considered insignificant. A common downside to long spanning sections is the

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buckling effect; a triangular cross section will counteract this weakness by strengthening the

torsional resistance.

Figure 2.6: Ground floor layout

Figure 2.7: Mezzanine floor layout

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2.24)a) Aesthetics Commented [AJ4]: Review this section include picture

from model
` First and foremost, let’s talk about the glass windows that will be used as our building

material. With the application of glass windows, it improves the entrance of natural light into the

aquatic centre during the day. Thus, it helps save energy which reduces the overall energy

consumption of the aquatic centre. Glass windows help brighten up the aquatic centre and most

importantly gives a mood boost for all guests. These windows will also provide an unobstructed view

into the open area. Due to its characteristic of being UV stable, it will not experience cracks as it is

not attacked by ultraviolet radiation. Furthermore, through the incorporation of photovoltaic glass

panels, the light intensity entering the building can be controlled. Hence, the temperature of the

structure can be partly controlled based on necessity during different seasons throughout the year

With the use of portal frames in our structural design, it helped maximize the span between

column to column (9m span). Therefore, minimal columns will be used in our design structure which

will then provide an ample space for guests to walk through and carry about their routine in the

aquatic centre. Lesser columns would give a better view of the interior as it will look wide and neat.

The incorporation of glass fiber reinforced concrete (GRC) and aluminium as cladding will further

enhance the structure’s visual appeal. These materials are very malleable and allows various shapes

to be formed. Aluminium also provides a certain degree of thermal insulation as well as weather

resistance to snow, rain, wind and etc. In addition to that, aluminium is lightweight thus reducing the

total load applied on the structure, corrosion resistant and also has recyclable properties. GRC

panels such as the ones shown in the diagram will be installed as cladding to transform the building

into a recognizable icon in the foreseeable future and give it a distinct appearance. The shiny

characteristic of the aluminium cladding will also garner the attention of any passerby.

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A composite roof will be utilized and it essentially is a roofing structure that is pre-assembled

and consists of insulation sandwiched between two panels of roofing. The benefit of this type of

roofing is easy assembling and fixing. Likewise, an Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) film will cover

the surface of the roof. This film has many advantageous benefits such as self-cleaning properties

due to its non-stick surface. This material is also recyclable, durable, has high transparency and very

lightweight. Not to mention, the material also has good corrosion and tear resistance.

fff ffd sfd sf sd sd fsd f

Figure 2.8: GRC panels Figure 2.9: Aquatics centre 3D overview

2.24)b) Imaginative and innovative use of structural steelwork

Haunches are used to reinforce the connection between rafters with columns. Haunches are chosen

for the design based on the following benefits:

 provide a longer lever arm for the bolt in axial tension

 increase the member size over part of its length

The haunch is chosen based on a specific depth to ensure that the resistance of the beam is

adequate for the required moment resistance for the member and a specific length to ensure that

the resistance of the beam is sufficient to that moment in that location.

The apex haunch may be cut from a rolled section – often from the same size as the rafter, or

fabricated from plate. The apex haunch is not usually modelled in the frame analysis and is only used

to facilitate a bolted connection. Bolted end plate connections were used over cover plate type

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connections as it does not require the use of preloaded bolts. Hence, preparation of contact surfaces

are not required.

2.3 Outline of design process

The design of the primary members is evidently a vital aspect in the detailed structural

design. Firstly, the loads that will be acting on the structure has to be identified. The primary loads

imposed on a steel portal frame would be; dead, live and wind load. After determination of the

different load cases, then the load combinations will need to be considered referring to the relevant

equations in Eurocode.

A variety of load combinations were inputted into SAP 200 and the most critical load

combinations were determined. The preliminary design of the members will be conducted based

on this critical load combination. Through trial and error, appropriate sections and beams and

columns were selected to give the most economical design.

3. Loading

3.1 Loads

Self-weight of the members is determined first to be able to start with the analysis. The below data
was collected to pursue the analysis calculations:
Type of load Description Load

Dead Load Purlins 0.117 KN/m2

Dead Load Insulation + Cladding 0.25 KN/m2

Dead Load Services 0.5 KN/m2

Live Load Imposed Load 0.6 KN/m2

Live Load Snow 0.4 KN/m2

Dead Load Rafter 0.141 KN/m2

Table 3.1: Loads summary

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Moving on to calculating the total load on the roof using equation 6.10 acquired from euro code.

The critical load combination for our structure after software analysis was Dead Load + Live Load

combination. Although we used the software to model the analysis every analysis and design check

was verified manually using the elastic analysis method. By using the parallel method of both

automated and manual checks for design and analysis we were able to confirm our values as

accurate.

3.2 Load combinations

EC0, Equation 6.10

Limit state design was employed for the load combinations. This principle requires the satisfaction of

two criterias; the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and the Serviceability Limit State (SLS). Structures

designed in correspondence with ULS will be able to sustain all the actions that is likely to occur

during the entire design life and will remain suitable for use.

The typical load combinations for designing portal frames are:

1. Permanent + imposed load

2. Permanent + snow + wind (downward)

3. Permanent + wind (downward) + snow

4. Permanent + wind (uplift)

Few assumptions were made:

 Load combination 4 is the favorable condition.

 Zone A is considered to be the critical lateral load on walls.

 There is no opening so coefficient of internal pressure (cpi) is taken as 0.2.

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3.31 Summary of actions

The adequacy of design calculation was obtained through the 4 load combinations shown in the

table 3.2 below :

LC3 (kNm-2) LC4 (kNm-2) Lateral load on walls

Zones LC1 (kNm-2) LC2 (kNm-2)
(kNm-2)
G 2.261 1.961 1.661 -0.792 -

H 2.261 1.961 1.661 0.108 -

J 2.261 2.111 1.961 0.108 -

I 2.261 1.961 1.661 0.108 -

B - - - - -1.35
A - - - - -1.89
Table 3.2: Load Combinations summary

4. Economic Design

During the project, three different structural designs were considered after choosing a concept

design. The designs were judged based on the total material (steel) used. The lightest design is

supposed to be the most economic for this coursework (ignoring difference in labour cost). The

three designs will be compared after fulfilling design criteria of both ULS and SLS.

4.1 Loads

1. Initial design. Frame span is 12m spacing between purlin and rails are 1m.

2. Frame spacing 9m, purlin and rail spacing 2m - This design allows for less purlins and a lighter

frame. The design will need more frames on the other hand.

3. Half haunch length – The difference in rafter cross-section is explored in this design. A shorter

haunch allows for more free space in the room in exchange for a heavier rafter.

Only affected members are recalculated and documented for design 2 and 3.
Section forces are calculated in SAP-model with iterative input.

4.2 Results

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Design Stiffeners (Stability

no. Purlins Rafter Flybracing beams) Bracing Haunch Column Rails
HE-B- UB- UB-

1 180 762x267x193 5x20 UB-726x267x134 30x140 762x267x173 UB-914x305x289 z-60

HE-B- UB- UB-

2 160 762x267x147 5x20 UB-726x267x134 30x140 762x267x173 UB-838x292x226 z-80

HE-B- UB- UB-

3 180 914x305x289 5x20 UB-726x267x134 30x140 762x267x173 UB-914x305x289 z-60

Table 4.1: Section Overview

Total Weight [t]

Design Stiffeners (Stability

no. Purlins Rafter Flybracing beams) Bracing Haunch Column Rails SUM

1 320 93,8 0,778 101 6,50 11,2 38,2 12,4 584

2 133 99,6 0,389 101 6,50 9,52 37,4 8,67 401

3 320 157 0,778 101 6,50 5,6 38,2 12,4 641

Table 4.2: Total tonnage

4.3 Design Selection

Design 1 is used as a frame of reference. As the span decrease the total weight of the rafters

increase and the total weight of the purlins decrease as the shorter span allow for a larger spacing

and smaller sections. As the weight of the purlins decrease faster than the weight of the

spaceframes the limiting parameter for this design is the maximum spacing of the roofing material

(aluminum). This design proved to be the lightest which means it will be chosen for this project.

Design 3 returned a far heavier rafter than design 2 as expected. The design is the most

inefficient design material wise but could have been chosen if efficient material use was prioritized

lower than architecture. Therefore, design 2 was chosen as the most economical design scheme.

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5. Frame Analysis

The portal frame was modelled and designed on SAP 2000 and then, the fixity of bases was

defined which were considered as pinned but the connections were defined as fixed. Subsequently,

the member properties were defined and consequently the load cases and load combinations are

applied.

The model analysis was then run to obtain the reaction forces including the moments and

internal loads for the most critical combinations which in this case is the dead load (DL) + live load

(LL). Based on these values, the main structural members can be designed.

5.1 SAP2000 Results

Figure 5.1: Shear Distribution

Figure 5.2: Moment Distribution

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Figure 5.3: Axial Loading

6. Frame Design

6.1 Member Design

Members have been designed in accordance to EN1993-1-1, consult appendix C for detailed

calculations.

Optimum design of columns:

 Having a plastic section modulus that is approximately 50% larger than the plastic section

modulus of the rafter

 Cross-section with high ratio of Iyy to Izz which is in compliance with Class 1 and Class 2

sections under combined bending and axial compression

Optimum design of rafters:

 A haunch extending from the column that is at least 10% of the frame span.

 Cross-section with high ratio of Iyy to Izz which is in compliance with Class 1 and Class 2

sections under combined bending and axial compression.

Members in frame are designed with section forces from SAP 2000 model.
Section forces for secondary members are calculated by hand.

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Critical Load

Design forces Combination Moment [kNm] Shear [kN] Axial [kN]

Purlin DL+LL 40,5 13,5

Rafter DL+LL 1144 544

Column DL+LL 2502 567 456

Rail DL+LL 3,65 4,86

Table 6.1: Section Forces

Buckling length are defined by structural geometry and support conditions

Element Longest Length [m] Buckling span (y) [m] Buckling span (x) [m]

Purlins 9 9 9

Rafters ~45 ~45*0.7=31.5 ~45 (restrained by purlins

per 2m)

Columns 5.5 5.5*0.7=3.85 3*0.7=2.1

Rails 3 3 3

Secondary beams 9 9 9

Bracing 9.4 N/A N/A

Table 6.2: Buckling Length

Element Fraction of length Allowable deflection [mm]

Purlin 200 45

Rafter 200 228

Column (horisontal) 300 18

Rail 300 15

Table 6.3: SLS limits used in accordance to EN1993-1-1 BS NA 2.23, 2.24

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Following tables show a summary of the results.

Column Haunch

Cross-section UB-838x292x226 Cross-section UB-762x267x147

Length [m] 5.5 Length [m] 5.4

Total number 32 Total number 30

Section class 2 Section class 1

Total weight [t] 40 Total weight [t] 11.9

Rafter Secondary beams

Cross-section UB-762x267x147 Cross-section UB-726x267x134

Length [m] 45.2 Length [m] 9

Total number 15 Total number 70

Section class 1 Section class 2

Total weight [t] 100 Total weight [t] 101

Purlin Rails

Cross-section HE-B-160 Cross-section Z-80

Length [m] 9 Length [m] 5.5

Total number 348 Total number 181

Section Class 1 Section class 3

Total Weight 133 Total weight [t] 8.67

Total weight of structural system 401 ton including fly bracings and bracing system

6.2 Design Checks

6.2.1 Beams (Purlin, Rafter, Rail, Secondary beams)

Shear failure - Shear capacity has to be proven higher than exposed shear force

Moment failure – Moment capacity has to be proved higher than exposed moment

LTB failure – Reduction factor for moment capacity is calculated for an extended moment check

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6.2.2 Columns

Shear failure – Shear capacity has to be proven higher than exposed shear.

Axial load with buckling failure for both strong and weak direction – Reduction factor for normal

forces is calculated for instability failure.

LTB failure – Reduction factor for moment capacity is calculated for an extended moment check.

Interaction between axial and moment instabilities – Utilisation of both normal and moment

capacity is added with an interaction constant based on the moment distribution.

6.2.3 Bracing

Tension failure – Normal capacity has to be proven higher than exposed normal forces.

6.2.4 Column Bases

Design checks were carried out to check the adequacy of the base plate and concrete foundation.

The shear force (VEd) was also compared to the design resistance per unit length (Fw,Rd) such that VEd

< Fw,Rd. Furthermore, VEd<Fa,Rd= Ff,Rd +4 Fvb,Rd with Ff,Rd being the design friction resistance between

base plate and grout and Fvb,Rd being the design shear resistance of 1 anchor bolt was also a check

done. If any of the design checks does not pass, the base plate grade, bolt grade and bolt class can

be changed to determine a suitable specification where the design checks pass.

6.3 Assessment of sway sensitivity

It is vital to check whether the entire structure will be able to resist the sway mechanism due

to wind effects. Considering the wind direction is at θ=0°, the loadings because of wind acting on the

structure is anticipated to be fully resisted by the portal frames. In resisting lateral loads, the rigidity

and stability of the portal frame are important determining factors. The deformations that occurs in

members produces additional effects onto the structure which must be taken into account. These

effects may only just be first order effects however, if the geometric deformation has a significant

impact on the structure thus, second order effects are to be considered.

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In regards to our proposed design scheme, If the elastic critical factor is more than 10 then

the structure is to be considered as not sway sensitive. According to design standards, sensitivity to

effects of deformed geometry is measured by critical factor αcr and if it is a large value it indicates

that second order effects can be ignored.

The value of αcr is determined using the following formula:

α 𝐻 ℎ
𝑐𝑟 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑉𝐸𝑑 𝛿𝐻,𝐸𝑑

where:

𝐻𝐸𝑑 is the (total) design value of the horizontal reaction at the bottom.

𝑉𝐸𝑑 is the (total) design vertical load at the bottom.

ℎ is the clear height of portal frame.

𝛿𝐻,𝐸𝑑 is the horizontal displacement for sway of portal frame.

Figure 6.1: Measure of αcr Figure 6.2: Portal frame horizontal displacement

Sway analysis obtained from the SAP 2000 analysis

Node H(ed) V(ed) h(mm) Change in displacement α𝑐𝑟 factor

1 0.126 22.206 5500 5.48 5.694850672
2 8.794 0.679 7851.925 4.14 24563.62669
3 5.594 8.879 5500 6.02 575.6050616
Table 6.1

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Table 6.1 shows the wind load combination that it is sway sensitive

node H(ed) V(ed) h(mm) change in displacement factor ACR

1 456.453 580.046 5500 26.21 165.1312613
2 577.836 50.98 7851.925 337.7 263.5420054
3 456.453 580.46 5500 26.21 165.0134851
Table 6.2

Table 6.2 shows the critical load (live load + dead load) combination that it is not sway sensitive. The

sway sentsitivity was analysed on SAP 2000 and it was found that node 1 for the wind load

combinations was sensitive. Hence, second order effects need to be accounted for.

7. Buildability

The analysis of the structure will be done via elastic method. The steel Olympic facility is erected by

several steel members (portal frames) and is arranged in a symmetrical geometrical form. The

structure is considered to be pinned at the base of the frame.

When considering the buildability of the warehouse, extra attention is given to;

1. Achieving most favorable value for money.

2. Achieving the program requirements with good quality.

3. Less safety and construction issues.

Different site practices should be accessed to achieve this:

1. Plant and equipment management to save labour, time and prevent any damages.

2. Standardization of components and processes.

3. Identification of appropriate suppliers.

4. Prefabrication opportunities.

5. Initial works that includes dimensional criteria, space allowances and setting out.

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6. Installation and maintenance of access arrangements.

7. Temporary works such as formwork, falsework propping, crane supports and

scaffolding.

8. Weight and lifting requirements to ensure personnel safety

9. Unloading operations, flexibility and practicality.

10. Storage and waste management.

A huge criterion of on-site practices and potential hazards is covered in buildability. Hence,

Computer Aided Design (CAD) are significantly used in visualizing all aspects of buildability.

Construction method is designed in a way as to maximize the speed and minimize the disruption

around the site as much as possible, saving on cost and ensuring efficiency. First off, learning from

past experience then advancing to the step where several methods and plans are modelled. After

that, the most appropriate method and plan is chosen.

7.1 Safety in Construction Sequence

In the construction industry many uncertainties arise; hence a higher regard to safety must

be in order. Steel structures offer more safety as they are pre-fabricated and have a longer

serviceability as opposed to the conventional methods of construction. Safety in all aspects have to

be taken into consideration during the construction sequence of the project.

1) Considering safety in erection, for instance, having many plants on site congested in one place can

endanger the safety of workers; subsequently, decreasing the efficiency of work done. Therefore,

the right number of plants must be calculated as accurately as possible and there must be plenty

access for the transportation of steel materials, loading and unloading and for the erection itself.

2) During transportation of the pre-fabricated elements from the factory, care should be taken as to

not overload the vehicle. The elements should be properly fastened and secured to prevent it from

moving or falling en-route to the site. Mitigation of this will prevent any unnecessary accidents

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which may injure workers or passerbys. Proper measurements of the elements to be done to ensure

that suitable transportation can be arranged for safe transportation.

3) Furthermore, PPE is required for every worker when entering the site to ensure that the worker is

protected and extreme caution is taken near the roof edges and on scaffoldings. Another important

aspect is the pre-construction training of the human resources must take place in order to ensure

that everyone behaves in a safe and environmentally friendly manner.

4) Safety lines and railings must be provided for workers at all times. In addition, proper signs must

be erected at strategic locations.

5) Another approach is the toolbox meetings which are held every day prior to the commencement

of work to brief everyone on safety matters.

6) During roof installation, the roof panels are not to be used as walking platforms because the

unfastened panels cannot support the weight of a person at the edge and can be dangerous.

Therefore, walking platforms must be provided for the workers. Workers not involved should be

directed away from the potential hazard of falling materials until construction is complete.

7) Caution should be exercised on scaffoldings and when near roof edges.

8) Safety inspectors to be hired to control the safety aspect of the project. Strict penalties and fines

should be imposed on anyone violating safety regulations as per the construction industry to ensure

enforcement of safety rules.

9) Barricades to be set up during formwork dismantling activities to avoid falling debris.

7.2 Construction Method

The primary sequence for a steel portal frame erection is:

1) Making sure that the foundation and soil properties are suitable for erection.

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2) Utilising plants to place the elements in the correct position as well as inserting the bracings and

connections securely.

3) Checking the alignment of the column bases of the structure and whether the columns are truly

vertical.

4) All connections to be bolted as well as the bracings to ensure that the entire frame is rigid. Then,

carry out installation of the panels.

Nevertheless, before the construction phase can actually begin, the site must be prepped, materials

must be delivered and stored correctly, adequate erection drawings and method statements should

be prepared and not to mention, safety issues addressed and accounted for.

Since most of the structure of the aquatic centre comprises of steel, hence pre-fabricated steel will

be utilised for the construction of this project. The steel will be transported directly from the factory

and will be assembled in-situ.

7.3 Detailed method of construction of elements

7.3.1Base plates
1) Holding down are fixed to the base plate. Each bolt will be casted into the concrete base plate in a

location tube and are fitted with anchor plates to resist pull-out. High strength concrete is to be

poured into the spaces underneath the base plate.

2) Stabilisation of columns during construction are achieved through the design of holding systems.

Holding systems also resist uplift in the braced bays.

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Figure 7.1: Column base plate connection

7.3.2Columns
1) The erection of the frame proceeds after all the base plates have been casted into place and

checked for accuracy.

2) The columns will be lifted and placed onto the base plate using a mobile crane.

3) The anchor bolts nuts are tightened when column is in the correct position and the column and

base plate is welded.

4) Temporary cables are attached to keep column in right position.

5) Erection of temporary bracing commences to provide stability for the entire structure during the

construction phase.

6) The columns for the first and second frames are erected. Any temporary bracings installed should

avoid interference with future erection works.

7) Scaffolding is to be provided to allow workers to weld the connections. These connections include

the purlins and side rails.

8) Side columns that have been erected are joined together through the installation of side rails.

9) Installation of permanent cross bracings from column to column begins on the braced bays. The

column base plate installation is a critical phase as the other erection works cannot begin until the

base plates have been securely fixed.

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Figure 7.2: Erection of columns

7.3.3 Rafters
1) After the columns are secured and checked for verticality, installation of the braced bay rafters

commences.

2) Temporary bracing required for the rafters is to be set up.

3) Scaffolding is erected to allow workers to carry out the rafter-rafter and column-rafter

connections.

4) Mobile cranes to be used to erect first rafter into position. Other suitable methods taking into

account the weight and size of rafter may be opted for to ease construction.

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Figure 7.3: Typical ways of lifting steel elements

5) Bolting and welding of the rafter to column connection is done according to the design

specifications.

6) Installation the purlins as per design requirements will tie together the rafters.

7) Cross bracings for the specific braced bay to be installed as laid out in the design scheme.

8) All temporary bracings and side rails have to be installed first before the rafter. This is because the

rafters will impose a high load on the columns.

9) Only when all the connection bolts are tightened and temporary bracings, bracings purlins as well

as side rails are installed appropriately, can the crane be released.

10) Once all the components have been installed, the frame alignment should be checked to make

sure that it is plumb and square.

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11) After this, then only can the bolts and bracings be tightened.

Figure 7.4: Installation of rafters

Figure 7.5: Side rails and purlins

7.3.4 Bays
1) The bay adjacent to the braced bay will be erected next following the same sequence as before.

The remaining frames will be erected bay by bay whilst providing the necessary temporary bracings

and support as required.

2) Once the installation of secondary framing elements of the braced bay has finished as well as the

plumbing and squaring of the bay; then only can wall and roof panelling start.

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3) Temporary erection bracing is to be provided and only removed when panelling has been

completed. This is because before completion of the roof and wall panelling, the structure cannot be

considered fully braced.

7.3.5 Panels
1) Cladding/sheeting to proceed immediately after erection of the main frame finishes. However,

before panel installation can commence, the side rails and purlins have to be checked to ensure that

the components are perpendicular to the roof or walls.

2) Installation of the roof panels is typically done after the wall panelling. Both sides of the roof are

installed simultaneously to keep the insulation protected for a longer time.

3) An insulation sheeting will be sandwiched between the roof panels. The roof sheeting installation

is to proceed after the insulation sheeting is done to avoid damage to the structural steelwork due

to wind. This phase of the sequence proves to be a critical one.

3) Temporary supports provided will be removed after the roof panel installation.

Figure 7.6: Installation of roof and wall panels Figure 7.7: Insulated panel

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7.4 Problems during construction

Various problems may arise throughout the construction phase and therefore, these problems need

to be identified beforehand and proper measures should be taken to mitigate or eliminate the risk of

these problems. Listed below are some of the problems classified that may occur during

construction.

1) In the case where the structure is left standing without the necessary precautions like temporary

bracings for prolonged periods of time, the members of the frame may get damaged especially the

purlins due to excessive vibrations resulting from wind forces. Henceforth, the roof sheeting must be

installed immediately after completing the insulation sheeting for the roof.

2) Possibility of formwork collapse that may injure surrounding workers as well as damaging the

existing structure. Thus, experienced engineers should handle the design of the formwork including

the supervision during the construction process.

3) During the roof panelling sequence, the roof panels should not be utilised as walking platforms.

This is because the panels are not able to withstand the workers weight when working at edges.

Consequently, suitable waking platforms should be provided for the workers to do work and the

workers should hook their safety harnesses when working at height.

4) The freestanding frames are subjected to significant stresses due to self-weight and wind even

though the partially erected structure is not withstanding the full design load yet. Therefore,

erection and installation of temporary bracings and purlins should be carried out to provide stability

to the structural steel.

5) The quality of weld on-site may be influenced by several factors; requiring protection from poor

weather, provision of access areas and the need to test the strength and capacity of the weld by the

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structural engineer before proceeding works can start. These issues need to be taken into account

during construction and will incur additional costs on the project.

6) Overloading the structure or insufficient erection of temporary bracings may cause structural

failure during erection. Hence, proper and accurate erection drawings should be done for each stage

of the construction phase and should be adhered to strictly. Only the most up to date ‘Issued for

Erection’ drawings will be used.

7) When the pre-fabricated elements are transported to site during construction, the materials may

be broken, lost or exposed to various deformations during loading and unloading. To overcome this

issue, orderly loading onto the truck should be performed whereby the elements are properly

fastened and secured tightly on the transportation vehicle. In line with this, the materials should be

handled with care and stored appropriately avoiding interference with site traffic and direct sunlight.

8. Foundation Loads

Generally, the loadings experienced by the roof will be transferred onto the rafters

connecting the roof and subsequently onto the upper floor columns. The cross bracings in the

structure transfer the wind loads directly onto the connecting columns and an assumption that no

axial forces are applied to the connecting beams was made. The column then transmits the loads

onto the foundation pads.

8.1 Lateral stability

8.1.1Longitudinal lateral stability

The rails distribute the wind load acting on the side of the building to the longitudinal

beams. The longitudinal beams distribute the lateral load to the bracings which could be tension or

compression. In turn, the bracings transfer the loads directly to the foundations of the building.

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8.1.2 Transverse lateral stability

The rails distribute the transverse wind loads to the frames. The frames achieve lateral

stability from the stiffness of the joints as well as the bending resistance of the members.

8.1.3 Vertical load

Vertical loads are distributed to the frames using purlins. The frame transfers the vertical

loads to the columns using the stiffness of the frame. The columns transfer the loads to the

foundation.

8.2 Foundation loads schedule

The frames are spaced 9 m between columns with a total span of 136 m longitudinally.

Hence, there will be a total of 15 frames to be erected for the aquatics centre. The foundation loads

for the frames have been obtained from SAP 2000. As the structure is symmetrical, it is known that

the 1st frame has the same foundation load as the 15th frame. However, as only the first frame of the

structure was modelled in SAP 2000, the loadings applied onto the column and then onto the

foundation was assumed to be the same for all the foundations. This is because the foundation load

of the 1st frame will be the most critical frame.

As such, the external columns were all designed based on this load. Loading combinations in

accordance with EC2 were calculated for the columns as soon as the amount of dead, live and wind

load was determined. Doing so, the foundation loads for the columns can be found

Table 8.1 and 8.2 below shows the summarised loads for the frames.

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Table 8.1 & 8.2: Schedule of foundation loads

9. Sustainability
Steel is an incredibly efficient material for sustainable construction.

a) Steel utilization is most cost- effective in comparison with different materials; additionally,

considering that the maintenance cost for steel is low.

b) Steel can provide strong and lightweight structures with as little material as possible

because of its high strength to weight ratio.

c) Construction of frame using steel is rigid in shape and dimensionally solid.

d) It is relatively smooth and quiet easy to erect and requires few site deliveries.

e) It can be reused over and over again in a recycled process without losing its properties as a

building material

f) Steel framed buildings are easily adaptable and light- weight, as a result avoiding the need to

demolish the building or wasting the resources used.

g) Steel is non-flammable to fire.

In this project we aim to:

 Provide and aid natural and social environments

 Meet all safety and health requirements

 Ensuring client’s satisfaction by offering a better quality of life

 Be as efficient as possible in the use of resources

Several measures are taken in our design to help achieve our aims:

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9.1 Material considerations

Based on life-cycle assessment, steel sheeting has a very long life span over 40 years and is made

from recycled steel is the type of steel used in roofing systems and its life span can extend even

more with coatings and galvanic-protection techniques, while having low maintenance costs. The

client can recycle it at the end of its performance life. Its installation has less construction waste,

therefore, less overall waste.

Furthermore, the main material used is aluminium sheeting which is 100% recyclable, which

will help recover some of the initial financial investment in the material used, and cut on any cost

spent in removal of material at the end of the building life and also save on resources.

9.2 Construction technique implemented

Few plans were modelled and then the most suitable plan was adopted then it was divided

into several sections and prefabricating parts accordingly to avoid any delay in construction. We

designed a very cost efficient method to increase the construction speed and reduce

disarrangement on site as much as possible. The construction process involves lifting and placing of

parts to connect them together through welding or bolts.

In our structure, bolted connections were used as much as possible to ease the process of

making changes in the future if needed. Hence, the demount-ability aspect of the project has been

taken into account. On top of that, a preference towards the hiring of supplier and contractors with

sustainable approaches was adopted to satisfy the green credential of the structure.

9.3 Energy usage

Our goal is to reduce the amount of energy related to operation used in the building by

having natural ventilation systems which would reduce our operational to construction energy ratio

to 3:1 in just 30 years life span compared to an air conditioned building which would dominate by

10:1 in 60 years life span.

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The following considerations have been taken in our design:

1) Rainwater is collected from the roof drains and is stored in rainwater tanks to be used for

toilets, landscaping, or processing water purposes in a process called rain harvesting.

2) Only during hot days will the air conditioning be used and is to be installed only in the

offices, which are placed on one side of the building. However, windows are available to

provide natural ventilation during days with good weather and night operations.

3) External Thermal Insulation Composite System that is very durable and cost effective to

prevent large heat conduction on the external wall.

4) To help in the reduction of electricity usage, ventilation vents are installed all around the

building in the wall cladding to utilize fresh air to allow air movement.

5) Due to its energy consumption, modern lighting is extra efficient when compared to

traditional lighting, hence, LED lights instead of fluorescent lighting.

6) Insulation boards of 25mm thick are added in walls to reduce energy losses.

7) Roof surfaces must have high emissivity ratings to allow solar energy and heat to dissipate

quickly.

8) Heat from solar radiation entering is reflected and cold air is trapped inside through

installing small windows. Whilst, allowing light to pass through, options vary from expensive

electronic types to much cheaper non-electronic ones.

9) To avoid wastage of electricity in areas that are not in use, motion sensors are installed in

the offices.

10) Live load accounted for on the roof for maintenance allows safe installation and fixing of

solar panels. Since their own weight is very small around (0.15kN) per square meters, they

can be easily installed over the roof.

11) Incorporation of photovoltaic glass which converts light into electricity further reducing

energy consumption. PV glass also offers thermal and sound insulation and filters 99% of

harmful UV radiation.

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12) Use of light dimmers which allow the light intensity to be adjusted. Low brightness

consumes lesser electricity.

10. References

1) Steelconstruction.info. (2018). Building envelopes. [online] Available at:

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Building_envelopes [Accessed 9 Dec. 2018]

2) Kirby.vn. (2018). [online] Available at:

http://kirby.vn/images/ERECTION%20METHOD%20STATEMENT.pdf [Accessed 9 Dec. 2018].

3) Designingbuildings.co.uk, (2016). Sustainability in building design and construction - Designing

Buildings Wiki. [online] Available at:
http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Sustainability_in_building_design_and_construction/
[Accessed 29 November 2018].

4) Ungersteel.com. (2018). [online] Available at:

https://www.ungersteel.com/unger/insider_wissen/S04_Design_portal_frames.pdf [Accessed 9 Dec.
2018].

5) Steelconstruction.info. (2018). Allowing for the effects of deformed frame geometry. [online]
Available at:
https://www.steelconstruction.info/Allowing_for_the_effects_of_deformed_frame_geometry
[Accessed 9 Dec. 2018].

6) Phd.eng.br. (2018). [online] Available at: https://www.phd.eng.br/wp-

content/uploads/2015/12/en.1993.1.8.2005-1.pdf [Accessed 9 Dec. 2018].

7) Kristen M. Lechner (2009), Load Paths in a Braced Frame Steel Building, Available at:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/kml5016/blogs/kristen_lechners_eportfolio/Technical%20Description.pd
f [Accessed 20 November 2018.]

8) Designingbuildings.co.uk. (2016). Buildability in construction - Designing Buildings Wiki. [Online]

Available at: http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Buildability_in_construction [Accessed 3
December 2018].

9) Steelconstruction.info, (2016). Trusses. [Online] Available at:

http://www.steelconstruction.info/Trusses [Accessed 15 November 2018].

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