Indian Union: The Constitution

INDIAN UNION
India is a Union of 28 States and seven centrally administered Union Territories.
Constitution
The country attained freedom on 15 August 1947. The Constitution of the Republic came into
effect on 26 January 1950.
The Constitution provides for single and uniform citizenship for the whole nation and confers the
right to vote on every person who is a citizen of India and 18 years of age or older.
Fundamental Rights
The Fundamental Rights of every Indian citizen include the freedom of speech, expression, belief,
assembly and association, migration, and choice of occupation or trade. These rights also protect
every Indian from discrimination on grounds of race, religion, creed or sex, and are enforceable in
courts of law.
GOVERNMENT
The Legislature:
India has a parliamentary form of government based on universal adult franchise. The executive
authority is responsible to the elected representatives of the people in the Parliament for all its
decisions and actions. Sovereignty rests ultimately with the people. The Parliament is bi-cameral.
Rajya Sabha (Council of States): The Council of States consists of not more than 250
members, of whom 12 are nominated by the President of India and the rest elected. It is not
subject to dissolution, one-third of its members retiring at the end of every second year. The
elections to the Council are indirect. The allotted quota of representatives of each State are
elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly of that State, in accordance with the system
of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. The nominated members
are persons with special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art and social
service. The Rajya Sabha is presided over by the Vice- President of India.
Lok Sabha (House of the People): The House of the People consists of 545 members. Of
these, 530 are directly elected from the 25 States and 13 from the seven Union Territories. Two
members are nominated by the President to represent the Anglo-Indian community.
Unless dissolved sooner, the term of the House is five years from the date appointed for its first
meeting. The Lok Sabha elects its own presiding officer, the Speaker.
The Executive: The President of India is the Head of the State and the Commander-in-Chief of
the Armed Forces. He is elected by an electoral college composed of members of both the
Houses of Parliament (Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha) and the legislatures of the nationþs
constituent States. The President holds office for five years and can be re-elected.
The President does not normally exercise any constitutional powers on his own initiative. These
are exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, which is responsible to
the elected Parliament.
The Vice-President is elected jointly by the members of both the Houses of Parliament. The
person enjoying majority support in the Lok Sabha is appointed Prime Minister by the President.
The President then appoints other ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime
Minister can remain in office only as long as he or she enjoys majority support in the Parliament.
the The Judiciary: The judiciary is independent of the executive. It is the guardian and interpreter
of Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal, positioned at the apex of a
single unified system for the whole country. Each State has its own High Court. A uniform code of
civil and criminal laws applies to the whole country.
The States: The States have their own Legislative Assemblies and in certain cases a second
Chamber. All members of the Legislative Assemblies are elected by universal adult franchise.
The Head of the States are called Governors. Appointed by the President, they normally exercise
the same powers in the States as the President does at the Union government level. As in the
Central Government, each State has a Cabinet headed by the Chief Minister responsible to the
elected State Legislature.
Election Commission: The electoral machinery is centralised in an independent statutory body

called the Election Commission. The Commission is responsible for the 'superintendence,
direction and control' of the electoral rolls for all elections to Parliament and to the State
Legislatures and also for conducting the elections.
The culture of India has been shaped not only by its long history, unique geography and
diverse demography, but also by its ancient heritages, which were formed during the
Indus Valley Civilization and evolved further during the Vedic age, rise and decline of
Buddhism, the Golden age, invasions from Central Asia, European colonization and the
rise of Indian nationalism.
The languages, religions, dance, music, architecture and its customs differ from place to
place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is
an amalgamation of diverse sub-cultures spread all over the country and traditions that
are several millennia old.
Culture of India
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A Kathakali performer as Krishna. One the eight major Indian classical dances,
Kathakali is more than 1,500 years old and its theme is heavily influenced by the
Puranas.[1]
The culture of India has been shaped not only by its long history, unique geography and
diverse demography, but also by its ancient heritages, which were formed during the
Indus Valley Civilization and evolved further during the Vedic age, rise and decline of
Buddhism, the Golden age, invasions from Central Asia, European colonization and the
rise of Indian nationalism.
The languages, religions, dance, music, architecture and its customs differ from place to
place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is
an amalgamation of diverse sub-cultures spread all over the country and traditions that
are several millennia old.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Religion
• 2 Society
o 2.1 Overview
o 2.2 Family
o 2.3 Animals
o 2.4 Namaste
o 2.5 Festivals
• 3 Cuisine
• 4 Clothing
• 5 Literature
o 5.1 History
o 5.2 Poetry
o 5.3 Epics
• 6 Performing arts
o 6.1 Music
o 6.2 Dance
o 6.3 Drama and theater
• 7 Visual arts
o 7.1 Painting
o 7.2 Sculpture
o 7.3 Architecture
• 8 Recreation and sports
• 9 Popular media
o 9.1 Television
o 9.2 Cinema
• 10 See also
• 11 References
• 12 Further reading
• 13 External links
[edit] Religion
Close-up of a statue depicting Maitreya at the Thikse Monastery in Ladakh, India. India
is the birthplace of Dharmic religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.[2]
Main articles: Religion in India and Indian religions
India is the birth place of Dharmic religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and
Sikhism.[3] Dharmic religions, also known as Indian religions, are a major form of world
religions next to the Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's
third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, with around 1.4 billion followers
altogether.
India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the most
deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and definitive role in
the life of most of its people.
The religion of 80% of the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13% of all
Indians.[4] Sikhism, Jainism and especially Buddhism are influential not only in India but
across the world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith are also
influential but their numbers are smaller. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life,
atheism and agnostics also have visible influence along with a self-ascribed tolerance to
other people.
[edit] Society
[edit] Overview
According to Eugene M. Makar, traditional Indian culture is defined by relatively strict

social hierarchy. He also mentions that from an early age, children are reminded of their
roles and places in society.[5] This is reinforced by the fact that many believe gods and
spirits have an integral and functional role in determining their life.[5] Several differences
such as religion divide the culture.[5] However, a far more powerful division is the
traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations.[5] Strict social
taboos have governed these groups for thousands of years.[5] In recent years, particularly
in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even disappeared.[5] The
Nuclear family is becoming central to Indian culture. Important family relations extend as
far as gotra, the mainly patrilinear lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth.[5] In rural
areas & sometimes in urban areas as well, it is common that three or four generations of
the family live under the same roof.[5] The patriarch often resolves family issues.[5]
Among developing countries, India has low levels of occupational and geographic
mobility. People choose same occupations as their parents and rarely move
geographically in the country.[6] During the nationalist movement, pretentious behaviour
was something to be avoided. Egalitarian behaviour and social service were promoted
while nonessential spending was disliked and spending money for ‘showing off’ was
deemed a vice. This image continues in politics with many politicians wearing simple
looking / traditionally rural clothes, such as the traditional 'kurta -pyjama' and the 'Gandhi
topi'.
[edit] Family
Main articles: Hindu joint family, Arranged marriage in India, and Women in India
A bride during a traditional Punjabi Hindu wedding ceremony.
Family plays a big role in the Indian culture. India for ages has had a prevailing tradition
of the joint family system. It’s a system under which even extended members of a family
like one’s parents, children, the children’s spouses and their offspring, etc. live together.
The elder-most, usually the male member is the head in the joint Indian family system
who makes all important decisions and rules, whereas other family members abide by it.
Arranged marriages have the tradition in Indian society for centuries. Even today,
overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other
respected family-members, with the consent of the bride and groom.[7] Arranged matches
were made after taking into account factors such as age, height, personal values and
tastes, the backgrounds of their families (wealth, social standing) and their castes and the
astrological compatibility of the couples' horoscopes.
In India, the marriage is thought to be for life[8], and the divorce rate is extremely low —
1.1% compared with about 50% in the United States.[9] The arranged marriages generally
have a much lower divorce rate. The divorce rates have risen significantly in recent years:
"Opinion is divided over what the phenomenon means: for traditionalists the
rising numbers portend the breakdown of society while, for some modernists, they
speak of a healthy new empowerment for women."[10]
Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is continued to be practiced in some

rural parts of India.[11] According to UNICEF’s “State of the World’s Children-2009”
report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before the legal age of 18, with
56% in rural areas.[12] The report also showed that 40% of the world's child marriages
occur in India.[13]
Indian names are based on a variety of systems and naming conventions, which vary
from region to region. Names are also influenced by religion and caste and may come
from religion or epics. India's population speaks a wide variety of languages.
Although women and men are equal before the law and the trend toward gender equality
has been noticeable, women and men still occupy distinct functions in Indian
society.Woman's role in the society is often to perform household works and pro bono
community work[5]. This low rate of participation has ideological and historical reasons.
Women and women's issues appear only 7-14% of the time in news programs.[5] In most
Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a
share of parental property.[14] Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women
continue to have little access to land and property.[15] In many families, especially rural
ones, the girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are
anaemic and malnourished.[14] They still lag behind men in terms of income and job
status. Traditional Hindu art, such as Rangoli (or Kolam), is very popular among Indian
women. Popular and influential woman's magazines include Femina, Grihshobha and
Woman's Era', 'Savvy.
[edit] Animals
Cows depicted in the decorated goppuram of the Kapaleeshwarar temple in Chennai
See also: Wildlife of India, Animal husbandry in India, and Cattle in religion
The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's popular
culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Jungle which was adopted by the
British colonialists to the English language. The word has been also made famous in The
Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other
tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.[16]
In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa (non-violence), mother goddess

and bringer of good fortune and wealth.[17] For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu
culture and feeding a cow is that is seen as an act of worship.[18]
[edit] Namaste
Namaste, Namaskar or Namaskaram or Vannakam is a common spoken greeting or

salutation in the Indian subcontinent. Namaskar is considered a slightly more formal
version than namaste but both express deep respect. It is commonly used in India and
Nepal by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, and many continue to use this outside the Indian
subcontinent. In Indian and Nepali culture, the word is spoken at the beginning of written
or verbal communication. However, the same hands folded gesture is made usually
wordlessly upon departure. In yoga, namaste is said to mean "The light in me honors the
light in you," as spoken by both the yoga instructor and yoga students.
Taken literally, it means "I bow to you". The word is derived from Sanskrit (namas): to
bow, obeisance, reverential salutation, and respect and (te): "to you".
When spoken to another person, it is commonly accompanied by a slight bow made with
hands pressed together, palms touching and fingers pointed upwards, in front of the chest.
The gesture can also be performed wordlessly or calling on another god E.g.: "Jai shri
Krishna" and carry the same meaning.
Dipawali, a festival of lights, is celebrated by Hindus across India by lighting diyas and
making rangolis.
[edit] Festivals
Main article: Festivals in India
India, being a multi-cultural and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals
of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the Independence Day, the
Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across
India. In addition, many states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent
religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu
festivals of Navratri Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga puja, Holi, Rakshabandhan and
Dussehra. Several harvest festivals, such as Sankranthi, Pongal and Onam,"Nuakhai" are
also fairly popular. Certain festivals in India are celebrated by multiple religions. Notable
examples include Diwali which celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains and Buddh
Purnima which is celebrated by Buddhists and Hindus. Islamic festivals, such Eid ul-Fitr,
Eid al-Adha and Ramadan, are celebrated by Muslims across India. Adding colors to the
culture of India, the Dree Festival is one of the tribal festivals of India celebrated by the
Apatanis of the Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradesh, which is the easternmost state of this
country.
[edit] Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of India
A variety of Indian curries and vegetable dishes.
The multiple families of Indian cuisine are characterized by their sophisticated and subtle
use of many spices and herbs. Each family of this cuisine is characterized by a wide
assortment of dishes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food
is vegetarian, many traditional Indian dishes also include chicken, goat, lamb, fish, and
other meats.
Food is an important part of Indian culture, playing a role in everyday life as well as in
festivals. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the varied demographics
of the ethnically diverse subcontinent. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split into five
categories: North, South, East,West Indian and North-eastern India.
Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge. Varied uses of spices are an
integral part of food preparation, and are used to enhance the flavor of a dish and create
unique flavors and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various
cultural groups that entered India throughout history, such as the Persians, Mughals, and
European colonists. Though the tandoor originated in Central Asia, Indian tandoori
dishes, such as chicken tikka made with Indian ingredients, enjoy widespread popularity.
[19]
Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe.[20] Historically, Indian
spices and herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities. The spice trade
between India and Europe led to the rise and dominance of Arab traders to such an extent
that European explorers, such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, set out to
find new trade routes with India leading to the Age of Discovery.[21] The popularity of
curry, which originated in India, across Asia has often led to the dish being labeled as the
"pan-Asian" dish.[22]
[edit] Clothing
A girl from Tripura sports a bindi while preparing to take part in a traditional dance
festival.
Traditional Indian clothing for women are the saris and also Ghaghra Cholis (Lehengas).
For men, traditional clothes are the Dhoti/pancha/veshti or Kurta. Delhi is considered to
be India's fashion capital, housing the annual Fashion weeks. In some village parts of
India, traditional clothing mostly will be worn. Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Ahmedabad,
and Pune are all places for people who like to shop. In southern India the men wear long,
white sheets of cloth called dhoti in English and in Tamil. Over the dhoti, men wear
shirts, t-shirts, or anything else. Women wear a sari, a long sheet of colourful cloth with
patterns. This is draped over a simple or fancy blouse. This is worn by young ladies and
woman. Little girls wear a pavada. A pavada is a long skirt worn under a blouse. Both
are often gaily patterned. Bindi is part of the women's make-up. Traditionally, the red
bindi (or sindhur) was worn only by the married Hindu women, but now it has become a
part of women's fashion. A bindi is also worn by some as their third eye. It sees what the
others eyes can't and protect your brain from the outside and the sun.[23] Indo-western
clothing is the fusion of Western and Subcontinental fashion. Churidar, Dupatta,
Gamchha, Kurta, Mundum Neriyathum, Sherwani, uttariya are among
[edit] Literature
Oh khidda.
[edit] History
Main article: Indian literature

Rabindranath Tagore, Asia's first Nobel laureate.[24]
The earliest works of Indian literature were orally transmitted[citation needed]. Tamil literature
begins with the sangam literature a collection of sacred hymns dating to the period
10000BC–1200 BCE[citation needed] . The Tamil epics tolkappiyam and thirukural appeared
towards the end of the first millennium BCE[citation needed]. Classical Tamil literature
succeeded well in the first few centuries of the first millennium CE[citation needed] .
In the medieval period, literature in Kannada and Telugu appears in the 9th and 10th and
11th centuries respectively,[25] followed by the first Malayalam works in the 12th century.
During this time, literature in the Tamil, Bengali, Marathi, and various dialects of Hindi,
and Urdu began to appear as well.
Some of the most important authors from India are Rabindranath Tagore, Ramdhari
Singh 'Dinkar', Subramania Barathi Kuvempu, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael
Madhusudan Dutt, Munshi Premchand, Muhammad Iqbal, Devaki Nandan Khatri became
well known. In contemporary India, among the writers who have received critical acclaim
are: Girish Karnad, Agyeya, Nirmal Verma, Kamleshwar, Vaikom Muhammad Basheer,
Indira Goswami, Mahasweta Devi, Amrita Pritam, Maasti Venkatesh Ayengar,
Qurratulain Hyder and Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai and others have received critical
acclaim.
In contemporary Indian literature, there are two major literary awards; these are the
Sahitya Akademi Fellowship and the Jnanpith Award. Seven Jnanpith awards each have
been awarded in Kannada, six in Hindi, five in Bengali, four in Malayalam, three each in
and Marathi, Gujarati, Urdu and Oriya.[26]
[edit] Poetry
Main article: Indian poetry

Illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra. With more than 74,000 verses, long prose
passages, and about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is one of the longest epic
poems in the world.
India has strong traditions of poetry ever since the Rigveda, as well as prose
compositions. Poetry is often closely related to musical traditions, and much of poetry
can be attributed to religious movements. Writers and philosophers were often also
skilled poets. In modern times, poetry has served as an important non-violent tool of
nationalism during the Indian freedom movement. A famous modern example of this
tradition can be found in such figures as Rabindranath Tagore, Kuvempu and K. S.
Narasimhaswamy in modern times and poets such as Basava (vachanas) , Kabir and
Purandaradasa (padas and devaranamas) in medieval times, as well as the epics of
ancient times. Two examples of poetry from Tagore's Gitanjali serve as the national
anthems of both India and Bangladesh.
[edit] Epics
The Ramayana and Mahabharata are the oldest preserved and still well-known epics of
India; some of their versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries
like Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. In addition, there are five epics in the classical
Tamil language are Silappadhikaram, Manimegalai, Civaka Cintamani, Valaiyapathi,
Kundalakesi.
Other regional variations of them as well as unrelated epics include the Tamil Kamba
Ramayanam, in Kannada, the Pampa Bharata by Adikavi Pampa, Torave Ramayana by
Kumara Valmiki and Karnata Bharata Katha Manjari by Kumaravyasa, Hindi
Ramacharitamanasa, Malayalam Adhyathmaramayanam.
[edit] Performing arts
[edit] Music
Panchavadyam temple music in Kerala.
Main article: Music of India
The music of India includes multiples varieties of religious, folk, popular, pop, and
classical music. The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the
Samaveda that are still sung in certain Vedic Śrauta sacrifices. India's classical music
tradition is heavily influenced by Hindu texts. It includes two distinct styles: Carnatic and
Hindustani music. It is noted for the use of several Raga, melodic modes. it has a history
spanning millennia and it was developed over several eras. It remains instrumental to the
religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.
Purandaradasa is considered the "father of carnatic music" (Karnataka sangeeta

pitamaha).[27][28][29] He concluded his songs with a salutation to Lord Purandara Vittala
and is believed to have composed as many as 475,000[30] songs in the Kannada language.
However, only about 1000 are known today.[27][31]
[edit] Dance
Main article: Indian dance

Odissi dancer in front of the Konark Sun Temple.
Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances
are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Jharkhand and Orissa, the
ghoomar of Rajasthan, the dandiya and garba of Gujarat, the Yakshagana of Karnataka
and lavani of Maharashtra and Dekhnni of Goa. Eight dance forms, many with narrative
forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's
National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state
of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniattam of Kerala, kuchipudi
of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of
Assam.[32][33]
Kalarippayattu or Kalari for short is considered one of the world's oldest martial arts. It is
preserved in texts such as the Mallapurana. Kalari and other later formed martial arts
have been assumed by some to have traveled to China, like Buddhism, and eventually
developing into Kung-fu. Other later martial arts are Gatka, Pehlwani and Malla-yuddha.
There have been many great prout
[edit] Drama and theater
Natyacarya Mani Madhava Chakyar as Ravana in Bhasa's Abhiṣeka Nataka Kutiyattam -

one of the oldest surviving drama tradition of the world.
Main article: Theatre in India
Indian drama and theater has a long history alongside its music and dance. Kalidasa's
plays like Shakuntala and Meghadoota are some of the older plays, following those of
Bhasa. One of the oldest surviving theatre tradition of the world is the 2000 year old
Kutiyattam of Kerala. It strictly follows the Natya Shastra[34]. The natak of Bhasa are very
popular in this art form. Nātyāchārya (late) Padma Shri Māni Mādhava Chākyār- the
unrivaled maestro of this art form and Abhinaya, revived the age old drama tradition from
extinction. He was known for mastery of Rasa Abhinaya. He started to perform the
Kalidasa plays like Abhijñānaśākuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and Mālavikāgnimitra; Bhasa's
Swapnavāsavadatta and Pancharātra; Harsha's Nagananda in Kutiyattam form[35][36]
The tradition of folk theater is popular in most linguistic regions of India. In addition,
there is a rich tradition of puppet theater in rural India, going back to at least the second
century BCE. (It is mentioned in Patanjali's commentary on Panini). Group Theater is
also thriving in the cities, initiated by the likes of Gubbi Veeranna,[37] Utpal Dutt, Khwaja
Ahmad Abbas, K. V. Subbanna and still maintained by groups like Nandikar, Ninasam
and Prithvi Theatre.
[edit] Visual arts

Main article: Indian art
[edit] Painting
Main article: Indian painting
The Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves.
The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of pre-historic times, the
petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka, some of which go back to the Stone Age.
Ancient texts outline theories of darragh and anecdotal accounts suggesting that it was
common for households to paint their doorways or indoor rooms where guests resided.
Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to
a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A
freshly made coloured flour design (Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep
of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one the classical
painters from medieval India.
Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting, Mughal

painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S.
H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B.Venkatappa[38] are some modern painters.
Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and
Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct
amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired
international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a
few good Indian paintings.
[edit] Sculpture
Main article: Sculpture in India

Hindu sculptures at the famous Khajuraho temple in Madhya Pradesh.
The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilization, where stone and
bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism
developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple
carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora were not constructed by using
blocks but carved out of solid rock.
Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong
blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The
pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the Gupta
period (4th to 6th century) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and
delicacy in modeling. These styles and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to
classical Indian art that contributed to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout
Southeast Central and East Asia.
[edit] Architecture
Main article: Indian architecture
The Umaid Bhawan Palace in Rajasthan, one of the largest private residences in the
world.[39]
Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time,

constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural
production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of
its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BCE) which
is characterised by well planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to
have played an important role in the planning and layout of these towns.
During the period of the Maurya and Gupta empires and their successors, several
Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the
monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India produced several Hindu
temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and
the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur, the Sun
Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa
(Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Angkor Wat, Borobudur
and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East
Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost identical to traditional Indian
religious buildings.
Akshardham in Delhi the largest Hindu temple in the world.
The traditional system of Vaastu Shastra serves as India's version of Feng Shui,
influencing town planning, architecture, and ergonomics. It is unclear which system is
older, but they contain certain similarities. Feng Shui is more commonly used throughout
the world. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to Feng Shui in that it also tries to
harmonize the flow of energy, (also called life-force or Prana in Sanskrit and Chi/Ki in
Chinese/Japanese), through the house, it differs in the details, such as the exact directions
in which various objects, rooms, materials, etc. are to be placed.
With the advent of Islamic influence from the west, Indian architecture was adapted to
allow the traditions of the new religion. Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz, Qutub
Minar, Red Fort of Delhi are creations of this era, and are often used as the stereotypical
symbols of India. The colonial rule of the British Empire saw the development of Indo-
Saracenic style, and mixing of several other styles, such as European Gothic. The
Victoria Memorial or the Victoria Terminus are notable examples.
Indian architecture has influenced eastern and southeastern Asia, due to the spread of
Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the temple mound or stupa,
temple spire or sikhara, temple tower or pagoda and temple gate or torana, have become
famous symbols of Asian culture, used extensively in East Asia and South East Asia. The
central spire is also sometimes called a vimanam. The southern temple gate, or gopuram
is noted for its intricacy and majesty.
Contemporary Indian architecture is more cosmopolitan. Cities are extremely compact

and densely populated. Mumbai's Nariman Point is famous for its Art Deco buildings.
Recent creations such as the Lotus Temple, and the various modern urban developments
of India like Chandigarh, are notable.
[edit] Recreation and sports

Main article: Sports in India
See also: kabaddi and Indian chess
The annual snake boat race is performed during Onam Celebrations on the Pamba River
at Aranmula near Pathanamthitta.
In the area of recreation and sports India had evolved a number of games. The modern
eastern martial arts originated as ancient games and martial arts in India, and it is
believed by some that these games were transmitted to foreign countries, where they were
further adapted and modernized. Traditional indigenous sports include kabaddi and gilli-
danda, which are played in most parts of the country.
A few games introduced during the British Raj have grown quite popular in India: field
hockey, football (soccer) and especially cricket. Although field hockey is India's official
national sport, cricket is by far the most popular sport not only in India, but the entire
subcontinent, thriving recreationally and professionally. Cricket has even been used
recently as a forum for diplomatic relations between India and Pakistan. The two nations'
cricket teams face off annually and such contests are quite impassioned on both sides.
Polo is also popular.
Indoor and outdoor games like Chess, Snakes and Ladders, Playing cards, Carrom,
Badminton are popular. Chess was invented in India.
Games of strength and speed flourished in India. In ancient India stones were used for
weights, marbles, and dice. Ancient Indians competed in chariot racing, archery,
horsemanship, military tactics, wrestling, weight lifting, hunting, swimming and running
races.
[edit] Popular media
[edit] Television
Main article: Television in India

See also: List of Indian television stations
Indian television started off in 1959 in New Delhi with tests for educational telecasts.[40]
Indian small screen programming started off in the mid 1970s. At that time there was
only one national channel Doordarshan, which was government owned. 1982 saw
revolution in TV programming in India, with the New Delhi Asian games, India saw the
colour version of TV, that year. The Ramayana and Mahabharat were some among the
popular television series produced. By the late 1980s more and more people started to
own television sets. Though there was a single channel, television programming had
reached saturation. Hence the government opened up another channel which had part
national programming and part regional. This channel was known as DD 2 later DD
Metro. Both channels were broadcasted terrestrially.
In 1991, the government liberated its markets, opening them up to cable television. Since
then, there has been a spurt in the number of channels available. Today, Indian silver
screen is a huge industry by itself, and has thousands of programmes in all the states of
India. The small screen has produced numerous celebrities of their own kind some even
attaining national fame for themselves. TV soaps are extremely popular with housewives
as well as working women, and even men of all kinds. Some small time actors have made
it big in Bollywood. Indian TV now has many of the same channels as Western TV,
including stations such as Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, and MTV India.
[edit] Cinema
Main article: Cinema of India
Shooting of a Bollywood dance number.
Bollywood is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based film industry in
India. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs (in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam,
Marathi, Tamil, Punjabi and Telugu) constitute the broader Indian film industry, whose
output is considered to be the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced
and number of tickets sold.
India has produced many critically acclaimed cinema-makers like K.Vishwanath, Bapu
,Jagdaman Grewal, Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Guru Dutt, K. Vishwanath, Adoor
Gopalakrishnan, Girish Kasaravalli, Shekhar Kapoor, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Shankar
Nag, Girish Karnad, G. V. Iyer,etc. (See Indian film directors). With the opening up of
the economy in the recent years and consequent exposure to world cinema, audience
tastes have been changing. In addition, multiplexes have mushroomed in most cities,
changing the revenue patterns.
[edit] See also
India portal
• South Asian ethnic groups

• Etiquette of Indian dining
• Lists of Indians by state
• Indian religions
[edit] References
1. ^ Jacobs, Susan. Yoga Journal, Nov-Dec 1985. Active Interest Media, Inc..
2. ^ Outsourcing to India By Mark Kobayashi-Hillary
3. ^ Finding Lost - By Nikki Stafford
4. ^ "Religions Muslim" (PDF). Registrat General and Census Commissioner, India.
http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/Summary%20Muslims.pdf. Retrieved
2006-06-01.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Eugene M. Makar (2007). An American's Guide to Doing
Business in India.
6. ^ Kaivan Munshi and Mark Rosenzweig (2005). "Why is Mobility in India so
Low? Social Insurance, Inequality, and Growth".
http://www.econ.yale.edu/seminars/labor/lap05-06/Rosenzweig091605.pdf.
7. ^ http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20050215/life/life1.html Love vs
arranged marriages, Keisha Shakespeare
8. ^ http://www.thepost.co.za/index.php?fSectionId=154&fArticleId=2613258
9. ^ http://www.divorcerate.org/divorce-rate-in-india.html Divorce Rate In India
10. ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/1499679/Divorce-soars-
in-India's-middle-class.html Divorce soars in India's middle class
11. ^ BBC News | SOUTH ASIA | Child marriages targeted in India
12. ^ http://www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09_Table_9.pdf
13. ^ http://www.hindu.com/2009/01/18/stories/2009011855981100.htm
14. ^ a b Kalyani Menon-Sen, A. K. Shiva Kumar (2001). "Women in India: How
Free? How Equal?". United Nations. http://www.un.org.in/wii.htm. Retrieved
2006-12-24.
15. ^ Carol S. Coonrod (June 1998). "Chronic Hunger and the Status of Women in
India". http://www.thp.org/reports/indiawom.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-24.
16. ^ Symbolism in Indian culture
17. ^ South Asian folklore - By Peter J. Claus, Sarah Diamond, Margaret Ann Mills
18. ^ Nature's web - By Peter H. Marshall
19. ^ "Tandoori Village Restaurant Brisbane". AsiaRooms.com.
http://www.asiarooms.com/travel-guide/australia/brisbane/what-where-to-
eat/indian-restaurants-in-brisbane/tandoori-village-restaurant-brisbane.html.
20. ^ "Indian food now attracts wider market.".
http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-19130531_ITM.
21. ^ Louise Marie M. Cornillez (Spring 1999). "The History of the Spice Trade in
India". http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Spice_Trade.html.
22. ^ "Meatless Monday: There's No Curry in India".
http://www.meatlessmonday.com/site/PageServer?pagename=dyk_curry.
23. ^ Kamat's Potpourri: The Significance of the holy dot (Bindi)
24. ^ http://almaz.com/nobel/literature/1913a.html
25. ^ "Kannada literature," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008. Quote: "The earliest
literary work is the Kavirajamarga (c. AD 850), a treatise on poetics based on a
Sanskrit model."
26. ^ "Narayan, Kelkar and Shastri chosen for Jnanpith award", All India Radio,
November 22, 2008.
27. ^ a b Dr. Jytosna Kamat. "Purandara Dasa". Kamats Potpourri.
http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/dasa.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-31.
28. ^ Madhusudana Rao CR. "Sri Purandara Dasaru". Dvaita Home Page.
http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/dasas/purandara/purandara.html. Retrieved 2006-
12-31.
29. ^ S. Sowmya, K. N. Shashikiran. "History of Music". Srishti's Carnatica Private
Limited. http://carnatica.net/origin.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-31.
30. ^ http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/dasas/purandara/p_dasa1.html
31. ^ Madhusudana Rao CR. "Sri Purandara Dasaru". Dvaita Home Page
(www.dviata.org). http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/dasas/purandara/p_dasa1.html.
Retrieved 2006-12-31.
32. ^ "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance"
33. ^ "Indian Dance Videos: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Bhangra, Garba, Bollywood
and various folk dances"
34. ^ Māni Mādhava Chākyār (1996). Nātyakalpadrumam. Sangeet Natak Akademi,
New Delhi.p.6
35. ^ K. A. Chandrahasan, In pursuit of excellence (Performing Arts), "The Hindu",
Sunday March 26, 1989
36. ^ Mani Madhava Chakkyar: The Master at Work (film- English), Kavalam N.
Panikar, Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi, 1994
37. ^ Kamath (2003), p282
38. ^ Kamath (2003), p283
39. ^ Umaid Bhawan Palace, Famous Palace Stay at Umaid Bhawan in Jodhpur,
Famous Palace Attractions in Jodhpur
40. ^ "A Snapshot of Indian Television History". Indian Television Dot Com Pvt Ltd.
http://www.indiantelevision.com/indianbrodcast/history/historyoftele.htm.
[edit] Further reading
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric
times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
• Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1988]. History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi,
Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
• Rice, B.L. (2001) [1897]. Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1.
New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0977-8.
• Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-
historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN 809-5179.
OCLC 7796041.
• Varma, Pavan K. Being Indian: Inside the Real India. (ISBN 0-434-01391-9)
• Tully, Mark. No Full Stops in India. (ISBN 0-14-010480-1)
• Naipaul, V.S. India: A Million Mutinies Now. (ISBN 0-7493-9920-1)
• Grihault, Nicki. India - Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette.
(ISBN 1-85733-305-5)
• Manjari Uil, Foreign Influence on Indian Culture (c.600 BC to AD 320), (ISBN
81-88629-60-X)
[edit] External links
• Indian Govt. Site devoted to preserving manuscripts and making them available
• Treasure House of India's Art and Culture
• IndianCultureOnline.com - Indian Culture Photos+Detail Information
• North India Culture
• Culture Coverage
• An Introduction to Indian Culture
[show]
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Culture of India Asia
[show]
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Life in India
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_India"

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Culture of the United States


This article is about the culture of the United States. For customs and way of life, see
Society of the United States.
The development of the Culture of the United States of America has been marked by a
tension between two strong sources of inspiration: European ideals, especially British;
and domestic originality.
American culture encompasses traditions, ideals, customs, beliefs, values, arts, and
innovations developed both domestically and imported via colonization and immigration.
Prevalent ideas and ideals which evolved domestically such as important national
holidays, uniquely American sports, proud military tradition, and innovations in the arts
and entertainment give a strong sense of national pride among the population as a whole.
It includes both conservative and liberal elements, military and scientific

competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist and
moral elements.
It also includes elements which evolved from Native Americans, and other ethnic
subcultures; most prominently the culture of African American slave descendants and
different cultures from Latin America. Many cultural elements, especially popular culture
have been exported across the globe through modern mass media where American culture
is sometimes resented[citation needed]. A few[which?] of the cultural elements have remained
rather exclusive to North America.
Culture of the
United States
Architecture
Cinema
Comic books
Cuisine
Dance
Folklore
Literature
Music
Poetry
Radio
Sculpture
Sports
Television
Theater
Visual arts
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Languages
o 1.1 Native Language Statistics for the United States
• 2 Literature
• 3 Religion
o 3.1 Religious statistics for the United States
• 4 National Holidays
• 5 Cuisine
• 6 Sports
o 6.1 Sports and community culture
• 7 Scientific
• 8 Visual arts
o 8.1 Architecture
o 8.2 Sculpture
• 9 Popular culture
o 9.1 Fashion
o 9.2 Theater
o 9.3 Television
o 9.4 Music
o 9.5 Films
o 9.6 Dance
• 10 Firearms
• 11 See also
• 12 References
[edit] Languages
Main article: Languages in the United States
Although the United States has no official language at the federal level, 30 states have
passed legislation making English the official language and it is widely considered to be
the de facto national language. Spanish has official status in the commonwealth of Puerto
Rico and there are several enclaves throughout the country in which Spanish is the
primary spoken language.[1] Bilingual speakers may use both English and Spanish
reasonably well but code-switch according to their dialog partner or context. Some refer
to this phenomenon as Spanglish.
Indigenous languages of the United States include the Native American languages, which
are spoken on the country’s numerous Indian reservations and Native American cultural
events such as pow wows; Hawaiian, which has official status in the state of Hawaii;
Chamorro, which has official status in the commonwealths of Guam and the Northern
Mariana Islands; Carolinian, which has official status in the commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands; and Samoan, which has official status in the commonwealth of
American Samoa.
[edit] Native Language Statistics for the United States
It should be noted the following information is an estimation as actual statistics

constantly vary.
According to the CIA,[2] the following is the percentage of native speakers of different
languages in the United States:
• English (82.1%)
• Spanish (10.7%)
• Other Indo-European languages (3.8%)
• Other Asian or Pacific Islander languages (2.7%)
• Other languages (0.7%)
[edit] Literature
Mark Twain is regarded as among the greatest writers in American history.
Main article: Literature of the United States
In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, American art and literature took most of
its cues from Europe. During its early history, America was a series of British colonies on
the eastern coast of the present-day United States. Therefore, its literary tradition begins
as linked to the broader tradition of English literature. However, unique American
characteristics and the breadth of its production usually now cause it to be considered a
separate path and tradition. Writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and
Henry David Thoreau established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of
the nineteenth century. Mark Twain and poet Walt Whitman were major figures in the
century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during her lifetime, would be
recognized as America's other essential poet. Eleven U.S. citizens have won the Nobel
Prize in Literature, most recently Toni Morrison in 1993. Ernest Hemingway, the 1954
Nobel laureate, is often named as one of the most influential writers of the twentieth
century.[3] A work seen as capturing fundamental aspects of the national experience and
character—such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Twain's The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn (1885), and F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925)—may be
dubbed the "Great American Novel". Popular literary genres such as the Western and
hardboiled crime fiction were developed in the United States.
[edit] Religion
Main article: Religion in the United States
Completed in 1716, Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de Acuña is one

of numerous surviving colonial Spanish missions in the United States. These were
primarily used to convert the Native Americans to Roman Catholicism.
Surrounded by sleek modern skyscrapers, Saint Patrick's Cathedral stands as the last old
world holdout of New York's Rockefeller Plaza
Among developed countries, the US is one of the most religious in terms of its
demographics. According to a 2002 study by the Pew Global Attitudes Project, the US
was the only developed nation in the survey where a majority of citizens reported that
religion played a "very important" role in their lives, an attitude similar to that found in
its neighbors in Latin America.[4]
Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by English and Irish settlers
who wished to practice their own religion without discrimination or persecution as
religious extremists in Europe: Pennsylvania was established by Quakers, Maryland by
Roman Catholics and the Massachusetts Bay Colony by Puritans. Nine of the thirteen
colonies had official public religions. Yet by the time of the Philadelphia Convention of
1787, the United States became one of the first countries in the world to codify freedom
of religion into law, although this originally applied only to the federal government, and
not to state governments or their political subdivisions.
Modeling the provisions concerning religion within the Virginia Statute for Religious
Freedom, the framers of the United States Constitution rejected any religious test for
office, and the First Amendment specifically denied the central government any power to
enact any law respecting either an establishment of religion, or prohibiting its free
exercise. In following decades, the animating spirit behind the constitution's
Establishment Clause led to the disestablishment of the official religions within the
member states. The framers were mainly influenced by secular, Enlightenment ideals, but
they also considered the pragmatic concerns of minority religious groups who did not
want to be under the power or influence of a state religion that did not represent them.[5]
Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence said "The priest has been
hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot."[6]
[edit] Religious statistics for the United States
It should be noted the following information is an estimation as actual statistics

constantly vary.
According to the CIA,[7] the following is the percentage of followers of different religions
in the United States:
• Christian: (79.5%)
o Protestant (51.4%)
o Roman Catholic (23.9%)
o Mormon (1.7%)
o Orthodox (1.6%)
• Atheist/Agnostic (3%)
• Jewish (1.7%)
• Buddhist (0.7%)
• Muslim (0.5%)
• Other/Unspecified (14.6%)
[edit] National Holidays
Fireworks light up the sky over the Washington Monument. Americans traditionally
shoot fireworks throughout the night on the Fourth of July.
Martin Luther King Day memorializes the legacy of Dr. King, who is widely regarded as
the Patriarch of the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. King is pictured above delivering his "I
Have a Dream" speech.
Inauguration Day is the only Federal holiday that is not annual but rather occurs only
once every four years. The day begins with the inaguaration ceremony and ends with a
military parade.
Halloween is a widely observed tradition in the United States. It typically involves

dressing up in costumes and an emphasis on the bizarre and frightening.
The Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade is attended by over 2.5 million people each year. It
is the largest organized festivity in the United States and is viewed by more Americans
each year than any other holiday celebration.[8]
The United States observes holidays derived from events in US history, religious
traditions, and national patriarchs.
As a legacy of colonization, Thanksgiving has become a traditional American holiday

which evolved from the will of English pilgrims to “give thanks” for their welfare.
Today, Thanksgiving is generally celebrated as a family reunion with a large afternoon
feast. European colonization has led to many traditional Christian holidays such as
Easter, Lent, St. Patrick’s Day, and Christmas to be widely observed albeit they are
celebrated in a secular manner by many people today.
Independence Day (colloquially known as the Fourth of July) celebrates the anniversary
of the country’s Declaration of Independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. It is
generally observed by parades throughout the day and the shooting of fireworks at night.
Halloween is thought to have evolved from the ancient celtic festival of Samhain which
was introduced in the American colonies by Irish settlers. It has become a holiday that is
widely celebrated by children and teens who traditionally dress up in costumes and go
door to door saying the words “Trick or Treat” in exchange for candy. It also brings
about an emphasis on eerie and frightening urban legends and movies. The popularity of
celebrating Halloween has become continusly popular among university students in the
US. Both University of Wisconsin-Madison and Ohio University in Athens, Ohio are
known across the US for their Halloween street fairs.
Additionally, Mardi Gras, which evolved from the Catholic tradition of Carnival, is
observed notably in New Orleans, St. Louis, and Mobile, AL as well as numerous other
towns. Texas still observes the anniversary of its Independence Day from Mexico.
Federally recognized holidays are as follows:
Date Official Name Remarks

Celebrates beginning of the Gregorian calendar
year. Festivities include counting down to
January 1 New Year's Day midnight (12:00 AM) on the preceding night,
New Year's Eve. Traditional end of holiday
season.
Birthday of Martin Honors Martin Luther King, Jr., Civil Rights
Third Monday in Luther King, Jr., or leader, who was actually born on January 15,
January Martin Luther King, 1929; combined with other holidays in several
Jr. Day states.
January 20, the Inauguration Day Observed only by federal government employees
first January 20 in Washington D.C., and the border counties of
following a Maryland and Virginia, in order to relieve
Presidential congestion that occurs with this major event.
election Swearing-in of President of the United States and
Vice President of the United States. Celebrated
every fourth year. Note: Takes place on January
21 if the 20th is a Sunday (although the President
is still privately inaugurated on the 20th). If
Inauguration Day falls on a Saturday or a Sunday,
the preceding Friday or following Monday is not
a Federal Holiday
Washington's Birthday was first declared a
federal holiday by an 1879 act of Congress. The
Uniform Holidays Act, 1968, shifted the date of
the commemoration of Washington's Birthday
from February 22 to the third Monday in
Third Monday in Washington's
February. Many people now refer to this holiday
February Birthday
as "Presidents' Day" and consider it a day
honoring all American presidents. However,
neither the Uniform Holidays Act nor any
subsequent law changed the name of the holiday
from Washington's Birthday to Presidents' Day.[9]
Honors the nation's war dead from the Civil War
Last Monday in onwards; marks the unofficial beginning of the
Memorial Day
May summer season. (traditionally May 30, shifted by
the Uniform Holidays Act 1968)
Celebrates Declaration of Independence, also
July 4 Independence Day
called the Fourth of July.
Celebrates the achievements of workers and the
First Monday in
Labor Day labor movement; marks the unofficial end of the
September
summer season.
Honors Christopher Columbus, traditional
discoverer of the Americas. In some areas it is
also a celebration of Italian culture and heritage.
(traditionally October 12); celebrated as
Second Monday
Columbus Day American Indian Heritage Day and Fraternal Day
in October
in Alabama;[10] celebrated as Native American
Day in South Dakota.[11] In Hawaii, it is
celebrated as Discoverer's Day, though is not an
official state holiday.[12]
Honors all veterans of the United States armed
forces. A traditional observation is a moment of
silence at 11:00 a.m. remembering those killed in
November 11 Veterans Day
war. (Commemorates the 1918 armistice, which
began at "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of
the eleventh month.")
Traditionally celebrates the giving of thanks for
Fourth Thursday the autumn harvest. Traditionally includes the
Thanksgiving Day
in November consumption of a turkey dinner. Traditional start
of the holiday season.
December 25 Christmas Celebrates the Nativity of Jesus. Some people
consider aspects of this religious holiday, such as
giving gifts and decorating a Christmas tree, to be
secular rather than explicitly Christian.
• Federal Holidays Calendars from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
[edit] Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of the United States
Mainstream American culinary arts are similar to those in other Western countries.
Wheat is the primary cereal grain. Traditional American cuisine uses ingredients such as
turkey, white-tailed deer venison, potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple
syrup, indigenous foods employed by American Indians and early European settlers.
Slow-cooked pork and beef barbecue, crab cakes, potato chips, and chocolate chip
cookies are distinctively American styles. Soul food, developed by African slaves, is
popular around the South and among many African Americans elsewhere. Syncretic
cuisines such as Louisiana creole, Cajun, and Tex-Mex are regionally important. Iconic
American dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive
from the recipes of various immigrants and domestic innovations. So-called French fries,
Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian
sources are widely consumed.[13] Americans generally prefer coffee to tea, with more than
half the adult population drinking at least one cup a day.[14] Marketing by U.S. industries
is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk (now often fat-reduced)
ubiquitous breakfast beverages.[15] During the 1980s and 1990s, Americans' caloric intake
rose 24%;[13] frequent dining at fast food outlets is associated with what health officials
call the American "obesity epidemic." Highly sweetened soft drinks are widely popular;
sugared beverages account for 9% of the average American's daily caloric intake.[16]
Common American Foods
Traditional
Typical American
Thanksgiving dinner
seafood with Fried Caesar salad. Hamburger, fries, and a
with Turkey, dressing,
fish, shrimp, hush coke.
sweet potatoes, and
puppies, and fries.
cranberry sauce.
American style
Chicken Fried Steak California club pizza breakfast with
Toasted turkey
(alternatively known as with avocados and pancakes, maple syrup,
sandwich.
Country Fried Steak.) tomatoes. sausage links, bacon
strips, and fried eggs.
[edit] Sports
Main article: Sports in the United States
A typical Baseball diamond as seen from the stadium. Traditionally the game is played
for nine innings but can be prolonged if there is a tie.
The opening of College football season is a major part of American culture and tradition.
Basketball is widely enjoyed by American youth and is considered by many to be the

second most popular sport in the United States.
Massive marching bands accompanied by cheerleaders and colorguard are almost
universal at American Football games, especially during halftime. Although high school
bands tend to be much smaller, it is rare for a game not to feature a marching band at
halftime.
Bowling is a popular pastime for Americans of all ages.
Sports in the United States are an important part of the American culture. However, the
sporting culture of the U.S. is unique from that of many other countries. Compared to any
other nation, American preferences for sports differ from the rest of the world. For
example, professional soccer is not as popular in the United States as it is in many parts
of the world.
Baseball is the oldest of the major American teamsports. Professional baseball dates from
1869 and had no close rivals in popularity until the 1960s; though baseball is no longer
the most popular sport it is still referred to as the "national pastime." Also unlike the
professional levels of the other popular spectator sports in the U.S., Major League
Baseball teams play almost every day from April to October. American football now
attracts more television viewers than baseball; however, National Football League teams
play only 16 regular-season games each year, so baseball is the runaway leader in ticket
sales.
Basketball is another major sport, represented professionally by the National Basketball

Association. It was invented in Springfield, Massachusetts 1891, by Canadian-born
physical education teacher James Naismith.
American football, known in many anglophone countries as gridiron, is widely

considered to be the most popular sport in the United States. The 32-team National
Football League (NFL) is the most popular and only major professional American
football league. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the biggest annual sporting
event held in the United States. Additional millions also watch college football
throughout the autumn months, and some communities, particularly in rural areas, place
great emphasis on their local high school team. American football games usually include
cheerleaders and marching bands which aim to raise school spirit and entertain the crowd
at half-time.
Many Americans recognize a fourth sport - Ice hockey. Always a mainstay of Great
Lakes and New England-area culture, the sport gained tenuous footholds in regions like
the American South in recent years, as the National Hockey League pursued a policy of
expansion.
The quickly growing sport of mixed martial arts has taken off in America since its
introduction in the early 1990s. Today, the Ultimate Fighting Championship is one of the
most profitable organizations in the country.
[edit] Sports and community culture
Homecoming is an annual tradition of the United States. People, towns, high schools and
colleges come together, usually in late September or early October, to welcome back
former residents and alumni. It is built around a central event, such as a banquet, a
parade, and most often, a game of American football, or, on occasion, basketball, or ice
hockey. When celebrated by schools, the activities vary widely. However, they usually
consist of a football game played on the school's home football field, activities for
students and alumni, a parade featuring the school's marching band and sports teams, and
the coronation of a Homecoming Queen (and at many schools, a Homecoming King).
[edit] Scientific
Cultural map of the world according to the World Values Survey, describing the United
States as low in "Rational-Secular Values" and high in "Self-Expression values".
There is a fondness for scientific advancement and technological innovation in American

culture. Some of these efforts are centered in Silicon Valley. Other strong scientific areas
include nuclear research, space (NASA), military research, and biotech. Respect for
scientific advancement still ranks high in the US and the element of competitiveness is
exercised as early as in elementary school.
American culture has also made significant gains through the immigration of
accomplished scientists. For example, numerous members of the European intelligentsia
emigrated during World War II to escape Fascist persecution. At the time, the U.S. was
one of the few safe countries to flee to.
[edit] Visual arts

Main article: Visual arts of the United States
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, American artists primarily painted
landscapes and portraits in a realistic style. A parallel development taking shape in rural
America was the American craft movement, which began as a reaction to the Industrial
Revolution. Developments in modern art in Europe came to America from exhibitions in
New York City such as the Armory Show in 1913. After World War II, New York
emerged as a center of the art world.[citation needed]Painting in the United States today covers
a vast range of styles.
[edit] Architecture
Main article: Architecture of the United States
Architecture in the US is regionally diverse and has been shaped by many external forces,
not only English. US Architecture can therefore be said to be eclectic, something
unsurprising in such a multicultural society.[17] In the absence of a single large-scale
architectural influence from indigenous peoples such as those in Mexico or Peru,
generations of designers have incorporated influences from around the world. Currently,
the overriding theme of American Architecture is modernity: an example of which are the
skyscrapers of the 20th century.
Early Neoclassicism accompanied the Founding Father's idealization of European

Enlightenment, making it the predominant architectural style for public buildings and
large manors. However, in recent years, the suburbanization and mass migration to the
Sun Belt has allowed architecture to reflect a Mediterranean style as well.
[edit] Sculpture
Main article: Sculpture of the United States
The history of sculpture in the United States reflects the country's 18th century
foundation in Roman republican civic values as well as Protestant Christianity.[citation needed]
Perhaps the most iconic American sculpture is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial,
an 18m high relief of four US Presidents' faces carved into the granite face of Mount
Rushmore.
[edit] Popular culture
American popular culture has expressed itself through nearly every medium, including
movies, music, and sports.
• Mickey Mouse
• Barbie
• Metallica
• Michael Jackson
• Elvis Presley
• Britney Spears
• Madonna
• Bruce Springsteen
• Nirvana
• Rihanna
• Michael Phelps
• Andre Agassi
• Aerosmith
• Lance Armstrong
• Babe Ruth
• Baseball
• American football
• Basketball
• screwball comedy
• G.I. Joe
• Jazz
• Country music
• Rap & Hip Hop
• The Simpsons
• Superman
• SpongeBob SquarePants
• The Sopranos
• Gone with the Wind
• Marilyn Monroe
• Marilyn Manson
• James Dean
• Tom Cruise
• Brad Pitt
• Michael Jordan
• Indiana Jones
• Sylvester Stalone
• Sesame Street
• Catch-22
• Star Trek
• Star Wars
These names, genres, and phrases have joined more tangible American products in
spreading across the globe.
The U.S. is also popular for evolving/adapting many elements of various other cultures,
such as food (i.e. pizza, hamburgers, and hibachi), and television shows (American Idol,
Power Rangers).
[edit] Fashion
Main article: Fashion in the United States
Apart from professional business attire, fashion in the United States is eclectic and
predominantly informal.[citation needed]Blue jeans were popularized as work clothes in the
1850s by merchant Levi Strauss, a German immigrant in San Francisco, and adopted by
many American teenagers a century later. They are now widely worn in every state by
people of all ages and social classes.[citation needed]Along with mass-marketed informal wear
in general, blue jeans are arguably U.S. culture's primary contribution to global fashion.
[18]
The country was also home to the headquarters of many leading designer labels such
as Ralph Lauren and Calvin Klein. Labels such as Abercrombie & Fitch, American
Eagle, and Hollister cater to various niche markets.
Further iconic items of American fashion are the T-Shirt and the Baseball cap.
[edit] Theater
Main article: Theater in the United States
Theater of the United States is based in the Western tradition, mostly borrowed from the
performance styles prevalent in Europe, especially England.[citation needed] Today, it is heavily
interlaced with American literature, film, television, and music, and it is not uncommon
for a single story to appear in all forms. Regions with significant music scenes often have
strong theater and comedy traditions as well. Musical theater may be the most popular
form: it is certainly the most colorful, and choreographed motions pioneered on stage
have found their way onto movie and television screens. Broadway in New York City is
generally considered the pinnacle of commercial U.S. theater, though this art form
appears all across the country. Off-Broadway and off-off-Broadway diversify the theatre
experience in New York. New York's Theater District is also the largest in the country
with Cleveland's being the second largest. Another city of particular note is Chicago,
which boasts the most diverse and dynamic theater scene in the country. Regional or
resident theatres in the United States are professional theatre companies outside of New
York City that produce their own seasons. Often tiny rural communities are able to awe
audiences with extravagant productions.
[edit] Television
Main article: Television in the United States
Television is one of the major mass media of the United States. Ninety-seven percent of
American households have at least one television set and the majority of households have
more than three.[citation needed]
The US can be said to be the homeland of modern network television.
[edit] Music
Main article: Music in the United States
American contemporary music can be heard all over the world, through MTV, Channel
V, VH1, BET and by artists such as Michael Jackson, Elvis Presley, Jimi Hendrix, Patsy
Cline, Billy Joel, Metallica, Guns N' Roses, Bob Dylan, Creedence Clearwater Revival,
Bruce Springsteen, Benny Goodman, Frank Sinatra, Randy Newman, Madonna, Eminem,
Backstreet Boys, Rihanna, Dean Martin, Aerosmith, B. B. King, The Doors, Prince, Bon
Jovi, Nirvana, Van Halen, Garth Brooks, Weezer, The Ramones, Linkin Park, Avenged
Sevenfold, Wu-Tang Clan and Green Day. American popular music also contains many
styles of music that developed in the US and were popular music when they came up (or
still are). Examples are rock & roll, hip-hop, Dance, swing, jazz, blues, country, R&B,
funk, pop, and various others.
[edit] Films
Main article: Cinema of the United States
American films are very popular, including icons like Star Wars, The Godfather, The
Karate Kid, Schindler's List, Titanic and The Matrix. American movie actors and
actresses are widely recognized such as Tom Hanks, Al Pacino, Julia Roberts, Brad Pitt,
Marilyn Monroe, George Clooney, Will Smith, Meryl Streep, Robert De Niro, Leonardo
DiCaprio, Denzel Washington, Marlon Brando and Johnny Depp.[citation needed] Outside the
US, American Film is usually referred to in a generalizing manner as Hollywood.
[edit] Dance
Main article: Dance in the United States
There is great variety in dance in the United States, it is the home of the Lindy Hop and
its derivative Rock and Roll, and modern square dance (associated with the United States
of America due to its historic development in that country—nineteen U.S. states have
designated it as their official state dance) and one of the major centers for modern dance.
There is a variety of social dance and concert or performance dance forms with also a
range of traditions of Native American dances.
[edit] Firearms
Main article: Gun politics in the United States
Main article: Gun culture
In sharp contrast to most other developed nations, firearms laws in the United States are
permissive and private gun ownership is common, with about 40% of households
containing at least one firearm. In fact, there are more privately owned firearms in the
United States than in any other nation on earth, both per capita and in total.[19] Rates of
gun ownership vary greatly by region and by state, with gun ownership tending to be
most common in Alaska, the Mountain States and the South and least common in Hawaii,
the island territories and the Northeast megalopolis.[20] Hunting, plinking and target
shooting are popular pastimes, although ownership of firearms purely for utilitarian
purposes such as self-defense is common as well. Ownership of handguns, while not
uncommon, is less common than ownership of long guns. Gun ownership is much more
prevalent among men than women, with men being approximately four times more likely
to report owning guns than women.[21]
[edit] See also
• Americana
• America 24/7
• Broadway theatre
• Culture of the Southern United States
[edit] References
1A. Brandon Zook
1. ^ [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-
qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_DP2&-context=adp&-
ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=306&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-
format= - "Selected Social Characteristics in the United States: 2007"]. United
States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-
geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_DP2&-context=adp&-
ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=306&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-
format= -. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
2. ^ United States, CIA World Factbook.
3. ^ Meyers, Jeffrey (1999). Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Da Capo, p. 139.
ISBN 0-306-80890-0.
4. ^ "U.S. Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion". Pew Global Attitudes Project.
http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=167. Retrieved 1 January
2007.
5. ^ Marsden, George M. 1990. Religion and American Culture. Orlando: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, pp.45-46.
6. ^ Jefferson, Thomas (1904). The writings of Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson
Memorial Association of the United States. pp. 119.
7. ^ "CIA Fact Book". CIA World Fact Book. 2002.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html.
8. ^ http://www1.macys.com/campaign/parade/parade.jsp
9. ^ http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode05/usc_sec_05_00006103----
000-.html
10. ^ "Section 1-3-8". http://www.legislature.state.al.us/codeofalabama/1975/1-3-
8.htm.
11. ^ "Holidays Observed". http://www.state.sd.us/puc/misc/holidays.htm.
12. ^ http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Oct/08/br/br2504137896.html
13. ^ a b Klapthor, James N. (2003-08-23). "What, When, and Where Americans Eat
in 2003". Institute of Food Technologists. http://www.ift.org/cms/?pid=1000496.
14. ^ "Coffee Today". Coffee Country. PBS. May 2003.
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/guatemala.mexico/facts.html#02.
15. ^ Smith, Andrew F. (2004). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in
America. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 131–32. ISBN 0-19-515437-1.
Levenstein, Harvey (2003). Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the
American Diet. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California
Press, pp. 154–55. ISBN 0-520-23439-1. Pirovano, Tom (2007). "Health &
Wellness Trends—The Speculation Is Over". AC Nielsen.
http://us.acnielsen.com/pubs/2006_q1_ci_health.shtml. Retrieved 2007-06-12.
16. ^ "Fast Food, Central Nervous System Insulin Resistance, and Obesity".
Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. American Heart Association.
2005. http://atvb.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/25/12/2451#R3-101329.
Retrieved 2007-06-09. "Let's Eat Out: Americans Weigh Taste, Convenience, and
Nutrition" (PDF). U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib19/eib19_reportsummary.pdf. Retrieved
2007-06-09.
17. ^ Dell Upton. 1998. "Architecture in the United States-Oxford history of art." pp.
11 ff. ISBN 019284217X
18. ^ Davis, Fred (1992). Fashion, Culture, and Identity. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, p. 69. ISBN 0-226-13809-7.
19. ^ "U.S. most armed country with 90 guns per 100 people". Reuters.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL2834893820070828.
20. ^ "Gun Ownership by State". Washington Post.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/health/interactives/guns/ownership.html.
21. ^ "The US gun stock: results from the 2004 national firearms survey". Injury
Prevention Journal. http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/13/1/15.full.
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Culture of China

For contemporary culture after 1949, see Culture of the People's Republic of China.
This article contains Chinese text. Without
proper rendering support, you may see question
marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese
characters.
A Chinese Opera (Beijing Opera) performance in Beijing.

The Culture of China (simplified Chinese: 中国文化; traditional Chinese: 中國文化;
pinyin: Zhōngguó wénhuà) is one of the world's oldest and most complex cultures[1][2].
The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern
Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and provinces.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 People in the culture

o 1.1 Identity
o 1.2 Regional
• 2 Society
o 2.1 Structure
o 2.2 Values
• 3 Language
• 4 Mythology and spirituality
• 5 Literature
• 6 Music
• 7 Arts
• 8 Martial arts
• 9 Fashion
• 10 Architecture
• 11 Cuisine
• 12 Leisure
• 13 Gallery
• 14 See also
• 15 References
[edit] People in the culture
People in imperial China during silk production - Qing dynasty
[edit] Identity
Today there are 56 distinct recognized ethnic groups in China.[3] In terms of numbers,
however, the pre-eminent ethnic group is the Han Chinese. Throughout history, many
groups have been assimilated into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace.
At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and
regional cultural traditions. The term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the
notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional cultural identity within
the community has to do with distinguishing the family name.
[edit] Regional
Main article: Three ancestral treasures
Traditional Chinese Culture covers large geographical territories, where each region is
usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Each region is often represented by three
ancestral items. For example Guangdong is represented by chenpi, aged ginger and hay.[4]
[5]
Others include ancient cities like Lin'an (Hangzhou), which include tea leaf, bamboo
shoot trunk and hickory nut.[6]
[edit] Society
Gold detailing on a throne used by the Qianlong Emperor. The Chinese dragon was a
symbol reserved for the Emperor of China or high level imperial families during the Qing
Dynasty
[edit] Structure
Main article: Social structure of China
Since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese monarch
has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for
the various positions within society. Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is
similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in the hierarchy, and the
rest of the population under regular Chinese law.[7] Since the late Zhou Dynasty (1046–
256 BCE), traditional Chinese society was organized into a hierarchic system of socio-
economic classes known as the four occupations. However, this system did not cover all
social groups while the distinctions between all groups became blurred ever since the
commercialization of Chinese culture in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). Ancient
Chinese education also has a long history; ever since the Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE)
educated candidates prepared for the Imperial examinations which and made people get
drafted exam graduates into government as scholar-bureaucrats. Trades and crafts were
usually taught by a shifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women
in the Han Dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to, while scholars
such as Zhu Xi and Cheng Yi would expand upon this. Chinese marriage and Taoist
sexual practices are some of the customs and rituals found in society.
[edit] Values
Main articles: Chinese philosophy and Religion in China
Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism. The subject of which
school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as Neo-
Confucianism, Buddhism and many others have come about. Reincarnation and other
rebirth concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the after-life. In
Chinese business culture, the concept of guanxi, indicating the primacy of relations over
rules, has been well documented.[8]
[edit] Language
Chinese calligraphy written by Song Dynasty (1051-1108 CE) poet Mi Fu

Main articles: Chinese language and History of Standard Mandarin
The first 4,000 years of Spoken Chinese encompassed both Old Chinese and Middle
Chinese, after which it began to split into various dialects and languages about 1,000
years ago. In the Ming Dynasty standard Mandarin was nationalized. Even so, it wasn't
until the Republic of China era in the 1900s when there was any noticeable result in
promoting a common unified language in China.
The ancient written standard was Classical Chinese. It was used for thousands of years,
but was mostly reserved for scholars and intellectuals. By the 20th century, millions of
citizens, especially those outside of the imperial court were illiterate[7]. Only after the
May 4th Movement did the push for Vernacular Chinese begin. This allowed common
citizens to read since it was modeled after the linguistics and phonology of a spoken
language.
[edit] Mythology and spirituality
A Luohan, one of the spiritual figures shared between Chinese and Indian culture across
different types of Buddhism.
Sūn Wùkōng in Journey to the West

Main articles: Chinese spiritual world concepts, Chinese mythology, and Chinese folk
religion
Chinese religion was originally oriented to worshipping the supreme god Shang Di
during the Xia and Shang dynasties, with the king and diviners acting as priests and using
oracle bones. The Zhou dynasty oriented it to worshipping the broader concept of heaven.
A large part of Chinese culture is based on the notion that a spiritual world exists.
Countless methods of divination have helped answer questions, even serving as an
alternate to medicine. Folklores have helped fill the gap for things that cannot be
explained. There is often a blurred line between myth, religion and unexplained
phenomenon. While many deities are part of the tradition, some of the most recognized
holy figures include Guan Yin, Jade Emperor and Buddha. Many of the stories have since
evolved into traditional Chinese holidays. Other concepts have extended to outside of
mythology into spiritual symbols such as Door god and the Imperial guardian lions.
Along with the belief of the holy, there is also the evil. Practices such as Taoist exorcism
fighting mogwai and jiang shi with peachwood swords are just some of the concepts
passed down from generations. A few Chinese fortune telling rituals are still in use today
after thousands of years of refinement.
[edit] Literature
Main article: Chinese literature
Chinese literature began with record keeping and divination on Oracle Bones. The
extensive collection of books that have been preserved since the Zhou Dynasty
demonstrate just how advanced the intellectuals were at one time. Indeed, the era of the
Zhou Dynasty is often looked to as the touchstone of Chinese cultural development. The
Five Cardinal Points are the foundation for almost all major studies. Concepts covered
within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of subjects including poetry,
astrology, astronomy, calendar, constellations and many others. Some of the most
important early texts include I Ching and Shujing within the Four Books and Five
Classics. Many Chinese concepts such as Yin and Yang, Qi, Four Pillars of Destiny in
relation to heaven and earth were all theorized in the dynastic periods.
Notable confucianists, taoists and scholars of all classes have made significant
contributions to and from documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem
hundred of years ahead of time. Many novels such as Four Great Classical Novels
spawned countless fictional stories. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, Chinese culture
would embark on a new era with Vernacular Chinese for the common citizens. Hu Shih
and Lu Xun would be pioneers in modern literature.
[edit] Music
A performer of Chinese opera

Main article: Music of China
The music of China dates back to the dawn of Chinese civilization with documents and
artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as the Zhou
Dynasty (1122 BCE - 256 BCE). Some of the oldest written music dates back to
Confucius's time. The first major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was for
the qin during the Tang Dynasty, though it is known to have played a major part before
the Han Dynasty.
[edit] Arts
A Tang Dynasty tri-color Chinese glazed horse circa 700 CE

For all major visual, performance or artistic categories, see Chinese art.
Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers,
religious figures and even political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets of fine art,
folk art and performance art. Porcelain pottery was one of the first forms of art in the
Palaeolithic period. Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by the Book of
Songs, and the Chinese poet and statesman Qu Yuan. Chinese painting became a highly
appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of Shan shui with specialized
styles such as Ming Dynasty painting. Early Chinese music was based on percussion
instruments, which later gave away to string and reed instruments. By the Han dynasty
papercutting became a new art form after the invention of paper. Chinese opera would
also be introduced and branched regionally in additional to other performance formats
such as variety arts.
[edit] Martial arts
Demonstrating Kung Fu at Daxiangguo Monastery, Kaifeng, Henan.

Main articles: Chinese martial arts and List of Chinese martial arts
China is one of the main birth places of Eastern martial arts. The names of martial arts
were called Kung Fu or its first name Wushu. China also includes the home to the well-
respected Shaolin Monastery and Wudang Mountains. The first generation of art started
more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art. Over time, some art forms have
branched off, while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor. Regardless, China has
produced some of the most renowned martial artists including Wong Fei Hung and many
others. The arts have also co-existed with a variety of weapons including the more
standard 18 arms. Legendary and controversial moves like Dim Mak are also praised and
talked about within the culture.
[edit] Fashion
Men and women in xuanduan formal wear at a Confucian ceremony in China
A north corner of Forbidden City, featuring classic construction style

Main article: Clothing of China
Different social classes in different eras boast different fashion trends, the color yellow is
usually reserved for the emperor. China's fashion history covers hundreds of years with
some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements. During the Qing Dynasty, China's
last imperial dynasty dramatic shift of clothing occurred, the clothing of the era before
the Qing Dynasty is reffered to as Hanfu or traditional Han Chinese clothing. Many
symbols such as phoenix have been used for decorative as well as economic purposes.
[edit] Architecture
Main article: Chinese architecture
Chinese architecture, examples of which can be found from over 2,000 years ago, has
long been a hallmark of the culture. There are certain features common to Chinese
architecture, regardless of specific region or use. The most important is its emphasis on
width, as the wide halls of the Forbidden City serve as an example. In contrast, Western
architecture emphasize on height, though there are exceptions such as pagodas.
Another important feature is symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies
to everything from palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the design of
gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the
principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow, to let the patron
wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself. Feng shui has
played an important part in structural development.
[edit] Cuisine
Chinese meal in Suzhou with rice, shrimp, eggplant, fermented tofu, vegetable stir-fry,
vegetarian duck with meat and bamboo
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Chinese proverbs
Main article: Chinese cuisine
The overwhelmingly large variety mainly comes from the emperors hosting a banquet of
100 dishes each meal[9]. A countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines
were involved in the food preparation process. Over time, many dishes became part of the
everyday-citizen culture. Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the
dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole
Pavilion[9]. Arguably all branches of Hong Kong eastern style or even American Chinese
food are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.
[edit] Leisure
A number of games and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture. The most common
game is Mah Jong. The same pieces are used for other styled games such as Shanghai
Solitaire. Others include Pai Gow, Pai gow poker and other bone domino games. Weiqi
and Xiangqi are also popular. Ethnic games like Chinese yo-yo are also part of the
culture.
[edit] Gallery
"Nine Dragons"
The Chinese No. 4 of Ten handscroll section, by
Dragon, Fu dog Thousand Scenes (十 A koi pond is a Chen Rong, 1244 CE,
and incense 萬圖之四). Painting signature Chinese Chinese Song Dynasty,
comprise three by Ren Xiong, a scenery depicted in Museum of Fine Arts,
symbols within pioneer of the countless art work. Boston.
traditional Shanghai School of
Chinese culture. Chinese art circa 1850
[edit] See also
• Sinology
• Chinese Literature
• Chinese Thought
• Chinese name
• Chinese dragon
• Fenghuang
• Chinese dress
• Chinese garden
• Penjing
• Chinese folklore
• Color in Chinese culture
• Numbers in Chinese culture
• Science and technology in China
• Chinese astronomy
• Chinese calendar
• Chinese mathematics
• Chinese medicine
• Chinese units of measurement
[edit] References
1. ^ "Chinese Dynasty Guide - The Art of Asia - History & Maps". Minneapolis Institute of
Art. http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/chinese-dynasty-guide.cfm. Retrieved 10
October 2008.
2. ^ "Guggenheim Museum - China: 5,000 years". Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation &
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. 6 February 1998 to 1998-06-03.
http://pastexhibitions.guggenheim.org/china/index.html. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
3. ^ Chinatraveldepot.com. "Chinatraveldepot.com." Fifty-six Ethnic Groups in China 1
June 2009.
4. ^ Huaxia.com. "Huaxia.com." 廣東三寶之一禾稈草. Retrieved on 20 June 2009.
5. ^ RTHK. "RTHK.org." 1/4/2008 three treasures. Retrieved on 20 June 2009.
6. ^ Xinhuanet.com. "Xinhuanet.com." 說三與三寶. Retrieved on 20 June 2009.
7. ^ a b Mente, Boye De. [2000] (2000). The Chinese Have a Word for it: The Complete
Guide to Chinese thought and Culture. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-658-01078-6
8. ^ Alon, Ilan, ed. (2003), Chinese Culture, Organizational Behavior, and International
Business Management, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers.
9. ^ a b Kong, Foong, Ling. [2002] (2002). The Food of Asia. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-
7946-0146-4
• A Classification of Chinese Culture by Ying Fan

• Exploring Ancient World Cultures - Ancient China, University of Evansville
• Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home explored
• Chinese Culture Articles
• Embracing Chinese Culture
• Oriental Style -- The Genuine Soul of Chinese Culture
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Culture of Canada

Culture of Canada
This article is part of a series
History
Canadian identity
Canadian nationalism
Cultural protectionism
Ethnic diversity
Immigration history
National symbols
Official bilingualism
Spoken languages
Topics
Architecture · Art · Cinema

Cuisine · Humour · Literature
Media · Music · Politics · Religion
Sports · Television · Theatre
Cultural diversity by region
Canadian culture is a term that explains the artistic, musical, literary, culinary, political
and social elements that are representative of Canada, not only to its own population, but
people all over the world. Canada's culture has historically been influenced by European
culture and traditions, especially British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures
of Canada's Aboriginal peoples and immigrant populations have become incorporated
into mainstream Canadian culture. It has also been strongly influenced by that of its
linguistic, economic, and cultural neighbour, the United States.
Canada's federal government has influenced Canadian culture with programs, laws and
institutions. It has created crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through
media, such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the National Film
Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it considers to promote
Canadian traditions. It has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal
minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-
television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[1]
Canada's culture, like that of most any country in the world, is a product of its history,
geography, and political system. Being a settler nation, Canada has been shaped by waves
of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of customs, cuisine, and
traditions that have marked the socio-cultural development of the nation. In this article,
several aspects of Canadian culture will be discussed. Though this article attempts to
feature a variety of subjects pertinent to the culture of Canada, it is in no way exhaustive,
and to gain a much deeper knowledge of Canada and its culture, one must also consult
the other articles pertaining to Canada and its peoples.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Development of Canadian culture

o 1.1 Bilingualism and multiculturalism
o 1.2 Aboriginal influences
o 1.3 Canadian identity
o 1.4 Canadian nationalism
• 2 Cultural protectionism in Canada
• 3 Symbols
• 4 Arts
o 4.1 Literature
o 4.2 Music
o 4.3 Canadian theatre
o 4.4 Film and television
• 5 Canadian humour
• 6 Sport
• 7 Outside views
• 8 See also
• 9 References
[edit] Development of Canadian culture
The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson, 1916. Oil on Canvas, in the collection of the National
Gallery of Canada
See also: History of Canada
Canadian culture is a product of Canada's history and geography. Most of Canada's

territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas,
with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were important
in the early development of Canadian culture.[2] The British conquest of Canada in 1759
brought a large Francophone population under British rule, creating a need for
compromise and accommodation, while the migration of United Empire Loyalists from
the Thirteen Colonies brought in strong British and American influences.
Although not without conflict, Canada's early interactions with First Nations and Inuit
populations were relatively peaceful, compared to the experience of native peoples in the
United States. Combined with relatively late economic development in many regions, this
peaceful history has allowed Canadian native peoples to have a relatively strong
influence on the national culture while preserving their own identity.[3]
[edit] Bilingualism and multiculturalism
Main articles: Official bilingualism in Canada, Spoken languages of Canada, Canadian

English, and Quebec French
French Canada's early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th
centuries, and this was preserved by the Quebec Act of 1774, which allowed
Francophone culture to survive and thrive within Canada.[4] In 1867, the British North
America Act was designed to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while
avoiding the overly-strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United
States.[5] The compromises made by Macdonald and Cartier set Canada on a path to
bilingualism,[6] and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity that later led to
both multiculturalism and tolerance of Native culture and customs.[7]
A Chinese gate in downtown Montreal.
Multicultural heritage is enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and

Freedoms. In parts of Canada, especially the major cities of Montreal, Vancouver, and
Toronto (for example, in Toronto's Kensington Market area), multiculturalism itself is the
cultural norm and diversity is the force that unites the community.[8]
In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking Quebecer commentators

speak of a Quebec culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture, but some also
see Canada as a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.[9]
While French Canadian culture is the most obvious example, Celtic influences have
allowed survival of non-English dialects in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; however, the
influence of Ulster immigrants to Toronto has had the effect of minimizing Irish
influences in Ontario's culture, and highlighting British influences instead, until the
1980s. Canada's Pacific trade has also brought a large Chinese influence into British
Columbia and other areas.
Canada's cultural diversity also creates an environment much more accepting of LGBT
people than one finds in many other countries.[10] Canada has always placed emphasis on
equality and inclusiveness for all people. For example, in 1995, the Supreme Court of
Canada ruled in Egan v. Canada that sexual orientation should be "read in" to Section
Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a part of the Constitution of
Canada guaranteeing equal rights to all Canadians. Following a series of decisions by
provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20, 2005, the Civil Marriage
Act (Bill C-38) received Royal Assent, legalizing same-sex marriage in Canada. Canada
thus became the fourth country to officially sanction same-sex marriage worldwide, after
The Netherlands, Belgium, and Spain. Furthermore, by 2005, sexual orientation was
included as a protected status in the human rights laws of the federal government and of
all provinces and territories.
Further information: LGBT rights in Canada
[edit] Aboriginal influences
Main articles: Aboriginal peoples in Canada#Culture and Inuit culture
Many native icons, such as this dreamcatcher, have been adopted by Canadians as a
whole.
Aboriginal peoples in Canada interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD,[11] but
prolonged contact came only after Europeans established permanent settlements in the
17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts, though biased, generally noted
friendliness on the part of the First Nations,[11] some of whom profited in trade with
Europeans. Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such
as the Iroquois Confederation.[12]
There were, and are, many distinct Aboriginal peoples across Canada, each with its own
culture, beliefs, values, language, and history. Much of this legacy remains celebrated
artistically, and in other ways, in Canada to this day. Part of the emblem of the
Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics is an inunnguaq, a rock sculpture that is made by
stacking stones in the shape of a human figure, that is a part of Inuit culture and the
nation's perception of itself. According to the Department of Canadian Heritage.
Canada's ethnic, racial and religious diversity is rapidly increasing. According to the 2001 census,
more than 200 ethnic origins are represented in Canada. About 13.5 percent of the population is a
member of a visible minority group and that proportion is expected to reach 20 percent by 2016.
Immigration now accounts for more than 50 percent of Canada's population growth, with
immigrants coming mainly from Asia and the Middle East. It is projected that, after 2025,
Canada's population growth will be based solely on immigration.
—Judith Larocque, Deputy Minister, "Serving Canada's Multicultural Population: Practical Approaches for
Public Servants."[13]
[edit] Canadian identity
Main article: Canadian identity
The maple leaf is the symbol most associated with Canadian identity.
Primary influences on the Canadian identity trace back to the arrival, beginning in the
early 17th century, of French settlers to Acadia and Saint Lawrence River valley, English
settlers to Newfoundland and the British conquest and settlement of New France from the
early 18th century. First Nations played a critical part in the development of European
colonies in Canada, from their role in assisting exploration of the continent, the fur trade
and inter-European power struggles to the creation of the Métis people. Through their art
and culture, First Nations, Inuit and Métis continue to exert influence on Canadian
identity.
The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three fundamental

themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English Canadians and French
Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative for cultural and linguistic
survival; secondly, the generally close ties between English Canadians and the British
Empire, resulting in a gradual political process towards complete independence from the
imperial power and, finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the
military, economic and cultural powerhouse of the United States. With the gradual
loosening of political and cultural ties to the United Kingdom, in the 20th century
immigrants from European, African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have shaped the
Canadian identity, a process that continues today with the continuing arrival of large
numbers of immigrants from non British or French backgrounds, adding the theme of
multiculturalism to the debate.[14][15][16] Today, Canada has a diverse makeup of
nationalities and cultures and constitutional protection for policies that promote
multiculturalism rather than a single national myth[17].
The issue of Canadian identity remains under scrutiny, perhaps more than the identity of
the people of any other modern nation.[18] Journalist Andrew Cohen wrote in 2007:
The Canadian Identity, as it has come to be known, is as elusive as the Sasquatch and Ogopogo. It
has animated--and frustrated--generations of statesmen, historians, writers, artists, philosophers,
and the National Film Board...Canada resists easy definition.
—Andrew Cohen, The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are[19]
In true Canadian fashion, however, even the search for an identity has become itself an
object for self-criticism.[20]
[edit] Canadian nationalism
Main article: Canadian nationalism
In general, Canadian nationalists are highly concerned about the protection of Canadian
sovereignty and loyalty to the Canadian State, placing them in the civic nationalist
category. It has likewise often been suggested that anti-Americanism, or at least hostility
towards the United States, often plays a prominent role in Canadian nationalist
ideologies. When nationalists speak of "independence", it is widely understood that the
actual meaning is "independence from the United States". Canadian nationalists may in
fact promote stronger ties to other nations, and encourage closer integration with the
European Union or the United Nations as a way of offsetting US influences.
[edit] Cultural protectionism in Canada

Main article: Canadian cultural protectionism
Cultural protectionism in Canada has, since the mid-20th century, taken the form of
conscious, interventionist attempts on the part of various Canadian governments to
promote Canadian cultural production and limit the effect of foreign, largely American,
culture on the domestic audience. Sharing a large border and (for the majority) a common
language with the United States, Canada faces a difficult position in regard to American
culture, be it direct attempts at the Canadian market or the general diffusion of American
culture in the globalized media arena. While Canada tries to maintain its cultural
differences, it also must balance this with responsibility in trade arrangements such as the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA).
One of the national symbols of Canada, the beaver is depicted on the Canadian five-cent
piece and was on the first Canadian postage stamp, c.1859.
[edit] Symbols
Main articles: National symbols of Canada and Canadian royal symbols
Official symbols of Canada include the maple leaf, beaver, and the Canadian Horse.[21][22]
[23]
Many official symbols of the country such as the Flag of Canada have been changed
or modified over the past few decades in order to 'Canadianize' them and de-emphasise or
remove references to the United Kingdom. Symbols of the monarchy in Canada continue
to be featured in, for example, the Arms of Canada and armed forces Her Majesty's
Canadian Ship. The designation 'Royal' remains for institutions as varied as the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet, though with the 1968
unification of the three armed forces into the Canadian Forces, the Royal Canadian Air
Force and Royal Canadian Navy ceased to exist. However, certain Canadian Forces Land
Force Command (army) units carry "Royal" titles, Canadian Forces Maritime Command
vessels are still styled "HMCS" and Canadian Forces Air Command squadrons still use a
Royal Air Force-derived badge surmounted by the Queen's Crown as their official crests.
[edit] Arts
Main articles: Canadian art and List of Canadian artists
Red Maple, 1914, by A. Y. Jackson of the Group of Seven.

The arts have flourished in Canada since the 1900s, and especially since the end of World
War II in 1945. Government support has played a vital role in their development, as has
the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country.
Cornelius Krieghoff's Habitant Farm, 1856
The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends. During the mid
1800s, Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch born artist in Quebec, painted scenes of the life of
the habitants (French-Canadian farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artist
Paul Kane painted pictures of Indian life in western Canada. A group of landscape
painters called the Group of Seven developed the first distinctly Canadian style of
painting. All these artists painted large, brilliantly coloured scenes of the Canadian
wilderness.
Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly individual
styles. Emily Carr became famous for her paintings of totem poles in British Columbia.
Other noted painters have included the landscape artist David Milne, the abstract painters
Jean-Paul Riopelle and Harold Town and multi-media artist Michael Snow.
The abstract art group Painters Eleven, particularly the artists William Ronald and Jack
Bush, also had an important impact on modern art in Canada. Canadian sculpture has
been enriched by the walrus ivory and soapstone carvings by the Inuit artists. These
carvings show objects and activities from the daily life of the Inuit.
[edit] Literature
Main article: Canadian literature

Canadian writer Robertson Davies, author of The Deptford Trilogy which included the
famous book, Fifth Business.
Canadian literature is often divided into French and English-language literature, which
are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively, However,
collectively this literature has become distinctly Canadian. Canada’s literature, whether
written in English or French, often reflects the Canadian perspective on nature, frontier
life, and Canada’s position in the world, Canadian identity is closely tied to its literature.
Canadian literature is often categorised by region or province; by the status of the author
(e.g., literature of Canadian women, Acadians, Aboriginal peoples, and Irish Canadians);
and by literary period, such as "Canadian postmoderns" or "Canadian Poets Between the
Wars."
Canadian authors have accumulate numerous international awards.[24] In 1992, Michael

Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Man Booker Prize for The English
Patient. Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000 for The Blind Assassin and Yann
Martel won it in 2002 for the Life of Pi. Carol Shields's The Stone Diaries won the 1995
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and the 1994 National Book Critics Circle Award.
[edit] Music
Main article: Music of Canada
Ottawa Jazz Festival inside Rideau Centre, 2008

The Music of Canada has reflected the multi-cultural influences that have shaped the
country. First Nations people, the French, and the British have all made large
contributions to the musical heritage of Canada. Since French explorer Samuel de
Champlain arrived in 1605 and established the first permanent Canadian settlements at
Port Royal and Quebec City in 1608, the country has produced its own composers,
musicians and ensembles.[25][26] From the 17th century onward Canada has developed a
music infrastructure, that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies,
performing arts centers, record companys, radio stations and television music video
channels.[27][28] The music has subsequently been heavily influenced by American culture
because of its proximity and migration between the two countries.[29][30][31]
Canadian music industry has been helped by government regulation designed to protect
and encourage the growth of distinct Canadian culture. The Canadian Content
(CANCON) regulations require all radio stations in Canada play at least 36% Canadian
music. This has enabled Canadian artists to garner success on the airwaves which were
once dominated by American and European acts. Due to these regulations, Canadian
music has become much more prevalent on the airwaves.
Canada has produced a variety of internationally successful performers and artist. These
individuals are honoured at The Juno Awards, recognizing Canadian achievement in
popular music.In addition, Canada is home to a number of popular summer-time folk
festivals, including the Winnipeg Folk Festival. Canada has also produced many notable
composers, who have contributed in a variety of ways to the history of Western classical
music.
[edit] Canadian theatre
Main article: Theatre of Canada
Canada has a thriving stage theatre scene. Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the
summer months, especially the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, and
the Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. The Famous People Players are only
one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation.
Canada also boasts the world's second largest fringe festival the Edmonton International
Fringe Festival.[32]
[edit] Film and television
Main articles: Cinema of Canada and Television in Canada

See also: Cinema of Quebec
The Canadian film market was dominated by the American film industry for decades,
although that film industry has since inception seen a prominent role for actors, directors,
producers and technicians of Canadian origin. In the 1960s Michel Brault, Pierre Perrault,
Gilles Groulx, Jean Pierre Lefebvre, Arthur Lamothe, Claude Jutra and other filmmakers
from Quebec began to challenge Hollywood by making innovative and politically
relevant documentary and feature films.
Standard Theatre, 482 Queen Street West. (Toronto, Canada), 1906
Canada has developed a vigorous film industry that has produced a variety of well-known
films, actors, and auteurs. In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the
bizarre and innovative directions of the works of such auteurs as Atom Egoyan (The
Sweet Hereafter, 1997) and David Cronenberg (The Fly, Naked Lunch, A History of
Violence). Also, the distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such
as Denys Arcand and Denis Villeneuve. At the 76th Academy Awards Arcand's The
Barbarian Invasions became Canada's first film to win the Academy Award for Best
Foreign Language Film.
A number of Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood significantly contributed to the

creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century. Over the
years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment
industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians.[33]
Canada's film industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions. Since the
1980s, Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known as Hollywood North.
The American Queer as Folk was filmed in Toronto. Canadian producers have been very
successful in the field of science fiction since the mid-1990s, with such shows as The X-
Files, Stargate SG-1, the new Battlestar Galactica, Smallville, and The Outer Limits, all
filmed in Vancouver. As with its southern counterpart in California, many Canadians are
employed in the film industry, and celebrity-spotting is frequent throughout many
Canadian cities.
NFB headquarters building, Montreal.
Canadian television, especially supported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, is

the home of a variety of locally-produced shows. French-language television, like French
Canadian film, is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language,
and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions. The relative success of French-
language domestic television and movies in Canada often exceeds that of its English-
language counterpart.
The CRTC's Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic
broadcaster's transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or
covers Canadian subjects. This also applies to US cable television channels such as MTV
(MTV (Canada) and the Discovery Channel (Discovery Channel (Canada), which have
local versions of their channels available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, BBC
Canada, while primarily showing BBC shows from the United Kingdom, also carries
Canadian output.
The National Film Board of Canada,[34] is 'a public agency that produces and distributes
films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the
world'. The agency helped to pioneer the concept of the documentary. Canada has
produced many popular documentaries such as The Corporation, Nanook of the North,
Final Offer, and Canada: A People's History. The Toronto International Film Festival
(TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevalent film festivals for Western
cinema. It is the première film festival in North America from which the Oscars race
begins.[35]
[edit] Canadian humour

Main article: Canadian humour
Just for Laughs Festival in Montreal, Québec at the Saint-Denis Theatre.
Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity. There are several traditions
in Canadian humour in both English and French.[36][37] While these traditions are distinct
and at times very different, there are common themes that relate to Canadians' shared
history and geopolitical situation in North America and the world. Various trends can be
noted in Canadian comedy. One thread is the portrayal of a "typical" Canadian family in
an on-going radio or television series. Examples include La famille Plouffe, with its mix
of drama, humour, politics and religion and sitcoms such as King of Kensington and La
Petite Vie. Another major thread tends to be political and cultural satire: television shows
such as CODCO, Royal Canadian Air Farce, La Fin du monde est à 7 heures and This
Hour Has 22 Minutes, monologuists such as Yvon Deschamps and Rick Mercer and
writers, including Michel Tremblay, Will Ferguson and Eric Nicol draw their inspiration
from Canadian and Québécois society and politics. Another trend revels in absurdity,
demonstrated by television series like The Kids in the Hall and The Frantics, and
musician-comedians such as The Arrogant Worms, Three Dead Trolls in a Baggie and
Bowser and Blue. Satire is arguably the primary characteristic of Canadian humour,
evident in each of these threads, and uniting various genres and regional cultural
differences.
Humber College in Toronto and the École nationale de l'humour in Montreal offer post-
secondary programmes in comedy writing and performance. Montreal is also home to the
bilingual (English and French) Just for Laughs festival and to the Just for Laughs
Museum, a bilingual, international museum of comedy.
[edit] Sport
See also: Sport in Canada
A scene at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver seconds after Team Canada won gold
in men's ice hockey.
The sporting culture of Canada is different from that of many other countries. Compared
to any other nation, Canadians prefer a unique set of sports that are imported from the
United States or home grown — namely football, basketball, baseball, and ice hockey. In
Canada, football means Canadian football or what is sometimes called gridiron around
the world.
Ice hockey, referred to as simply hockey in the country, is Canada's official winter sport,
[38]
its most popular spectator sport, and its most successful sport in international
competition. Lacrosse, a sport with Aboriginal origins, is Canada's oldest sport and
official summer sport.[38] Canadian football is Canada's second most popular spectator
sport,[39] and the Canadian Football League's annual championship, the Grey Cup, is the
country's largest annual sports event.[40] Association football, known in Canada as soccer
in both English and French, has the most registered players of any sport in Canada, but
has never enjoyed sustained popularity as a major professional spectator sport even
though the last few years have showed an improvement in terms of popularity and media
coverage.
Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, cricket, rugby, soccer and
softball. Currently, Cricket is the fastest growing sport in Canada.[41][42] Popular individual
sports include auto racing, boxing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, rodeo,
skateboarding, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, tennis, triathlon, track and field, water
sports, and wrestling. As a country with a generally cool climate, Canada has enjoyed
greater success at the Winter Olympics than at the Summer Olympics, although
significant regional variations in climate allow for a wide variety of both team and
individual sports. Major upcoming multi-sport events in Canada include the 2010 Winter
Olympics.
Great achievements in Canadian sport are recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame,
while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete by a panel of
journalists.
[edit] Outside views
In 1984, Baron Moran, the British High Commissioner to Canada, stated that, in his
opinion, Canadians have limited talents and are "deeply unimpressive." Said Moran,
"Anyone who is even moderately good at what they do - in literature, the theater, skiing
of whatever - tends to become a national figure. And anyone who stands out at all from
the crowd tends to be praised to the skies and given the Order of Canada at once.[43]
A 2007 poll ranked Canada as the country with the most positive influence in the world.
28,000 people in 27 countries were asked to rate 12 countries as either having a positive
or negative worldwide influence. Canada’s overall influence rating topped the list with 54
per cent of respondents rating it mostly positive and only 14 per cent mostly negative. [44]
[edit] See also

Canada portal
Music of Canada portal
Book:Canada
Books are collections of articles which can be downloaded or ordered in print.
• Culture of Alberta
• Culture of Saskatchewan
[edit] References
1. ^ National Film Board of Canada (2005). "Mandate of the National Film Board".
http://www.nfb.ca/atonf/organisation.php?v=h&lg=en. Retrieved 2006-03-15.
2. ^ "Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants". The History Channel. 2005-
08-25. http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/pioneers/pioneers7_e.html.
3. ^ A Dialogue on Foreign Policy. Department of Foreign Affairs and International
Trade. 2003-01. pp. 15–16. http://www.foreign-policy-
dialogue.ca/pdf/DialogueEng.pdf. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
4. ^ "Quebec". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia
University Press. 2003. http://www.answers.com/topic/quebec-city-quebec.
5. ^ "American Civil war". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Founcation.
2003. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?
PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000174. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
6. ^ Speakers of the Canadian House of Commons. Parliament of Canada. 2001. pp.
8–9.
7. ^ "Multiculturalism in Canada". Mount Allison University. 2002-01-26.
http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts/canadian_studies/english/about/multi/index.htm#p
olicy. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
8. ^ Marcia Wallace (1999). Planning Amidst Diversity: The Challenges of
Multiculturalism in Urban and Suburban Greater Toronto. University of
Waterloo. http://ceris.metropolis.net/Virtual
%20Library/other/wallace1/chapt5.html. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
9. ^ "A Newcomer’s Introduction to Canada". Citizenship and Immigration Canada.
2006-07-01. http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/newcomer/guide/section-07.html#6.
10. ^ B.A. Robinson (2005-11-20). "Same-Sex Marriages (SSM) in Canada". Ontario
Consultants on Religious Tolerance.
http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_marb0.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
11. ^ a b Woodcock, part I
12. ^ Wolf, chapter 6
13. ^ Department of Canadian Heritage
14. ^ John Ralston Saul, Reflections of a Siames Twin: Canada at the End of the 20th
Century, Toronto: Viking Canada, 1997, p. 439
15. ^ Philip Resnick, The European Roots of Canadian Identity, Peterborough:
Broadview Press Ltd, 2005 p. 63
16. ^ Roy McGregor, Canadians: A Portrait of a Country and Its People, Toronto:
Viking Canada, 2007
17. ^ Saul,Reflections of a Siamese Twin p. 8.
18. ^ MacGregor, p.39
19. ^ Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2007, p. 3, ISBN 978-0771021817
20. ^ MacGregor, Canadians, at p. 40: "I've often thought myself that Canadians
ingeniously use this endless 'search' for identity as a handy excuse to wallow in
their own self-righteousness--particularly at those moments when America has
put the stuck-up Canadian nose out of joint. It could be construed as a sort of
verbal party trick to turn the conversation around to oneself and all the comforting
goodness of being Canadian
21. ^ National Horse of Canada Act
22. ^ The beaver
23. ^ The Maple Leaf
24. ^ Robert Fulford's column about the international success of Canadian literature
25. ^ Music in Canada 1600-1800. by Amtmann, Willy. Cambridge, Ont. : Habitex
Books, 1975. 320 p.(ISBN 088912020X)
26. ^ La Musique au Québec 1600-1875. by Michelle Pharand. Montreal: Les
Éditions de l'Homme (1976) (ISBN 0775905178)
27. ^ Music in Canada: A Research and Information Guide, Carl Morey. New York:
Garland Publishing, 1997
28. ^ "The history of broadcasting in Canada". The Canadian Communications
Foundation. http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/timeline/CCFTimeline.html.
29. ^ Profiles of Canada. edited by Kenneth G. Pryke, Walter C. Soderlund. Boulder,
Colo. : NetLibrary, 2000.(ISBN 058527925X)
30. ^ "History of Canada in music". Historica Foundation of Canada.
http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?
PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0001624.
31. ^ Canadian Music: Issues of Hegemony & Identity, eds Beveley Diamond &
Robert Witmer. Canadian Scholars Press, 1994.
32. ^ Edmonton Fringe sets box-office record
33. ^ * Charles Foster, Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood, 2000,
page27- 34 ISBN 1-55002-348-9
34. ^ NFB official site
35. ^ Toronto International Film Festival
36. ^ Scobie, Stephen "Humourous Writing in English". The Canadian Encyclopedia.
Retrieved on: April 23, 2010.
37. ^ Lacombe, Michelle "Humourous Writing in French". The Canadian
Encyclopedia. Retrieved on: April 23, 2010.
38. ^ a b "National Sports of Canada Act (1994)". Consolidated Statutes and
Regulations. Department of Justice. http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/N-
16.7/251603.html. Retrieved 2006-07-20.
39. ^ Canadian Press (2006-06-08). "Survey: Canadian interest in pro football is on
the rise". Globe and Mail.
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20060608.wsurvey8/BN
Story/Sports/home. Retrieved 2006-06-08.
40. ^ William Houston (2006-12-20). "Grey Cup moves to TSN in new deal". The
Globe And Mail.
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20061220.wsptcfl20/GS
Story/GlobeSportsFootball/GlobeSports/?query=. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
41. ^ Canadian Cricket Heritage Fund
42. ^ Support for Cricket Across the Pond
43. ^ (Associated Press), "Letters reveal candid views of UK diplomats", WTOP,
October 18, 2009.
44. ^ http://www.canadavisa.com/canada-a-good-influence-on-the-world.html
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Politics of Pakistan

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Pakistan
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Recently the Politics of Pakistan (Urdu: ‫کستان‬ ِ ‫ ) سیاست پا‬has taken place in the
framework of a federal republic, where the system of government has at times been
parliamentary, presidential, or semi-presidential. In the current parliamentary system, the
President of Pakistan is the largely-ceremonial head of state, the Prime Minister is head
of government, and there is a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the
government. Legislative power is largely vested in the Parliament.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Executive branch
• 2 Legislative Branch
o 2.1 Senate
o 2.2 National Assembly
• 3 Political parties and elections
o 3.1 Composition of Parliament (As per Results of the 2008 General
Elections)
• 4 Judicial branch
o 4.1 Supreme Court
o 4.2 Provincial & High Courts
o 4.3 Mohtasib
• 5 Political background
• 6 Form of Government
o 6.1 Provincial Governments
o 6.2 Local Governments
• 7 Foreign relations
• 8 See also
• 9 References
[edit] Executive branch

Main office holders
Office Name Party Since
President Asif Ali Zardari PPP 9 September 2008
Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani PPP March 25, 2008
Pakistan has been under the influence of its military almost since it was founded. The
Intelligence agencies have a huge role in the politics since the beginning[dubious – discuss] in
making and breaking the political parties. The president, in keeping with the
constitutional provision that the state religion is Islam, must be a Muslim. Elected for a
five-year term by an Electoral College consisting of members of the Senate and National
Assembly and members of the provincial assemblies, the president is eligible for
reelection. But no individual may hold the office for more than two consecutive terms.
The president may resign or be impeached and may be removed from office for
incapacity or gross misconduct by a two-thirds vote of the members of the parliament.
The president generally acts on the advice of the prime minister but has important
residual powers.
One of the most important of these powers—a legacy of Zia—is the president's power to
dissolve the National Assembly "in his discretion where, in has arisen in which the
Government of the Federation cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of
the Constitution and an appeal to the electorate is necessary." This power has twice been
granted —by the Eighth Amendment in 1985 and by the Seventeenth Amendment in
2003—and has twice been revoked—by the Thirteenth Amendment in 1997 and by the
Eighteenth Amendment in 2010. Despite this most recent power-stripping, the President
remains the ex officio chair of the National Security Council, as per the National Security
Act 2004.
The prime minister is appointed by the members of the National Assembly through a
vote. The prime minister is assisted by the Federal Cabinet, a council of ministers whose
members are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister. The Federal
Cabinet comprises the ministers, ministers of state, and advisers. As of early 1994, there
were thirty-three ministerial portfolios: commerce; communications; culture; defence;
defence production; education; environment; finance and economic affairs; food and
agriculture; foreign affairs; health; housing; information and broadcasting; interior;
Kashmiri affairs and Northern Areas; law and justice; local government; minority affairs;
narcotics control; parliamentary affairs; petroleum and natural resources production;
planning and development; railways; religious affairs; science and technology; social
welfare; special education; sports; state and frontier regions; tourism; water and power;
women's development; and youth affairs.
[edit] Legislative Branch
The bicameral federal legislature consists of the Senate (upper house) and National
Assembly (lower house). According to Article 50 of the Constitution, the National
Assembly, the Senate and the President together make up a body known as the Majlis-i-
Shoora (Council of Advisers).
Pakistan's democracy has no recall method. However, past governments have been
dismissed for corruption by the President's invocation of Article 58 of the Constitution.
The President's power to dismiss the Prime Minister and dissolve the National Assembly
was removed by the Thirteenth Amendment and partially restored by the Seventeenth
Amendment.
Parliament House of Pakistan

[edit] Senate
The Senate is a permanent legislative body with equal representation from each of the
four provinces, elected by the members of their respective provincial assemblies. There
are representatives from the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and from Islamabad
Capital Territory. The chairman of the Senate, under the constitution, is next in line to act
as president should the office become vacant and until such time as a new president can
be formally elected. Both the Senate and the National Assembly can initiate and pass
legislation except for finance bills. Only the National Assembly can approve the federal
budget and all finance bills. In the case of other bills, the president may prevent passage
unless the legislature in joint sitting overrules the president by a majority of members of
both houses present and voting. Unlike the National Assembly, the Senate cannot be
dissolved by the President.
[edit] National Assembly
Members of the National Assembly are elected by universal adult suffrage (formerly
twenty-one years of age and older but the seventeenth amendment changed it to eighteen
years of age.). Seats are allocated to each of the four provinces, the Federally
Administered Tribal Areas, and Islamabad Capital Territory on the basis of population.
National Assembly members serve for the parliamentary term, which is five years, unless
they die or resign sooner, or unless the National Assembly is dissolved. Although the vast
majority of the members are Muslim, about 5 percent of the seats are reserved for
minorities, including Christians, Hindus, and Sikhs. Elections for minority seats are held
on the basis of separate electorates at the same time as the polls for Muslim seats during
the general elections. There are also 50+ special seats for women now, and women are
selected (i.e. not directly elected in the general election but given representation
according to how their parties performed in the general election) on these seat by their
party head: another seventeenth amendment innovation.
[edit] Political parties and elections

For other political parties see List of political parties in Pakistan. An overview on
elections and election results is included in Elections in Pakistan.
[edit] Composition of Parliament (As per Results of the 2008 General

Elections)
Reserved
Elected Reserved seats
Parties Votes % seats Total
seats (Minorities)
(Women)
Pakistan Peoples Party 10,606,486 30.6% 94 23 4 130
Pakistan Muslim
6,781,445 19.6% 71 17 3 95
League (N)
Pakistan Muslim
7,989,817 23.0% 42 10 2 55
League (Q)
Muttahida Qaumi
2,507,813 7.4% 19 5 1 26
Movement
Awami National Party 700,479 2.0% 10 3 0 13
Muttahida Majlis-e-
Amal Pakistan
• Jamiat Ulema-
e-Islam (F)
772,798 2.2% 5 1 0 6
Note: Jamaat-e-Islami
Pakistan, Jamiat Ulema-
e-Pakistan, Tehrik-e-
Jafaria Pakistan and
Jamiat Ahle Hadith did
not participate.
Pakistan Muslim
4 1 0 5
League (F)
Pakistan Peoples Party
140,707 0.4% 1 0 0 1
(Sherpao)
National Peoples Party 1 0 0 1
Balochistan National
1 0 0 1
Party (Awami)
Independents 18 0 0 18
Total 34,665,978 100% 266 60 10 336
Source: Election Commission of Pakistan, Adam Carr's Electoral Archive
[edit] Judicial branch
The judiciary includes the Supreme Court, provincial high courts, and other lesser courts
exercising civil and criminal jurisdiction.
[edit] Supreme Court
The Supreme Court has original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. The Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court is appointed by the president; the other Supreme Court judges are
appointed by the president after consultation with the chief justice. The chief justice and
judges of the Supreme Court may remain in office until age sixty-five: now 68 years and
this is also another clause of seventeenth amendment.
[edit] Provincial & High Courts
Judges of the provincial high courts are appointed (The seventeenth amendment give
these powers to the president, previously Prime minister exercised them) by the president
after consultation with the chief justice of the Supreme Court, as well as the governor of
the province and the chief justice of the high court to which the appointment is being
made. High courts have original and appellate jurisdiction.
There is also a Federal Shariat Court consisting of eight Muslim judges, including a chief
justice appointed by the president. Three of the judges are ulama, that is, Islamic
Scholars, and are well versed in Islamic law. The Federal Shariat Court has original and
appellate jurisdiction. This court decides whether any law is repugnant to the injunctions
of Islam. When a law is deemed repugnant to Islam, the president, in the case of a federal
law, or the governor, in the case of a provincial law, is charged with taking steps to bring
the law into conformity with the injunctions of Islam. The court also hears appeals from
decisions of criminal courts under laws relating to the enforcement of hudud (see
Glossary) laws that is, laws pertaining to such offences as intoxication, theft, and
unlawful sexual intercourse.
In addition, there are special courts and tribunals to deal with specific kinds of cases,
such as drug courts, commercial courts, labour courts, traffic courts, an insurance
appellate tribunal, an income tax appellate tribunal, and special courts for bank offences.
There are also special courts to try terrorists. Appeals from special courts go to high
courts except for labour and traffic courts, which have their own forums for appeal.
Appeals from the tribunals go to the Supreme Court.
[edit] Mohtasib
A further feature of the judicial system is the office of Mohtasib (Ombudsman), which is
provided for in the constitution. The office of Mohtasib was established in many early
Muslim states to ensure that no wrongs were done to citizens. Appointed by the president,
the Mohtasib holds office for four years; the term cannot be extended or renewed. The
Mohtasib's purpose is to institutionalize a system for enforcing administrative
accountability, through investigating and rectifying any injustice done to a person
through maladministration by a federal agency or a federal government official. The
Mohtasib is empowered to award compensation to those who have suffered loss or
damage as a result of maladministration. Excluded from jurisdiction, however, are
personal grievances or service matters of a public servant as well as matters relating to
foreign affairs, national defence, and the armed services. This institution is designed to
bridge the gap between administrator and citizen, to improve administrative processes
and procedures, and to help curb misuse of discretionary powers.
[edit] Political background
Pakistan has been ruled by both democratic and military governments.[1] The first decade
was marred with political unrest and instability resulting in frequent collapses of civilian
democratic governments. From 1947 to 1958 as many as seven Prime Ministers of
Pakistan either resigned or were ousted. This political instability paved the way for
Pakistan’s first military take over. On October 7, 1958 Pakistan’s civilian and first
President Iskander Mirza in collaboration with General Mohammad Ayub Khan
abrogated Pakistan’s constitution and declared Martial Law.
General Ayub Khan was the president from 1958 to 1969, and General Yahya Khan from
1969 to 1971, Justice Khan Habibullah Khan Marwat elected first & second Chairman
Senate of Pakistan several times Mr. Khan Sahib acted as a President Islamic Republic
of Pakistan, with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as the first civilian martial law administrator.
Civilian, yet autocratic, rule continued from 1972 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, but
he was deposed by General Zia-Ul-Haq. General Zia was killed in a plane crash in 1988,
after which Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the Prime
Minister of Pakistan. She was the youngest woman ever to be elected the Head of
Government and the first woman to be elected as the Head of Government of a Muslim
country. Her government was followed by that of Nawaz Sharif, and the two leaders
alternated until the military coup by General Pervez Musharraf in 1999. Since the
resignation of President Rafiq Tarar in 2001, Musharraf has been the President of
Pakistan.
Nation-wide parliamentary elections were held in October 2002, with the PML-Q
winning a plurality of seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan, and Zafarullah Khan
Jamali of that party emerging as Prime Minister. Jamali resigned on June 26, 2004. PML-
Q leader Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain became interim PM, and was succeeded by Finance
Minister and former Citibank Vice President Shaukat Aziz, who was elected Prime
Minister on August 27, 2004 by a National Assembly vote of 191 to 151.
In the October 2002 general elections, the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) won a
plurality of National Assembly seats with the second-largest group being the Pakistan
Peoples Party Parliamentarians (PPPP), a sub-party of the PPP. Zafarullah Khan Jamali
of PML-Q emerged as Prime Minister but resigned on 26 June 2004 and was replaced by
PML-Q leader Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain as interim Prime Minister. On 28 August 2004
the National Assembly voted 191 to 151 to elect the Finance Minister and former
Citibank Vice President Shaukat Aziz as Prime Minister. The Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal,
a coalition of Islamic religious parties, won elections in North-West Frontier Province,
and increased their representation in the National Assembly - until their defeat in the
2008 elections.
The Pakistan's federal cabinet on April 12, 2006 decided that general elections would be
held after the completion of the assemblies constitutional term by the end of 2007 or
beginning of 2008.[2]
[edit] Form of Government
Officially a federal republic, Pakistan has had a long history of alternating periods of
electoral democracy and authoritarian military government. Military presidents include
General Ayub Khan in the 1960s, General Zia ul Haq in the 1980s, and General Pervez
Musharraf from 1999. However, a majority of Pakistan's Heads of State and Heads of
Government have been elected civilian leaders. General elections were held in October
2002. After monitoring the elections, the Commonwealth Observer Group stated in
conclusion:
We believe that on election day this was a credible election: the will of the people
was expressed and the results reflected their wishes. However, in the context of
various measures taken by the government we are not persuaded of the overall
fairness of the process as a whole. [3]
On May 22, 2004, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group re-admitted Pakistan
into the Commonwealth, formally acknowledging its progress in returning to democracy.
[edit] Provincial Governments
The subdivisions of Pakistan
Pakistan is subdivided into 4 provinces, 1 territory, and 1 capital territory. Each province
has a Provincial Assembly, a directly-elected legislature. Members are elected for five-
year terms. Each Assembly elects a Chief Minister, who then selects the ministers of his
or her cabinet.
• Balochistan
• Federally Administered Tribal Areas*
• Islamabad Capital Territory**
• North-West Frontier Province
• Punjab
• Sindh
• Note; the Pakistani-administered portion of the disputed Kashmir region includes

Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas.
See also: Government of Pakistan
[edit] Local Governments
Pakistan's provinces are divided into zillas ( counterpart to a county in US or UK

terminology). A zilla is further subdivided into tehsils (roughly equivalent to a borough in
an integrated multi-tier (federated) systemic context, such as the one to be found in
Montreal (Canada, 2002) and Birmingham (UK, 2001 announcement) or known as
arrondissements in French context. Tehsils may contain villages or municipalities.
Pakistan's system is the one that applies an integrated federated systemic framework most
comprehensively, so far.
This methodology is not new to the region, as it is similar to what is referred to as the
Panchayat Raj system in India that was introduced by Britain (which was first nation
(1890s) to adapt revolutionary Paris (1790) framework to implement a 3-tier rural version
(county, district, parish councils) by grafting the 2-tier Paris framework on pre-existing
parish councils and urban context (London)) during colonial era. In India it was
implemented in some regions and not others; and then allowed to lie fallow. It got new
life after the very successful West Bengal revival in the 1970s, which eventually inspired
the 1990s Constitutional Amendment making it national policy.
The main difference is that Pakistan is the only country with an urban framework, as
well, in the region today; and Pakistan's system has common-representational framework
between tiers (as Montreal and Birmingham also have in 2-tier context—even though
Birmingham is working on implementing a 3- tier system); and, it has a bottom-up
representational framework like the Canadian example. Pakistan had the only 3-tier
integrated bottom-up common-representational local government system, until it was
adapted for another country in 2003. UK, the country which first introduced this
methodology in the region, also has the urban examples of London and Birmingham
(being implemented in Post- 2001 era by building on steps first introduced in 1980s); as
does France (where largest cities and smaller units have created such frameworks either
by devolution (Marseilles and Lyon, in addition to Paris) or by integration of
neighbouring units (such as the Nantes region pursuant to the Marcellin Act of 1970s);
and, Canada.
This methodology is being increasingly adapted, as it delivers greater systemic

productivity, being a more inclusive framework that provides greater regional integration.
In the US, the 7 county Twin Cities (MN) regional system and Portland (OR) Metro are
both the most integrated US examples;but, also those often cited in the US for what they
have achieved. These US examples- with their multi-county framework- are similar to
what is in place in France after regional unit introduction (making France have a 3-tier
systemic framework also in the Commune (municipal/lowest tier local unit),
Department(county), Regional unit context). Multi-county frameworks are suitable for a
very suburbanized system like in the US. After France and Britain, the Indian colony of
Britain was the third region to see this methodology implemented.
There are over five thousand local governments in Pakistan. Since 2001, the vast majority
of these have been led by democratically elected local councils, each headed by a Nazim
(mayor or supervisor.) Council elections are held every four years.
[edit] Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan
The Map of Pakistan
Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in terms of population, and its status as a
declared nuclear power, being the only Muslim nation to have that status, plays a part in
its international role. It is also an active member of the United Nations. Historically, its
foreign policy has encompassed difficult relations with India, a desire for a stable
Afghanistan, long-standing close relations with the People's Republic of China, extensive
security and economic interests in the Persian Gulf and wide-ranging bilateral relations
with the United States and other Western countries. Pakistan is also an important member
of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC). Pakistan has used the OIC as a
forum for Enlightened Moderation,[4] its plan to promote a renaissance and enlightenment
in the Islamic world.
Wary of Soviet expansion, Pakistan had strong relations with both the United States of
America and the People's Republic of China during much of the Cold War. It was a
member of the CENTO and SEATO military alliances. Its alliance with the United States
was especially close after the Soviets invaded the neighbouring country of Afghanistan.
In 1964, Pakistan signed the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) Pact with
Turkey and Iran, when all three countries were closely allied with the U.S., and as
neighbours of the Soviet Union, wary of perceived Soviet expansionism. To this day,
Pakistan has a close relationship with Turkey. RCD became defunct after the Iranian
Revolution, and a Pakistani-Turkish initiative led to the founding of the Economic
Cooperation Organisation (ECO) in 1985. Pakistan's relations with India have improved
recently and this has opened up Pakistan's foreign policy to issues beyond security. This
development might completely change the complexion of Pakistan's foreign relations.
Pakistan joined the Non-Aligned Movement in 1979.[5]

[edit] See also
• Political families of Pakistan
[edit] References
1. ^ Cheema, F., The Promise of Contemporary Pakistan, Swords and Ploughshares, The
bulletin of the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security,
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Vol. XV, No. 3, 2004
2. ^ Plan to hold census in 2008: Cabinet okays F-16 purchase -DAWN - Top Stories; April
13, 2006
3. ^ http://www.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/%7BB8E19A5C-
0810-4AAF-AD3A-F0AFCEE0E814%7D_Pakistan%202002.pdf
4. ^ President Musharraf on Enlightened Moderation
5. ^ Pakistan: A Country Study, "The United States and the West"
• Pakistan Government at the Open Directory Project

• Government of Pakistan
• Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
• Essay on democracy in Pakistan by Professor Adil Najam of Fletcher School of
Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University
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Politics of the People's Republic of China

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People's Republic of China
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The politics of the People's Republic of China take place in a framework of a single-
party socialist republic. The leadership of the Communist Party is stated in the
Constitution of the People's Republic of China. State power within the People's Republic
of China (PRC) is exercised through the Communist Party of China, the Central People's
Government and their provincial and local counterparts. Under the dual leadership
system, each local bureau or office is under the theoretically coequal authority of the
local leader and the leader of the corresponding office, bureau or ministry at the next
higher level. People's Congress members at the county level are elected by voters. These
county level People's Congresses have the responsibility of oversight of local
government, and elect members to the Provincial (or Municipal in the case of
independent municipalities) People's Congress. The Provincial People's Congress in turn
elects members to the National People's Congress that meets each year in March in
Beijing.[1] The ruling Communist Party committee at each level plays a large role in the
selection of appropriate candidates for election to the local congress and to the higher
levels.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Overview
• 2 Communist Party
• 3 Government
• 4 Administrative divisions
• 5 Local government
• 6 People's Liberation Army
• 7 State leaders
o 7.1 Government leaders
o 7.2 Politburo Standing Committee
o 7.3 Full Politburo members
• 9 Legal system
• 10 Nationality
• 11 Ethnic affairs
• 12 Foreign relations
• 13 International disputes
o 13.1 Territorial disputes
• 14 International organization participation
• 15 See also
• 16 References
[edit] Overview
The PRC's population, geographical vastness, and social diversity frustrate attempts to
rule from Beijing. Economic reform during the 1980s and the devolution of much central
government decision making, combined with the strong interest of local Communist
Party officials in enriching themselves, has made it increasingly difficult for the central
government to assert its authority.[2] Political power has become much less personal and
more institutionally based than it was during the first forty years of the PRC. For
example, Deng Xiaoping was never the President of China or Secretary of the Chinese
Communist Party, yet he was for a decade the leader of China. Today the authority of
China's leaders are much more tied to their institutional base.
Central government leaders must increasingly build consensus for new policies among
party members, local and regional leaders, influential non-party members, and the
population at large.[3] However, control is often maintained over the larger group through
control of information. The Chinese Communist Party considers China to be in the initial
stages of socialism. Many Chinese and foreign observers see the PRC as in transition
from a system of public ownership to one in which private ownership plays an
increasingly important role. Privatization of housing and increasing freedom to make
choices about education and employment severely weakened the work unit system that
was once the basic cell of Communist Party control over society. China's complex
political, ethnic and ideological mosaic, much less uniform beneath the surface than in
the idealized story of the Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the
Communist Party of China, resist simple categorization.[4]
As the social, cultural and political as well as economic consequences of market reform
become increasingly manifest, tensions between the old—the way of the comrade—and
the new—the way of the citizen—are sharpening. Some Chinese scholars such as Zhou
Tianyong, the vice director of research of the Central Party School, argue that gradual
political reform as well as repression of those pushing for overly rapid change over the
next thirty years will be essential if China is to avoid an overly turbulent transition to a
middle class dominated polity.[5][6] Some Chinese look back to the Cultural Revolution
and fear chaos if the Communist Party should lose control due to domestic upheavals and
so a robust system of monitoring and control is in place to counter the growing pressure
for political change.
[edit] Communist Party

Main article: Communist Party of China
The more than 73 million-member[7] Communist Party of China (CPC) continues to

dominate government. In periods of relative liberalisation, the influence of people and
organisations outside the formal party structure has tended to increase, particularly in the
economic realm. Under the command economy system, every state owned enterprise was
required to have a party committee. The introduction of the market economy means that
economic institutions now exist in which the party has limited or no power.
Nevertheless, in all governmental institutions in the PRC, the party committees at all
levels maintain an important role.
Central party control is tightest in central government offices and in urban economic,
industrial, and cultural settings; it is considerably looser over government and party
organizations in rural areas, where the majority of China's people live. Their most
important responsibility comes in the selection and promotion of personnel. They also see
that party and state policy guidance is followed and that non-party members do not create
autonomous organizations that could challenge party rule. Particularly important are the
leading small groups which coordinate activities of different agencies. Although there is a
convention that government committees contain at least one non-party member, a party
membership is a definite aid in promotion and in being in crucial policy setting meetings.
Theoretically, the party's highest body is the Party Congress, which is supposed to meet
at least once every 5 years. Meetings became irregular during the Cultural Revolution but
have been periodic since then. The party elects the Central Committee and the primary
organs of power are formally parts of the central committee.
The primary organs of power in the Communist Party include:

• The Politburo Standing Committee, which currently consists of nine members;
• The Politburo, consisting of 22 full members (including the members of the
Politburo Standing Committee);
• The Secretariat, the principal administrative mechanism of the CPC, headed by
the General Secretary;
• The Central Military Commission;
• The Central Discipline Inspection Commission, which is charged with rooting out
corruption and malfeasance among party cadres.
[edit] Government
Main article: Government of the People's Republic of China
The primary organs of state power are the National People's Congress (NPC), the
President, and the State Council. Members of the State Council include the Premier, a
variable number of vice premiers (now four), five state councilors (protocol equal of vice
premiers but with narrower portfolios), and 29 ministers and heads of State Council
commissions. During the 1980s there was an attempt made to separate party and state
functions, with the party deciding general policy and the state carrying it out. The attempt
was abandoned in the 1990s with the result that the political leadership within the state
are also the leaders of the party, thereby creating a single centralized locus of power.
At the same time, there has been a convention that party and state offices be separated at
levels other than the central government, and it is unheard of for a sub-national executive
to also be party secretary. Conflict has been often known to develop between the chief
executive and the party secretary, and this conflict is widely seen as intentional to prevent
either from becoming too dominant. Some special cases are the Special Administrative
Regions of Hong Kong and Macau where the Communist Party does not function at all as
part of the governmental system, and the autonomous regions where, following Soviet
practice, the chief executive is typically a member of the local ethnic group while the
party general secretary is non-local and usually Han Chinese.
Under the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, the NPC is the highest organ of
state power in China. It meets annually for about 2 weeks to review and approve major
new policy directions, laws, the budget, and major personnel changes. Most national
legislation in China is adopted by the Standing Committee of the National People's
Congress. Most initiatives are presented to the NPCSC for consideration by the State
Council after previous endorsement by the Communist Party's Politburo Standing
Committee. Although the NPC generally approves State Council policy and personnel
recommendations, the NPC and its standing committee has increasingly asserted its role
as the national legislature and has been able to force revisions in some laws. For example,
the State Council and the Party have been unable to secure passage of a fuel tax to
finance the construction of freeways.
[edit] Administrative divisions

See also: Political divisions of China
Political divisions of the Provinces (省)
PRC
• Anhui (安 • Hunan • Qinghai • T
徽) • Hainan (海 (湖南) (青海) 湾
• Fujian (福南) • Jiangsu • Shaanxi • Y
建) • Hebei (河北) (江苏) (陕西) 南
• Gansu (甘 • Heilongjiang • Jiangxi • Shandong
肃) (黑龙江) (江西) (山东) • Z
• Guangdong • Henan (河 • Jilin (吉 • Shanxi (浙
(广东) 南) 林) (山西)
• Guizhou • Hubei (湖北) • Liaoning • Sichuan

(贵州) (辽宁) (四川)
†
Taiwan is claimed by the PRC but administered by the Republic of China
Sp
Admin
Autonomous regions (自治区) Municipalities (直辖市)
Regions (
区
For a larger map, see here. • Guangxi (广西壮族自治区) • Beijing (北京市) • H
• Inner Mongolia (内蒙古自治区) • Chongqing (重庆市) (香
• Ningxia (宁夏回族自治区) • Shanghai (上海市) 政
• Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔自治区)
• Tianjin (天津市) • M
• Tibet (西藏自治区) 特
[edit] Local government
Currently, local government in the People's Republic of China is structured in a hierarchy

on four different levels. With the village being the grassroots (usually a hundred or so
families), and not considered part of the hierarchy, local government advances through
the township, county, prefecture or municipality, and the province as the geographical
area of jurisdiction increases. Each level in the hierarchy is responsible for overseeing the
work carried out by lower levels on the administrative strata. At each level are two
important officials. A figure that represents the Communist Party of China, colloquially
termed the Party chief or the Party Secretary, acts as the policy maker. This figure is
appointed by their superiors. The head of the local People's Government, is, in theory,
elected by the people. Usually called a governor, mayor, or magistrate, depending on the
level, this figure acts to carry out the policies and most ceremonial duties. The distinction
has evolved into a system where the Party Secretary is always in precedence above the
leader of the People's Government.
After Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978 greater autonomy has been given to provinces
in terms of economic policy implementation as well as other areas of policy such as
education and transportation. As a result, some provincial authorities have evolved
tendencies of operating on a de facto federal system with Beijing. Prominent examples of
greater autonomy are seen in the provinces of Guangdong and Zhejiang, where local
leaders do little to adhere to the strict standards issued by the Central Government,
especially economic policy. In addition, conflicts have arisen in the relations of the
central Party leaders with the few provincial-level Municipalities, most notably the
municipal government of Shanghai and the rivalry of former Beijing mayor Chen Xitong
with President Jiang Zemin. The removal of Shanghai Municipality Party Secretary Chen
Liangyu in September 2006 is the latest example.
China's system of autonomous regions and autonomous prefectures within provinces are
formally intended to provide for greater autonomy by the ethnic group majority that
inhabits the region. In practice, however, Beijing will often appoint loyal party cadres
(almost always a Han Chinese) to oversee the local work as Party secretary, while the
ethnic Chairman of the region's government is regarded as its nominal head. Power rests
with the Party secretary. To avoid the solidification of local loyalties during a cadre's
term in office, the central government freely and frequently transfers party cadres around
different regions of the country, so a high ranking cadre's career might include service as
governor or party secretary of several different provinces.
[edit] People's Liberation Army

Main article: People's Liberation Army
The Communist Party of China created and leads the People’s Liberation Army. After the
PRC established in 1949, the PLA also became a state military. The state military system
inherited and upholds the principle of the Communist Party’s absolute leadership over the
people’s armed forces. The Party and the State jointly established the Central Military
Commission that carries out the task of supreme military leadership over the armed
forces.
The 1954 PRC Constitution provides that the State President directs [tongshuai 统帅] the
armed forces and made the State President the chair of the Defense Commission (the
Defense Commission is an advisory body, it does not lead the armed forces). On
September 28, 1954, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party re-
established the Central Military Commission as the leader of the PLA and the people’s
armed forces. From that time onwards, the system of joint system of Party and state
military leadership was established. The Central Committee of the Communist Party
leads in all military affairs. The State President directs the state military forces and the
development of the military forces managed by the State Council[8].
In December 1982, the fifth National People’s Congress revised the State Constitution to
provide that the State Central Military Commission leads all the armed forces of the state.
The chair of the State CMC is chosen and removed by the full NPC while the other
members are chosen by the NPC Standing Committee. However, the CMC of the Central
Committee of the Communist Party of China remained the Party organization that
directly leads the military and all the other armed forces. In actual practice, the Party
CMC, after consultation with the democratic parties, proposes the names of the State
CMC members of the NPC so that these people after going through the legal processes
can be elected by the NPC to the State Central Military Commission. That is to say, that
the CMC of the Central Committee and the CMC of the State are one group and one
organization. However, looking at it organizationally, these two CMCs are subordinate to
two different systems – the Party system and the State system. Therefore the armed
forces are under the absolute leadership of the Communist Party and are also the armed
forces of the state. This is a uniquely Chinese system that ensures the joint leadership of
the Communist Party and the state over the armed forces.[8]
[edit] State leaders

See also: Paramount leader, Political position ranking of PRC, Politburo of the
Communist Party of China, and Generations of Chinese leadership
[edit] Government leaders
Main office holders

Office Name Party Since
March 15,
President Hu Jintao Communist Party of China
2003
March 15,
Vice President Xi Jinping Communist Party of China
2008
March 15,
Premier of the State Council Wen Jiabao Communist Party of China
2003
Vice Premiers Li Keqiang Communist Party of China March 15,
Hui Liangyu 2008
Zhang Dejiang
Wang Qishan
Chairman of the Standing March 15,
Wu Bangguo Communist Party of China
Committee of the NPC 2003
Wang Zhaoguo Communist Party of China
Lu Yongxiang Revolutionary Committee of
Wuyunqimuge Chinese Kuomintang
Han Qide Chinese Democratic League
Hua Jianmin China National Democratic
Chen Zhili Construction Association
Vice-Chairperson of the Zhou Tienong China Association for
March 15,
Standing Committee of the Li Jianguo Promoting Democracy
2003
NPC Simayi·Tieliwardi Chinese Peasants' and Workers'
Jiang Shusheng Democratic Party
Chen Changzhi China Zhi Gong Dang
Yan Junqi Jiu San Society
Sang Guowei Taiwan Democratic Self-
Government League
nonparty personage
The President and vice president are elected by the National People's Congress for five-
year terms. The State Council is appointed by the National People's Congress (NPC).
[edit] Politburo Standing Committee
• Hu Jintao (General Secretary)

• Wu Bangguo
• Wen Jiabao
• Jia Qinglin
• Li Changchun
• Xi Jinping
• Li Keqiang
• He Guoqiang
• Zhou Yongkang
[edit] Full Politburo members
• Xi Jinping, Top-ranked Secretary of CPC Secretariat, Vice-President

• Wang Gang, Vice-Chair of CPPCC
• Wang Lequan, Party chief of Xinjiang Autonomous Region
• Wang Zhaoguo, Vice-Chairman of National People's Congress
• Wang Qishan, Vice-Premier
• Hui Liangyu, Vice-Premier
• Liu Qi, Party chief of Beijing, head of Beijing Olympics organizing committee
• Liu Yunshan, Secretary in CPC Central Secretariat, Media and Communications
minister
• Liu Yandong, First State Councilor
• Li Changchun, Propaganda chief
• Li Keqiang, First Vice-Premier
• Li Yuanchao, Secretary in CPC Central Secretariat, CPC Organization
Department head
• Wu Bangguo, Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's
Congress
• Wang Yang, Party chief of Guangdong
• Zhang Gaoli, Party chief of Tianjin
• Zhang Dejiang, Vice-Premier
• Zhou Yongkang, Head of the Political and Legislative Affairs Committee
• Hu Jintao, General Secretary, President, Central Military Commission Chairman
• Yu Zhengsheng, Party chief of Shanghai
• He Guoqiang, Head of Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
• Jia Qinglin, head of the People's Political Consultative Conference
• Xu Caihou, Vice-Chairman of Central Military Commission
• Guo Boxiong, Vice-Chairman of Central Military Commission
• Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council
• Bo Xilai, Party chief of Chongqing

For other political parties see List of political parties in the People's Republic of China.
An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in the People's
Republic of China.
No substantial legal political opposition groups exist, and the country is mainly run by
the Communist Party of China (CPC), but there are other political parties in the PRC,
called "democratic parties", which participate in the People's Political Consultative
Conference but mostly serve to endorse CPC policies. While there have been some
moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested People's Congress elections
are now held at the village and town levels,[9] and that legislatures have shown some
assertiveness from time to time, the party retains effective control over governmental
appointments. This is because the CPC wins by default in most electorates. [10] The CPC
has been enforcing its rule by clamping down on political dissidents while simultaneously
attempting to reduce dissent by improving the economy and allowing public expression
of people's personal grievances, provided that it is not within the agenda of any
organisation. Current political concerns in China include lessening the growing gap
between rich and poor, and fighting corruption within the government leadership.[11] The
support that the Communist Party of China has among the Chinese population in general
is unclear because national elections are mostly CPC dominated[12], as there are no
opposition political parties and independent candidates elected into office are too
scattered and disorganized to realistically challenge CPC rule. Also, private conversations
and anecdotal information often reveal conflicting views. However, according to a survey
conducted in Hong Kong, where a relatively high level of freedom is enjoyed, the current
CPC leaders have received substantial votes of support when its residents were asked to
rank their favourite Chinese leaders from Mainland and Taiwan.[13]
The eight registered minor parties have existed since before 1950. These parties all
formally accept the leadership of the Communist Party of China and their activities are
directed by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese communist party. Their
original function was to create the impression that New China was ruled by a wide
national front, not a one-party dictatorship. The major role of these parties is to attract
and subsequently muzzle niches in society that have political tendencies, such as the
academia. Although these parties are tightly organized and do not challenge the
Communist Party, members of the parties often individually are found in policy making
state organizations, and there is a convention that state institutions generally have at least
one sinecure from a minor political party.
The minor parties include the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Guomindang,
founded in 1948 by dissident members of the mainstream Kuomintang then under control
of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek; China Democratic League, begun in 1941 by
intellectuals in education and the arts; China Democratic National Construction
Association, formed in 1945 by educators and national capitalists (industrialists and
business people); China Association for Promoting Democracy, started in 1945 by
intellectuals in cultural, education (primary and secondary schools), and publishing
circles; Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party, originated in 1930 by
intellectuals in medicine, the arts, and education; China Party for Public Interest (China
Zhi Gong Dang), founded in 1925 to attract the support of overseas Chinese; Jiusan
Society, founded in 1945 by a group of college professors and scientists to commemorate
the victory of the "international war against fascism" on September 3; and Taiwan
Democratic Self-Government League, created in 1947 by "patriotic supporters of
democracy who originated in Taiwan and now reside on the mainland."
Coordination between the 8 registered minor parties and the Communist Party of China is
done through the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference which meets
annually in Beijing in March at about the same time that the National People's Congress
meets.
In addition, there are a few minor parties which are either unrecognized or actively
suppressed by the government, such as the China Democracy Party and China New
Democracy Party, which are deemed to be politically subversive. Due to the censorship
and suppression, they mostly have their headquarters outside of the Chinese mainland.[14]
[edit] Legal system

Main article: Law of the People's Republic of China
The Chinese legal code is a complex amalgam of custom and statute, largely focused on
criminal law, though a rudimentary civil code has been in effect since January 1, 1987
and new legal codes have been in effect since January 1, 1980. Continuing efforts are
being made to improve civil, administrative, criminal, and commercial law.
The government's efforts to promote rule of law are significant and ongoing. After the
Cultural Revolution, the PRC's leaders aimed to develop a legal system to restrain abuses
of official authority and revolutionary excesses. In 1982, the National People's Congress
adopted a new state constitution that emphasized the concept of rule of law by which
party and state organizations are all subject to the law. (The importance of the rule of law
was further elevated by a 1999 Constitutional amendment.) Many commentators have
pointed out that the emphasis on rule of law increases rather than decreases the power of
the Communist Party of China because the party, in its position of power, is in a better
position to change the law to suit its own needs.
Since 1979, when the drive to establish a functioning legal system began, more than 301
laws and regulations, most of them in the economic area, have been promulgated. (After
China's entry into the WTO, many new economically-related laws have been put in place,
while others have been amended.) The use of mediation committees - informed groups of
citizens who resolve about 90% of the PRC's civil disputes and some minor criminal
cases at no cost to the parties - is one innovative device. There are more than 800,000
such committees in both rural and urban areas.
Legal reform became a government priority in the 1990s. Legislation designed to

modernize and professionalize the nation's lawyers, judges, and prisons was enacted. The
1994 Administrative Procedure Law allows citizens to sue officials for abuse of authority
or malfeasance. In addition, the criminal law and the criminal procedures laws were
amended to introduce significant reforms. The criminal law amendments abolished the
crime of "counter-revolutionary" activity (and references to "counter-revolutionaries"
disappeared with the passing of the 1999 Constitutional amendment), while criminal
procedures reforms encouraged establishment of a more transparent, adversarial trial
process. The PRC Constitution and laws provide for fundamental human rights, including
due process, although those laws also provide for limitations of those rights.
Although the human rights situation in mainland China has improved markedly since the
1960s (the 2004 Constitutional amendments specifically stressed that the State protects
human rights), the government remains authoritarian and determined to prevent any
organized opposition to its rule such as Tibetan and Xinjiang separatists. Amnesty
International estimates that the PRC holds several thousand political prisoners. Although
illegal, there have been reports of torture by civil authorities.
According to Amnesty International between 1500 and 2000 people are reported
executed in mainland China each year. However, some human rights activists believe that
not all executions are reported with some estimates of the number of actual executions as
high as 15,000. Public sentiment, however, appears to be overwhelmingly in support of
the death penalty in response to a perception that crime is a serious problem.
[edit] Nationality
In general, naturalisation or the obtainance of People's Republic of China nationality is

difficult. The Nationality Law prescribes only three conditions for the obtainance of PRC
nationality (marriage to a PRC national is one, permanent residence is another).
Citizens of the People's Republic of China, according to law, are not permitted to hold
multiple citizenship. If foreign nationality is granted to the PRC citizen, he or she loses
Chinese nationality automatically. If the citizen then wishes to resume PRC nationality,
the foreign nationality is no longer recognised.
[edit] Ethnic affairs
The PRC officially describes itself as a multiethnic state providing ethnic autonomy in
the form of autonomous administrative entities in accordance with Section 6 of Chapter 3
(Articles 111-122) of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, and with more
detail under the Law of the People's Republic of China on Regional National Autonomy.
By law, ethnic minorities receive advantages in areas such as population control, school
admissions, government employment, and military recruitment. The PRC also condemns
Han chauvinism, referring to all 56 official nationalities as equal members of the Chinese
nation (Zhonghua Minzu). While some people inside and outside China view the policies
as assuaging some of the grievances of the minorities and encouraging them to take a
fuller role in the PRC, many Han Chinese see the PRC policy as being overly favorable
to ethnic minorities.
The PRC faces independence movements in Tibet, Xinjiang, and to a lesser degree, Inner
Mongolia. Many[who?] Tibetans and Uyghurs consider their territories countries in their
own rights, and resent Chinese rule as colonialism[citation needed]. As such, independence
groups and many foreign observers are critical of the PRC's ethnic policies, considering
reality to be markedly different from the image presented by the PRC. For example, Han
Chinese have been moving into Xinjiang and Tibet for over 50 years. Before market
reforms, many of these were workers, soldiers, and prisoners assigned compulsorily to
settle in those regions, carried out by organizations like the Xinjiang Production and
Construction Corps. Market reforms in recent years and the development of tourism have
resulted in a large influx of economic migrants into Xinjiang and Tibet in search of
private business opportunities; moreover the government carries out programs that move
peasants from overcrowded regions in the interior of China into sparsely populated
regions such as Xinjiang and Tibet. Finally, cadres and professionals have also been
enticed with financial incentives, though demographically speaking this category is
comparatively insignificant numbering in the thousands[15] the cadres involved are posted
for a few years before being replaced[16] and such programs are focused upon the entire
impoverished western half of China, not just Xinjiang and Tibet. Independence groups
consider practices such these to be chauvinistic and colonialistic, aimed at homogenising
the demographics of non-Han Chinese areas and reducing the possibility that any
independence movement could succeed. One prominent example is Xinjiang, where
official statistics show that the Han Chinese population has increased drastically over the
past five decades and has nearly caught up with the Uyghur population.
Some Han Chinese are also critical of the above policies. Han Chinese in Xinjiang or
Inner Mongolia, faced with both a local population hostile to their presence and policies
that discriminate against them in areas from education to employment, are generally
resentful and believe they are treated as second-class citizens subject to double racism
perpetrated by both the locals and their own government, a feeling shared to a lesser
extent by Han Chinese in areas where ethnic tensions are not as severe, such as Guangxi.
These Han Chinese people therefore tend to support reducing, or abolishing altogether,
the policies they perceive as unfair. But after all all these are heresay at best. Some also
consider these policies to have actually encouraged the formation of independence
movements and threatened the territorial integrity of China, by acknowledging the
emotional ties of peoples to their territories. While both opinions are criticized as Han
chauvinist, supporters of these views would argue that all official minorities, including
Han Chinese and others, should be abolished in favour of an overarching Zhonghua
Minzu concept. Finally, many Han Chinese people consider criticisms by independence
groups to be unfounded and politically motivated, as most recent migrants are simply
taking advantage of the freedom of movement made possible by market reforms;
moreover it is regarded as only natural that the government would attempt to entice
talented professionals to move into impoverished areas that they would otherwise never
go to. They may consider perceptions of being conquered and oppressed among Uyghurs
and Tibetans to be a result of the nature of the current political system, to be solved by
democratization and liberalization that give a greater voice to minority groups, rather
than independence movements.
[edit] Foreign relations
Presidents Hu Jintao and George W. Bush, with first ladies Liu Yongqing and Laura
Bush, wave from the White House. The relationship between the world's sole superpower
United States and the emerging superpower status of the PRC is closely watched by
international observers.
The Karakoram Highway connecting China and Pakistan is an example of China's

international development involvements.
Main article: Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China
The PRC maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world. In 1971, the
PRC replaced the Republic of China, commonly known as "Taiwan" since the 1970s, as
the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent
members of the United Nations Security Council.[17] China was represented by the
Republic of China at the time of the UN's founding in 1945. (See China and the United
Nations). The PRC was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Under the One-China policy, the PRC has made it a precondition to establishing
diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and sever
any official ties with the Republic of China (ROC) government. The government actively
opposes foreign travels by former and present ROC officials, such as Lee Teng-hui and
Chen Shui-bian, and other people it sees as politically dangerous, such as the current
Dalai Lama of Tibet.
The PRC has been playing a leading role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts
amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, the PRC proposed an entirely new East Asia
Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues that pointedly excluded
the United States.[18] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and
New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founder and member of
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), alongside Russia and the Central Asian
republics.
Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of China's peaceful rise.
Nonetheless, crises in relations with foreign countries have occurred at various times in
its recent history, particularly with the United States; e.g., the U.S. bombing of the
Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict in May 1999 and the Hainan
Island incident in April 2001. China's foreign relations with many Western nations
suffered for a time following the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989. A much troubled
foreign relationship is that between China and Japan, which has been strained at times by
Japan's refusal to acknowledge its war-time past to the satisfaction of the PRC, such as
revisionistic comments made by prominent Japanese officials, and insufficient details
given to the Nanjing Massacre and other atrocities committed during World War II in
Japanese history textbooks. Another point of conflict between the two countries is the
frequent visits by Japanese government officials to the Yasukuni Shrine, which honors
not only Japanese World War II dead but also many convicted World War II war
criminals, including 14 Class A convictions.
[edit] International disputes
The PRC is in a number of international territorial disputes, several of which involved the
Sino-Russian border. China's territorial disputes have led to several localized wars in the
last 50 years, including the Sino-Indian War in 1962, the Sino-Soviet border conflict in
1969 and the Sino-Vietnam War in 1979. In 2001, the PRC and Russia signed the Treaty
of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, [19] which paved the way in 2004 for
Russia to transfer Yinlong Island as well as one half of Heixiazi Island to China, ending a
long-standing border dispute between Russia and China. Other territorial disputes include
islands in the East and South China Seas, and undefined or disputed borders with India,
Tajikstan and North Korea.
[edit] Territorial disputes
The following territories are claimed by both China and one or more other countries:
• Taiwan (with Republic of China)

• Diaoyu Islands (with Japan)
• Nansha Archipelago (with Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines)
• Xisha Archipelago (with Republic of China and Vietnam)
• South Tibet - parts of Arunachal Pradesh (with India)
• Aksai Chin - part of Kashmir's Ladakh plateau (with India; however Pakistan has
accepted an unmarked boundary and recognised China's governance of the area).
[edit] International organization participation
AfDB, APEC, AsDB, BIS, CDB (non-regional), ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD,
ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime
Organization, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, ITUC, LAIA (observer),
MINURSO, NAM (observer), OPCW, PCA, United Nations, UN Security Council,
UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNTSO,
UNU, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee
[edit] See also
• Chinese democracy movement

• Politics of the Republic of China
• Politics of Hong Kong
• Politics of Macau
• Chinese Socialist Democracy
[edit] References
This article contains Chinese text. Without
proper rendering support, you may see question
marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese
characters.
1. ^ http://www.china.org.cn/english/chuangye/55414.htm National People's Congress

system overview on China.org.cn
2. ^ Pitfalls of Modernization 现代化的陷阱 by He Qinglian published in PRC 1996, never
translated.
3. ^ Yang, Dali. Remaking the Chinese Leviathan, Stanford University Press, 2004.
4. ^ Boum, Aomar (1999). Journal of Political Ecology: Case Studies in History and
Society. Retrieved April 18, 2006.
5. ^ Part I of summary of Zhou Tianyong's 2004 book Reform of the Chinese Political
System Accessed February 7, 2007.
6. ^ Part II of summary of Zhou Tianyong's 2004 book Reform of the Chinese Political
System Accessed February 7, 2007.
7. ^ Bajoria, Jayshree. "Backgrounder: The Communist Party of China". Council on
Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/publication/14482/. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
8. ^ a b Pu Xingzu, Chapter 11, The State Military System in "The Political System of the
People's Republic of China",(Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Zhengzhi Zhidu) Chief
Editor Pu Xingzu, Shanghai, 2005, Shanghai People’s Publishing House. ISBN 7-208-
05566-1
9. ^ "Beijingers get greater poll choices", China Daily, December 12, 2003
10. ^ "Does China’s Land-Tenure System Discourage Structural Adjustment?", Lohmar &
Somwaru, USDA Economic Research Service, 1 May 2006. Accessed 3 May 2006.
11. ^ China sounds alarm over fast-growing gap between rich and poor. Retrieved April 16,
2006.
12. ^ Beijingers get greater poll choices, China Daily, December 8, 2003
13. ^ "HKU POP SITE releases the latest ratings of the top 10 political figures in Mainland
China and Taiwan as well as people's appraisal of past Chinese leaders". 4 April 2006.
HKU POP. Accessed 3 May 2006.
14. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html CIA - The
World Factbook -- China, retrieved December 12, 2007.
15. ^ 中国教育报
16. ^ 错误信息
17. ^ Eddy Chang (Aug 22, 2004). Perseverance will pay off at the UN, The Taipei Times,
August 22, 2004
18. ^ Dillon, Dana and John Tkacik Jr, "China’s Quest for Asia", Policy Review, December
2005 and January 2006, Issue No. 134. Accessed 22 April 2006.
19. ^ Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation (March 21, 2006). Retrieved
April 16, 2006.
• The Central Chinese Government's Official Web Portal

• Government of China by chinawikipedia.com
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China
• Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States
• Chinese Legislative Information Network System full text search of English
translations of hundreds of PRC laws and regulations
• PRC government new items in English from PRC government official website
• Chinaview from the Xinhua News Agency
• People's Daily Online in English
• PLA Daily English news
• China Daily in English
• Inside China's Ruling Party (BBC)
• Is China really a Communist state? (CNN)
• New York Times article of September 5, 2002 on Succession of Rule in China
• Chinese Officials Lighten Up Under Pressure (China Today)
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Politics of the United States

challenged and removed. (October 2008)
United States

the United States
Federal government[show]
Legislature[show]
Presidency[show]
Judiciary[show]
Elections[show]
Political parties[show]
Subdivisions[show]
Other countries · Atlas
US Government Portal
The United States is a presidential, federal republic, in which the President of the United
States (the head of state and head of government), Congress, and judiciary share powers
reserved to the national government, and the federal government shares sovereignty with
the state governments. Federal and state elections generally take place within a two-party
system, although this is not enshrined in law.
The executive branch is headed by President and is independent of the legislature.

Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of
Representatives. The judicial branch (or judiciary), composed of the Supreme Court and
lower federal courts, exercises judicial power (or judiciary). The judiciary's function is to
interpret the United States Constitution and federal laws and regulations. This includes
resolving disputes between the executive and legislative branches. The federal
government of the United States was established by the Constitution. Two parties, the
Democratic Party and the Republican Party, have dominated American politics since the
American Civil War, although other parties have also existed.
There are major differences between the political system of the United States and that of
most other developed democracies. These include increased power of the upper house of
the legislature, a wider scope of power held by the Supreme Court, the separation of
powers between the legislature and the executive, and the dominance of only two main
parties. The United States is one of the world's developed democracies where third
parties have the least political influence.
The federal entity created by the Constitution is the dominant feature of the American
governmental system. However, some people are also subject to a state government, and
all are subject to various units of local government. The latter include counties,
municipalities, and special districts.
This multiplicity of jurisdictions reflects the country's history. The federal government
was created by the states, which as colonies were established separately and governed
themselves independently of the others. Units of local government were created by the
colonies to efficiently carry out various state functions. As the country expanded, it
admitted new states modeled on the existing ones.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 State government
o 1.1 Local government
o 1.2 County government
o 1.3 Town and village government
• 2 Campaign finance
• 3 Political culture
o 4.1 Political parties
o 4.2 Elections
o 4.3 Organization of American political parties
• 5 Political pressure groups
o 5.1 General developments
o 5.2 Development of the two-party system in the United States
o 5.3 Political spectrum of the two major parties
• 6 See also
• 7 Bibliography
• 8 References
[edit] State government
States governments have the power to make laws on all subjects that are not granted to
the federal government or denied to the states in the U.S. Constitution. These include
education, family law, contract law, and most crimes. Unlike the federal government,
which only has those powers granted to it in the Constitution, a state government has
inherent powers allowing it to act unless limited by a provision of the state or national
constitution.
Like the federal government, state governments have three branches: executive,
legislative, and judicial. The chief executive of a state is its popularly elected governor,
who typically holds office for a four-year term (although in a some states the term is two
years). Except for Nebraska, which has unicameral legislature, all states have a bicameral
legislature, with the upper house usually called the Senate and the lower house called the
House of Representatives, the House of Delegates, Assembly or something similar. In
most states, senators serve four-year terms, and members of the lower house serve two-
year terms.
The constitutions of the various states differ in some details but generally follow a pattern
similar to that of the federal Constitution, including a statement of the rights of the people
and a plan for organizing the government. State constitutions are generally more detailed,
however.
[edit] Local government
There are 89,500 local governments, including 3,033 counties, 19,492 municipalities,
16,500 townships, 13,000 school districts, and 37,000 other special districts that deal with
issues like fire protection.[1] To a greater extent than on the federal or state level, the local
governments directly serve the needs of the people, providing everything from police and
fire protection to sanitary codes, health regulations, education, public transportation, and
housing.
About 28% of the people live in cities of 100,000 or more population. City governments
are chartered by states, and their charters detail the objectives and powers of the
municipal government. For most big cities, cooperation with both state and federal
organizations is essential to meeting the needs of their residents.
Types of city governments vary widely across the nation. However, almost all have a
central council, elected by the voters, and an executive officer, assisted by various
department heads, to manage the city's affairs.
There are three general types of city government: the mayor-council, the commission,
and the council-manager. These are the pure forms; many cities have developed a
combination of two or three of them.
Mayor-Council. This is the oldest form of city government in the United States and,
until the beginning of the 20th century, was used by nearly all American cities. Its
structure is like that of the state and national governments, with an elected mayor as chief
of the executive branch and an elected council that represents the various neighborhoods
forming the legislative branch. The mayor appoints heads of city departments and other
officials, sometimes with the approval of the council. He or she has the power of veto
over ordinances (the laws of the city) and often is responsible for preparing the city's
budget. The council passes city ordinances, sets the tax rate on property, and apportions
money among the various city departments. As cities have grown, council seats have
usually come to represent more than a single neighborhood.
The Commission. This combines both the legislative and executive functions in one
group of officials, usually three or more in number, elected city-wide. Each
commissioner supervises the work of one or more city departments. One is named
chairperson of the body and is often called the mayor, although his or her power is
equivalent to that of the other commissioners.
Council-Manager. The city manager is a response to the increasing complexity of urban

problems that need management ability not often possessed by elected public officials.
The answer has been to entrust most of the executive powers, including law enforcement
and provision of services, to a highly trained and experienced professional city manager.
The city manager plan has been adopted by a large number of cities. Under this plan, a
small, elected council makes the city ordinances and sets policy, but hires a paid
administrator, also called a city manager, to carry out its decisions. The manager draws
up the city budget and supervises most of the departments. Usually, there is no set term;
the manager serves as long as the council is satisfied with his or her work.
[edit] County government
The county is a subdivision of the state, sometimes (but not always) containing two or
more townships and several villages. New York City is so large that it is divided into five
separate boroughs, each a county in its own right. On the other hand, Arlington County,
Virginia, the United States' smallest county, located just across the Potomac River from
Washington, D.C., is both an urbanized and suburban area, governed by a unitary county
administration. In other cities, both the city and county governments have merged,
creating a consolidated city–county government.
In most U.S. counties, one town or city is designated as the county seat, and this is where
the government offices are located and where the board of commissioners or supervisors
meets. In small counties, boards are chosen by the county; in the larger ones, supervisors
represent separate districts or townships. The board collects taxes for state and local
governments; borrows and appropriates money; fixes the salaries of county employees;
supervises elections; builds and maintains highways and bridges; and administers
national, state, and county welfare programs. In very small counties, the executive and
legislative power may lie entirely with a sole commissioner, who is assisted by boards to
supervise taxes and elections. In some New England states, counties do not have any
governmental function and are simply a division of land.
[edit] Town and village government
Thousands of municipal jurisdictions are too small to qualify as city governments. These
are chartered as towns and villages and deal with such strictly local needs as paving and
lighting the streets, ensuring a water supply, providing police and fire protection and
waste management. Note that in many states, the term "town" does not have any specific
meaning; it is simply an informal term applied to populated places (both incorporated and
unincorporated municipalities). Moreover, in some states, the term town is equivalent to
how civil townships are used in other states.
The government is usually entrusted to an elected board or council, which may be known
by a variety of names: town or village council, board of selectmen, board of supervisors,
board of commissioners. The board may have a chairperson or president who functions as
chief executive officer, or there may be an elected mayor. Governmental employees may
include a clerk, treasurer, police and fire officers, and health and welfare officers.
One unique aspect of local government, found mostly in the New England region of the
United States, is the town meeting. Once a year, sometimes more often if needed, the
registered voters of the town meet in open session to elect officers, debate local issues,
and pass laws for operating the government. As a body, they decide on road construction
and repair, construction of public buildings and facilities, tax rates, and the town budget.
The town meeting, which has existed for more than three centuries in some places, is
often cited as the purest form of direct democracy, in which the governmental power is
not delegated, but is exercised directly and regularly by all the people.
Suffrage
Main article: Voting rights in the United States
Suffrage is nearly universal for citizens 18 years of age and older. All 50 states and the
District of Columbia contribute to the electoral vote for President. However, the District,
and other U.S. holdings like Puerto Rico and Guam, lack the states' representation in
Congress. These constituencies do not have the right to choose any political figure
outside their respective areas. Each commonwealth, territory, or district can only elect a
non-voting delegate to serve in the House of Representatives.
Voting rights are sometimes restricted as a result of felony conviction, but such laws vary
widely by state. Election of the president is an indirect suffrage: Voters vote for electors,
who in turn vote for President. In theory, these electors vote as they please, but in modern
practice, they do not vote against the wishes of their constituencies (though they have
abstained from voting in protest).
[edit] Campaign finance

This section needs additional citations for verification.
Main article: Campaign finance in the United States
Successful participation, especially in federal elections, requires large amounts of money,

especially for television advertising[citation needed]. This money is very difficult to raise by
appeals to a mass base[citation needed], although in the 2008 election, candidates from both
parties had success with raising money from citizens over the Internet.[citation needed], as had
Howard Dean with his Internet appeals. Both parties generally depend on wealthy donors
and organizations - traditionally the Democrats depended on donations from organized
labor while the Republicans relied on business donations[citation needed]. Since 1984, however,
the Democrats' business donations have surpassed those from labor organizations[citation
needed]
. This dependency on donors is controversial, and has led to laws limiting spending
on political campaigns being enacted (see campaign finance reform). Opponents of
campaign finance laws cite the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech, and
challenge campaign finance laws because they attempt to circumvent the people's
constitutionally guaranteed rights. Even when laws are upheld, the complication of
compliance with the First Amendment requires careful and cautious drafting of
legislation, leading to laws that are still fairly limited in scope, especially in comparison
to those of other countries such as the United Kingdom, France or Canada.
[edit] Political culture
Most schools in the United States teach the Declaration of Independence, the
Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and writings of the Founding Fathers as the definition of
the country's governing ideology. Among the core tenets of this ideology are the
following:
• Democracy: The government is answerable to citizens, who may change it

through elections.
• Equality before the law: The laws should attach no special privilege to any
citizen. Government officials are subject to the law just as others are
• Freedom of religion and separation of church and state: The government can
neither support nor suppress religion.
• Freedom of speech: A marketplace of ideas.
At the time of the United States' founding, the economy was predominantly one of
agriculture and small private businesses, and state governments left welfare issues to
private or local initiative. As in the UK and other industrialized countries, laissez-faire
ideology was largely discredited during the Great Depression. Between the 1930s and
1970s, fiscal policy was characterized by the Keynesian consensus, a time during which
modern American liberalism dominated economic policy virtually unchallenged.[2][3]
Since the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, laissez-faire ideology has once more
become a powerful force in American politics.[4] While the American welfare state
expanded more than threefold after WWII, it has been at 20% of GDP since the late
1970s.[5][6] Today, modern American liberalism, and modern American conservatism are
engaged in a continuous political battle, characterized by what the Economist describes
as "greater divisiveness [and] close, but bitterly fought elections."[7]
Before World War II, the United States pursued a noninterventionist policy of in foreign
affairs by not taking sides in conflicts between foreign powers. The country abandoned
this policy when it became a superpower, and the country mostly supports
internationalism.
The United States Constitution is silent on political organizations, mainly because most
of the founding fathers disliked them. Yet, major and minor political parties and groups
soon arose.
In partisan elections, candidates are nominated by a political party or seek public office
as an independent. Each state has significant discretion in deciding how candidates are
nominated, and thus eligible to appear on the election ballot. Typically, major party
candidates are formally chosen in a party primary or convention, whereas minor party
and Independents are required to complete a petitioning process.
Registered Democrats, Republicans and independents in millions as of 2004.[8]
[edit] Political parties
Main article: Political parties in the United States
The modern political party system in the United States is a two-party system dominated
by the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. These two parties have won every
United States presidential election since 1852 and have controlled the United States
Congress since at least 1856. Several other third parties from time to time achieve
relatively minor representation at the national and state levels.
[edit] Elections
For other political parties see List of political parties in the United States. An overview
on elections and election results is included in Elections in the United States.
[edit] Organization of American political parties
See also: Political party strength in U.S. states
American political parties are more loosely organized than those in other countries. The
two major parties, in particular, have no formal organization at the national level that
controls membership, activities, or policy positions, though some state affiliates do. Thus,
for an American to say that he or she is a member of the Democratic or Republican party,
is quite different from a Briton's stating that he or she is a member of the Labour party. In
the United States, one can often become a "member" of a party, merely by stating that
fact. In some U.S. states, a voter can register as a member of one or another party and/or
vote in the primary election for one or another party. Such participation does not restrict
one's choices in any way. It also does not give a person any particular rights or
obligations within the party, other than possibly allowing that person to vote in that
party's primary elections. A person may choose to attend meetings of one local party
committee one day and another party committee the next day. The sole factor that brings
one "closer to the action" is the quantity and quality of participation in party activities and
the ability to persuade others in attendance to give one responsibility.
Party identification becomes somewhat formalized when a person runs for partisan office.
In most states, this means declaring oneself a candidate for the nomination of a particular
party and intent to enter that party's primary election for an office. A party committee
may choose to endorse one or another of those who is seeking the nomination, but in the
end the choice is up to those who choose to vote in the primary, and it is often difficult to
tell who is going to do the voting.
The result is that American political parties have weak central organizations and little
central ideology, except by consensus. A party really cannot prevent a person who
disagrees with the majority of positions of the party or actively works against the party's
aims from claiming party membership, so long as the voters who choose to vote in the
primary elections elect that person. Once in office, an elected official may change parties
simply by declaring such intent.
At the federal level, each of the two major parties has a national committee (See,
Democratic National Committee, Republican National Committee) that acts as the hub
for much fund-raising and campaign activities, particularly in presidential campaigns.
The exact composition of these committees is different for each party, but they are made
up primarily of representatives from state parties and affiliated organizations, and others
important to the party. However, the national committees do not have the power to direct
the activities of members of the party.
When a party controls the White House, the President is party leader and controls the
national committee. Otherwise, the leadership is diffuse.
Both parties also have separate campaign committees which work to elect candidates at a
specific level. The most significant of these are the Hill committees, which work to elect
candidates to each house of Congress.
State parties exist in all fifty states, though their structures differ according to state law,
as well as party rules at both the national and the state level.
[edit] Political pressure groups

See also: Advocacy group
Special interest groups advocate the cause of their specific constituency. Business
organizations will favor low corporate taxes and restrictions of the right to strike, whereas
labor unions will support minimum wage legislation and protection for collective
bargaining. Other private interest groups, such as churches and ethnic groups, are more
concerned about broader issues of policy that can affect their organizations or their
beliefs.
One type of private interest group that has grown in number and influence in recent years
is the political action committee or PAC. These are independent groups, organized
around a single issue or set of issues, which contribute money to political campaigns for
U.S. Congress or the presidency. PACs are limited in the amounts they can contribute
directly to candidates in federal elections. There are no restrictions, however, on the
amounts PACs can spend independently to advocate a point of view or to urge the
election of candidates to office. PACs today number in the thousands.
"The number of interest groups has mushroomed, with more and more of them operating
offices in Washington, D.C., and representing themselves directly to Congress and
federal agencies," says Michael Schudson in his 1998 book The Good Citizen: A History
of American Civic Life. "Many organizations that keep an eye on Washington seek
financial and moral support from ordinary citizens. Since many of them focus on a
narrow set of concerns or even on a single issue, and often a single issue of enormous
emotional weight, they compete with the parties for citizens' dollars, time, and passion."
The amount of money spent by these special interests continues to grow, as campaigns
become increasingly expensive. Many Americans have the feeling that these wealthy
interests, whether corporations, unions or PACs, are so powerful that ordinary citizens
can do little to counteract their influences.
A survey of members of the American Economic Association find the vast majority
regardless of political affiliation to be discontent with the current state of democracy in
America. The primary concern relates to the prevalence and influence of special interest
groups within the political process, which tends to lead to policy consequences that only
benefit such special interest groups and politicians. Some conjecture that maintenance of
the policy status quo and hesitance to stray from it perpetuates a political environment
that fails to advance society's welfare.[9]
[edit] General developments
See also: History of the United States Republican Party and History of the United States
Democratic Party
Many of America's Founding Fathers hated the thought of political parties. They were
sure quarreling factions would be more interested in contending with each other than in
working for the common good. They wanted citizens to vote for candidates without the
interference of organized groups, but this was not to be.
By the 1790s, different views of the new country's proper course had already developed,
and those who held these opposing views tried to win support for their cause by banding
together. The followers of Alexander Hamilton, the Hamiltonian faction, took up the
name "Federalist"; they favored a strong central government that would support the
interests of commerce and industry. The followers of Thomas Jefferson, the Jeffersonians
and then the "Anti-Federalists," took up the name "Democratic-Republicans"; they
preferred a decentralized agrarian republic in which the federal government had limited
power. By 1828, the Federalists had disappeared as an organization, replaced by the
Whigs, brought to life in opposition to the election that year of President Andrew
Jackson. Jackson's presidency split the Democratic-Republican Party: Jacksonians
became the Democratic Party and those following the leadership of John Quincy Adams
became the "National Republicans." The two-party system, still in existence today, was
born. (Note: The National Republicans of John Quincy Adams is not the same party as
today's Republican Party.)
In the 1850s, the issue of slavery took center stage, with disagreement in particular over
the question of whether slavery should be permitted in the country's new territories in the
West. The Whig Party straddled the issue and sank to its death after the overwhelming
electoral defeat by Franklin Pierce in 1852 presidential election. Ex-Whigs joined the
Know Nothings or the newly formed Republican Party. While the Know Nothing party
was short-lived, Republicans would survive the intense politics leading up to the Civil
War. The primary Republican policy was that slavery be excluded from all the territories.
Just six years later, this new party captured the presidency when Abraham Lincoln won
the election of 1860. By then, parties were well established as the country's dominant
political organizations, and party allegiance had become an important part of most
people's consciousness. Party loyalty was passed from fathers to sons, and party
activities, including spectacular campaign events, complete with uniformed marching
groups and torchlight parades, were a part of the social life of many communities.
By the 1920s, however, this boisterous folksiness had diminished. Municipal reforms,
civil service reform, corrupt practices acts, and presidential primaries to replace the
power of politicians at national conventions had all helped to clean up politics.
[edit] Development of the two-party system in the United States
This section needs additional citations for verification.

Since the 1790s, the country has been run by two major parties. The United States does
not have a parliamentary system, in which governing coalitions are formed after
elections, so coalitions are formed before elections under the umbrella of the party
organizations. In the absence of a parliamentary system, third parties cannot thrive. Since
the Civil War, the two major parties have been called the Republican and Democratic
parties. Many minor or third political parties appear from time to time. They tend to serve
a means to advocate policies that eventually are adopted by the two major political
parties. At various times the Socialist Party, the Farmer-Labor Party and the Populist
Party for a few years had considerable local strength, and then faded away. At present,
the Libertarian Party is the most successful third party.
Most officials in America are elected from single-member districts and win office by
beating out their opponents in a system for determining winners called first-past-the-post;
the one who gets the plurality wins, (which is not the same thing as actually getting a
majority of votes). This encourages the two-party system; see Duverger's law.
Another critical factor has been ballot access law. Originally, voters went to the polls and
publicly stated which candidate they supported. Later on, this developed into a process
whereby each political party would create its own ballot and thus the voter would put the
party's ballot into the voting box. In the late nineteenth century, states began to adopt the
Australian Secret Ballot Method, and it eventually became the national standard. The
secret ballot method ensured that the privacy of voters would be protected (hence
government jobs could no longer be awarded to loyal voters) and each state would be
responsible for creating one official ballot. The fact that state legislatures were dominated
by Democrats and Republicans provided these parties an opportunity to pass
discriminatory laws against minor political parties, yet such laws did not start to arise
until the first Red Scare that hit America after World War I. State legislatures began to
enact tough laws that made it harder for minor political parties to run candidates for
office by requiring a high number of petition signatures from citizens and decreasing the
length of time that such a petition could legally be circulated.
It should also be noted that while the overwhelming majority of elected officials do
identify with a political party, the political parties of the United States are much more
individualistic than in other political systems (i.e. in a parliamentary system). More often
than not, party members will "toe the line" and support their party's policies, but it is
important to note that they are free to vote against their own party and vote with the
opposition ("cross the aisle") when they please.
"In America the same political labels (Democratic and Republican) cover virtually all
public officeholders, and therefore most voters are everywhere mobilized in the name of
these two parties," says Nelson W. Polsby, professor of political science, in the book New
Federalist Papers: Essays in Defense of the Constitution. "Yet Democrats and
Republicans are not everywhere the same. Variations (sometimes subtle, sometimes
blatant) in the 50 political cultures of the states yield considerable differences overall in
what it means to be, or to vote, Democratic or Republican. These differences suggest that
one may be justified in referring to the American two-party system as masking something
more like a hundred-party system."
[edit] Political spectrum of the two major parties
This section does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (January 2009)
During the 20th century, the overall political philosophy of both the Republican Party and
the Democratic Party underwent a dramatic shift from their earlier philosophies. From the
1860s to the 1950s the Republican Party was considered to be the more classically liberal
of the two major parties and the Democratic Party the more classically
conservative/populist of the two.
This changed a great deal with the presidency of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose
New Deal included the founding of Social Security as well as a variety of other federal
services and public works projects. Roosevelt's success in the twin crises of the
Depression and World War II led to a sort of polarization in national politics, centered
around him; this combined with his increasingly liberal policies to turn FDR's Democrats
to the left and the Republican Party further to the right.
During the 1950s and the early 1960s, both parties essentially expressed a more centrist
approach to politics on the national level and had their liberal, moderate, and
conservative wings influential within both parties.
From the early 1960s, the conservative wing became more dominant in the Republican
Party, and the liberal wing became more dominant in the Democratic Party. The 1964
presidential election heralded the rise of the conservative wing among Republicans. The
liberal and conservative wings within the Democratic Party were competitive until 1972,
when George McGovern's candidacy marked the triumph of the liberal wing. This
similarly happened in the Republican Party with the candidacy and later landslide
election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, which marked the triumph of the conservative wing.
By the 1980 election, each major party had largely become identified by its dominant
political orientation. Strong showings in the 1990s by reformist independent Ross Perot
pushed the major parties to put forth more centrist presidential candidates, like Bill
Clinton and Bob Dole. Polarization in Congress was said by some[who?] to have been
cemented by the Republican takeover of 1994. Others say that this polarization had
existed since the late 1980s when the Democrats controlled both houses of Congress.
Liberals within the Republican Party and conservatives within the Democratic Party and
the Democratic Leadership Council neoliberals have typically fulfilled the roles of so-
called political mavericks, radical centrists, or brokers of compromise between the two
major parties. They have also helped their respective parties gain in certain regions that
might not ordinarily elect a member of that party; the Republican Party has used this
approach with centrist Republicans such as Rudy Giuliani, George Pataki, Richard
Riordan and Arnold Schwarzenegger. The 2006 elections sent many centrist or
conservative Democrats to state and federal legislatures including several, notably in
Kansas and Montana, who switched parties.
[edit] See also
• Federal government of the United States

• International Politics of the United States
• Law of the United States
• List of famous American sports figures who became politicians
• Political arguments of gun politics in the United States
• Political divisions of the United States
• Political ideologies in the United States
o List of political parties in the United States
 American Nazi Party
 American Third Position Party
 Communist Party USA
 Constitution Party
 Democratic Party
 Green Party
 Modern Whig Party
 Libertarian Party
 Reform Party
 Republican Party
 Socialist Party USA
• Politics of the Southern United States
• Tea Party movement
[edit] Bibliography
• "AlterNet: It's time to recognize America's huge progressive majority".

http://www.alternet.org/story/54409/. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
• Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen. The Almanac of American Politics, 2006
(2005) 1920 pages covers every member of Congress and governor in depth.
• Michael Crane, ed. The Political Junkie Handbook (2004)
• George C. Edwards, Martin P. Wattenberg, and Robert L. Lineberry. Government
in America: People, Politics, and Policy (12th Edition, 2005)
• Robert Eisinger, Ph.D., The Evolution of Presidential Polling, Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
• Marjorie R. Hershey. Party Politics in America (12th Edition, 2006)
• Marc J. Hetherington and William J. Keefe. Parties, Politics, And Public Policy
in America (10th edition, 2006)
• L. Sandy Maisel, ed. Political Parties and Elections in the United States: an
Encyclopedia 2 vol (Garland, 1991). (ISBN 0-8240-7975-2)
• L. Sandy Maisel, American Political Parties and Elections: A Very Short
Introduction (2007), 144 pp
• Karen O'Connor and Larry J. Sabato. American Government: Continuity and
Change (8th Edition, 2006)
• "Welcome to the Campaign for America's Future".
http://home.ourfuture.org/reports/20070612_theprogressivemajority/. Retrieved
2007-06-18.
• James Q. Wilson and John J. Diiulio. American Government: Institutions and
Policies (8th ed. 2000)
[edit] References
1. ^ Statistical Abstract: 2010 p. 416.

2. ^ Weeks, J. (2007). Inequality Trends in Some Developed OECD Countries. In J. K.S. &
J. Baudot (Eds.) Flat world, big gaps: Economic liberalization, globalization, poverty &
inequality (159-176). New York: Zed Books.
3. ^ "Thomas, E. (March 10, 2008). He knew he was right. Newsweek.".
http://www.newsweek.com/id/117854/page/1. Retrieved 2008-04-19.
4. ^ Clark, B. (1998). Political economy: A comparative approach. Westport, CT: Preager.
5. ^ Alber, J. (1988). Is There a crisis of the welfare state? Cross-national evidence from
Europe, North America, and Japan. European Sociological Review, 4(3), 181-207.
6. ^ Barr, N. (2004). Economics of the welfare state. New York: Oxford University Press
(USA).
7. ^ "Economist Intelligence Unit. (July 11, 2007). United States: Political Forces.".
http://www.economist.com/Countries/USA/profile.cfm?folder=Profile%2DPolitical
%20Forces. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
8. ^ "Neuhart, P. (22 January, 2004). Why politics is fun from catbirds' seats. USA Today.".
http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/columnist/neuharth/2004-01-22-neuharth_x.htm.
9. ^ Davis, William L., and Bob Figgins. 2009. Do Economists Believe American
Democracy Is Working? Econ Journal Watch 6(2): 195-202. [1]
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Politics of Canada
(Redirected from Politics of canada)

This article is about national politics in Canada. For provincial politics, see Provinces
and territories of Canada. For municipal politics, see Municipal government in Canada.
challenged and removed. (May 2007)
Canada

Canada
Executive (The Crown)[show]

Legislative (Parliament)[show]
Elections[show]
Judicial[show]
Provinces and territories[show]
General[show]
· Atlas
Other countries
Politics portal
The politics of Canada function within a framework of constitutional monarchy and a

federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Many of
the country's legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of and
precedents set by the United Kingdom's Westminster Parliament. However, Canada has
evolved variations: party discipline in Canada is stronger than in the United Kingdom,
and more parliamentary votes are considered motions of confidence, which tends to
diminish the role of non-Cabinet Members of Parliament (MPs). Such members, in the
government caucus, and junior or lower-profile members of opposition caucuses, are
known as backbenchers. Backbenchers can, however, exert their influence by sitting in
parliamentary committees, like the Public Accounts Committee or the National Defence
Committee.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Context
• 2 Summary of governmental organization
o 2.1 Monarchy
o 2.2 Executive power
o 2.3 Legislative power
o 2.4 Majority and minority governments
• 3 Federal-provincial relations
o 3.1 Quebec and Canadian politics
• 4 National unity
• 5 Political conditions
o 5.1 Party funding reform
• 6 Elections
o 6.1 Political parties, leaders, and status
o 6.2 Realignment
• 7 Judiciary
• 8 Government departments and structure
o 8.1 Crown corporations and other government agencies
• 9 See also
• 10 References
[edit] Context
BC
AB
SK
MB
ON
QC
NB
PE
NS
NL
YT
NT
NU
Canada's governmental structure was originally established by the British parliament
through the British North America Act (now known as the Constitution Act, 1867),[1] but
the federal model and division of powers were devised by Canadian politicians.
Particularly after World War I, citizens of the self-governing Dominions, such as Canada,
began to develop a strong sense of identity, and, in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the
British government expressed its intent to grant full autonomy to these regions.
Thus in 1931, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster, giving legal
recognition to the autonomy of Canada and other Dominions. Following this, Canadian
politicians were unable to obtain consensus on a process for amending the constitution
until 1982, meaning amendments to Canada's constitution continued to require the
approval of the British parliament until that date. Similarly, the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council in Britain continued to make the final decision on criminal appeals until
1933 and on civil appeals until 1949.[2]
[edit] Summary of governmental organization

Main article: Government of Canada
Name
Canada (for conventional and legal use; "Dominion of Canada" remains legal but
rarely used)
Further information: Canada's name
Type of government
Westminster style federal parliamentary democracy within a constitutional
monarchy.
Capital
Ottawa, Ontario.
Administrative divisions
Ten provinces and three territories*: Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New
Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia,
Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon*.
National holiday
Canada Day, July 1.
Constitution
Westminster system, based on unwritten conventions and written legislation.
Legal system
English common law for all matters within federal jurisdiction and in all
provinces and territories except Quebec, which is based on the civil law, based on
the Custom of Paris in pre-revolutionary France as set out in the Civil Code of
Quebec; accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction, with
reservations.
Further information: Law of Canada
Suffrage
Citizens aged 18 years or older. Only two adult citizens in Canada cannot vote:
the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer. The Governor
General is eligible to vote, but abstains due to constitutional convention.
Participation in international organizations
ABEDA, ACCT, ACS (observer), AfDB, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C,
CCC, CDB (non-regional), Council of Europe (observer), Commonwealth of
Nations, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, ESA (cooperating state), FAO, La
Francophonie, G-8, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICJ, ICFTU,
ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat,
Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, Kyoto Protocol, MINURCA, MINURSO,
MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), NAFTA, NATO, NEA, NORAD North
American Aerospace Defense Command, NORTHCOM, NSG, OAS, OECD,
OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UN Security Council (prior/temporary), UNCTAD,
UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH,
UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO,
WIPO, WMO, WTO, Zangger Committee.
Description of national flag
A red maple leaf centred on a Canadian pale: three vertical bands of red (hoist
side), white (double width, square), and red, with a length twice that of its height.
Further information: Flag of Canada
[edit] Monarchy
Head of state
Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada (since February 6, 1952).
Viceroy
Michaëlle Jean, Governor General of Canada (since September 27, 2005).
[edit] Executive power
Head of government
Prime Minister Stephen Harper (since February 6, 2006).
Cabinet
Ministers (usually around thirty) chosen by the Prime Minister and appointed by
the Governor General to lead various ministries and agencies, generally with
regional representation. Traditionally most, if not all, cabinet ministers will be
members of the leader's own party in the House of Commons (see Cabinet of
Canada); however this is not legally or constitutionally mandated, and
occasionally the Prime Minister will appoint a cabinet minister from another
party.
Elections
The monarchy is hereditary. The Governor General is appointed by the monarch
on the advice of the Prime Minister for a non-specific term, though it is
traditionally approximately five years. Following legislative elections, the leader
of the majority party in the House of Commons is usually designated by the
Governor General to become Prime Minister.
Further information: Monarchy of Canada, Monarchy in the Canadian
provinces, Lieutenant-Governor (Canada), Premier (Canada), and Elections in Canada
[edit] Legislative power
The bicameral Parliament of Canada consists of three parts: the monarch, the Senate, and
the House of Commons.
Currently, the Senate, which is frequently described as providing "regional"

representation, has 105 members appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the
Prime Minister to serve until age 75. It was created with equal representation from each
of Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime region. However, it is currently the product of
various specific exceptions, additions and compromises, meaning that regional equality is
not observed, nor is representation-by-population. The normal number of senators can be
exceeded by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, as long as the additional
senators are distributed equally with regard to region (up to a total of eight additional
Senators). This power of additional appointment has only been used once, when Prime
Minister Brian Mulroney petitioned Queen Elizabeth II to add eight seats to the Senate so
as to ensure the passage of the Goods and Services Tax legislation.
The House of Commons currently has 308 members elected in single-member districts in
a plurality voting system (first past the post), meaning that members must attain only a
plurality (the most votes of any candidate) rather than a majority (50 percent plus one).
The electoral districts are also known as ridings.
Mandates cannot exceed five years; an election must occur by the end of this time. This
fixed mandate has been exceeded only once, when Prime Minister Robert Borden
perceived the need to do so during World War I. The size of the House and
apportionment of seats to each province is revised after every census, conducted every
five years, and is based on population changes and approximately on representation-by-
population.
[edit] Majority and minority governments
Canadians vote for their local Member of Parliament (MP) only. The party leaders are
elected prior to the general elections by party memberships. Parties elect their leaders in
run-off elections to ensure that the winner receives more than 50% of the votes. Normally
the party leader stands as a candidate to be an MP during an election.
The election of a local MP gives a seat to one of the several political parties. The party
that gets the most seats normally forms the government, with that party's leader becoming
prime minister. The Prime Minister is not directly elected by the general population,
although the Prime Minister is directly elected as an MP within his or her constituency.
Canada's parliamentary system empowers political parties and their party leaders. Where
one party gets a majority of the seats in the House of Commons, that party is said to have
a "majority government." Through party discipline, the party leader, who is only elected
in one riding, exercises a great deal of control over the cabinet and the parliament.
A minority government situation occurs when the party that holds the most seats in the
House of Commons still holds less than the opposition parties combined. In this scenario
a party leader is selected by the Governor General to lead the government, however, to
attempt to create stability, the person chosen must command the support of at least one
other party.
[edit] Federal-provincial relations
In Canada, the provinces are considered co-sovereign; sovereignty of the provinces is

passed on, not by the Governor General or the Canadian parliament, but through the
Crown itself. This means that the Crown is "divided" into eleven legal jurisdictions; into
eleven "Crowns" - one federal and ten provincial.
Federal-provincial (or intergovernmental, formerly Dominion-provincial) relations is a

regular issue in Canadian politics: Quebec wishes to preserve and strengthen its
distinctive nature, western provinces desire more control over their abundant natural
resources, especially energy reserves; industrialized Central Canada is concerned with its
manufacturing base, and the Atlantic provinces strive to escape from being less affluent
than the rest of the country.
In order to ensure that social programs such as health care and education are funded
consistently throughout Canada, the "have-not" (poorer) provinces receive a
proportionately greater share of federal "transfer (equalization) payments" than the richer,
or "have," provinces do; this has been somewhat controversial. The richer provinces often
favour freezing transfer payments, or rebalancing the system in their favour, based on the
claim that they already pay more in taxes than they receive in federal government
services, and the poorer provinces often favour an increase on the basis that the amount
of money they receive is not sufficient for their existing needs.
Particularly in the past decade, some scholars have argued that the federal government's
exercise of its unlimited constitutional spending power has contributed to strained
federal-provincial relations. This power, which allows the federal government to spend
the revenue it raises in any way that it pleases, allows it to overstep the constitutional
division of powers by creating programs that encroach on areas of provincial jurisdiction.
The federal spending power is found in s. 102 of the Constitution Act, 1867.
A prime example of an exercise of the spending power is the Canada Health Act, which
is a conditional grant of money to the provinces. Delivery of health services is, under the
Constitution, a provincial responsibility. However, by making the funding available to the
provinces under the Canada Health Act contingent upon delivery of services according to
federal standards, the federal government has the ability to influence health care delivery.
This spending power, coupled with Supreme Court rulings — such as Reference re
Canada Assistance Plan (B.C.) — that have held that funding delivered under the
spending power can be reduced unilaterally at any time, has contributed to strained
federal-provincial relations.
[edit] Quebec and Canadian politics
Except for three short-lived transitional or minority governments, prime ministers from
Quebec led Canada continuously from 1968 to early 2006. Quebecers led both Liberal
and Conservative governments in this period.
Monarchs, Governors General, and Prime Ministers are now expected to be at least
functional, if not fluent, in both English and French. In selecting leaders, political parties
give preference to candidates who are fluently bilingual.
Also, by law, judges from Quebec must hold three of the nine positions on the Supreme
Court of Canada. This representation makes sure that at least three judges have sufficient
experience with the civil law system to treat cases involving Quebec laws.
[edit] National unity
Canada has a long and storied history of secessionist movements (see Secessionist
movements of Canada). National unity has been a major issue in Canada since the forced
union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840.
The predominant and lingering issue concerning Canadian national unity has been the
ongoing conflict between the French-speaking majority in Quebec and the English-
speaking majority in the rest of Canada. Quebec's continued demands for recognition of
its "distinct society" through special political status has led to attempts for constitutional
reform, most notably with the failed attempts to amend the constitution through the
Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord (the latter of which was rejected
through a national referendum).
Since the Quiet Revolution, sovereigntist sentiments in Quebec have been variably stoked
by the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982 (without Quebec's consent) and by
the failed attempts at constitutional reform. Two provincial referendums, in 1980 and
1995, rejected proposals for sovereignty with majorities of 60% and 50.6% respectively.
Given the narrow federalist victory in 1995, a reference was made by the Chrétien
government to the Supreme Court of Canada in 1998 regarding the legality of unilateral
provincial secession. The court decided that a unilateral declaration of secession would
be unconstitutional. This resulted in the passage of the Clarity Act in 2000.
The Bloc Québécois, a sovereigntist party which runs candidates exclusively in Quebec,
was started by a group of MPs who left the Progressive Conservative (PC) party (along
with several disaffected Liberal MPs), and first put forward candidates in the 1993
federal election. With the collapse of the PCs in that election, the Bloc and Liberals were
seen as the only two viable parties in Quebec. Thus, prior to the 2006 election, any gain
by one party came at the expense of the other, regardless of whether national unity was
really at issue. The Bloc, then, benefited (with a significant increase in seat total) from
the impressions of corruption that surrounded the Liberal Party in the leadup to the 2004
election. However, the newly-unified Conservative party re-emerged as a viable party in
Quebec by winning 10 seats in the 2006 election, meaning that Quebecers' electoral
choices are now more complex.
Western alienation is another national-unity-related concept that enters into Canadian

politics. Residents of the four western provinces, particularly Alberta, have often been
unhappy with a lack of influence and a perceived lack of understanding when residents of
Central Canada consider "national" issues. While this is seen to play itself out through
many avenues (media, commerce, etc.), in politics, it has given rise to a number of
political parties whose base constituency is in western Canada. These include the United
Farmers of Alberta, who first won federal seats in 1917, the Progressives (1921), the
Social Credit Party (1935), the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (1935), the
Reconstruction Party (1935), New Democracy (1940) and most recently the Reform Party
(1989).
The Reform Party's slogan "The West Wants In" was echoed by commentators when,
after a successful merger with the PCs, the successor party to both parties, the
Conservative Party won the 2006 election. Led by Stephen Harper, who is an MP from
Alberta, the electoral victory was said to have made "The West IS In" a reality. However,
regardless of specific electoral successes or failures, the concept of western alienation
continues to be important in Canadian politics, particularly on a provincial level, where
opposing the federal government is a common tactic for provincial politicians. For
example, in 2001, a group of prominent Albertans produced the Alberta Agenda, urging
Alberta to take steps to make full use of its constitutional powers, much as Quebec has
done.
[edit] Political conditions
Canada is considered by most sources to be a very stable democracy. In 2006 The

Economist ranked Canada the third most democratic nation in its Democracy Index,
ahead of all other nations in the Americas and ahead of every nation more populous than
itself. In 2008, Canada was ranked World No. 11 and again ahead of all countries more
populous and No. 1 for the Americas. (In 2008, the U.S.A. was ranked World No. 18,
Uruguay World No. 23, and Costa Rica World No. 27.)
The Liberal Party of Canada, under the leadership of Paul Martin, won a minority victory
in the June 2004 general elections. In December 2003, Martin had succeeded fellow
Liberal Jean Chrétien, who had, in 2000, become the first Prime Minister to lead three
consecutive majority governments since 1945. However, in 2004 the Liberals lost seats in
Parliament, going from 172 of 301 Parliamentary seats to 135 of 308, and from 40.9% to
36.7% in the popular vote. The Canadian Alliance, which did well in western Canada in
the 2000 election, but was unable to make significant inroads in the East, merged with the
Progressive Conservative Party to form the Conservative Party of Canada in late 2003.
They proved to be moderately successful in the 2004 campaign, gaining seats from a
combined Alliance-PC total of 78 in 2000 to 99 in 2004. However, the new
Conservatives lost in popular vote, going from 37.7% in 2000 down to 29.6%. In 2006
the Conservatives, led by Stephen Harper, won a minority government with 124 seats.
They improved their percentage from 2004, garnering 36.3% of the vote. During this
election, the Conservatives also made major breakthroughs in Quebec. They gained 10
seats here, whereas in 2004 they had no seats.
This was the second minority government in Canada federally since 1979-1980. That
government, led by Joe Clark, lasted only seven months. The situation, however, was
different. The Clark government was elected in part because many voters did not want to
support the Liberal party, but they did not expect that the Progressive Conservatives
would win enough seats for a minority government.
Minority governments are not always short-lived. While they have not generally lasted
four years, there have been minority governments in the time before 1979 that were fairly
stable and able to pass legislation. Minority government situations in Canada may
become somewhat difficult to manage though, as in the past there were only three parties
that had a significant number of seats in parliament (fourth parties were at times
represented in small numbers), although the third party has changed over time. This
meant an alliance between the governing and third parties would have a solid majority.
Since the 1930s, the third party was usually the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
or later the New Democratic Party, which was created when an alliance was formed
between labour unions and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. The Social
Credit Party of Canada was the third party at times. Before this, there were other parties
that had significant influence; such as the Progressive Party in the 1920s.
No such governing coalition was able to form in the 38th Parliament.
[edit] Party funding reform
Funding changes were made to ensure greater reliance on personal contributions. It

should be noted that personal donations to federal parties and campaigns benefit from tax
credits, although the amount of tax relief depends on the amount given. Also only people
paying income taxes receive any benefit from this.
A good part of the reasoning behind the change in funding was that union or business
funding should not be allowed to have as much impact on federal election funding as
these are not contributions from citizens and are not evenly spread out between parties.
They are still allowed to contribute to the election but only in a minor fashion. The new
rules stated that a party had to receive 2% of the vote nationwide in order to receive the
general federal funding for parties. Each vote garnered a certain dollar amount for a party
(approximately $1.75) in future funding. For the initial dispersement, approximations
were made based on previous elections. The NDP received more votes than expected (its
national share of the vote went up) while the new Conservative Party of Canada received
fewer votes than had been estimated and has been asked to refund the difference. It
should be noted that the province of Quebec was the first province to implement a similar
system of funding many years before the changes to funding of federal parties.
Federal funds are disbursed quarterly to parties, beginning at the start of 2005. For the
moment, this disbursement delay leaves the NDP and the Green Party in a better position
to fight an election, since they rely more on individual contributors than federal funds.
The Green party now receives federal funds, since it for the first time received a
sufficient share of the vote in the 2004 election.
Commonly, two national debates receive nationwide coverage during an election, one in
each official language. Both debates are broadcast in translation, so it is possible to watch
either debate without a working knowledge of the language of the debate, although part
of the meaning can be lost. People who are bilingual enough to understand both the
English- and French-language debates without need of translation will get a better idea of
the substances of the two debates and the differences between them if they decide to
watch both debates.
Currently only the parties represented in Parliament participate in the debates. The Green
Party, however, has argued that it should also be allowed to participate. Its share of the
vote has increased greatly, due in part to the new funding formula, in part because it ran
in many more ridings than in previous elections (it nominated candidates in every riding
in the 2004 and 2006 elections), and in part to increased popularity. Thus the argument
goes that if there is sufficient national support to earn official recognition as a party (i.e.,
one that is granted funding based on getting 2% or more of the national vote) it should
also be allowed to debate on the same level as the other officially recognized parties.
Also, having received 6% of the vote in British Columbia and based on past precedent,
the Greens will have a stronger case for being included in the debates in future elections.
The Bloc Québécois was allowed to participate in debates on the basis of its support in
Quebec - even before it had elected any MPs in a general election (the only Bloc's MPs at
the time had either switched parties or won in by-elections). Furthermore, on the basis of
anticipated support, the Reform Party of Canada was included in debates despite only
having a single MP. Therefore, past party performance or number of seats is not how
participants are chosen.
In 2007, news emerged of a funding loophole that "could cumulatively exceed the legal
limit by more than $60,000," through anonymous recurrent donations of 199 dollars to
every riding of a party from corporations or unions.[3][4][5]
[edit] Elections
Main article: Elections in Canada
• Elections
o House of Commons - direct plurality representation (last election held
October 14, 2008)
o Senate - appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime
minister
• Election results
e•d Summary of the 14 October 2008 Canadian House of Commons election results
Seats Popular vote

Party Candida
Party tes
leader
200 Diss 200 % % # %
ol. Change # Change % Change
6 8 seats
Stephe -
Conservati +12.6 46.4 5,208,7 37.65 +1.38
n 307 124 127 143 167,49
ve M % % 96 % %
Harper 4
Stépha - -
O 1 25.0 3,633,1 26.26 -
Liberal ne 307 103 95 77 18.9 846,23
% 85 % 3.97%
Dion % 0
Gilles -
Bloc +2.1 15.9 1,379,9 9.98 -
Ducep 75 51 48 49 173,61
Québécois % % 91 % 0.50%
pe 0
New Jack +23.3 12.0 2,515,5 - 18.18 +0.70

3082 29 30 37
Democrats Layton % % 61 74,182 % %
Elizab
- +273,5 6.78 +2.30
Green eth 303 - 1 - - 937,613
100% 45 % %
May
-
Independents and 0.6 +12,98 0.69 +0.14
71 1 3 23 33.3 94,844
no affiliation % 4 % %
%
Christian Ron 0.19 +0.00

59 - - - - - 26,475 -1,677
Heritage Gray % %
Anna
Marxist- 0.06 +0.00
Di 59 - - - - - 8,565 -415
Leninist % %
Carlo
Dennis 0.05 +0.03

Libertarian 26 - - - - - 7,300 +4,298
Young % %
Sinclai
Progressiv r 0.04 -
10 - - - - - 5,860 -8,291
e Canadian Steven % 0.05%
s
Migue
Communis l 0.03 +0.01
24 - - - - - 3,572 +550
t Figuer % %
oa
Conni
Canadian 0.02 -
e 20 - - - - - 3,455 -2,647
Action % 0.03%
Fogal
Blair
0.02 -
Marijuana Longle 8 - - - - - 2,298 -6,873
% 0.05%
y
Franço
Neorhino.c 0.02
is 7 n/a - - n/a - 2,122 n/a n/a
a %
Gourd
Newfoundl Thoma
and and s V. 0.01
3 n/a - - n/a - 1,713 n/a n/a
Labrador Hicke %
First y
Barbar
First
a 0.01 +0.00
Peoples 6 - - - - - 1,611 +410
Wardl % %
National
aw
Animal
Alliance Liz 0.00 +0.00
4 - - - - - 527 +455
Environme White % %
nt Voters
Conra
d 0.00
Work Less 1 n/a - - n/a - 425 n/a n/a
Schmi %
dt
Doug
Western 0.00 -
Christi 1 - - - - - 195 -899
Block % 0.01%
e
People's Roger
0.00
Political Poisso 2 n/a - - n/a - 186 n/a n/a
%
Power n
Vacant 4
-
13,834,
Total 1,601 308 308 308 - 100 982,86 100
294
5
G - formed Government M - formed Government (minority) O - formed Official Opposition
Sources: Elections Canada & Party Standings (2006 data); Elections Canada (2008 data)
1 Lesley Hughes of Kildonan—St. Paul was nominated as a Liberal, but lost party support after the
nomination deadline and continued to run as an independent; she is listed here as a Liberal rather than an
independent, as she was listed as a Liberal on the ballot.[6][7]
2 Includes NDP candidates Julian West from Saanich—Gulf Islands and Andrew McKeever from Durham,
who withdrew their candidacies but whose names appeared on their respective ballots.
3 André Arthur was re-elected in the Quebec City-area riding of Portneuf—Jacques-Cartier with 15,063
votes. Bill Casey, formerly Conservative, was re-elected in the Nova Scotia riding of Cumberland—
Colchester—Musquodoboit Valley with 27,303 votes.
See also: Canadian Senate
[edit] Political parties, leaders, and status

Ordered by number of elected representatives in the House of Commons
• Conservative Party of Canada - Stephen Harper (Minority Government)

• Liberal Party of Canada - Michael Ignatieff (Opposition)
• Bloc Québécois - Gilles Duceppe
• New Democratic Party - Jack Layton
• There is currently one independent Member, André Arthur
[edit] Realignment
Behiels (2010) concludes that Canada has recently undergone a watershed political
realignment, the kind of shift that occurs but once a century. In light of the 2004, 2006,
and 2008 elections and Stephen Harper's political success, many journalists, political
advisors, and politicians argue that a new political party paradigm is emerging, one based
on the drive for a right-wing political party capable of reconfiguring the role of the state –
federal and provincial – in twenty-first-century.[8]
[edit] Judiciary
Main article: Supreme Court of Canada
The highest court in Canada is the Supreme Court of Canada and is the final court of
appeal in the Canadian justice system. The court is composed of nine judges: eight Puisne
Justices and the Chief Justice of Canada. Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada are
appointed by the Governor-in-Council. The Supreme Court Act limits eligibility for
appointment to persons who have been judges of a superior court, or members of the bar
for ten or more years. Members of the bar or superior judge of Quebec, by law, must hold
three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court of Canada.[9]
[edit] Government departments and structure
The Canadian government operates the public service using departments, smaller
agencies (e.g., commissions, tribunals, and boards), and crown corporations. There are
two types of departments: central agencies such as Finance, Privy Council Office, and
Treasury Board Secretariat have an organizing and oversight role for the entire public
service; line departments are departments which perform tasks in a specific area or field,
such as the departments of Agriculture, Environment, or Defence.
• Significant departments include Finance, Revenue, Human Resources and Skills

Development, National Defence, Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, and
Foreign Affairs/International Trade.
Further information: Structure of the Canadian federal government
[edit] Crown corporations and other government agencies
Significant Crown corporations and agencies of the federal government include:
• Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)

• VIA Rail
• Elections Canada
• Canada Council
• Canada Post (formerly Royal Mail)
[edit] See also
• Canadian and Australian politics compared

• Political culture of Canada
• List of political parties in Canada
• List of Canadian federal general elections
• Canadian political scandals
• Liberalism in Canada
• Canadian Conservatism
• Socialism and Social Democracy in Canada
• Canadian Nationalism
• Council of the Federation
• Progressivism in Canada
[edit] References
1. ^ THE Constitution Act, 1867, s. 6.

2. ^ The Creation and Beginnings of the Supreme Court of Canada
3. ^ Conacher, Duff (2007-08-13). "Our Democracy for Sale, Still". The Tyee.
http://thetyee.ca/Views/2007/08/13/DemoSale/. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
4. ^ Leblanc, Daniel; Jane Taber (2007-08-02). "Ottawa refuses to close donation
loophole". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 2007-08-02.
http://nationalcitizens.ca/cgi-bin/news.cgi?
rm=display&articleID=1186055872&search=&category=3&order=&page=1. Retrieved
2007-08-16.
5. ^ Leblanc, Daniel (2007-08-01). "Loophole tears lid off political donations". The Globe
and Mail.
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070801.wdonationsloophole0
1/BNStory/National/home. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
6. ^ http://www.thestar.com/FederalElection/article/506806
7. ^ http://www.cbc.ca/news/canadavotes/story/2008/10/15/election-manitoba.html
8. ^ Michael D. Behiels, "Stephen Harper’s Rise to Power: Will His 'New' Conservative
Party Become Canada’s 'Natural Governing Party' of the Twenty-First Century?,"
American Review of Canadian Studies Vol. 40, No. 1, March 2010, 118–145
9. ^ Supreme Court Act, s. 6.
• Canadian-Politics.com Comprehensive overview of politics in Canada

• CBC Digital Archives - Scandals, Boondoggles and White Elephants
• CBC Digital Archives - Campaigning for Canada
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Indian Union: The Constitution

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INDIAN UNION

India is a Union of 28 States and seven centrally administered Union Territories.

Election Commission: The electoral machinery is centralised in an independent statutory body

Jump to: navigation, search

According to Eugene M. Makar, traditional Indian culture is defined by relatively strict

A bride during a traditional Punjabi Hindu wedding ceremony.

Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is continued to be practiced in some

In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa (non-violence), mother goddess

Namaste, Namaskar or Namaskaram or Vannakam is a common spoken greeting or

Main article: Festivals in India

Main article: Indian literature

Main article: Indian poetry

[edit] Performing arts

Purandaradasa is considered the "father of carnatic music" (Karnataka sangeeta

Main article: Indian dance

[edit] Drama and theater

Natyacarya Mani Madhava Chakyar as Ravana in Bhasa's Abhiṣeka Nataka Kutiyattam -

[edit] Visual arts

Main article: Indian painting

The Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves.

Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting, Mughal

Main article: Sculpture in India

Main article: Indian architecture

Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time,

Akshardham in Delhi the largest Hindu temple in the world.

Contemporary Indian architecture is more cosmopolitan. Cities are extremely compact

[edit] Recreation and sports

[edit] Popular media

Main article: Television in India

Main article: Cinema of India

Shooting of a Bollywood dance number.

• South Asian ethnic groups

[edit] Further reading

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_India"

• What links here

• This page was last modified on 28 April 2010 at 13:34.

Culture of the United States

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It includes both conservative and liberal elements, military and scientific

[edit] Native Language Statistics for the United States

It should be noted the following information is an estimation as actual statistics

Completed in 1716, Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de Acuña is one

It should be noted the following information is an estimation as actual statistics

[edit] National Holidays

Halloween is a widely observed tradition in the United States. It typically involves

As a legacy of colonization, Thanksgiving has become a traditional American holiday

Federally recognized holidays are as follows:

Date Official Name Remarks

• Federal Holidays Calendars from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management.

Common American Foods

Basketball is widely enjoyed by American youth and is considered by many to be the

Bowling is a popular pastime for Americans of all ages.

Basketball is another major sport, represented professionally by the National Basketball

American football, known in many anglophone countries as gridiron, is widely

[edit] Sports and community culture

There is a fondness for scientific advancement and technological innovation in American

[edit] Visual arts

Early Neoclassicism accompanied the Founding Father's idealization of European

Main article: Sculpture of the United States

[edit] Popular culture

Main article: Fashion in the United States