Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SHIPS
Ships are still vital to the economy of many countries and they still carry
some 95 per cent of world trade. In 1998 the world's cargo fleet totalled
some 775 million tonnes deadweight and was increasing by 2 per cent a
year (Parker, 1998). The average deadweight was about 17 000. Although
aircraft have displaced the transatlantic liner, ships still carry large num-
bers of people on pleasure cruises and on the multiplicity of ferries in
all areas of the globe. Ships, and other marine structures, are needed to
exploit the riches of the deep.
Although one of the oldest forms of transport, ships, their equipment
and their function, are subject to constant evolution. Changes are driven
by changing patterns of world trade, by social pressures, by techno-
logical improvements in materials, construction techniques and control
systems, and by pressure of economics. As an example, technology now
provides the ability to build much larger, faster, ships and these are
adopted to gain the economic advantages they can confer.
A feature of many new designs is the variation in form of ships
intended for relatively conventional tasks. This is for reasons of efficiency
and has been made possible by the advanced analysis methods available,
which enable unorthodox shapes to be adopted with confidence in their
performance. The naval architect is less tied to following a type ship. In
the same way means of propulsion and steering are tailored to suit the
hull form and conditions of service, and they will be closely integrated
one with the other.
Before going furthel, and to set the scene for this book, it is necessary
to ask:
The ship
This t e r m m u s t be i n t e r p r e t e d b r o a d l y a n d can r e f e r to any s t r u c t u r e
floating in water. It is usually self-propelled but s o m e , for instance,
d u m b barges a n d s o m e o f f s h o r e structures rely o n tugs to m o v e t h e m .
O t h e r s rely o n the wind. Marine structures, such as h a r b o u r installa-
tions, are the p r o v i n c e o f the civil engineer.
T h e p u r p o s e o f a m e r c h a n t ship is to carry goods, p e r h a p s p e o p l e ,
safely across water. T h a t o f a warship is the s u p p o r t o f g o v e r n m e n t pol-
icy in the i n t e r n a t i o n a l field. Let us c o n c e n t r a t e o n the m e r c h a n t ship.
In o r d e r i n g a new vessel the o w n e r will have in m i n d , i n t e r alia:
• a certain cargo;
• a certain v o l u m e o f c a r g o to be carried o n e a c h voyage;
• a r a n g e o f ports f r o m which the ship will o p e r a t e ;
• an average j o u r n e y time.
Variety
Naval a r c h i t e c t u r e is a fascinating a n d d e m a n d i n g discipline. It is fas-
cinating because o f the variety o f floating structures and the m a n y com-
promises necessary to achieve the most effective product. It is d e m a n d i n g
because a ship is a very large capital investment and because o f the n e e d
to p r o t e c t the p e o p l e o n b o a r d and the m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t .
A visit to a busy p o r t reveals the variety of forms a ship may take. This is
d u e to the d i f f e r e n t d e m a n d s o n t h e m and the conditions u n d e r which
they operate. T h e r e are fishing vessels ranging f r o m the small local b o a t
o p e r a t i n g by day to the o c e a n going ships with facilities to d e e p freeze
their catches. T h e r e are vessels for exploitation o f u n d e r s e a e n e r g y
sources, gas a n d oil, a n d extraction o f minerals. T h e r e are oil tankers,
r a n g i n g f r o m small coastal vessels to giant supertankers. O t h e r h u g e
ships carry bulk cargoes such as grain, coal or iron ore. Ferries carry pas-
sengers between ports which may be only a few kilometres or a h u n d r e d
4 INTRODUCTION
apart. There are tugs for shepherding ships in port or for trans-ocean
towing. Then there are dredgers, lighters and pilot boats without
which a port could not function. In a naval port there will be warships
ranging from huge aircraft carriers through cruisers and destroyers to
frigates, patrol boats, mine countermeasure vessels and submarines.
Increasingly naval architects are involved in the design of small craft
such as yachts and motor cruisers. This reflects partly the much greater
n u m b e r of small craft, mostly for leisure actixities; partly the increased
regulation to which they are subject requiring a professional input and
partly the increasingly advanced methods used in their design and new
materials in their construction. However, in spite of the increasingly
scientific approach the design of small craft still involves a great deal of
'art'. Many of the craft are beautiful with graceful lines and lavishly
appointed interiors. The craftsmanship needed for their construction
is of the highest order.
Over the last half century many naval architects have become involved
in offshore e n g i n e e r i n g - the exploration for, and production of, oil
and gas. Their expertise has been needed for the design of the rigs and
the many supporting vessels, including manned and u n m a n n e d sub-
mersibles which are increasingly used for maintenance. This involve-
merit will continue as the riches of the ocean and ocean bed are
exploited more in the future.
For ships themselves there is considerable variety in hull form. Much of
this book is devoted to single hull, displacement forms which rely upon
displacing water to support their full weight. In some applications, par-
ticularly for fast ferries, multiple hulls are preferred because they provide
large deck areas with good stability without excessive length. Catamarans
have been built in large numbers. The idea is far from new as many soci-
eties have made use of outriggers to provide increased safety. As early
as the 1870s two twin hull ships of 9 0 m length were used on the cross
channel route between Dover and Calais. Although overtaken by other
developments both ships had good reputations for seakeeping. More
recently trimaran and pentamaran designs have been proposed and
the Triton, a trimaran demonstrator, has been very successful on trials.
In planing craft high speeds may be achieved by using dynamic
forces to support part of the weight when under way. Surface effect
ships use air cushions to support the weight of the craft, lifting it clear
of the water. This is particularly useful in na,~igating areas with sand
banks and in providing an amphibious capability. Hydrofoil craft rely
on hydrodynamic forces on submerged foils under the hull to lift the
main part of the craft above the waves. Other craft, particularly on
rivers in Russia, lift is gained bv the so-called wing-in-ground effect
(WIG). There are, of course, many examples of hybrid craft incorp-
orating several of the above features.
INTRODUCTION 5
T H E IMPACT O F C O M P U T E R S
Computers have made a great impact upon the lives of everybody. They
have had considerable impact upon the design, production and oper-
ation of ships. Their impact is felt in a number of ways:
It is hoped that these few paragraphs have shown that naval archi-
tecture can be interesting and rewarding. An example of the variety
and interest to be found in the profession can be obtained by reading
the memoirs of an eminent naval architect, Marshall Meek (2003). The
various topics mentioned above are discussed in more detail in later
chapters where the fundamental aspects of the subject are covered.
The references given at the end of the book, arranged by chapter, indi-
cate sources of further reading for following up specific topics. A more
advanced general textbook, for instance by Rawson and Tupper
(2001), can be consulted if desired. This has many more references,
together with worked and set examples, to assist the interested reader.
For comments on sources and references see Appendix A.