Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. the science dealing with the mind and with mental and emotional
processes
2. the science of human and animal behavior.
In its pure definition the dictionary has provided us with a clue to the
answer, it describes science as:
Every psychological experiment and theory is evaluated with the same level
of criticality as that of the traditional sciences. Questions are asked
over the theoretical framework, the results validity and its relationship
with the hypothesis, the quality and range of sample and if it is
representative, the conclusions that can be drawn form the data and broader
conclusions that may be apparent. Finally the studies are questioned on
their meanings and ethics to operationalise the original hypothesis.
These opinions are describing psychotherapy and not psychology in its core.
Remembering that psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of
humans and animals, we should look at their methods of study. As we have
seen, psychologists use scientific methods in an attempt to understand and
predict behavior, to develop procedures for changing behavior, and to
evaluate treatment strategies.
Question: "What is the difference between the soul and spirit of man?"
Answer: The soul and the spirit are the two primary immaterial aspects that Scripture ascribes to humanity. It can be
confusing to attempt to discern the precise differences between the two. The word “spirit” refers only to the
immaterial facet of humanity. Human beings have a spirit, but are we not spirits. However, in Scripture, only
believers are said to be spiritually alive (1 Corinthians 2:11; Hebrews 4:12; James 2:26), while unbelievers are
spiritually dead (Ephesians 2:1-5; Colossians 2:13). In Paul's writing, the spiritual was pivotal to the life of the
believer (1 Corinthians 2:14; 3:1; Ephesians 1:3; 5:19; Colossians 1:9; 3:16). The spirit is the element in humanity
which gives us the ability to have an intimate relationship with God. Whenever the word “spirit” is used, it refers to
the immaterial part of humanity that “connects” with God, who Himself is spirit (John 4:24).
The word “soul” can refer to both the immaterial and material aspects of humanity. Unlike human beings having a
spirit, human beings are souls. In its most basic sense, the word “soul” means “life.” However, beyond this essential
meaning, the Bible speaks of the soul in many contexts. One of these is humanity’s eagerness to sin (Luke 12:26).
Humanity is naturally evil, and our souls are tainted as a result. The life principle of the soul is removed at the time
of physical death (Genesis 35:18; Jeremiah 15:2). The soul, as with the spirit, is the center of many spiritual and
emotional experiences (Job 30:25; Psalm 43:5; Jeremiah 13:17). Whenever the word “soul” is used, it can refer to
the whole person, whether alive or in the afterlife.
The soul and the spirit are connected, but separable (Hebrews 4:12). The soul is the essence of humanity’s being; it
is who we are. The spirit is the aspect of humanity that connects with God.
A school of thought is a collection or group of people who share common characteristics of opinion or outlook of a
philosophy, discipline, belief, social movement, cultural movement, or art movement. There have been several
schools of economic thought throughout history.
Schools are often characterized by their currency, and thus classified into "new" and "old" schools. This dichotomy
is often a component of paradigm shift. However, it is rarely the case that there are only two schools in any given
field.
Schools are often named after their founders such as the "Rinzai school" of Zen named after Linji and the Asharite
school of early Muslim philosophy named after Abu l'Hasan al-Ashari. They are often also named after their places
of origin, such as the Ionian school of philosophy that originated in Ionia and the Chicago school of architecture that
originated in Chicago, Illinois and the Prague School of linguistics, named after a linguistic circle found in Prague.
Alfred Adler · Gordon Allport · Albert Bandura · Raymond Cattell · Kenneth and Mamie
Emine
Clark · Erik Erikson · Hans Eysenck · Leon Festinger · Viktor Frankl · Sigmund Freud ·
nt
Donald O. Hebb · Clark L. Hull · William James · Carl Jung · Jerome Kagan · Kurt Lewin ·
psych
Abraham Maslow · David McClelland · Stanley Milgram · George A. Miller · Neal E. Miller /wiki/File:Psi2.s
ologist
· Walter Mischel · Ivan Pavlov · Jean Piaget · Carl Rogers · Stanley Schachter · B. F. Skinner ·vg
s
Edward Thorndike · John B. Watson
Psychoanalysis:
Sigmund Freud was the found of psychodynamic approach. This school of thought emphasizes the influence of the
unconscious mind on behavior. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the
ego, and the superego. Other major psychodynamic thinkers include Anna Freud, Carl Jung, and Erik Erikson.
Humanistic Psychology:
Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology instead
focused on individual free will, personal growth, and self-actualization. Major humanist thinkers included Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Gestalt Psychology:
Gestalt psychology is based upon the idea that we experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology
began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism.
Rather that breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the gestalt psychologists believed that
you must look at the whole of experience. According to the gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.
Cognitive Psychology:
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think,
perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to
other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
Activity theory is a psychological meta-theory, paradigm, or framework, with its roots in the Soviet psychologist
Vygotsky's cultural-historical psychology. Its founders were Alexei N. Leont'ev (1903-1979), and Sergei
Rubinshtein (1889-1960) who sought to understand human activities as complex, socially situated phenomena and
go beyond paradigms of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It became one of the major psychological approaches in
the former USSR, being widely used in both theoretical and applied psychology, in areas such as education, training,
ergonomics, and work psychology [1]. Activity theory theorizes that when individuals engage and interact with their
environment, production of tools results. These tools are "exteriorized" forms of mental processes, and as these
mental processes are manifested in tools, they become more readily accessible and communicable to other people,
thereafter becoming useful for social interaction.[2]
Associationism in philosophy refers to the idea that mental processes operate by the association of one state with its
successor states. The idea is first recorded in Plato and Aristotle, especially with regard to the succession of
memories. Members of the principally British "Associationist School", including John Locke, David Hume, James
Mill, and John Stuart Mill, asserted that the principle applied to all or most mental processes. Later members of the
school developed very specific principles specifying how associations worked and even a physiological mechanism
bearing no resemblance to modern neurophysiology. For a much fuller explanation of the intellectual history of
associationism and the "Associationist School", see Association of Ideas, an edited version of the 1911 Encyclopedia
Britannica article of the same name.
Some of the ideas of the Associationist School anticipated behaviorist psychology, especially the idea of
conditioning.[citation needed]
Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and
psychoanalysis. It is explicitly concerned with the human dimension of psychology and the human context for the
development of psychological theory.
\Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact. Scholars in this interdisciplinary area are
typically either psychologists or sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the
group as their units of analysis.[1]
Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods,
and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional societies. The greatest period of
collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II.[2]
Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and
influence remains between the two disciplines.[3]
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (August 16, 1832 - August 31, 1920) was a German medical doctor, psychologist,
physiologist, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely
regarded as the "father of experimental psychology".[3][4][5] In 1879, Wundt founded one of the first formal
laboratories for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. By creating this laboratory he was able to
explore the nature of religious beliefs, identify mental disorders and abnormal behavior, and map damaged areas of
the human brain. By doing this he was able to establish psychology as a separate science from other topics. He also
formed the first journal for psychological research in 1881.
History of Psychology
Major Periods in World History Relative to the Evolution of
the Field of Psychology
Once you become familiar with the history of psychology, you will see
that psychology and knowledge in general has evolved as man has evolved -- both in
consciousness and intellect or knowledge.
The search for knowledge was the quest of the early philosopher
scientists -- the desire to know. Psychology was interwoven in early science and philosophy.
The Egyptians are also reported to have been prolific writers, but few
knew how to translate their writing system of hieroglyphics and Coptic. It has only been in
recent decades that Egyptologists are able to understand the early writings.
Three such works that document through careful research and study
the contributions of Egyptians to science and philosophy are:
1. Stolen Legacy by George G.M. James (1954). San Francisco: Julian Richardson
Associates.
2. From Ancient Africa to Ancient Greece: An Introduction to the History of
Philosophy by Dr. Henry Olela (1981).
Atlanta, GA: The Select Publishing Corporation.
3. Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication of
Ancient Greece-1785-1985,
Volume 1), by Martin Bernal (1987). New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
Their reasoning was called rationalism - the search for the essence of
things. (Now known as the deductive method). They saw the world as a macrocosm and
man as a microcosm.
Greek science extended over a period of 800 years. It began with the
earliest philosopher/scientists of the sixth century BC and continued to the 2nd or 3rd
century of the Christian era.
The early part of the period was referred to as the Dark Ages due to
the halt of scientific advancement, misgovernment, civil wars, barbarian people, discord,
and the dismantling of the monetary system. There was top heavy bureaucracies, civil wars,
and barbarian peoples in some areas. The uniformity of Roman law gave way to a maze of
discordant local customs. The universal monetary system of the Romans also disappeared.
There were chaotic systems of government and low standards of
living. Also, there was widespread illiteracy. Science and culture suffered during this period.
In some areas religious scholarship survived.
The birth of Islam and the Muslim faith occurred in the middle part of
the Middle Ages. Muslims assumed positions of leadership in government, the military and
religious affairs.
Universities did not come into real prominence until the 13th century.
They came into being with the expansion of knowledge. For example, youth in the 11th
century entered monasteries; youth in the 13th century attended universities.
Scientists of the Enlightenment were very keen to find out about the
world, nature, chemistry, and physics.
Francis Bacon was one of the first men to study nature by using
scientific observation. Developed an empirical methodology and inductive reasoning. It is
reported that he translated the first King James version of the Bible and was the true writer
of Shakespeare and other Elizabethan literature. Was considered the first English essayist. It
is also reported that he secretly laid the groundwork for the establishment of the United
States of America.
-In his works Novum Organum, Advancement of Learning, and New Atlantis, Bacon
outlined his views of what
science should become. He proposed drastic changes in scientific procedure.
-He died from a chill after stuffing a fowl with snow. He was studying refrigeration.
Galileo was the first to turn a telescope to the skies to map the
galaxy. He provided evidence that the earth was not the fixed center of the universe, but
that it and all the other planets revolved around the sun.
Galileo also observed the moon's "seas" and mountains, the planets and the stars of the
Milky Way. His studies included the laws of "falling bodies" using experiments and
mathematics. He studied the pendulum and designed a clock.
William Harvey conducted experiments and microscopic
observations that proved that the blood circulates around the body.
During this period great strides were being made in the understanding
of the nervous system.
http://media.gratex.sk/budyk/old/english/misc/FREUD.htm http://media.gratex.sk/budyk
/old/english/misc/FREUD.htm Sigmund Freud (
Austrian psychiatrist 1856-1939), founder of
Psychoanalysis, born in Vienna, awarded the M.D. degree in 1881 from the University of Vienna. With the
Nazi occupation of Austria, Freud fled in 1938 to England, where he died in 1939. His theory has had
enormous impact, influencing anthropology, education, art, and literature.
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/misc/pavlov.html http://arbl.c
vmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/misc/pavlov.html Ivan Pavlov Born to a Russian
minister on September 14, 1849, Pavlov grew up in the town of Ryazan. Due to a childhood accident, Ivan was
unable to attend school as early as other children, but did get started at age 11. After finishing school he was
sent to theological seminary to follow in his father's footsteps, but dropped out in 1870 to enroll at the
University of St. Petersburg. It was there that Pavlov became interested in and started his career in
physiology
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/skinner.html http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/skinner.htm
B. F. Skinner
l Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born in the small Pennsylvania town of Susquehanna
on March 20, 1904. He became interested in psychology while at Harvard University and was inspired by
Bertrand Russell's articles on behaviorism. In 1931 he received a Ph.D. from Harvard and then continued to
do research there until 1936. While there he developed the Skinner box, a controlled environment for
studying the behavior of organisms.
http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~kensicki/watson-acad.html
http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~kensicki/watson-acad.html John B. Watson Psychologist, born in
Greenville, SC. He studied at Chicago, and became professor of psychology at Johns Hopkins University
(1908-20), where he established an animal research laboratory. He became known for his behaviorist
approach, which he later applied to human behavior. In 1921 he entered advertising and wrote several
general books on psychology.
The Father of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920):
German Philosopher & Psychologist
A child of a Lutheran minister, he was born in 1832 in Neckarau, a suburb of
Mannhiem, located in the southwest part of Germany. Education, not
friendship and play, dominated his early years. At the age of thirteen he
attended a Gymnasium, a German secondary school, that rigorously prepared
a student for a university education. Although many of the ideas of Wundt are
disregarded today, he is held in the minds of most psychologists as the Father
of Psychology, because he had the first real laboratory.