McRae 1990 Paleomagnetic Isochrons, Unsteadiness, and Non-Uniformity of Sedimentation in Miocene Fluvial

PALEOMAGNETIC ISOCHRONS, UNSTEADINESS, AND NON-UNIFORMITY
OF SEDIMENTATION IN MIOCENE FLUVIAL STRATA OF THE SIWALIK

GROUP, NORTHERN PAKISTAN1
LEE E. MCRAE2
Department of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755
ABSTRACT
In complement with stratigraphic and sedimentologic studies, the time resolution provided by magnetic
polarity stratigraphy is a powerful tool that can be used to identify, assess, and quantify both temporal
variability (unsteadiness) in sediment accumulation over a particular stratigraphic sequence and spatial
variability (non-uniformity) in sedimentation across a depositional system. Chronostratigraphic variability
is documented and evaluated in the Miocene channel and floodplain sediments of the Chinji Formation, part
of the extensive Siwalik foreland sequence located on the Potwar Plateau of northern Pakistan. Magnetic
polarity stratigraphies have been developed in multiple vertical sections correlated along strike, allowing for
paleomagnetic isochrons to be traced throughout the sequence and providing a chronologic framework in
which to identify unsteadiness and non-uniformity in patterns of sediment accumulation. Analysis of vari-
ability over different time scales is accomplished by constructing simulated sediment accumulation histories
for time-bounded stratigraphic intervals using estimates of deposition rates for various fluvial facies, taking
into account effects of erosion, and partitioning estimated time of hiatus between depositional episodes.
Unsteadiness in sediment accumulation, quantified by comparing short-term episodic accumulation rates
with long-term net stratigraphic rates, is used to compare variability in sediment accumulation over differ-
ent time intervals and to demonstrate non-uniformity in sediment accumulation between coeval strati-
graphic intervals. The significant variability in sediment accumulation observed over short time scales
(104-10' yr) reflects the variable history of sedimentation, non-deposition, and erosion experienced at dif-
ferent locations in the fluvial system. Over longer time spans (105-106 yr), the sequence exhibits more
uniform sediment accumulation. Similarly, unsteadiness in sedimentation in the Chinji sequence is most
extreme over short time spans, when the presence of one or a few "high impact" events of channel sand
deposition dominates. Over longer time intervals, fluvial cyclicity appears to modulate out the effects of
individual sedimentation episodes.
INTRODUCTION Sadler 1982; Schindel 1980, 1982). Despite its

Although rock strata often appear as con- importance, little attempt has been made to
tinuous blankets of sediment formed by the describe carefully and estimate quantitatively
steady deposition or long-term "gentle rain" variability in the sedimentary record. Sad-
of sediment, in reality they are almost always ler's (1981) analysis of trends in mean rates of
discontinuous in either space or time. The sediment accumulation over a range of time
analysis of non-uniform (variation from place spans in various sedimentary environments
to place) and unsteady (variation over time) renewed interest in the discontinuous nature
sedimentation has had a long and distin- of sedimentation. In Sadler's survey, how-
guished history (e.g., Barrell 1917; Wheeler ever, sedimentation rate estimates for differ-
1956). Continuity in the stratigraphic record ent environments and the estimated rate vari-
is of significant sedimentological importance ability within single environments were very
and has profound implications for recent top- generalized, in part due to imprecise ages and
ical problems such as the nature of the sedimentation rates of rock sequences then
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (Dingus 1984) available for compilation. With the advent
and patterns of organic evolution (Dingus and of modern chronostratigraphic dating tech-
niques, such as magnetic polarity stratig-
raphy, supplemented by fission track and K-
1 Manuscript received October 16, 1989; ac- Ar dating, chronostratigraphic precision in
cepted March 8, 1990. terrestrial sequences is greatly enhanced.
2 Present address: Amoco Production Co.,
Europe, Latin America & Far East Region, P.O. With increased resolution and refinement of
Box 3092, Houston, Texas 77253. chronologic data, stratigraphic unsteadiness
can be assessed on a more rigorous basis.
[JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY, 1990, vol. 98, p. 433-456]
© 1990 by The University of Chicago. All rights Stratigraphic rate data, in addition to provid-
reserved. ing insight into unsteadiness of sediment ac-
0022-1376/90/9804-005$1 .00 cumulation, also provides a basis for the
433
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434 L. E. McRAE
identification of lateral variability-or non- identify and quantify stratigraphic non-
uniformity-within a single sedimentaryen- uniformity and unsteadiness in a fluvial se-
vironment, or from one environmentto an- quence. The potential of this method as a
other. Comparisonof the natureand extent of stratigraphic tool is illustrated using an ex-
stratigraphicunsteadiness in this spatial con- ample from the ChinjiFormation,a sequence
text provides an extra dimension in the that represents the floodplainenvironmentof
understanding of variability in sedimentary a large, throughgoingriver system in the fore-
sequences. land basin that developed along the southern
Most past studies of magnetic polarity re- marginof the Himalayancollisional orogen in
versals and magnetic remanence in sedimen- northernPakistan (Johnsonet al. 1985).In an
tary rocks have focused on the vertical distri- accompanying paper (McRae 1990), paleo-
bution and zonation of polarity reversals that magnetic isochrons are used to document
form the basis for correlations of sections to stratigraphicuniformity and unsteadiness of
the global geomagnetic time scale. The accu- sediment accumulation in the Salla Beds, an
rate chronological framework provided by intermontanebasin sequence of fluvial flood-
magnetic polarity stratigraphy has been a plain and lacustrine sediments located in the
significantfactor in studies of the evolution of Eastern Andean Cordillera of Bolivia. A
particular depositional styles (e.g., Johnson comparison of these two sequences repre-
et al. 1985; Jordan et al. 1988, 1990; Beer et senting variable terrestrial environments in
al. 1987; Beer 1990; Beer and Jordan 1989), different tectonic settings provides inter-
the timing of source terrane unroofing his- esting contrasts that may lend some insight
tories (Johnson et al. 1985; Damantiand Jor- into the dynamics and controls on variability
dan 1989), and the dynamics of sediment ac- and patterns of stratigraphicaccumulationin
cumulation in actively evolving foreland sedimentary basins.
basin sequences (e.g., Johnson et al. 1985,
1986; Burbank and Raynolds 1988). Some
recent efforts focus on finer-scaled strati- THE ANALYSIS OF CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC
VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL USING
graphic studies of the lateral variationsin se- SEDIMENTS
MAGNETIC REVERSAL TIMELINES
quences bounded by individual magnetic po-
larity reversals (see Badgley and Tauxe 1990 Concepts of Stratigraphic Completeness
for a detailed treatment). Behrensmeyerand and Rates of Sediment Accumulation.-
Tauxe (1982) traced the lateral distributionof From a compilation of sediment accumu-
a single magnetic chron through a sequence lation rates in over 25,000 stratigraphic
of fluvial sediments in Middle Siwalik Group sections, Sadler (1981) evaluated mean sed-
sediments in Pakistan and demonstratedthe imentation rate vs. time interval and doc-
variation in stratigraphicthickness and facies umented a consistent trend toward decreas-
distribution within a single time-bounded ing rates of sediment accumulation with
stratigraphicinterval. The researchpresented increasing time duration. The most notable
in this paper and in a companion paper by conclusion from this study (one, incidentally,
McRae (1990) extends the lateral magnetic also reached almost a century ago by Barrell
timeline tracing technique of Behrensmeyer [1917]) was that layered strata reflect brief
and Tauxe (1982) and applies it to Miocene pulses of sediment accumulation separated
terrestrial sequences that represent two dif- by intervals of non-deposition and erosion,
ferent sedmentary environments in different and that most stratigraphic sections are
tectonic settings. These particularsequences rather inefficient recorders of geologic time.
were chosen because of their excellent It makes intuitive sense that longer strati-
exposures and because initial magnetic po- graphic sections would be less "complete"
larity stratigraphies had previously been than shorter stratigraphic sections because
established, making field correlation and sections representing longer time intervals
refinements of the stratigraphicpositions of would have had a greater opportunity to in-
paleomagnetic reversals straightforward. corporate more and longer hiatuses. Sadler
This paper will present a methodology for attributesthis to fluctuationsin instantaneous
using chronologic information provided by rates of transport, erosion, and subsidence
detailed magnetic polarity stratigraphy to which combine to produce discontinuities on
SEDIMENTATION IN MIOCENE FLUVIAL STRATA 435
coarser time scales. The consistent trend of vironmental rates sensu Sadler (1981) have
falling mean sediment accumulation rate very limited value.
therefore reflects the discrepancy between Paleomagnetic Isochrons in Stratigraphic
episodic sedimentation rates operating over Analysis.-Estimations of net sediment ac-
the short term vs. the evolution of geo- cumulation rates have traditionally been de-
morphic systems controlled by longer-term pendent on the resolution of absolute time
(e.g., climatic, tectonic) rate processes (Sad- intervals in stratigraphic sequences. The as-
ler 1981; Sadler and Dingus 1982). While the signment of absolute ages that define particu-
possibility that sedimentary sections are at lar time intervals in sedimentary rock se-
least partially incomplete has been readily ac- quences is limited by the frequency of units
knowledged since early investigations (Bar- amenable to radiometric or paleomagnetic
rell 1917; Wheeler 1956; Reineck 1960; Ager dating. As a result of these limitations, most
1981), only recently have there been attempts stratigraphic sections contain a limited num-
to quantify it. ber of levels from which age information is
Sedimentary completeness is defined, in available. The age control possible in long
the sense of Sadler (1981), as a ratio between continuous magnetic stratigraphic sections
the time represented by intervals of sediment that have been developed for terrestrial
accumulation vs. the time span of the entire Neogene sequences provides an unparalleled
section. Completeness is described in terms means for quantifying net sediment accumu-
of a specific level of resolution: a section is lation. Magnetic polarity sections that are
complete only if it contains no time gaps correlated to the Global Magnetic Time Scale
longer than the level of precision (i.e., the (GMTS) provide independent measurements
time scale) at which completeness is to be of sediment accumulation rate for every dis-
estimated. To estimate the amount of time cernible magnetic polarity interval. The zona-
represented by intervals of sediment vs. the tion scheme of the GMTS is based on distinc-
time represented by gaps, Sadler chose short- tive sequences of polarity intervals that
term rates of sediment accumulation from es- generally provide resolution on a time scale
timates of modern sediment accumulation of 106yr (or 107 yr for pre-45 Ma rocks where
rates for known, environmentally similar sec- reversals occurred with much less fre-
tions representing equal time spans. The util- quency). Finer-scale calibration is also possi-
ity of this probablistic approach is that it al- ble where particulalr short-term (104-105 yr)
lows for estimates of "completeness" to be polarity events, located within longer polarity
predicted for any given stratigraphic se- epochs, have been identified. An even finer
quence. Though this may be a useful and level of resolution (103 yr) may be available
valid way to compare the intrinsic com- with high density sampling that reveals inter-
pleteness of different sedimentary environ- mediate polarity directions that define the
ments (e.g., fluvial vs. shallow marine), there transition of the magnetic field between po-
is no particular reason to believe that a mean larity events. This level of resolution affords
rate for an entire class of depositional sys- the ability to quantify more accurately sed-
tems (e.g., fluvial environments) should use- imentation rates in a sequence and poten-
fully describe any particular stratigraphic se- tially estimate the duration associated with
quence (Tipper 1983; Badgley et al. 1986; stratigraphic gaps by comparing thicknesses
Anders et al. 1987). It has been well estab- of time-equivalent sections. Estimates of
lished that accumulation rates in sedimentary time spans of gaps may also provide the po-
basin sequences reflect particular tectonic tential for assessing the presence and impor-
settings (Schwab 1976) and climatic condi- tance of rare, high-magnitude events that
tions as well as local depositional style. In have been suggested as dominating the signa-
addition, the great variance associated with ture of sedimentary records (Crowley 1984).
short-term accumulation rates suggests that The time interval over which a magnetic
values of mean short-term rates, however reversal takes place is a relatively short one,
calculated, are frequently unreliable and mis- generally believed to be on the order of
leading (Anders et al. 1987). In light of these 8,000-10,000 yr (Fuller et al. 1979). In a long-
problems, quantitative estimates of strati- term geologic context then, a magnetic rever-
graphic completeness derived from mean en- sal can be considered essentially an instanta-
436 L. E. McRAE
neous event. In a shorter-term geologic infinity (for deposition), is zero (for non-
perspective, a magnetic reversal can be re- deposition), or approaches negative infinity
garded as a narrow time interval. In either (for erosion). At the other extreme, sedimen-
case, the time scale of resolution associated tation rate is a complex function of shorter-
with a magnetic field reversal still exceeds the term rates acting over a continuum of time
time scales represented by depositional epi- scales (Tipper 1983). Identification of discrete
sodes. There is speculation concerning time scales is in many cases limited simply by
whether the directional change accompany- the scale of observation. Attempts to identify
ing a reversal occurs in discrete jumps (Pre- smaller-scale cycles within large-scale se-
vot et al. 1985) or in a smooth gradual transi- quences has motivated some previous work-
tion (Clement and Kent 1984; Valet et al. ers to develop different categories of recog-
1986). Regardless of the dynamics that actu- nizable time scales. A good example of this
ally occur during field reversals, there is sub- would be the episodic, cyclic, graded, and
stantial evidence from deep sea cores that steady stream classification developed by
reversals are characterized by a range of geomorphologists (Schumm 1977). Sadler's
intermediate directions; these transitional di- (1981) study illustrated that sedimentation
rections have even been observed in conti- rates are much higher for short time intervals,
nental sequences (Barndt et al. 1978; Tauxe such as those determined by first-hand
and Opdyke 1982; Johnson et al. 1985; Tauxe methods of measurement, than for longer
and Badgley 1988; Badgley and Tauxe 1990). time intervals, determined by isotopic
Detailed records of polarity transitions then, methods. This large disparity in rate values
have the potential of providing much infor- can define two basic categories of sedimenta-
mation about the continuity and com- tion: (1) a long-term stratigraphic rate (Sstrat)
pleteness of sedimentation at finer levels of or net sediment accumulation rate that repre-
resolution (102 to 103 yr) previously unattain- sents the net effect of all sedimentary events
able in chronostratigraphic studies. If the de- (deposition, hiatus, and erosion) responsible
tailed vertical record of that same magnetic for building up a stratigraphic sequence and
reversal event can be located in adjacent sec- (2) short-term episodic rates (Sep) that control
tions, an isochron can be defined for the tran- the individual episodes of sedimentation that
sition interval between the sections. At either have constructed distinct sedimentation units
long-term or short-term scales, paleomag- (beds) observed in outcrop (Friend et al.
netic isochrons can be used to indicate 1989). Sstrat'sare measured over long time in-
paleotopography of a reversal boundary tervals (At > 105 yr), are based on modern
(e.g., Behrensmeyer and Tauxe 1982) and geochronologic methods such as magnetic
identify laterally contemporaneous variations polarity stratigraphy, and yield relatively
in the nature and rates of sediment accumula- slow rate values on the order of 10-1-102 m/
tion (Johnson et al. 1988; Tauxe and Badgley 103 yr. Individual episodes of sedimentation
1988; Badgley and Tauxe 1990, Beer 1990). have short durations (At - 10-3 yr or about
one day, or even shorter), with very high
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF rates of accumulation (Sep > 105 m/103 yr). In
UNSTEADINESS AND NON-UNIFORMITY IN spite of the uncertainties in estimating both
FLUVIAL SEQUENCES Sep and Sstra,,the profound difference in mag-
Types of Sediment Accumulation Rates.- nitude between Sstratand Sep makes it possi-
Fluvial stratigraphic sequences are the end ble usefully to compare the relationship be-
products of the sum total of all the surficial tween short-term sedimentary events and
sedimentary processes-deposition, hiatus, longer-term tectonic and environmental fac-
and erosion-at a particular location in a de- tors. Sstratis then used as a base line against
positional system. There are various scales of which the pattern of Sep'S (whether positive,
rate values for individual sedimentary events, zero, or negative) may be considered; in
and they exist over a wide range of time inter- other words, Sstratcan be regarded as a long-
vals. At one extreme, the smallest discrete period, stratigraphic "signal'" against which
episodes consist of the deposition or erosion the short-period, episodic, sedimentological
of single sediment particles. In this case, "noise" is superimposed.
sedimentation rate approaches positive The total elapsed time represented in any
given stratigraphic thickness can thus be Whenthe net effects of sedimentation, ero-
viewed as a composite of the time occupied sion, and hiatus in the short term are all con-
by actual sedimentation, the time occupied sidered, their average rate must equal the
by hiatus, and an additional time period oc- long-termstratigraphicrate, Sstrat:
cupied by sedimentation and/or hiatus whose
record has subsequently been removed by n
erosion. Using general rate estimates from Sstrat = (1/n) Sep,i (1)
modern environments, an approximationof i=1
the time of actual sedimentation in the se-
quence can be calculated. As is expected in where n is the number of rate averages. This
all sedimentarysuccessions, especially in the expression describes quantitatively how the
case of fluvial sequences, the actual time of complete sequence of stratigraphic episodes
sedimentationwill account for only a part of transforms finally into the long-term mean
the elapsed time represented in a sequence. path, Sstra,. Extending this further, an esti-
Just how the "missing" time (time of hiatus mate of unsteadiness, U, can be defined as:
and time removed by erosion) is actually dis-
tributed over the entire stratigraphic time U = (1/n') (Lep,i - Lstrat,i) * 100
interval cannot be accurately determined.
For simplification in this analysis, the time (2)
"missing" in the section will be appor-
tioned equally among the identifiableuncon- U is expressed as a percentage of the devia-
formities in each section. Although the time tion of the actual sedimentation level (Lep,i)
for erosion is generally very short and may be from the long-term reference level (Lstrat,i),
considered, in a geologic context, to be in- which is defined by the overall net sedimenta-
stantaneous, the time for the deposition of tion rate, and z is the thickness of the strati-
sediment that was removed by erosion may graphic interval over which unsteadiness is
be substantial. calculated. Unsteadiness values are nor-
It is impossible to determine how much of malized to the thickness of the section to
the sediment record has been removed, but facilitate comparisons of unsteadiness in sed-
some reasonable assumptions may be made. iment accumulation over intervals of widely
River channels actively scour into and erode differing stratigraphic thicknesses. Variation
significant amounts of the underlying mate- in the amount of unsteadiness, as graphically
rial. Evidence of depths of erosion are often depicted by the deviations between the short-
revealed by the inspection of cut bank term and long-term rate paths, can describe
geometries observed in outcrop. Wherethere the sedimentation history of a stratigraphic
is no clear evidence as to the extent of ero- sequence. When the magnitude of un-
sion, a reasonable estimate has been to as- steadiness is reduced, i.e., when the "steps"
sume that a channel first removes a thickness in the time-level graph are evenly distributed,
of underlyingfiner-grainedsediment propor- the rates and periodicity associated with
tional to the thickness of the sand that later stratigraphic episodes are relatively continu-
fills the channel (Leeder 1978). Followingthis ous. Unsteadiness disappears completely
assumption, a thickness of eroded sediment when sedimentation is steady and continu-
can be assigned, and the time associated with ous. Conversely, when unsteadiness is ex-
its deposition prior to erosion can be cal- treme-when the "steps" in the time-level
culated. This time can be incorporated into graph are episodic and irregular-the rates
the time of hiatus assigned at the unconfor- and periodicities associated with sedimenta-
mity between the channel sand and underly- tion episodes are varied and discontinuous.
ing unit to provide a more accurate and com- These properties of unsteadiness can be used
plete account of the processes and time conceptually as a measure of the extent of
associated with sediment accumulation.This disequilibrium of the system during sedimen-
assumption is, of course, a gross simpli- tation, when equilibrium is defined as the
fication, but it is a first-order approximation long-term mean state, Sstrat-
necessary to model the depositional history Detailed stratigraphic information from lat-
of a particularstratigraphicsequence. erally contiguous sections representing the
438 L. E. McRAE
same time interval can identify non-uniform based on the following minimum estimates
sediment accumulation rates. This lateral reported from modern environments: 0.1
variation in rates is expected; it results from mm/yr for sandstone/conglomerate units,
differences in sedimentation across the char- 0.001 mm/yr for siltstone/mudstone units,
acteristic sub-environments of a given fluvial and 0.0005 mm/yr for mature paleosol hori-
system. Identification of lateral variability, zons. The calculated "actual times" of sedi-
or non-uniformity, within a well-constrained mentation are used for comparison among
chronologic framework allows the relation- sections, so that even if sedimentation rate
ships between rates and the specific types values are inaccurate, the results still serve
and relative proportions of sedimentation, as a useful basis for comparison. These are
non-deposition, and erosional episodes to be uncompacted rates applied to compacted
assessed. The recognition of lateral sediment sequences. The differential effects of post-
variability across a sedimentary sequence depositional compaction foreshorten the
may identify these differences and provide in- thickness of an accumulated sediment pile,
sight on the evolution of larger-scale and intervals of some lithologies (e.g., low
sedimentary or tectonic controls of basin de- sand/shale ratios) are compacted to a greater
velopment. degree than others (e.g., high sand/shale).
Simulating Sediment Accumulation His- Because these accumulation histories are
tories of Actual Fluvial Sequences.-Esti- being used to compare lateral, generally
mates of time periods or rates responsible for lithologically equivalent sections, the effects
building up any composite fluvial strati- of differential compaction should be negligi-
graphic successions cannot be achieved by ble. In addition, since compaction is also a
known direct methods. As a first approxima- function of burial depth, comparing accumu-
tion, one can rely on values obtained from lation of stratigraphically equivalent levels of
direct observation of present-day river pro- sedimentary sequences using uncompacted
cesses. Modern day estimates for sand depo- rate estimates should adequately serve the
sition in alluvial environments range from 1.0 purposes of this study.
m/hr to 0.1 m/yr (107-102 m/1000 yr) (Sadler The percent of time occupied by sedimen-
1981). Present-day estimates for mud deposi- tation can be estimated from the ratio of the
tion on river floodplains provide uncom- actual time of sedimentation (calculated as
pacted values ranging from 102-103 m/1000 described above) to the total time span of the
yr. Although these estimates are highly gen- section (known from chronologic data, in this
eralized, the rate is so high that, compared case, magnetic polarity stratigraphy). This
with long-term stratigraphic accumulation parameter is analogous to Sadler's com-
rates, variation by one or even two orders of pleteness, but instead of assigning a mean
magnitude would make little difference in this rate for all fluvial environments, a spectrum
analysis. Episodes of inactivity, if found in of estimated deposition rates representing the
association with paleosol horizons, can also various fluvial facies is used. The remaining
be estimated using present knowledge of time (that "missing" from the section) is
pedogenic processes. Extensive pedogenesis either partitioned equally among all strati-
is commonly associated with time spans on graphic breaks/unconformities in the section
the order of 102-104 yr (Leeder 1975; Bown (fig. 1A), or a hiatus hierarchy can be im-
and Kraus 1981, 1987; Retallack 1984, 1986). posed such that gaps at sand/mud contacts
Using the criteria outlined above, sediment are weighed more heavily than contacts be-
accumulation histories can be constructed for tween units of the same lithology (fig. lB).
any particular fluvial sequence. An earlier Hiatuses may be placed either at all unit con-
version of this model was introduced by tacts or at sand-conglomerate/mud-silt unit
Friend et al. (1989). Accumulation histories contacts only. In addition, effects of erosion
take into account the relative effects of the may be simulated (fig. 1C and D). For this
various sedimentation rates associated with case, additional fine-grained lithologies are
particular fluvial sub-facies. The "actual" inferred to have been deposited prior to an
time in the sequence represented by sedimen- erosive event. The rate of erosion is arbi-
tation can be estimated using arbitrarily cho- trarily determined as the difference between
sen values of sand and mud deposition rates the time assigned to the hiatus at the unit con-
associated with lower energy non-erosive
crevasse splay deposition. After the particu-
lar boundary conditions are chosen, a plot
simulatingthe episodic sediment accumula-
tion history for a particularsequence is con-
structed. Sediment accumulation histories
representing the effects of the various se-
lected boundary conditions for a single hy-
pothetical sequence are shown in figure 1.
Unsteadiness is calculated by solving equa-
tion 2 over increments short enough to in-
clude the effects of very rapid, short-term
episodes in the calculation of the mean
deviationof short-termsedimentation behav-
ior to the long-termnet accumulation rate. It
is importantto note the sediment accumula-
tion patternsand correspondingunsteadiness
values calculated for the two contrasting sets
of assumptions of bounding conditions. The
unsteadiness value for purely episodic
sedimentation with equal hiatuses (fig. 1A)
does not differ significantly from the value
derived when it is assumed that hiatuses at
sand/mudcontacts are greater (fig. IB). Simi-
larly, the general pattern of sediment ac-
cumulationand unsteadiness value calculated
for episodic sedimentation that does not take
erosion into account (fig. 1A or B) does not
differmuch from the time level plot that takes
erosion into account by assuming that a
thickness of underlying sediment, propor-
tional to the thickness to the overlying sand
unit, was deposited and eroded prior to depo-
sition of that sand unit (fig. 1C or D). The
results of this analysis reflect not simply the
boundaryconditions themselves, but are ulti-
FIG. 1.-Representative sediment accumulation
mately controlled by the surficial sedimen-
histories (time-level plots) for a hypothetical fluvial
stratigraphic sequence using the various boundary tary processes that created a particular
conditions. In all cases, individual units are treated stratigraphicsequence.
as separate depositional episodes ("purely episodic
sedimentation"). Examples are A: no erosion, CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC VARIABILITY OF THE
equal time gaps for all hiatuses; B: no erosion, with LOWER CHINJI FORMATION, NORTHWEST
hiatushierarchy(sand/mudcontactsare weighed HIMALAYAN FORELAND, NORTHERN PAKISTAN
twice as heavily as other contacts);C: erosion,
equal time gaps for all hiatuses; D:erosion, with Background and Regional Geologic
hiatushierarchy(sand/mudcontactsare weighed Framework.-Since 1973 the Neogene Si-
twice as heavilyas othercontacts).See text for walik deposits of the Potwar Plateau in
furtherdiscussion.
northern Pakistan have been the subject of
intense study by DartmouthCollege and Uni-
tact and the time it took for the estimated versity of Peshawar geologists, as well as
thickness of eroded lithology to be deposited. by members of the Harvard University-
An erosion tolerance (i.e., a minimumthick- Geological Survey of Pakistan research proj-
ness deposited subsequent to erosion) may ect (formerly Yale-GSP), and other affiliated
be specified to distinguish deeper, more ero- groups. The continental, sub-Himalayan
sive channels from those thinner sand units molasse deposits of the Siwalik Group span
440 L. E. McRAE
Miocene to Pleistocene time and are over tions first described by Khan (1985, unpub.
3000 m thick (Barry et al. 1980). Historically, data). The stratigraphic interval of study oc-
these strata have been the focus of substan- curs between two major sandstones, from ap-
tial paleontological investigations because of proximately the Kamlial-Chinji Formation
the long and essentially uninterrupted record boundary, located below the "Rainbow"
of terrestrial vertebrates, including hominoid Sandstone (Stix 1982; Johnson et al. 1985), to
primates, preserved in them. Magnetic polar- above another major sandstone unit. The en-
ity stratigraphy has provided a high resolu- tire interval comprises the lower 150-200 m
tion chronologic framework of the fluvial sed- of the lower Chinji Formation. The distance
iments of the Siwalik Group. Correlations between sections ranges from 0.8 to 1.6 km,
between local reversal records and the with an average of about 1 km. Each of the
geomagnetic polarity time scale have estab- seven sections (KR1-KR4, IR1-IR3), as well
lished that Siwalik Group sediments range as the Chitta Parwala section, were re-
from 18.3 to 1.5 Ma (e.g., Johnson et al. 1982, measured and described on a more detailed
1985). The chronologies established by this scale than in previous investigations. For
magnetic reversal framework have made pos- stratigraphic consistency among sections, the
sible correlations between Siwalik faunal lower boundary of each individual section
evolution and climatic and tectonic events was placed 10 m below the Rainbow sand-
(Barry et al. 1980, 1985) and can delineate stone and the upper boundary 5 m above the
relationships between the sedimentary and upper sandstone. Major sand units and dis-
tectonic record (e.g., Raynolds and Johnson tinctive fine-grained horizons were physically
1985; Burbank and Raynolds 1986; Johnson correlated by following units along strike be-
et al. 1986) and reconstruct aspects of the tween sections.
stratigraphic and structural evolution of the Lithostratigraphy.-The Chinji Formation
Himalayan foreland basin system (Burbank consists of alternating gray sandstones and
and Raynolds 1988). fine-grained red-brown siltstones and mud-
The exposures studied in the present inves- stones that represent large-scale cycles of
tigation consist of a roughly linear outcrop channel-sandstone and floodplain-mudstone
belt of the Siwalik Group Chinji Formation, deposition. Five distinct Chinji lithofacies
located on the southern limb of the Soan have been defined representing the various
Synclinorium on the northern flank of the Salt types of contemporaneous channel and over-
Range on the Potwar Plateau (Raza 1983). bank or floodplain deposition. The sedi-
Erosion along local drainages has left the mentology of the Chinji sequence is de-
gently dipping sequence well exposed for scribed extensively elsewhere (Raza 1983;
tens of kilometers along strike, providing Behrensmeyer 1986; McRae 1989); therefore
ideal conditions for paleomagnetic sampling only brief facies descriptions and their impor-
and studies of lateral stratigraphic variations tant characteristics relating to the subsequent
(fig. 2). modeling of Chinji sediment accumulation
will be presented here.
STRATIGRAPHIC FIELD METHODS AND The vertical distribution of facies in indi-
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY vidual sections is summarized in figure 3. In-
Field Methods.-Seven stratigraphic sec- traformational conglomerates (1) occur at the
tions, numbered KR1 through KR4 west of bases of some sandstone units and possess
the Chitta Parwala (CP) section of Johnson et irregular to planar erosion surfaces cut into
al. (1982, 1985), and IR1 through IR3 east of underlying finer-grained sediment. Sheet
the CP section (figs. 2 and 3) form the basis sandstones (2a), tabular units 10 to 30 m thick
for the stratigraphic and paleomagnetic inves- with erosive bases traceable for up to tens of
tigations of this study. The sections occur in kilometers, provide the basis for stratigraphic
stream cuts north of the Gabhir Kas, the ma- correlations in this study, as well as in studies
jor local drainage. The locations of KR1- of the Chinji sequence in other areas (Raza
KR4 are approximately the same as in the 1983; Kappelman 1986). Abundant occur-
study by Sheikh (1984) and Johnson et al. rences of fine-grained, single-storied ribbon
(1988); the eastern sections (IR1-IR3) are sandstone units (2b) persist laterally over dis-
similar in location to three stratigraphic sec- tances from 50 m to >1 km. Thinly inter-
sections Kl-K4
roads sampled
to
formations
section
sections
1985)
Unimproved analagous
al, Siwalik
master
paleomagnetic
of of et are
LEGEND
study)
paleomagnetic
Location
Location
(This (Johnson Village of KR1-KR4
Approximate
contact
(1985).
locations
al.
with
et
area
Johnson
study
of
Village
section
Chinji
(CP)
the
of
Parwala
geology
Chitta
the
to
generalized
refer
and (1988).
al.
et
sections
location
Johnson
Labeled
and
geographic
(1984)
Formation.
showing
Sheikh
Chinji
of
the
2.-Map
FIG.
sections
within
Paleosol
5 units.
4
sandstone
major
Mudstone
3
the
of
kilometers)
2 (in
correlations
section
Siltstone
1
strike
C.P
along
0 from
and
strike
1 sections
along
Sandstone
vertical
2 of
Distance
Conglomerate
lithostratigraphy
4
5
LEGEND:
3.-Generalized
0
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 FIG.
170 160 150 140130120 110100
(leAsi GSB9 e~oqe w) e~ei ~aqS
bedded sandstone and siltstone (3) are an in- of the Chinji sections, the absolute and rela-
termediate facies that grades laterally from tive thicknesses of these zones was not.
sandier units. Bioturbated siltstones and Some of this apparent variability was attrib-
mudstones (4) are volumetrically by far the uted to the sample spacing used to locate
most abundant facies in the Chinji sequence the magnetic reversal timelines (Johnson et
and are commonly interbedded with coarser al. 1988). For this investigation, 216 paleo-
levee and splay units that represent smaller- magnetic sites were taken at closely spaced
scale activity on the floodplains of the major (< 1.0 m) intervals in the vicinity of the rever-
channels. Pedogenically altered siltstone and sals identified in earlier studies to resolve bet-
mudstone facies (5) show evidence of post- ter the location and stratigraphic positions of
depositional modifications that have been the polarity reversals. The five magnetic re-
used to identify paleosols in other Cenozoic versals defining the polarity chron boundaries
fluvial sequences (e.g., Bown and Kraus determined from the previous studies have
1981a, 1987; Behrensmeyer and Tauxe 1982; been correlated to the type Chitta Parwala
Tauxe and Badgley 1988). (CP) section by lateral tracing of persistent
Fluviatile strata of the Chinji depositional major sandstone units. This correlation of the
system accumulated through a pattern of master CP section to the MPTS of Mankinen
channel cutting, filling, and migration, com- and Dalrymple (1979) was first presented by
bined with significant vertical accretion over Johnson et al. (1985) and provides the basis
time. This overall pattern of vertical flood- for the age assignments used here (fig. 4).
plain aggradation with laterally and vertically The magnetic mineralogy of these sedi-
discrete sand bodies marking the successive ments has been well documented in previous
positions of the main channel belt loosely fits studies (Tauxe et al. 1980; Sheikh 1984; John-
the classic models for meandering stream de- son et al. 1985; Tauxe and Badgley 1988;
position (Leopold and Wolman 1964; Allen Badgley and Tauxe 1990); the primary carrier
1965a, 1965b, 1974; Puigdefabrigras and Van of remanence is detrital hematite. Thermal
Vliet 1978). The Chinji strata also display demagnetization was performed on all sam-
some distinct differences from the classic ples from this study to remove secondary
meander models. Although the major Chinji magnetic components that may have been ac-
sand bodies appear to have accumulated as a quired from the present magnetic field, past
result of erosional scouring, channel filling, fields, and oxidation reactions (chemical al-
and the subsequent aggradation and lateral teration due to diagenesis). Since differing
spread of sandy sediment above the initial lithologies and grain sizes affect the character
level of downcutting, some of the smaller and quality of magnetic remanence at individ-
sand bodies do not show evidence of signifi- ual sites, often revealing subtleties in mag-
cant aggradation beyond initial channel netization that can be obscured by blanket
infilling. This suggests that avulsion (the sud- treatments, one sample per site was sub-
den switching of channel position on the jected to stepwise thermal demagnetization in
floodplain) rather than the gradual channel progressively higher temperature steps. After
migration typical of most meandering sys- stepwise heating of these samples to achieve
tems played a significant role in the distribu- a characteristic magnetic behavior for each
tion and deposition of sand in the Chinji site, the remaining samples were subjected to
fluvial system. a blanket thermal demagnetization step of
500°C and carried to higher temperatures as
MAGNETIC POLARITY STRATIGRAPHY necessary. Details of magnetic mineralogy
The magnetostratigraphic framework for and paleomagnetic laboratory methods used
this sequence was previously established for are discussed by McRae (1989).
eight sections located at regular intervals The site means for normnal and reversed
along strike (Sheikh 1984; Khan 1985, un- polarity directionrs (iNormal: Declination =
pub.; Johnson et al. 1988) based on an origi- 342.9°, Inclination = 37.1°, a95 = 3.65, Re-
nal sample spacing that averaged approxi- versed: Declination = 166.7°, Inclination =
mately 8.6 m. Although the number of 36.7°, a95 = 6.28) clearly separate into two
magnetic polarity zones was the same for all antipodal populations and satisfy a positive
444 L. E. McRAE
MPTS (Mankinenand Dalrymple(1979)
FIG. 4.-Correlation of the Chitta Parwala sequence of Siwalik sediments to the global MPTS. Data from
Johnson et al. (1985). In this section, the Chinji Formation spans the interval from the base of polarity zone
N8 to the base of N2. Polarity time scale from Mankinen and Dalrymple (1979). Sediment accumulation
history of the Chitta Parwala stratigraphic section is shown on the right and is based on a plot of strati-
graphic level of magnetic reversals as a function of age of the reversal. Slope of the curve is sedimentation
rate.
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF

reversal test at the 95% confidence level
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC VARIABILITY IN THE
(McElhinney 1973), implying that these sedi-
ments accurately recorded the direction of CHINJI FORMATION
the ambient geomagnetic field at or shortly Methodology.-Hypothetical sediment ac-
after the time of deposition. The closely cumulation histories for the Chinji sequence
spaced sampling within polarity intervals are developed by combining time constraints
more accurately locates the stratigraphic from the globally correlated magnetic rever-
positions of polarity reversals, serving to sal timelines with stratigraphic data from
redefine the thickness of polarity zones in the measured and described vertical sections.
Lower Chinji sequence (fig. 5). With the re- Comparison of these accumulation histories
vised estimates of thickness for the polarity can identify the varying importance of short-
chron intervals, variability in chron thickness term surface events of the fluvial system to
is interpreted not to reflect significant sam- the overall pattern of long-term stratigraphic
pling error or failure to completely isolate accumulation rate of the Chinji sequence.
primary magnetization, but intrinsic fluctua- These simulated accumulation histories also
tion of sediment accumulation in the Chinji provide a basis for characterizing the un-
system. These results bear directly on the steadiness of Chinji sedimentation over dif-
estimates of chronostratigraphic variability ferent time intervals, which may suggest the
which follow. factors responsible for controlling unsteadi-
DistancealongstrikefromC.P section (inkm)

* NormalPolarity
Site Mainpolarity
reversal
O ReversedPolarity
Site Shorttermreversalevent
o Reversaltransition
intervals
data 13.46my -AgetakenfromMagnetic PolarityTimeScale
* fromthisstudy (MankinenandDalrymple (1979)
FIG. 5.-Distribution of paleomagnetic isochrons in the lower Chinji Formation in the eight individual
vertical sections between KR4 (in the west) in IR3 (in the east) based on thickness of polarity chrons
determined from the detailed paleomagnetic sampling accomplished in this study. The location of the
reversal is arbitrarily placed midway between sites of opposite polarity. With the increased sampling
density in the vicinity of reversals, the possible error associated with placement of the polarity boundary is
reduced to ±0.5 m.
ness in sediment accumulationover different estimates of the duration of a geomagnetic

time spans. Changes in unsteadiness over dif- field reversal in the range of 8000-10,000 yr
ferent intervals may signal changes in the (Fuller et al. 1979), although other estimates
dominant controls of net sediment accumu- suggest as little as 5,000 or as much as 15,000
lation, from the short-term influence of sur- yr (Clement and Kent 1984; Prevot et al.
ficial processes to longer-term domination 1985). It is assumed in this study that a com-
by larger-scale geomorphic and extrabasinal plete reversal of the earth's field takes place
controls. These controls interact and com- over a span of 104yr. Althoughfor any partic-
bine to characterize sediment accumulation ular reversal this estimate may or may not be
in a particular depositional system. In addi- accurate, it can serve as a basis for compar-
tion, the relative unsteadiness and patternof ing laterally equivalent stratigraphicintervals
accumulation for a particular time interval that represent the same reversal event. The
can be compared to other stratigraphicsec- presence of intervals of varying thicknesses
tions representing the same intervalto assess representinga 104yr span indicates the pres-
the lateral variability of sedimentationacross ence of individualdepositional episodes rep-
the depositional system. resenting smaller time spans, on the order of
The chronologic framework provided by 103yr. This level of resolution, although its
paleomagnetic isochrons can also provide limits are the most speculative, represents
three magnitudes of time spans for measuring perhapsthe finest measurabletime scale pos-
chronostratigraphic variability. The high- sible in sedimentary strata and has implica-
density paleomagnetic data in the vicinity of tions that may ultimatelybe of significance in
polarity transitions in a portion of the Chinji studies that address evolutionary patterns
sequence allows for a study of variabilityin and processes in the stratigraphicrecord.
short-termstratigraphicrates on the order of Correlationsof an established sequence of
103 years. Most recent studies have placed magnetic polarity zones to the global MPTS
446 L. E. McRAE
Distance along strike from C.P. section (in km)
FIG.6.-Lateral correlationof paleomagneticisochronsand theirrelationshipto the variousfluvialfacies

in the lower ChinjiFormation. Age dates of individualisochrons are taken from the MPTS correlationof
Johnson et al. (1985)presented in figure5. The distributionof these isochrons allows for the division of the
sequence into separate time slices that provide the basis for investigations of chronostratigraphicvariabil-
ity.
provides a basis for assigning ages to individ- chronostratigraphicframework of the Lower

ual paleomagnetic isochrons and thus a dura- Chinji interval showing the distribution of
tion for the polarity interval bounded by two channel and ribbon sandstone units and over-
particularmagneticreversals. The time spans bank facies and the locations of paleomag-
associated with individualpolarity chrons are netic isochrons that serve to divide the se-
on the order of 105-106 years. Age assign- quence into separate time slices. Four
ments for individual and multiple polarity timelines have been traced continuously
chrons also can be extended to include the along strike throughout approximately12 km
polarity zonation that constitutes the local of exposed outcrop. Of these, the upper
magnetic stratigraphy of an entire basinal three, dated at 13.46, 13.21, and 12.94 Ma
sequence. Local magnetic polarity stratig- form the basis for the present investigation.
raphies that form the basis for correlationto The simulations of individual episodes of
the global MPTS commonly range over time deposition are based on the assignmentof ar-
intervals on the order of 106-107 yr. These bitraryminimumrate estimates to the differ-
longer records have generally provided the ent fluvial facies as described earlier. These
basis for determining rates of net sediment minimum rates are only conservative esti-
accumulation (e.g., Johnson et al. 1982, 1985, mates that reflect the broad differences be-
1986). Net sediment accumulation rates tween rates of high energy, geologically in-
identified over these longer time spans fre- stantaneous, sand deposition and the much
quently exhibit secular changes related to slower accumulation associated with quiet
long-term evolution of depositional basin se- water, suspended-load mudstone sedimenta-
quences controlled by extrabasinal factors tion. Boundary conditions used for simulat-
such as tectonism and climate. ing sediment accumulation in the ChinjiFor-
Simulated sediment accumulationhistories mation treat lithologic units observed in
have been constructed over various time outcrop as individual episodes of sedimenta-
spans for each of the eight stratigraphicsec- tion. This is an idealized, but practical, view
tions (figs. 3 and 5). Figure 6 presents the of deposition, as the stratigraphicunits ob-
served in the field can likely be broken down with time gaps between mudstone/siltstone
further into even shorter episodes of sedi- and sandstone units deposited subsequent to
mentation. The Chinji sequence contains an erosion, a hiatus hierarchy is introduced into
abundance of fine-grained floodplain facies the model. Twice as much time is allotted to
that possess varying degrees of pedogenic al- hiatuses between mudstone/siltstone and
teration. Only severely pedogenically al- sandstone units than those between mud-
terated units are considered "paleosols" in stone/siltstone and other mudstone-siltstone
the model. This facies is assigned a slower units. This is an arbitrary assumption, de-
rate of accumulation than other floodplain signed to weigh hiatuses associated with sand
facies, instead of a longer period of non- contacts more heavily than others. Consider-
deposition, since fluvial pedogenic processes ing the additional complexity of the pattern of
are generally characterized by a periodic in- sediment deposition, non-deposition, and
cremental addition of sediment (Kraus and erosion that likely takes place at these gaps, it
Bown 1987). is reasonable to infer that they may indeed
The Chinji fluvial system, a complex of account for a larger portion of time than those
massive sheet sandstone bodies and verti- gaps separating steady pulses of deposition of
cally accreting floodplain siltstones and mud- the same facies.
stones, indicates a periodically high energy It is not possible to establish definitively
depositional regime characterized by epi- the actual sequence of, or various time dura-
sodes of significant and potentially extreme tions associated with, hiatus and deposition
erosion. Evidence of erosion is abundant in of sediment ultimately removed by erosion.
the sequence, as indicated by cut bank The time associated with deposition of a fine-
geometries in many of the channel sand- grained unit that was subsequently eroded is
stones and the frequently irregular and occa- arbitrarily estimated from the minimum rate
sionally extreme relief on scour surfaces at estimate for the accumulation of fine-grained
the bases of many of the major sheet sand- sediments (0.001 m/yr). The difference be-
stones. Not all of the Chinji sand units are tween the time assigned to the gap at the con-
erosive, however. There are also relatively tact of channel sandstone and siltstone-
common, thin, sheetlike, crevasse splay mudstone units and the time represented by
sandstone units that appear to have been the deposition of the unit subsequently re-
draped passively over the underlying flood- moved by erosion was assigned to the esti-
plain surface. The presence of both erosive mated duration of erosion. The varying de-
and non-erosive sandstones necessitates two gree of negative slope for erosional episodes
different ways of simulating sandstone depo- should be viewed as a simplified composite of
sition. Erosive units, including any sand unit time representing the specific events that ac-
of >1 m thickness, are assumed to have filled tually occured between the deposition of sed-
an erosional channel form cut from some iment, its subsequent erosion, and the depo-
thickness of fine-grained sediment. For the sition of overlying sediment. It is impossible
purposes of the simulation, it was assumed to reconstruct accurately all the nuances as-
that a channel removed an underlying thick- sociated with the history of sediment ac-
ness of fine-grained material proportional to cumulation of a missing section by invoking
the thickness of the sand that subsequently these few arbitary scenarios. What can be
filled the channel; this amounts to a channel reasonably inferred using the criteria adopted
eroding a thickness of underlying sediment in this model, is that a missing section does
equivalent to the thickness of the overlying exist, and the arbitrary assumptions incorpo-
sandstone. This assumption is consistent rated here are used to estimate the possible
with observations from earlier sedimentolog- extent of section that is missing.
ical studies that estimated erosion based on Non-Uniformity of Chinji Sediment Accu-
channel depths (Leeder 1978). The time gap mulation Histories.-Sediment accumulation
between channel filling sand and the underly- histories for stratigraphic intervals corre-
ing fine-grained unit represents a combination sponding to the 12.94 Ma polarity reversals
of sediment deposition, erosion, and most are shown in figure 7A. Unsteadiness is illus-
likely some period of non-deposition as well. trated by deviations of the short-term ac-
In view of the complex history associated cumulation rate (assigned to surficial fluvial
448 L. E. McRAE
FIG.7.-Simulated sediment accumulationhistories for Chinji stratigraphicintervals definedby (A) the

12.94 Ma polarity transition and (B) by the 13.21-13.46 Ma polarity chron.
processes) from the longer-term stratigraphic demonstrates a significant degree of non-

rate (determined by the total time span). It is uniformity in sediment accumulation as ,well.
clear in these examples that sediment ac- Inspection of individual sediment accumula-
cumulation exhibited unsteadiness over this tion histories suggests that the net sediment
short span of approximately 104 yr. The wide accumulation rates, and the degree of un-
range in stratigraphic accumulation rates in steadiness at this time scale, reflect the
along strike intervals representing the same magnitude of particular episodes of deposi-
reversal, and therefore the same time span, tion, non-deposition, and erosion that took
place at that location. More specifically, un- than those observed at the 104 yr time scale
steadiness and associated net rates of strati- (lr = 0.063 for 2.5 x 105 yr and la = 0.037
graphic accumulation are higher in sequences for 2.7 x 105yr vs. values of 0.12, 0.32, and
with a high percentage of sheet sandstones 0.20 for larassociated with the time occupied
(Facies 2a). At this time scale, the presence for a single polarity transition).
of a single large sand unit introduces an ele- When the time intervals representing com-
ment of profound disequilibrium at the loca- posite polarity chrons are considered, the
tion on the alluvial surface that serves to ranges of unsteadiness and net accumulation
dominate the overall pattern of sediment ac- rates and of standard deviation values are
cumulation. For example, the sediment ac- significantlyless than those listed above for
cumulation history for KR-lB illustrates the shortertime scales of 104yr and lower values
extreme unsteadiness in sedimentation re- of 105 yr (for unsteadiness: lr = 9.68 for
sulting from the introduction of a major "high 5.2 x 105yr, lar = 2.37 for 6.7 x 105yr, and
impact" event of sand deposition. Con- lar = 1.76 for 9.4 x 105yr; for net sediment
versely, those intervals dominated by Facies accumulationrates lar = 0.03 mm/yr for 5.2
3, 4, and 5 (thinner, non-erosive sandstone, x 10syr, lr = 0.021 mm/yr for 6.7 x 105yr,
siltstone-mudstone and pedogenically altered and lr = 0.012 mm/yrfor 9.4 x 105yr). This
mudstone) units (e.g., IR-2B) are character- appears to be a direct result of the similar
ized more steady, episodic pulses of lower- thicknesses of stratigraphicintervals repre-
magnitude events of sedimentation. senting the same time span at this scale of
Examination of sediment accumulation investigation. Although individual sections
histories for Chinji stratigraphic intervals possess unique sediment accumulation his-
defined by polarity chrons allows analysis of tories, each reflecting the particular pattern
sediment accumulation rate variability over of variable deposition, erosion, and non-
longer time spans, on the order of 105 yr. Ac- deposition experienced at that particular lo-
cumulation histories have been developed for cation in the fluvial system, longer strati-
two polarity chron intervals: 12.94-13.21 Ma graphic intervals appear to consist of a more
and 13.21-13.46 Ma, representing 2.5 x 105 regular series of depositional episodes of
yr and 2.7 x 105 yr respectively, and two sandstone and mudstone deposition, non-
composite polarity chrons; 12.94-13.46 Ma deposition, and erosion.
and 13.21-13.88 Ma, representing 5.2 x 105 Analysis of Unsteadiness of Chinji Sedi-
yr and 6.7 x 105 yr, respectively. The time ment Accumulation.-Comparison of sedi-
durations of these polarity zones are deter- ment accumulationhistories of the Chinji se-
mined directly from the ages assigned to indi- quence over different time intervals reveals
vidual reversals, as indicated in the global differingdegrees of unsteadiness, as defined
MPTS correlation of Johnson et al. (1985) by the mean deviations of short-term episode
(fig. 4). A typical example from a relatively and long-term stratigraphicrates. Sediment
short time interval, in this case the 13.21- accumulationat short time scales (104 yr and
13.46 Ma polarity chron, is shown in figure low values of 105yr) illustrates different pat-
7B. Although in some cases coeval time inter- terns of sediment accumulationcharacterized
vals contain similar thicknesses, and hence by varying degrees of unsteadiness. Higher
similar net rates of accumulation, comparison degrees of unsteadiness correspond to units
of all the sediment accumulation histories which contain significant "high impact"
generally demonstrates a degree of strati- events of major sandstone deposition, while
graphic non-uniformity and variable patterns intervals possessing a more even pattern of
of sediment accumulation similar to those ob- sandstone and mudstone units demonstrate
served at the 104 yr time scale. The standard steadier accumulationhistories.
deviations on unsteadiness measures are At the 104yr time scale, there is consider-
similar at both the 104 yr (lr = 12.98) and able variability in the magnitude of net ac-
low values of 105 yr time scales (lar = 17.85 cumulation rates, as shown in figure 7. At
for 2.5 x 105 yr and lr = 24.78 for 2.7 x 105 scales on the order of 105 yr, steadiness in
yr respectively). The ranges of net sediment sediment accumulation increases in Chinji
accumulation rates at low values of 105 year stratigraphicintervals (figs. 8 and 9). This
time scales, however, are significantly less reflects the diminished importance of single
450 L. E. McRAE
FIG. 8.-Example of evolution from unsteady to more steady sediment accumulation over successively
longer time slices of the same stratigraphic interval.
episodes of major sand deposition, as longer ently acts to modulate the unsteadiness asso-
time spans allow for more and more episodes ciated with a particular episode or series of
of sand deposition potentially to occur. The episodes of deposition, non-deposition, and
trend toward decreasing unsteadiness is a re- erosion.
sult of the pattern of erosional, depositional,
FLUVIAL CYCLICITY AND UNSTEADINESS OF
and non-depositional episodes that defines
SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION
unsteadiness over shortertime scales becom-
ing, in itself, steadier. The effect of this The trend from short-term unsteadiness to
superimposed "steady" pattern upon un- longer-term steady sedimentation appears to
steady sedimentationis to reduce the control result from the cyclical nature of fluvial depo-
exerted by any single episode (e.g., channeli- sition that characterizes the Chinji sequence.
zation and subsequent deposition of a major Changing patterns of steadiness and un-
sand unit) on the long-termstratigraphicrate. steadiness in sediment accumulation are the
The trend from short-termunsteady sedimen- products of a combination of natural cycles
tation to a longer-term pattern of steadier that operate in depositional basins and exert
sediment accumulationis illustratedfor a par- their influence to different degrees and over
ticular stratigraphiccolumn in figure 8. This different time scales. Consideration of the
longest composite section exhibits unsteady time scales over which fluvial processes oper-
behavior of sediment accumulation over ate and the various levels of fluvial cyclicity
shorter time intervals, and the net accumula- produced by these processes may lend more
tion rate is controlled by the presence of a insight into why unsteadiness is greater at
rapidly deposited, single sandstone unit. As some scales than others. The high-resolution
longer time spans are considered, however, chronologic framework provided by the lat-
more and more "high impact" sandstone eral tracing of paleomagnetic isochrons pro-
depositional events are added to the strati- vides a basis for constraining and identifying
graphic sequence. The addition of these time spans associated with various cycles of
events serves to reduce the importance of fluvial sedimentation (fig. 6).
any one depositional episode, and this appar- The recurring pattern of channel sand and
as these reflect local geomorphic thresholds
and are superimposed on largersecond-order
and first-ordercycles that represent individ-
ual finingupwardfluvial cycles and the entire
coarseningupward Siwalik molasse sequence
respectively. Schumm (1977) also recognizes
a smaller scale, fourth-ordercycle, that can
be applied to the pattern of individual epi-
sodes of overbank deposition within a single
channelsandstone/overbankmudstone coup-
let that constitutes the basic (third-order)
fluvial cycle. Fourth-order cycles include
stratified mudstones, siltstones, crevasse
splay sandstones, and paleosols. They are at-
tributedto short-termseasonal flood or storm
events and generally span time intervals rang-
ing from 10°to 104yr, dependingon the scale
of the particular process (Schumm 1977).
These shorter-term fourth-order cycles
nested within "third order" Chinjioverbank/
sandstone couplets are readily recognized
throughoutthe sequence.
The trends in unsteadiness of sediment ac-
cumulation of the Chinji sequence can now
be interpretedwithin the context of different
fluvial cycles. Sequences representing time
spans shorter than the recurrence interval
for Chinji "third-order" cycles (< 105 yr)
strongly reflect the varying inputs from the
short-term fourth-order processes that oc-
1x104 2x10s 4x10s 6x10s 8x10s 1x106
curred at a particulardepositional site. Suc-
cessions representingtime spans on the order
Time Span (in years) of the basic fluvial cycle (105yr) are also rea-
FIG.9.-Trends in unsteadinessin sedimentac- sonably unsteady, as their sediment accumu-
cumulationover successively longer time spans for lation is not only still affected by the particu-
individual
stratigraphic
sectionsof thelowerChinji lar combination of shorter-term events but
Formation.Stratigraphic
intervalsthatdid not re- also are dominated by the occurrence of a
veal details of polarity transition are represented "high impact" event, that is, the deposition
by 100%unsteadiness.Most sections exhibita
trend of increasing steadiness of sediment accumu- of a majorsand unit. Time spans of increasing
lation. duration progressively include more third-
and fourth-ordercycles, resulting in an over-
all steady pattern of unsteady sediment ac-
overbank mud and silt deposition of the cumulation over the longer term. This trend
Chinji sequence exemplify the classic fluvial is well documented for a majoritythe individ-
cycles described by Allen (1965). Based on ual Chinji sequences.
the paleomagnetic chronology, and a mean The trend toward a steadierpattern of sedi-
separation of 10-50 m between major sand ment accumulation is seen even more con-
units, Johnson et al. (1985) calculated a re- vincingly in an examinationof a hypothetical
turn period for the main Lower Chinji river sediment accumulation history generated for
channel at any given location to range from the entire 10 m.y. Siwalik fluvial succession
1 x 105to 4 x 105yr. This recurringpattern (fig. 10). The stratigraphicdata for this simu-
of river migration and channeling is analo- lation incorporatethe detailed interval of this
gous to Schumm's (1977) "3rd order" cycle investigation combined with additional de-
(Johnsonet al. 1985). Third-ordercycles such tailed sedimentologic data available from the
452 L. E. McRAE
Net Sediment AccumulationRate SedimentAccumulation

Simulated History
FIG. 10.-Comparison of sediment accumulation history of the Siwalik sequence as revealed by net
sediment accumulation rates derived from paleomagnetic data (on the left) with the simulated sediment
accumulation history of the entire Siwalik sequence (on the right). Boxes on both graphs correspond to
anchor points correlating stratigraphic level of magnetic reversals with age of the reversal as presented
earlier in figure 4. The coincidence of the points plotting stratigraphic level vs. age of reversal with the
simulated curve on the right infer that the trends in net sediment accumulation rates as illustrated by the
model are controlled by the lithostratigraphy, and not merely an artifact of the boundary conditions em-
ployed by the model. In addition, the simulated curve and associated unsteadiness values calculated over
portions of it demonstrate a trend toward increasing apparent steadiness of sediment accumulation with
duration of time span.
underlying Kamlial, and overlying Nagri and stratigraphy presented in figure 5 have been
Dhok Pathan Formations in the same Chinji used to estimate unsteadiness over the entire
succession (G. D. Johnson unpub. data). The Siwalik sequence (fig. 10). The mean un-
simulated history of sediment accumulation steadiness, 2.62, is even less at this 10 m.y.
corresponds to the vertical stratigraphic sec- time scale than at the 1 m.y. scale (3.87, fig.
tion that provided the basis for the regional 9).
correlation to the global MPTS (Chitta Par- The sediment accumulation of the entire
wala section of Johnson et al. 1985). It is in- "first-order" Siwalik sequence incorporates
teresting and important to note the similarity the superimposed effects of second-, third-,
between the locations of the chronologic an- and fourth-order fluvial cycles (fig. 10). Sec-
chor points determined from the MPTS cor- ond-order fluvial cycles, defined by Schumm
relation presented in figure 4 with the (1977) as massive fining-upward sequences,
simulated curve on the right (fig. 10). This are exemplified by the Lower and Middle
coincidence suggests that the trends in net Siwalik Formations (Kamlial-Chinji transi-
sediment accumulation rates as illustrated by tion, and Nagri-Dhok Pathan transition). The
the model are controlled by the lithostratig- sequence presented in figure 10 is contained
raphy, and not merely an artifact of the within the Siwalik coarsening-upward cycle
boundary conditions employed by the model. and thus does not reflect the effects of step-
Separate linear segments of the net accumu- ping across the boundaries of such a first-
lation curve defined by magnetic polarity order cycle. The absence of a second-order
cycle boundary within the study interval may stratigraphicsuccessions over different time
explain part of the observed trend of decreas- spans provides insight into the different
ing unsteadiness, since crossing a second- levels of controls operating in fluvial deposi-
order cycle boundary may have introduced tional basins. Simulated sediment accumula-
additional unsteadiness into the system. Ad- tion histories, constructed using estimates of
ditionally, the fact that the entire Siwalik se- accumulationrates for various fluvial facies
quence is contained within a single first-order and taking into account the presence of gaps
cycle precludes observing the impact of in deposition and possible effects of erosion,
crossing a first-order cycle boundary on the are presented as a meaningfulway of visual-
unsteadiness in sediment accumulation. In izing the nature of episodic fluvial sedimen-
summary, the net result of the superposition tation and the way that fluvial stratigraphic
of various cyclical controls on sediment ac- sections are created. Unsteadiness in sedi-
cumulation serves to further modulate the un- mentation, estimated as the mean devia-
steadiness that is observed with individual tion of the short-termepisodic accumulation
cycles over smaller time scales. rate from the long-term net stratigraphic ac-
cumulation rate, is calculated as a useful
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
measure to assess patterns in vertical vari-
The precise age control made possible by ability in sediment accumulation over time
magnetostratigraphic studies in terrestrial and to compare non-uniformity in sediment
Neogene strata provides an unparalleled accumulation between coeval stratigraphic
chronologic foundation on which to examine intervals.
variability in the sedimentary record. The The channel sand and overbank mud facies
chronologic information supplied by mag- of a largethroughgoingriver that characterize
netic polarity stratigraphy potentially pro- distal foreland basin sedimentation in the
vides several levels of time resolution; from Chinji sequence display varying degrees of
correlations of a sequence of polarity inter- non-uniformity,as revealed by examination
vals represented in an entire stratigraphic of sediment accumulation histories for later-
succession (106-107 yr), to the tracing of ally correlated stratigraphic sections repre-
individual polarity reversals (104-105 yr), senting the same time interval. Significant
to examining the variability associated with non-uniformityis observed over shorter time
transitional field behavior during a single spans. This reflects the variable sedimenta-
polarity reversal. This study has presented an tion history experienced at particular loca-
example of identifying the presence of tions on the basin surface, which is directly
chronostratigraphic variability in fluvial controlledby the location, site, and temporal
stratigraphic sequences at various levels of stability of the main river channel system.
resolution using paleomagnetic isochrons. Chinjitime spans on the order of 105 yr ex-
Fluvial systems are characterized by pat- hibit the most significantnon-uniformity and
terns of sediment accumulation that reflect also possess the greatest variation in the pro-
the interplay of external and internal con- portions of fluvial facies. As longer time
trols. Short-term episodes of sedimentation, spans are considered, the overall pattern of
non-deposition, and erosion occur over a sediment accumulation of the Chinji se-
range of time scales, and the frequency and quence is manifestedby higherproportions of
duration of particular episodes is dependent fine-grainedsandstones, siltstones, and mud-
on local conditions within the depositional stones; i.e., the patternof sedimentation con-
basin as well as extra-basinal, allocyclic fac- trolled by basic fluvial cycles becomes more
tors such as uplift, basin subsidence, sedi- regular. The net result of this is a relatively
ment supply, and climate. The combination uniform sedimentation rate over longer time
of these controls is specific to conditions ex- spans. Although the sediment accumulation
isting in a given depositional setting and de- history in any one vertical section is unique,
termines variability in sedimentation both the pattern of sediment accumulation be-
laterally throughout a depositional system comes more similar over longer time spans.
(non-uniformity) and over time (unsteadi- Unsteadiness in Chinji sedimentation is most
ness). Examining the relationships of lateral extreme over short time spans, when the
and vertical variability in particular fluvial presence of one or a few "high impact"
454 L. E. McRAE
events, such as the erosion and deposition Bruce MacFadden for his direct contribu-
associated with the development of a channel tions and for taking on the large task of or-
sand unit, dominates the signal of short-term ganizing this memorial volume. This research
sediment accumulation rates. Over increas- also benefitted by various contributions from
ing time intervals, fluvial cyclicity appears to R. C. Reynolds, P. F. Friend, A.K. Behrens-
moderate the effects of individual sedimenta- meyer, C. Badgley, J. Beer, L. Flynn, P. M.
tion episodes. Rutty, K. Roggensack, P. A. Turner, and
G. D. Johnson. Field work in Pakistan was
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.-This research is part assisted by S. Hochman, K. Sheikh, I. Khan,
of a doctoral dissertation begun under the and M. Khan, and made possible through the
supervision of Noye Johnson at Dartmouth collaboration with Peshawar University and
College, who provided the initial ideas, en- Dr. R. A. K. Tahirkheli. Financial support
thusiasm, and encouragement. I am indebted for this research was provided by NSF
to Teresa Jordan for her substantial input, Grants EAR-8616767 and INT-8517353 to
and for stepping in to advise the completion Noye Johnson and by the Department of
of this project. I would also like to thank Earth Sciences at Dartmouth College.
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McRae 1990 Paleomagnetic Isochrons, Unsteadiness, and Non-Uniformity of Sedimentation in Miocene Fluvial

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PALEOMAGNETIC ISOCHRONS, UNSTEADINESS, AND NON-UNIFORMITY

OF SEDIMENTATION IN MIOCENE FLUVIAL STRATA OF THE SIWALIK

INTRODUCTION Sadler 1982; Schindel 1980, 1982). Despite its

(leAsi GSB9 e~oqe w) e~ei ~aqS

MPTS (Mankinenand Dalrymple(1979)

IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF

DistancealongstrikefromC.P section (inkm)

ness in sediment accumulationover different estimates of the duration of a geomagnetic

Distance along strike from C.P. section (in km)

FIG.6.-Lateral correlationof paleomagneticisochronsand theirrelationshipto the variousfluvialfacies

provides a basis for assigning ages to individ- chronostratigraphicframework of the Lower

FIG.7.-Simulated sediment accumulationhistories for Chinji stratigraphicintervals definedby (A) the

processes) from the longer-term stratigraphic demonstrates a significant degree of non-

Net Sediment AccumulationRate SedimentAccumulation

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