ENGLISH 6.

Compound -single unit + Inside the store, shoes must

words be worn (Costumers must
LINGUISTICS -separate, hyphenated, wear shoes inside the store)
combined 2. Misplaced – modifies the
DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE wrong word
1. Structuralists B. PRONOUN – stand nouns + Turning green, I watched
-System, Arbitrary, Means of the lights (I watched the lights
Communication, Primarily Kinds of Pronoun turn green)
vocal 1. Personal –person
2. Cognitivists 2. Possessive –ownership
Transformationalists -mine, ours, yours, theirs, his, D. VERBS - action words
-Mental Phenomenon hers
-Innate 3. Reflexive –subject Classification of Verbs
-LAD 4. Intensive –emphasis 1. Action – express action
3. Functionalists -my, your, him, her, it, one: a. Regular –inflections d / ed
-To express self b. Irregular –change/retention
-To persuade -our, your, them: selves
-To give/ask information 5. Indefinite –not specific 2. Linking –
-To make someone do -S: any, anyone, everyone, a. Copula –Celce Murcia
something anybody, everybody, no one -link nonverbal predicates
4. Behaviorists -P: both, several, few, many (noun, adjective, adverbial)
-Imitation -B: none, aal, some -carries the tense
-Repetition 6. Interrogative –questions -determine SVA
-Reinforcement 7. Demonstrative –pointing
5. Interactionalists -this, that, these, those b. Auxiliary –link nonverbal
-Interaction -either conjunction or
-Socialization C. ADJECTIVES - qualifies progressive verb
6. Psycholinguists -which one, what kind, how
-Learned through schema much, how many c. Perception Copulas –verb
7. Sociolinguistics that express no action
-Performs a social function Comparison in Adjective -perceived through senses
8. Webster Dictionary 1. Base (mental or sensory)
-expression & communication 2. Comparative -To know if a verb is a
of emotions or ideas between 3. Superlative perception copula, try
human beings by means of removing the verb and
speech and hearing that is Order of Adjectives substitute a linking verb. If it is
systematized and confirmed 1. Determiner still grammatical, then the
by usage among a given 2. Observation original verb is a perception
people over a period of time. 3. Size copula.
4. Shape
5. Age d. State Copulas -non
PARTS OF SPEECH 6. Color locomotive
7. Origin -condition than action
A. NOUNS - names 8. Material
something 9. Qualifier e. Change of State of Copulas
10. Noun –don’t express instant
Kinds of Nouns movement.
1. Proper -specific names FAULTY MODIFIERS -express change from one
2. Common -general 1. Dangling – absence of the state to another
3. Count -quantified word being modified
4. Non count -mass, abstract 3. Auxiliary –helping verbs
5. Collective -name a group -always appear w/ main verb
-LV is, was, are, were
considered auxiliary if with
past participle main verb
-has, have, had considered
auxiliary if with progressive
verb
-Has: singular present tense
-Have: plural present tense
-Had: singular & plural past
tense
4. Emphatic –emphasis
-do, does, did: main verb or
emphatic with base verb
-Do: plural present tense
-Does: singular present tense
-Did: plural & singular past
tense
5. Modal –Celce Murcia
-helping verb that give
preposition, degree of
probability, express one’s
attitude, perform social
function
-always coupled with base
verb
-Stating Ability: I can do
anything
-Expressing regret: I should
have loved you
-Giving warning: You might be
in danger
-Expressing admission with
reservation: I might be wrong,
but I know what I did
-Expressing obligation: You
must do this
SUBJECT-VERB
AGREEMENT
1. Collective Noun
-S: one entity
-P: individuals in the group
2. Nouns ending in s & ics
-singular verbs
3. Nouns in set of twos
-S: “pair” present
-P: “pair” absent
4. A number & The number
-S: the
-P: A
5. Fraction and Percent
-S: paired w/ non-count noun
6. Compound Noun
-P: compound subjects joined
by conjunction
7. Neither..nor & Either..or
-verb agrees with closest
noun
8. As well & Together with
-verb agrees with first noun
(subject)
TENSES OF THE VERB
1. Present
-habitual or factual actions
+ I dance
2. Past
-happened in the past
+ I danced
3. Future
-will happen in future
+ I will dance
4. Present Progressive
-happening at the moment
+ I am dancing
5. Past Progressive
-continuing action that started
and ended in the past
+I was dancing all afternoon
yesterday
6. Future Progressive
-continuing action that will
happen in the future
+ I will be dancing next week
7. Present Perfect
-action started in the past but
happening in the present or
ended recently
+ I have danced
8. Past Perfect
-two past action
-one happened before the
other
+ I had danced before I sang
9. Future Perfect
-two future actions
-one will happen before the
other
+ I will have danced before I
sing
10. Present Perfect
Progressive
-action started in the past and
still happening at present
+ I have been dancing since
then
11. Past Perfect Progressive
-two past actions wherein the
first one is interrupted by the
second past action
+ I had been dancing when
the bomb exploded
12. Future Perfect
Progressive
-two future actions wherein
the first future action will be
interrupted
+ I will have been dancing
when the party ends
E. ADVERBS –modifiers
1. Manner –how
2. Time –When
3. Frequency –how often
F. PREPOSITION – linkers
-relate separate things
-location, direction, cause or
possession
-In front of, In regard to,
Inside, In spite of, Into
-About, Above, Across,
Against, Among
-At, After, Around, Before,
Behind
-In, Near, Down, Despite,
From
-Beneath, During, By, By
means of, amid
G. CONJUNCTION –joiners
1. Coordinating –connect
group of words in the same
grammatical structure
-For, And, Nor, But, Oy, Yet,
So
2. Correlative –connect same
grammatical structure but
appear in pairs
-either..or, neither..nor
3. Subordinating –connects
two complete ideas to make
one dependent to the other
-in as much as, whenever,
unless
H. INTERJECTION –strong
feeling or emotion
-function as independent
sentence with speaker as
subject
-ouch, aha, alas, oh, hurray
THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH
A. Vowel Sounds
1. Spread
-/i/ (long) beat, heat, amoeba
-/I/ (short) pin, kit, marriage
-/e/ (aI) hate, mate, cape
-/E/ (short) bet, bread, any
-/ae/ hamburger, man, bat
2. Neutral
-/Y/ (unaccented schwa) towel
-/^/ (accented schwa) mother
3. Round
-/u/ cocoon, balloon, soon
-/U/ push, pull, book, would
-/o/ boat, hope, phone, own
-/T/ caught, hawk, saw, jaw
-/a/ dark, arm, sergeant
B. Consonant Sounds
1. Nasal
-m, n, ng
2. Plosives
-d, b, g, p, t, k
3. Fricatives
-v, f, s, z, sh, th
3. Affricatives
-dz, ch
4. Lateraland Glides
-w, l, r, j, h
LITERATURE
Lye (1999) – body of text
marked by imaginative verbal
recreating of the world as we
experience it
-form, allusion, poetic
qualities of language and
tropes to intensify and render
complex representation of
experience
Jakobson (1962) – kind of
writing which transforms and
intensifies ordinary language,
deviates systematically from
everyday speech
Daguio (1962) – beautiful
expression of man’s personal
interpretation of some aspect
of human life
-“life itself”
Philippine literature
-oral: home grown
-written: consequence of
extensive cultural influence
from both colonial regimes
and contact with other culture
QUALITIES OF LITERATURE
1. Artistry – sense of beauty
-truth only few appreciate
2. Suggestiveness – -gives better idea of place or
emotional power
-moves and stirs feelings and
imagination
3. Intellectual value – 1. MYTH – creation of people
stimulates thoughts
-enrich mental life
-fundamental truth of life and
nature
4. Spiritual value – moral
values that make better
person
5. Universality – everyone
regardless of culture, race,
sex & time which are
considered significant
6. Permanence – endures
across time & remains
invariable through time
Main Categories:
1. POETRY – more
concentrated
-ideas and insights expressed
through sense-oriented
language
2. PROSE – narrative
-Fiction (Latin: Fictum):
invented or work of
imagination
+novels, short stories, plays,
poems
-Non Fiction: based on facts
+essay, memoir, biography
Types and Forms:
A. PROSE FICTION –
narrative deals, in part of
whole, not factual events
-may be based from history or
legend, contemporary society,
own lives or fantasy
-to entertain
-stimulates the intellect
-author’s view of life & gives
reader new insight into
people, society or nature
-statement of human life that
is universally true
era than most accurate
historical text
or world
-first tool man used to define
his world, feelings, &
judgement
-Main character: not human
but with human attributes;
animals, deities, cultural
heroes, love affairs, family
relationship, friendship and
enmities, victories and
defeats
2. LEGEND – account of
extraordinary happening
believed actually occurred
-marvelous creatures: fairies,
ghosts, water spirits, devil and
the like
-origin of things, places,
names, plants, animals, etc
3. PARABLE –simple story of
moral or religious lesson
4. FABLE – short narrative of
virtue generally animals as
characters that speak and act
like human
5. FAIRY TALE – fantasy and
wonder mainly to entertain,
teach universal lesson
-pervading power of love and
reward for kindness and
punishment for wickedness
6. NOVEL – considerable
length
-plot unfolded by actions,
speech, thoughts, of
numerous characters placed
in a number of different
situation
7. NOVELLA – longer than
short story, shorter than novel
-a form in its own right
8. SHORT STORY – brief
fictional prose narrative
-single effect I single
significant episode or scene
with limited number of
characters
-center of any good story is
the truth it reveals
-abstract truth is indigestible
in raw form, wrapped in well
told story, revelation can be
an intellectual and emotional
pleasure
-500-15,000 words
ELEMENTS OF SHORT
STORY
A. PLOT – series of events
and actions
1. CONFLICT – friction or
battle
-Complication: exciting force
that fuels rising action
a. Man vs man/ Individual –
physical strength against
other character
b. Man vs nature/ Physical
world – forces of nature
c. Man vs Society/ Civilization
(order) – ideas, practices, or
customs of other people
d. Man vs Self/ Psychological
– human nature; own soul,
ideas of right or wrong,
physical limitations, choices
e. Man vs Circumstances
(classical) – fate or
circumstances of life facing
f. Man vs Supernatural –
monsters, aliens, deities
g. Man vs Machine/
Technology – man made
entities with artificial
intelligence
2. ORDER –
a. Chronological/ Linear –
natural order
b. In media res – in the middle
of things
c. begin in present and return
to the past
3. DIVISION –
a. Introduction – characters
and setting revealed
b. Exposition/ Rising action –
events become complicated;
conflict revealed
c. Climax – highest point of
interest and turning point
d. Falling action – main plot
complications begin to resolve
themselves
e. Denouement/ Resolution –
final outcome; untangling of
events
-Happy: all is resolved
-Tragic: literary fiction that
emulates life, forcing reader
to contemplate complexities
of life
-open ended: no definitive
ending
4. PLOT DEVICES
a. Foreshadowing – outcome
of struggle is anticipated by
speeches, actions of
characters, or symbols
b. Flashback – scene inserted
that occurred earlier in time;
compliment events in the
present of story
c. Suspense – produced by
mystery or dilemma
d. Surprise – new turn or
twist; logical furnishes
illumination not just reversal
of expectation
e. Coincidence – accidental
meeting in a place
f. Deus ex Machina (literally
God from Machine) –
someone or something
appears out of the blue to
help overcome seemingly
insoluble difficulty
5. PLOT ELEMENTS
a. Hook – is what gets people
interested in what you have to
say; well placed at beginning
but can be found elsewhere
b. Back story – important
events in the past that drives
the present; what-happened-
before-story-took place
c. Sub plots – story within
story; little things going on in
background that makes main
plot more interesting; effective
when seamlessly tie in with
d. Conflict – the main
purpose; to have something
they want, change current
reality, or overcome
challenges of some kind
e. Climax – peak; reader’s
interest is most piqued
B. NARRATIVE VOICE –
perspective; never the author
1. First Person – protagonist
or close to protagonist
a. Detached Autobiography –
guides the reader; main
character; reflecting past self
or recounting events from
childhood
b. Interior Monologue – train
of thought overheard by
reader (not spoken out loud
as is a monologue);
overheard and reported by
omniscient narrator; occurs as
stream of consciousness
c. Subjective Narration –
narrator seems unreliable,
tries to get readers to share
his/her side to assume values
or views not usually
presumed by reader
d. Memoir/ observer narration
– narrator is observer rather
than participant: confidant,
eyewitness, chorus; can be
reliable or not reliable
2. Third Person – moves from
character to character, event
to event, free access to
thoughts, feelings and
motivations of characters;
introduces information
a. Omniscient – narrator’s
knowledge, control and
prerogatives are limited,
allowing authorial subjectivity
b. Limited – narrative voice
associated with major or
minor character that is not
able to see/know all, may only
be able to relate the thoughts
of one or some characters
and may not know what
happened of stage or in the
past
c. Objective/ Dramatic –
opposite of omniscient;
displays objectivity; compared
to roving camera with sound.
Story set in present, very little
past or future. most speed
and action; relies heavily on
external action and dialogue,
offers no opportunities for -created by descriptive
interpretation by narrator details, dialogue, narrative
language
C. SETTING – time and
location; stablish mood D. CHARACTER AND
CHARACTERIZATION
Backdrop Setting – not Character - person in a work
important for a story; any of fiction / characteristics of a
setting or any type of setting person
Characterization – means
Integral Setting – place and what the character is like, can
time influence theme, take many forms
character and action of story.
Setting controls the character. a. Expository / direct
Confining character to a presentation: described,
particular setting defines the explained by narrator;
character physical characteristics,
clothing, environment; traits;
1. Location/ Place – physical circumstances, job or family
environment situation
-weather condition: sunny b. Dramatic / Indirect
-social environment/condition: presentation – show the king
culture, tradition of person the character is;
-Local color: regional details own action, behavior, speech,
to add interest or meaning; recorded thoughts; qualities
specific locale, manner of apparent by what other
dress, customs, speech characters say about
patterns, slang expression
TYPES of CHARACTERS
2. Time – all dimension 1. Flat – one dimensional; not
-what period? central to story
-How long the actions take 2. Two-dimensional character
place? – vessels to carry out the plot
-effects: particular 3. Round – complex; fully
atmosphere, insight to developed; prone to change
character, motivations; key, 4. Static – round or flat that do
connection, reflection other not change; predictable
aspects actions
5. Dynamic – developing;
3. Mood/ Atmosphere – center of action; changes to
evokes feelings or vibes new awareness of life /
-atmosphere of literary piece human condition
that creates emotional 6. Stock – borrowed
situation that surrounds the personage or archetype;
reader closely related to stereotype
-dominant emotion or feeling 7. Stereotype – character so
that pervades a story little individualized as to show
-less physical, more symbolic, qualities of an occupation,
associative, suggestive national, ethnic, etc
-may be a key to main points 8. Universal – problems and
of story trails common to all humanity
9. Individual – more eccentric
and unusual representation of
character
Function of Character
1. Protagonist – principal
figure; main character
2. Antagonist – character,
group of character, institution
where the protagonist if
engaged in a struggle
3. Confidant (male) or
Confidante (female) – friend
or relative of main
hero/heroine, present when in
need of a sympathetic listener
4. Foil – secondary character;
backdrop or mirror for more
important character; ordinary
and static thus unusual
qualities of primary character
be more striking in contrast
Anthropomorphic
characterization – animals,
inanimate objects, natural
phenomena as people;
creates fantasy
Animal characters – concrete
personified create particular
effects, especially when the
animal character contain
connotative metaphoric
connects to human traits
E. TONE – attitude of writer
toward a subject or audience
-conveyed through choice of
words or viewpoint
-narrator may be
condescending or folksy with
the audience; may be
demonstrated by direct
comment, characterization,
choice of words, symbols
-decides how readers read
literary piece and how they
should feel while reading
-stimulates readers to read a
piece of literature as serious,
comical, spectacular or
distressing
-lends shape and life because
it creates a mood
-bestows voice to characters
and throws light on the
personalities and disposition
of characters that readers
understand better
+Don Quixote=Miguel de
Cervantes; The Diary of Anne
Frank; catch22=Joseph Heller
F. STYLE – qualities that
distinguish works of one
author from another author
1. Diction – word choice:
informal / formal
2. Sentence structure – context of the story
simple or complex
3. Syntax – sentence pattern:
grammatical and
ungrammatical arrangement
of words
4. Language – abstract /
5. Dialogue – more dialogue
tan description; dialogue
limited to certain characters;
simply lacking dialogue
altogether
6. Imagery – sensory details
such as similes, metaphor,
onomatopoeia
a. Visual – sight
b. Aural – sound (soft hiss of
skis
c. Olfactory – smell (smell of
stale beer)
d. Tactile – touch (feel of bare
foot on hot side walk)
e. Gustatory – taste (green
bananas)
7. Allegory – symbols,
characters, events come to
represent in a point-to-point
fashion, a different
metaphysical, political or
social situation
8. Symbol – concrete objects
or images that stand for
abstract object
-ascribed subjective
connotation
-ability to recognize, and
interpret symbols requires
experience in literary reading,
perception and tact
-story itself must furnish that a
detail is to be taken
symbolically: emphasis,
repetition or position
-meaning must be established
and supported by the entire
-an item must suggest a
meaning different in kind from
literal meaning
-symbol has cluster of
meanings
9. Motifs – recurring
structures, contrasts, or
literary devices that can help
to develop and inform major
theme (point) of the story
10. Irony – rage of meanings
involving some sort of
discrepancy or incongruity
-suggest difference between
appearance and reality,
expectation and fulfillment,
complexity of experience,
furnish indirectly an
evaluation of the author’s
material, and at the same
time achieve compression
a. Verbal – narrator or
character says one thing and
means something else
b. Dramatic – reader
perceives something that
character or narrator does not
know; contrast between what
character and narrator says
and what reader knows to be
true
c. Situational – discrepancy
between appearance and
reality, expectation and
fulfillment, or what is and what
would seem appropriate
G. THEME – fundamental and
universal idea
1. Central or dominating ideas
2. Expressible in a form of
statement
3. Reflects central vision of
life / statement about human
condition or experience
conveyed
-view of life that pervades a
story
-no theme is identical with
moral
-mature piece: embodies
more complex theme; shows
rather than tell; reveal than
teach; interprets than preach
-not prescriptive
-add understanding of life and
readers arrive at rules of
behavior through increased
perception
-longer works: may contain
two or more central theme;
contain insights into human
condition
-revelation of human
character
-may be stated briefly or at
great length
4. Must be stated as a
generalization about life
5. Central unifying concept of
the story: account all major
details; do not contradict any
detail; do not rely on
supposed facts not actually
stated of implied in the story
6. Any statement that reduces
a theme to some familiar
saying, aphorism, or cliché
should be avoided
Finding the Theme
1. Theme is not the same as
the subject – theme makes
some revelation about the
subject and should be
expressed in a sentence
2. Writers often express
theme through what
characters learn – does main
character change? does the
character realize something
didn’t know before?
3. Conflict help reveal theme
– what is the conflict or
struggle between opposing
forces that main character
faces? how is the conflict
resolved?
4. Sometimes title gives clues
– does title have special
meaning?
5. Theme applies to entire
work – does the theme apply
to the entire work or just the
part of it?
6. There is no single way to
state the theme – people may
express the same theme in
different words; most
meaningful literary works
often have more than one
theme
B. POETRY – art of language
for aesthetic and evocative
qualities in addition to or in
lieu of ostensible meaning
-discrete poems: written
independently
-poetic drama, hymns or
lyrics: conjunction with other
arts
-religious, historical, & cultural
significance transmitted from
generations to generations by
word of mouth
-melodic & rhythmic:
concerned with sound and
content
-historically connected to
music, song, and dance;
poetry has often been an
integral part of ritual from the
Elysian mysteries of Hellenic
Greece to celebration of mass
-word can stand for phrase,
phrase for sentence, line for
paragraph
Poem – concerned with
emotion; emotion shaped,
controlled, and contained in
form
-says something significant;
attempts to achieve beauty
Poetry – particular forms and
conventions expand the literal
meaning; evoke emotional or
sensual responses; open to
multiple interpretations;
layering of meaning, forming
connection previously
perceived
Ways to Read a Poem
1. Title – description or clue
2. Pure explanation –
paraphrasing the poem;
tuning lines to prose
3. Explication – account the
whole poem: sound,
suggestion of meaning,
shapeliness. No explication is
equal to the poem itself, but it
does come close to pointing
out what affects us in the
poem
4. Denotation & Connotation –
not every meaning is active
1. LYRIC POETRY – thoughts
and feeling o the poet
-words to a song
-does not tell a story which
portrays characters and
action
-addresses the readers
directly, portraying his or her
own feeling, state of mind,
and perceptions
a. SONG – short poem or
other set of words set to
music or meant to be sung
b. SONNET – 14 line poem
-variable rhyme scheme
originating in Italy
-Thomas Wyatt & Henry
Howard: brought to England
-literally a little song
-traditionally reflects upon a
single sentiment
-clarification or turn of thought
in concluding lines
c. ELEGY – melancholy poem
-laments subject’s death but
ends in consolation
d. ODE – formal ceremonious
-addresses and celebrates a
person, place, thing or idea
-stanza forms vary
2. NARRATIVE POETRY –
verbal representation, verse,
of sequence of connected
events
-propels character through
plot
+love story, father & son,
deeds of hero / heroine
a. BALLAD – passed down
orally
-follows abcb rhyming pattern
-quatrains alternating four
stress and three stress lines
-anonymous and recount
tragic, comic, or heroic stories
with emphasis on a central
dramatic event
b. METRICAL ROMANCE –
tells a story that ends happily
-chivalric theme or relates
improbable adventures of
idealized characters in some
remote or enchanted setting
c. EPIC – long narrative poem
that operates in large scale;
length & topic
-uses elevated or dignified
language, celebrating feasts
of legendary hero with
intervention of supernatural
beings
3. DRAMATIC POETRY –
one or more of the story’s
characters act out the story
-dialogue rhymes, repeating
rhymes, features of other
distinct poetic element
a. DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE
– acted out as a speech that
one person makes to himself
or to another
-reveal both situation at hand
and character himself
b. SOLILOQUY – long speech
-character is alone on stage
expressing hir or her private
thoughts of feelings
-give illusion of unspoken
reflection
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
A. RHYTHM – recurring
pattern of stressed (accented
or long) and unstressed
(unaccented or short)
syllables in lines of a set
length
1. Meter – organized rhythm
-metric foot: measured pattern
or grouping of syllables
Stanza – group of metric feet
forms poetic line or verse
a. Iamb – unstressed syllable
followed by stressed syllable
- (U/)
b. Trochee – stressed syllable
followed by unstressed
syllable
- (/U)
c. Dactyl – 3 syllables: first
stressed and last two
unstressed
- (/UU)
d. Anapest – 3 syllables: first
two unstressed and last
stressed
- (UU/)
2. Foot – basic unit of verse
meter consisting of any
various fixed combination or
group of stressed and
unstressed syllable
a. Monometer – single line
containing one foot
b. Dimeter – 2 feet
c. Trimeter – 3 feet
d. Tetrameter – 4 feet
e. Pentameter – 5 feet
f. Hexameter – 6 feet
g. Heptameter – 7 feet
h. Octameter – 8 feet
B. SOUND DEVICES
1. Rhyme – regular
recurrence of similar sounds
a. End rhyme – end of line
b. Internal rhyme – within line
c. Rhyme scheme – pattern or
sequence
2. Alliteration – repetition of
identical consonant sound
+Full fathom five thy father
lies
3. Assonance – repetition of
vowel sound followed by
different consonant sound
+O, the groans that opened to
his ears
4. Consonance – repetition of
final consonant sound that are
preceded by different vowel
sound
+The beast climbed fast to
the crest
5. Onomatopoeia – sound of
words suggests the thing itself
+tinkle, whisper, hiss, buzz
C. LITERARY DEVICES –
Diction
1. Imagery – expressions
evocative of sensuous appeal
-direct description or figurative
(visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
olfactory, & gustatory)
Figures of Speech – help
readers see something in
vivid way
a. Simile – direct comparison
between two unlike things
-“like” or “as”
the muscles on his brawny
arms are as strong as iron
bands
b. Metaphor – implied
comparison between two
relatively unlike things using a
form of be
+The road was a ribbon of
moon light
c. Personification – gives
qualities of a person to animal
or object or idea
+A brave handsome brute fell
with a creaking rending cry
d. Hyperbole – exaggerated
statement used to heighten
effect or emphasize a point,
not mislead the reader
+She’s said so on several
million occasions
e. Metonymy – Change of
noun (any idea), the change
of a word naming an object
for another word closely
associated with it
+crown= royalty; mitre=
bishop; brass= military officer;
pen= writer; bad hand=
poorly-formed characters
f. Synecdoche – type of
metonymy
-part in exchange for whole;
individual for entire class or
people; or vice versa
+Joe ranched nearly five
hundred head
g. Oxymoron – putting
together in one statement two
contradictory term
+The sound of silence is
indeed deafening
h. Irony – expression of
thought in a form that
emphasizes or conveys the
opposite meaning to the
words used
-tone of voice may be
necessary to convey irony if
the words are not intended to
be taken at face value
+For Brutus is an honourable
man; so are they all,
honorable men.—
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar
i. Paradox – statement that
seems to lead to an illogical
contradiction. or to a situation
that contradicts common
intuition
-contains the seeds of its own
negation or contradiction,
through this may not be
apparent on the surface
+The child is the father to the
man
j. Litotes – deliberate
understatement or denial of
the contrary
+He is no fool
k. Apostrophe – diversion of
discourse from the topic at
hand to addressing some
person or thing, either present
or absent
Allusion – reference to any
literary, political, socio-
political, scientific
mythological event or
character
+She ended up Sisa, after
losing her only child
2. SYMBOLS – images,
concrete references that
stand for something else in
reality and suggest another
level of meaning
+4 seasons of the year
symbolize different stages of
man’s life
3. PERSONA – speaker of
the poem; fictional; may not
be speaking to the reader but
to another character in poem
4. TONE – attitude of the
speaker or persona in the
poem towards another
character or towards his
subject matter: angry,
hopeful, bitter, nostalgic,
compassionate, admiring,
sorrowful, amused, sincere
5. THEME – central message
or meaning of the poem
-truth about life revealed in
the poem
Analyzing Poem
1. Title: what does it tell? How
does it help understanding the
poem?
2. Word meaning: look up
their denotative meaning;
consider connotations of
naming words, describing
words and action words
3. Imagery: list as many as
you can; tell which part of
sense they appeal; what does
it suggest? Which are
pleasant and unpleasant?
4. Symbols: list any words; tell
what they may stand for
5. Figures of speech: point
out figures of speech; explain
the figure that convey ideas
most clearly and forcefully; list
any that you have heard in
everyday speech
6. Sound: are there imitative
words? Are there any
examples of alliteration? Are
there harsh words or line?
Explain why used
7. Rhyme: Is end-line rhyme
used? Label rhyme pattern, is
it regular?
8. Theme: what purpose it
serves? Is it stated or
suggested? How would you
connect the imagery and tone A. PLOT – sequence of
with theme? events arranged in
meaningful pattern
C. DRAMA – play 1. Exposition – characters,
-story written in dialogue to be relationship, and setting are
performed on stage before an introduced
audience 2. Complication – conflict
-most public form of literature develops
-written for group 3. Crisis – turning point or
performance moment of decision; dramatic
-share common elements with intensity peaks
short story; differs in plot, 4. Catastrophe – information or theme
language and characters consequences of the climatic
events unfold
1. TRAGEDY – chief 5. Denouement – action
character undergoes morally comes to meaningful end
significant struggle which end
disastrously B. LANGUAGE – Dialogue;
-assumes humanity has Monologue; Soliloquies
sense of its own dignity and – reveals something about
free will, sense of moral law, the characters speaking:
and forces which lie outside of attitude towards the character
and are bigger than an spoken to and topics they are
individual discussing; may aid in
advancing the plot, exposition
a. TRAGICOMEDY – begins of the past or foreshadowing
with serious mode but ends of the future; contribute for or
happily rhythm of the play; help orient
audience to fictive space in
b. MELODRAMA – musical which action occurs; may
play (1840) with happy ending imply larger, meaning in topic
or issue the play will develop
2. COMEDY – humorous as action progress
incidents protagonist faced
with moderate difficulty C. CHARACTERS – people
-overcomes conflict with full of presented in play that are
laughter and issues handled involved in plot
very lightly -each distinct personality,
age, appearance, beliefs,
3. FARCE – exaggerated backgrounds and language
comedy based broadly on
humorous situation ACT – major division in play
-intellectually and -subdivided into scene
aesthetically inferior to -5 act structure: introduced in
comedy in its Roman times
characterizations and -4 act structure: 19th century
implausible plots -3 act structure: 20th century
ELEMENTS OF DRAMA CATHARSIS – purging of
feeling of pity and fear
-Aristotle: audience should
experience at end of tragedy
CHORUS –
Greek tragedy: group of
characters who comment on
the action of a play without
participating in it
Modern chorus: similar
function in different form;
character/narrator coming on
stage and giving a prologue
or explicit background
DEUS EX MACHINA – (Latin)
god from the machine
-Internal source resolves
entanglements by
supernatural intervention
-use artificial means to
resolve the plot
HUBRIS – (Greek) *difficult to
translate directly into English
-negative term implies both
arrogant, excessive self-pride
and self-confidence, and a
lack of some important
perception or insight due to
pride in one’s abilities
-overwhelming pride
inevitably leads to downfall
LINEAR PLOT – traditional
plot sequence; incidents
progress chronologically
-causality: one event causes
another to happen
-commonly occur in comedy
TRAGIC FLAW – weakness
or limitation of character,
resulting in fall of tragic hero
TRAGIC HERO – privileged,
exalted character of high
repute, suffers fall from a
higher station in life into
suffering
D. NONFICTION PROSE –
factual
-most practical of the literary
arts, most versatile and
adaptable
-type of writing that deals with
real people, real places, and
real events
-newspaper article, set of
instructions, encyclopedia
article, other factual
information
CHARACTERISTICS
1. People, events, places,
ideas are not invented
2. Narrated by an author-real
person
3. presents facts, describes
true to life experience,
discusses ideas
4. Written for specific
audience and addresses clear
purpose or reason for writing:
influence the type of
information a writer includes
5. Tone: displayed through
writer’s word choice and style
1. TRAVEL LITERATURE –
narration of journey
describing events, dates,
places, sights and author’s
view
-FRANCIS BACON:
NATURAL PHILOSOPHIES –
famous example from 17th
century
2. DIARY or JOURNAL –
daily record of events in a
person’s life
3. EDITORIAL – statement or
article by new org, newspaper
or magazine that express
opinion of editor, editorial
board or publisher
4. ESSAY – brief discussion
of single subject
-long or short, personal or
impersonal, humorous or
serious
-tone and style classifies from
formal or informal
a. FORMAL – serious tone
and formal language;
associated with master writers
of the past
b. INFORMAL (MODERN) –
sound as writer were
speaking directly in informal
conversation
5. BIOGRAPHY – personal
account of a person’s life
written by another person
6. AUTOBIOGRAPHY – A. NARRATIVE – tells stories
biography written by a person
him/her self
7. CHARACTER SKETCH –
abbreviated portrayal of a
particular characteristic of
people
-emphasizes most striking
part of person’s life
ELEMENTS OF
NONFICTION
A. STYLE – particular way
which a writer uses language
-reflects author’s personality
-factors: level of formality, use
of figurative language, diction,
sentence patterns and
methods of organization
B. TONE – author’s attitude
towards both subject and
reader or listener
-conversation: way words and
phrases are spoken
-reading: choice of words and
details
-can be described with single
word: pompous, playful,
serious, personal, sarcastic or
friendly
C. PERSPECTIVE –
viewpoint or opinion author
express about the subject:
directly or indirectly
-bias: occurs in one-sided
presentation; ignoring
relevant facts or using
emotional language that
unfairly sways the feelings
D. PURPOSE – author’s
reason for writing: inform,
persuade, honor, entertain,
explain, or warn
TYPES of NONFICTION
of real-life events:
autobiography and memoirs
-reflective writing: sharing
writer’s thoughts and feelings
about personal experience,
idea, or concern: reflective
essay, personal essay, and
journals
B. EXPOSITORY – informs of
explains: analytical essay and
research reports
C. PERSUASIVE – reasons
and evidence to convince the
reader to act or think in a
certain way: editorial and
political speeches
D. DESCRIPTIVE – details
related to the senses to
create mental images for the
reader: character sketch and
scientific observations
ESSAY – short piece of
writing on single subject
-newspaper and magazine
-Purpose: share opinion,
explain, express personal
feelings, entertain, persuade,
or simply describe a topic or
incident meaningful to writer
1. EXPOSITORY – formal
-scholarly tone
-highly structured (5 7. Irony – contrast between 12. William Shakespeare –
paragraph) what was expected and what Romeo and Juliet
-impersonal style actually happened 13. Frank Mc Court –
-present or explain + No smoking sign during a Angela’s Ashes
information and ideas cigarette break 14. Toni Morrison – Sula
8. Hyperbole – exaggeration 15. Edith Wharton – The Age
2. NARRATIVE – informal + Cry me a river of Innocence
-conversational tone 9. Euphemism – creating a 16. Robert Frost – The Road
-looser structure positive connotation out of not Taken
-personal style something negative 17. Jane Austen – Emma
-express writer’s thoughts and + Loved child (illegitimate) 18. Jose Rizal – Noli Me
feelings 10. Ellipsis – omission of Tangere
words in the sentence 19. Chinua Achebe – Things
3. PERSUASIVE – develops + She walked away and so all Apart
arguments the world turns 20. Fyodor Dostoyevsky –
-tries to convince readers to 11. Asyndeton – not putting Crime and Punishment
adopt a point of view or any connectors (conjunctions 21. Rudyard Kipling – The
perspective or prepositions) Jungle Book
-takes into account reader’s + No retreat, no surrender 22. H.G. Wells – War of the
viewpoint to guide the 12. Apostrophe – direct Worlds
arguments presented address to an abstract things 23. William Golding – Lord of
or a person who passed away the Files
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE + Love, please come and take 24. John Steinbeck – The
1. Synecdoche – association me Pearl
of some important part with 25. George Orwell – Animal
the whole it represents Famous Literary Farm
+ The face who launched a Personalities 26. Edgar Allan Poe –
thousand ships 1. Geoffrey Chaucer – Annabel Lee
2. Simile – indirect Canterbury Tales 27. Homer – Illiad and the
association 2. Dante Alighieri – The Oddesey
+She is like a flower Divine Comedy 28. Plato – The Republic
3. Personification – giving 3. Victor Hugo – Hunchback 29. Pearl S. Buck – Satan
humanly attributes to an of Notre Dame/ Les Never Sleeps
inanimate object Miserables 30. Amy Tan – Joy Luck Club
+ The sun is looking down on 4. Herman Hesse –
me Siddhartha STAGES IN READING
4. Oxymoron – self 5. Charles Dickens – Tale of DEVELOPMENT by JEAN
contrasting statement two Cities CHALL
+ Loud silence 6. Emily Bronte – Wuthering 0. Pre reading – familiarity
5. Metonymy – association Heights with the language and its
wherein the name of 7. Virginia Wolf – Mrs. sounds
something is substituted by Dalloway -aware of sound similarities
something that represents it 8. D.H. Lawrence – Sons and between words
+ Toothpaste is sometimes Lovers -reading readiness
called Colgate 9. Isabel Allende – House of -6 yrs old
6. Metaphor – direct the Spirits 1. Initial reading stage –
comparison 10. Gabriel Garcia Marquez – decoding stage
-word or phrase in place of One Hundred Years of -aware of the relationship
more literal description Solitude between sounds and letters
+ You are the sunshine of my 11. Oscar Wilde – The Picture and begins applying
life of Dorian Gray knowledge to text
- sound-symbol Allophone – phonetic variant -reading comprehension,
correspondence, alphabetic of phoneme in particular language comprehension,
code language vocabulary, syntax &
-6 or 7 yrs old -/p/ & /H/: allophone of /p/ semantics
2. Confirmation – fluency and -/t/ & /tH/: allophone of /t/
skills Content word – word with
-decoding skills improve Alphabetic Principle – lexical meaning (noun/verb)
-develop speed in addition to understanding that spoken opposed to function word
accuracy in word recognition words are decomposed into
-8 yrs old phonemes and letters in Criterion-referenced
3. Reading to learn – written words represent assessment – score is
vocabulary development phonemes in spoken words compared against
accelerates predetermined criterion score
-9 yrs old Assessment – using data to
4. Multiple Viewpoints – determine abilities and Deciphering – reading by
analyze text knowledge about a particular analogy
-understand different point of topic
view Decodable text – don’t
-react critically to text Balanced Literacy – approach contain irregular words
-14-19 yrs old to reading instruction that -reinforce certain rules that
5. Construction and strikes comparison between previously taught in phonics
Judgement – read selectively phonics approaches and lessons
and form own opinions Whole Language approaches
-construct knowledge from -two approaches synthesized Decoding – knowledge of
others together conventions of spelling-sound
-achieved only by intellectual relationship
inclination Basal reader – book used to -knowledge about
teach reading pronunciation of irregular
READING-RELATED TERMS -approach which words are words to derive a
used as a whole pronunciation of written words
Affix – attachment to end or
beginning of root word Blending – combining parts of Deep Orthography – writing
spoken word into a whole system with no consistent or
Age equivalent scores – norm representation of the word one-to-one correspondence
reference assessment between phonemes in speech
-individual score reported Clitic – language element with and written code
relative to norming population wordlike status or form that +ENGLISH: no phoneme is
resembles a word consistently represented by
Alliteration – repetition of -usually cannot be used on its the same letter in all words,
initial phoneme across own as a word in a only /v/ consistently
syllables or words construction corresponds to specific
-phonologically bound to phoneme
Allomorph – alternative preceding word or following
manifestation of morpheme word Derivational affixation –
-vary in shape/pronunciation process of adding affix to vary
according to their condition of Cloze – method of function or modify meaning
use assessment -transform word from one part
-IN: negative prefix -word is eliminated from a of speech to another
allomorphs; INcapable, passage, context of the
ILlogical, IMprobable, passage is used to fill in with Digraph – group of two
IRreverent appropriate word successive letters whose
phonetic value is a single
sound
+brEAd, CHat, siNG
Dipthong – gliding
monosyllabic speech sound
that starts at or near the
articulatory position for one
vowel and moves to or toward
the position of another
+tOY
Duet reading – activity where
skilled reader sits next to a
learner and both read a text
simultaneously
Elision – omission of a part of
a spoken word
Expository Text – text written
to explain and convey
information about a specific
topic
-contrast with negative
Extrinsic Phonics – phonics
taught as a supplemental
learning and aid rather than
as an integral part of the
program of reading instruction
Fluent reading – fast, smooth,
effortless, and automatic
reading of text
-attention focused on
meaning
Function word – word with no
lexical meaning
-primarily serves to express
grammatical relationship (and,
of, or, the)
Grade equivalent scores –
report the average grade who
received the same score as
an individual
Grapheme – a unit (letter) of a
writing system that represents
one phoneme
-single symbol that has one
phonemic correspondent
within any particular word
Graphophonemic – graphonic
-sound relationship between
orthography (symbols) &
phonology (sound) of
language
Homonym – homograph
-word which is spelled and
pronounced identically to
another word but different
meaning
+swimming Pool & pool table
Homophone – word spelled
differently from another word
but pronounced identically
+Hoarse, Horse
Ideograph – graphic symbol
that represent idea instead of
spoken word, single
morpheme or lexical item.
-no known writing system
composed entirely of
ideographs
Idiom – phrase, construction,
expression understood in a
given language
-meaning differs from typical
syntactic patterns that differ
from literal meaning of its
parts taken together
Inductive phonics – (synthetic
phonics)
Intrinsic phonics – phonics
taught implicitly in the context
of authentic reading activities
Language comprehension –
understanding language in
any of its form
-not sign language, written
language, semaphore or
smoke signals
-reserved for describing
spoken language
Latent –something present
but invisible or inactive but
capable of becoming active or
visible
-having knowledge of the
concept but no opportunity to
demonstrate
Lexical – words or the
vocabulary of a language as
distinguished from its
grammar and construction
Lexicon – mental dictionary
-representation of all
knowledge a person has
about individual words
Listening comprehension –
understanding speech
-lower level: facts implicitly
stated in spoken passage with
very simple syntax and
uncomplicated vocabulary
-advanced level: implicit
understanding and drawing
inferences from spoken
passages that feature more
complex syntax and
advanced vocabulary
Logograph – writing system
wherein each spoken word in
the language is presented by
unique symbol
+Chinese- logographic writing
system
Look-say – approach to
reading instruction that
emphasize memorization of
whole words
Matthew effect – Bible’s book
of Matthew
-rich get richer, poor get
poorer
-good reader: gain new skills
very rapidly, quickly move
from “learning to read” to
“reading to learn”
-poor reader: increasingly
frustrated with act of reading,
avoid reading when possible
Metalinguistic – language and
terminology used to describe
language and the component
parts of language
Morpheme – smallest set of
meaningful linguistic unit of
speech
-free form: Pin
-bound form: pins
-both: contain no similar
meaningful parts
-sub component of vocabulary
-many words only have one
morpheme
-some compound words or
words with affixes have more
than one
Morphology – examination of
morpheme structure of words
-appreciation of facts that
words with common roots
share common meaning
-affixes change words
predictable and consistent
ways
Narrative text – conveys story
or which relates events and
dialog
Norm-referenced assessment
– type of assessment that
allows an individual score to
be compared against other’s
score
-raw score can be converted
to comparative score
+percentile rank or a stanine
Nuclear syllable – syllable
that carries maximum
prominence, usually due to
being stressed
+ADDICT: nuclear syllable is
either AD (noun) or DICT
(verb)
Onomatopoeia – formation of
a word by imitating natural
sound associated with object
or action
Onset – part of syllable that
precedes the vowel o syllable
+PILL: /p/ onset
Orthography – complete
language system for language
-representation of word
boundaries, stops and pauses
in speech, tonal inflictions
Overdifferentiation – practice
of representing a single
phoneme, syllable, morpheme
with two or more symbols in a
writing system
+sound K: represented by C,
CH, or K
Particle – short part of speech
used to express syntactic or
semantic relationship
-prefix or derivational suffix
Phone – any single speech
sound considered as physical
event without regard to its
place in the language
structure
-smaller unit than phoneme
Phoneme – vocal gestures
from which word are
constructed in a language
-distinguish one utterance
from another
Phoneme awareness – (phoneme awareness)
subset of phonological
awareness
-knowledge that spoken
words consist of a sequence
of individual sound
-understanding that
phonemes are rearranged
and substituted to form new
words
-finite set of phonemes are
arranged and rearranged to
create infinite set of spoken
words
Phonemic ideal – orthography
which represent each
phoneme with unique
grapheme or letter
Phonetic Writing – system
that uses a unique symbol to
represent each phone (sound)
of the language or dialect
+International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA)
Phonics – approach to
reading instruction that
emphasizes letter-sound
relationship and generalized
principles that describe
spelling-sound relationship in
language
+extrinsic, intrinsic, synthetic
Phonograms – succession of
letters that represent same
phonological unit in different
words
+flight, might, tight
Phonological awareness –
understanding that speech is
composed of subparts
-sentences are comprised of
words; words are comprised
of syllables; syllables are
comprised of onset and rimes;
and can be further broken
down to phonemes-
Polyphone – word spelled as
another word but sounds
different when pronounced
+WIND: a watch/ blows hard
Pseudo homophone – pseudo
word, pronounced, sounds
like real familiar word
+BRANE sounds like the real
word BRAIN
Pseudo word – accuracy is not sufficient to
pronounceable string of
letters with no meaning
-inverted, non-sense, made-
up words
+Hease, mive: pronounceable
but don’t mean anything
Rhyme – identical or similar
medial and final phonemes in
final syllable
-words can rhyme without
similar orthography
+Suite * Meet
Rime – part of syllable
consists of its vowel and any
consonant sound that come
after it.
-contrast with onset
Segmentation – breaking
down spoken word into word
paths by inserting pause
between each part
-words can be segmented at
word, syllable, onset-rime,
and phoneme level
Semantics – study of the
development and changes of
the meaning of speech form
-study of process by which
meaning is derived from
symbols, signs, text and other
meaning-bearing form
Sight words – word in reading
lesson containing parts that
have not yet been taught but
highly predictable from the
context
Social Promotion – promoting
child to the next grade
Struggling reader – not
mastered the skills required to
fluently read and comprehend
text which is written at level
one could reasonably expect
a student of that age to read
Suprasegmental – vocal
effect that extends over more
than one sound segment in
an utterance: speech, stress,
juncture pattern
Syllable family – group of
syllables formed by
consonant plus all the vowels
in a language
Syllable shape – abstract
combination of consonant and
vowels
Syntax – conventions and
rules for assembling words
into meaningful sentences
-varies across languages
Synthetic phonics – pat-to-
whole phonics approach to
reading instruction
-student learns the sounds
represented by letters an
letter combinations, blends
these sound to pronounce
words, finally identifies which
phonic generalizations apply
Trigraph – three-letter
sequence representing a
single consonant, vowel or
diphthong
+bEAU
Under differentiation –
representation of two or more
phonemes, syllables, or
morphemes with a single
symbol
+S: represent /s/ /z/ /sh/
Untaught residue – material
not previously taught but used
in primer lesson to make it
more effective
Verbal Efficiency Theory –
Perfett & Lesgold (1979)
-mere word recognition
enable fluent reading
comprehension
-word-coding skills increased
to high level of efficiency and
automaticity to devote
attention to meaning and
comprehension
Whole Language – approach
to reading instruction
-de-emphasizes letter-sound
relationship
-emphasizes recognition of
words as wholes
Word bank – storage place for
learners to keep written words
learned and refer as needed
-refer to word bank when
writing or editing to find out
correct spelling
Word calling – decoding
words without comprehending
meaning
-words outside listening
(spoken) vocabulary
-slow, laborious & capacity-
demanding decoding process
:.unable to pay attention to
word meaning
Word families – collection of
words that share same
orthographic rimes
+hike, bike, like
Word parts – letter, syllables
(consonant & vowel clusters),
diacritics