Wave trap

Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high
frequency communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation
and diverting them to the telecom/ teleportation panel in the substation
control room (through coupling capacitor and LMU).
This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for
communication among various substations without dependence on the telecom
company network. The signals are primarily teleportation signals and in
addition, voice and data communication signals. Line trap also is known as
Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency communication signals
sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to the
telecom/teleportation panel in the substation control room (through coupling
capacitor and LMU).
This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for
communication among various substations without dependence on the telecom
company network. The signals are primarily tele protection signals and in
addition, voice and data communication signals.

The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication
signals thus obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation bus
bars. If there were not to be there, then signal loss is more and
communication will be ineffective/probably impossible.
There are typically four types of disturbance or event records of interest to
a protection engineer.
These are categorized by the event duration as follows:

DR
1. Transient - These are very short in duration and typically include faults
that are cleared immediately by circuit breaker operation. These events are
generally no longer than 8 cycles for high speed clearing and 16 cycles for
sequential line clearing. These events are usually analyzed to determine
correct protection operation, fault location, or verification of system model
parameters.

2. Short Term - These generally include all other time-delayed fault clearing
and reclosing events where the system operation (stability) is not affected.
These events are typically 20 to 60 cycles in length but may be longer if
multiple protection operations are required to clear the fault. These events
are usually analyzed to determine correct protection operation, fault
location or verification of system model parameters.

3. Long Term- These include those events that affect system stability such as
power swings, frequency variations and abnormal voltage problems. These
events are usually analyzed to determine causes of incorrect system
operations. Data management techniques are employed to process a number of
samples and record the value for the parameter of interest. Record length
parameters may be defined.

4. Steady State - There are steady state disturbances where system operation
is not threatened, but power quality is affected. This may include harmonics
or sub-harmonics produced by the load and/or the interaction between power
system’s components. Depending upon the type of phenomena being analyzed,
higher sample rates may be required to capture the events and data of
interest. Record length parameters may be defined,

Why transformer is rating kva?

Power is voltage times current times. Power factor. The power factor
is determined by the load. As the transformer manufacturer has no idea
of the power factor of the load the transformer.

Tri-vector meter can measure active power, reactive power, apparent power
i.e. with the help of a single meter we can measure kva, kw, kvar. The power
triangle is sum of (kW , kVAR, kVA).
The basic difference between a Tri-vector meter and multi function meter is
that a Trivector meter cannot display the tariff it can display kWh and from
that reading the tariff and cost has to be calculated manually, where as a
multi function meter can display tariff also if programmed properly.
Different tariff at different interval of time for normal and peak time load
and also different tariff at same time by two different display is possible
in multi function meter.
TIME OF THE DAY (TOD) METER : This Energy Meter has built-in feature where
the 24 hour duration is divided into 4 zones, and peak price differences can
be used to reduce peaks in demand (load shifting or peak lopping), reducing
the need for additional power plants and in particular the higher polluting
and costly to operate natural gas powered peaked plants. The feedback they
provide to consumers has also been shown to cut overall energy consumption.

ICD PCM 9005 is a Microcontroller based high performance Digital Trivector

Meter
suitable for flush mounting on panels to display several electrical parameter
in a single
meter. Three Phase AC power/ Energy / Maximum demand meters and smart
transducers
are designed to meet the requirement of metering applications of all kinds.
It is designed
to be a standalone Digital Power / Energy meter or with a remote computer. It
also
displays kVA demand and controls by adopting prediction demand control
technique.
MAXIMUM DEMAND : It registers 15 or 30 minutes kVA maximum demand. For every
time slot while computing maximum demand, it also generates prediction demand
and operate relays to control demand parameters which are registered in non-
volatile
memory chip with real time reference.
The Trivector Meter is provided with LCD displays to have simultaneous
indication of
several parameters. Parameters can be selected and seen in Scroll / Hold mode
and
several pages are built in to display all parameters. Membrane key pad is
available to enter
all the parameters viz., CT Ratio, PT Ratio, Demand Setting, Time base
Selection, Time
duration etc.,
TIME OF THE DAY (TOD) METER : The Trivector Meter has built-in feature of
time
of the day meter. The 24 hour duration is divided into 4 zones, namely peak /
non-peak/
day & night periods which is programmable as per customer's requirements.
Maximum
demand setting 1 and 2 are programmable separately for peak / non- peak
periods.
The meter also got facility, to register all the energy consumption kVAh,
kWh, kVARh
& Max. Demand for four time zones separately. ICD Electronic Trivector Meter
and Maximum Demand Controller are compact, housed in a flush mounting
96 x 192 x 160 mm. ABS plastic enclosure.

ICT

Interconnecting transformers are used to connect two EHV line at different

voltages i.e. 220KV to 400KV. The interconnecting transformer is auto
transformer which can step up & step down the voltages for synchronization of
two grid voltages.

The function of the inter-connecting transformer is - as the name suggests -

inter-connected two systems at different voltages. Normally, they will be
either 400kV/132kV or 220kV/110kV, of say about 100 MVA rating. They are bi-
directional. During the plant start-up, they "import" power from the grid
either at 400kV or 220kV and step down to 132kV or 110kV to supply the
station auxiliaries. Once the plant is started and synchronized to the grid,
the same transformer can now be used to "export" power to the grid.

They are normally auto-transformers and they will have a delta connected
tertiary winding of about 33kV voltage rating, for providing a circulating
path for the zero-sequence currents. The spec would read: 400/132/33kV,
100MVA.

Tertiary windings generally serve one of two purposes.

One purpose may simply be to provide an additional terminal, often at a
different voltage. While the use of 'three winding transformers' is
relatively unusual, it can be a powerful tool is system architecture.

The other objective for a tertiary winding is to provide a closed-circuit

path for zero-sequence currents/fluxes. That is most typically the case with
transformers that, for system reasons, must be connected wye-wye (star-star
for those in the IEC world). With a wye-wye transformer, the only path for
zero-sequence flux is the tank of a transformer (and if the three-phase bank
is comprised of three single-phase units, even that does not exist). The tank
is a high-impedance path, so the result is that the zero sequence impedance
seen looking into the transformer is very high. Also, the circulation of zero
sequence current through the tank will cause the tank to heat and lead to
paint failure. A tertiary winding presents a low impedance path to zero
sequence currents, thereby reducing the zero sequence Simple dance presented
to.

What is Tertiary Winding? What is Three Winding Transformers?

In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary and
secondary winding is used. This additional winding, apart from primary and
secondary windings, is known as Tertiary winding of transformer. Because of
this third winding, the transformer is called three winding transformer or 3
winding transformer.

Advantages of Using Tertiary Winding in Transformer

Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power transformer to meet one or
more of the following requirements-

1. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three phase

load.
2. It redistributes the flow of fault current.
3. Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage
level in addition to its main secondary load. This secondary load can be
taken from tertiary winding of three winding transformer.
4. As the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding
transformer, it assists in limitation of fault current in the event of a
short circuit from line to neutral.
Stabilization by Tertiary Winding of Transformer
In star-star transformer comprising three single units or a single unit with
5 limb cores offers high impedance to the flow of unbalanced load between the
line and neutral. This is because, in both of these transformers, there is
very low reluctance return path of unbalanced flux. If any transformer has N
turns in winding and reluctance of the magnetic path is RL, then,

Where I and Φ are current and flux in the transformer.

Now, from equation (1) & (2), it can be rewritten as,

From this above mathematical expression it is found that, impedance is
inversely proportional to reluctance. The impedance offered by the return
path of unbalanced load current is very high where very low reluctance return
path is provided for unbalanced flux.

In other words, very high

impedance to the flow of unbalanced current in 3 phase system is offered
between line and neutral. Any unbalanced current in three phase system can be
divided into three sets of components likewise positive sequence, negative
sequence and zero sequence components. The zero sequence current is actually
co-phasial current in three lines. If value of co-phasial current in each
line is Io, then total current flows through the neutral of secondary side of
transformer is In = 3.Io. This current cannot be balanced by primary current
as the zero sequence current cannot flow through the isolated neutral star
connected primary. Hence the said current in the secondary side set up a
magnetic flux in the core. As we discussed earlier in this chapter, low
reluctance path is available for the zero sequence flux in a bank of single
phase units and in the 5 limb core consequently; the impedance offered to the
zero sequence current is very high. The delta connected tertiary winding of
transformer permits the circulation of zero sequence current in it. This
circulating current in this delta winding balances the zero sequence
component of unbalance load, hence prevents unnecessary development of
unbalance zero sequence flux in the transformer core. In few words it can be
said that, placement of tertiary winding in star - star-neutral transformer
considerably reduces the zero sequence impedance of transformer.
Rating of Tertiary Winding of Transformer
Rating of tertiary winding of transformer depends upon its use. If it has to
supply additional load, its winding cross - section and design philosophy is
decided as per load, and three phase dead short circuit on its terminal with
power flow from both sides of HV & MV. In case it is to be provided for
stabilizing purpose only, its cross - section and design has to be decided
from thermal and mechanical consideration for the short duration fault
currents during various fault conditions single line to ground fault being
the most onerous.

What is tertiary winding in transformer? What is its purpose?

In delta-delta, delta-star and star-delta transformers all

voltages are balanced and there is no floating of neutral.
The floating of neutral is developed in the case star-star
connection only. The transformers are sometimes constructed
with three windings. The main windings are connected to
form star-star connection and the third winding known as
tertiary winding is used to make a closed delta connection
to stabilize the neutrals of both primary and secondary
circuits. The tertiary winding carries the third-harmonic
currents.

HARMONICS are caused because of use of high flux densities

in the core. If the core gets saturated during part of the
sinusoidal wave, then secondary wave will be non-
sinusoidal. This may be due to inadequate core area or
characteristics of core material.

Harmonic currents result in higher copper loss, core loss,

magnetic interference and interference with communication
systems.

Harmonic voltages result in increased dielectric loss,

interference with communication systems and resonance
between inductance of the winding and capacitance of
transmission line.

CT

Safety precautions

Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not

disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the
transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the
effectively infinite impedance up to its core saturation voltage. This may
produce a high voltage across the open secondary into the range of several
kilovolts, causing arcing, compromising operator and equipment safety, or
permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.
Accuracy

The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

 Burden
 Burden class/saturation class
 Rating factor
 Load
 External electromagnetic fields
 Temperature and
 Physical configuration.
 The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs
 Phase change

For the IEC standard, accuracy classes for various types of measurement are
set out in IEC 60044-1, Classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1 and 3. The class
designation is an approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio
(primary to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current;
the ratio error of a Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also
important especially in power measuring circuits and each class has an
allowable maximum phase error for specified load impedance.

Current transformers used for protective relaying also have accuracy

requirements at overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure
accurate performance of relays during system faults. A CT with a rating of
2.5L400 specifies with an output from its secondary winding of 20 times its
rated secondary current (usually 5 A x 20 = 100 A) and 400 V (IZ drop) its
output accuracy will be within 2.5 percent.
Burden

The secondary load of a current transformer is usually called the "burden" to

distinguish it from the load of the circuit whose current is being measured.

The burden, in a CT metering circuit is the

(largely resistive) impedance presented to its secondary winding. Typical
burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30
VA, 45 VA and 60 VA. As for ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5,
B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 can
tolerate up to 0.2 Ω of impedance in the metering circuit before its
secondary accuracy falls outside of an accuracy specification. These
specification diagrams show accuracy parallelograms on a grid incorporating
magnitude and phase angle error scales at the CT's rated burden. Items that
contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch-blocks,
meters and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden
is the conductor between the meter and the CT. When substation meters are
located far from the meter cabinets, the excessive length of wire creates a
large resistance. This problem can be reduced by using CTs with 1 ampere
secondary’s, which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its
metering devices.
Knee-point core-saturation voltage

The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the

secondary voltage above which the output current ceases to linearly follow
the input current within declared accuracy. In testing, if a voltage is
applied across the secondary terminals the magnetizing current will increase
in proportion to the applied voltage, until the knee point is reached. The
knee point is defined as the voltage at which a 10% increase in applied
voltage increases the magnetizing current by 50%. For voltages greater than
the knee point, the magnetizing current increases considerably even for small
increments in voltage across the secondary terminals. The knee-point voltage
is less applicable for metering current transformers as their accuracy is
generally much higher, but constrained within a very small range of the
current transformer rating, typically 1.2 to 1.5 times rated current.
However, the concept of knee point voltage is very pertinent to protection
current transformers, since they are necessarily exposed to fault currents of
20 to 30 times rated current.
Rating factor

Rating factor is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can
be multiplied to determine its absolute maximum measurable primary current.
Conversely, the minimum primary current a CT can accurately measure is "light
load," or 10% of the nominal current (there are, however, special CTs
designed to measure accurately currents as small as 2% of the nominal
current). The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient
temperature. Most CTs have rating factors for 35 degrees Celsius and 55
degrees Celsius. It is important to be mindful of ambient temperatures and
resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside padmount
transformers or poorly ventilated mechanical rooms. Recently, manufacturers
have been moving towards lower nominal primary currents with greater rating
factors. This is made possible by the development of more efficient ferrites
and their corresponding hysteresis curves.
Phase shift

Ideally the secondary current of a current transformer should be perfectly in

phase with the primary current. In practice, this is impossible to achieve,
but phase shifts as low as a few tenths of a degree for well constructed
transformers up to as much as six degrees for simpler designs may be
encountered (for the normal power frequencies).[2] For the purposes of current
measurement, any phase shift is immaterial as the indicating ammeter, only
displays the magnitude of the current. However, if the current transformer is
used in conjunction with the current circuit of a wattmeter, energy
meter or power factor meter, any phase shift in the measured current can
affect the accuracy of the target measurement. For power and energy
measurement, this error is generally considered to be negligible at unity
power factor but increases in significance as the power factor approaches
zero. At true zero power factor, all the measured power is entirely due to
the current transformer's phase error.[2] In recent years the introduction of
electronic based power and energy meters has allowed the phase error to be
calibrated out.[3]
Special designs

Specially constructed wideband current transformers are also used (usually

with an oscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or pulsed
currents within pulsed power systems. One type of specially constructed
wideband transformer provides a voltage output that is proportional to the
measured current. Another type (called a Rogowski coil) requires an
external integrator in order to provide a voltage output that is proportional
to the measured current. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry, wideband CTs
are rated in output volts per ampere of primary current. CT RATIO
Standards
Ultimately, depending on client requirements, there are two main standards to
which current transformers are designed. IEC 60044-1 (BSEN 60044-1) & IEEE
C57.13 (ANSI), although the Canadian and Australian standards are also
recognized.
High voltage types

Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high
voltage electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers
may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often
free-standing outdoor current transformers are used. In a switchyard, live
tank current transformers have a substantial part of their enclosure
energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators. Dead
tank current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure.
Live tank CTs are useful because the primary conductor is short, which gives
better stability and a higher short-circuit current rating. The primary of
the winding can be evenly distributed around the magnetic core, which gives
better performance for overloads and transients. Since the major insulation
of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat of the primary
conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved.

A high-voltage current transformer may contain several cores, each with a

secondary winding, for different purposes (such as metering circuits,
control, or protection). A neutral current transformer is used as earth fault
protection to measured any fault current flowing through the neutral line
from the wyes neutral point of a transformer.
See also

What is the difference between resistance and impedance?

Resistance is a concept used for DC (direct currents) whereas impedance is

the AC (alternating current) equivalent.

Resistance is due to electrons in a

conductor colliding with the ionic lattice of the conductor meaning that
electrical energy is converted into heat. Different materials have different
resistivity’s (a property defining how resistive a material of given
dimensions will be.

However, when considering AC you must remember that it oscillates as a sine

wave so the sign is always changing. This means that other effects need to be
considered - namely inductance and capacitance.
Inductance is most obvious in coiled wire. When a current flows through a
wire a circular magnetic field is created around it. If you coil the wire
into a solenoid the fields around the wire sum up and you get a magnetic
field similar to that of a bar magnet on the outside but you get a uniform
magnetic field on the inside. With AC since the sign is always changing the
direction of the field in the wires is always changing - so the magnetic
field of the solenoid is also changing all the time. Now when field lines cut
across a conductor an emf is generated in such a way to reduce the effects
that created it (this is a combination of Lenz

's and Faraday's laws which state mathematically that E=N*d(thi)/dt , where
this is the magnetic flux linkage). This means that when an AC current flows
through a conductor a small back emf or back current is induced reducing the
overall current.

Capacitance is a property best illustrated by two metal plates separated by

an insulator (which we call a capacitor). When current flows electrons build
up on the negative plate. An electric field propagates and repels electrons
on the opposite plate making it positively charged. Due to the buildup of
electrons on the negative plate incoming electrons are also repelled so the
total current eventually falls to zero in an exponential decay. The
capacitance is defined as the charge stored/displaced across a capacitor
divided by the potential difference across it and can also be calculated by
the size of the plates and the primitively of the insulator.
So simply resistance and impedance have different fundamental origins even
though the calculation for their value is the same.

Over Fluxing in Transformer

As per present day transformer design practice, the peak rated value of the
flux density is kept about 1.7 to 1.8 Tesla, while the saturation flux
density of CRGD steel sheet of core of transformer is of the order of 1.9 to
2 Tesla which corresponds to about 1.1 times the rated value. If during
operation, an electrical power transformer is subjected to carry rather
swallow more than above mentioned flux density as per its design limitations,
the transformer is said to have faced over fluxing problem and consequent bad
effects towards its operation and life.

Depending upon the design and saturation flux densities and the thermal time
constants of the heated component parts, a transformer has some over
excitation capacity. I.S. specification for electrical power transformer does
not stipulate the short time permissible over excitation, though in a
roundabout way it does indicate that the maximum over fluxing in
transformer shall not exceed 110%.
The flux density in a transformer can be expressed by. cold rolled grain
oriented (CRGO).

B=CV/f,
where=A constant,
V=Induce voltage,
f = Frequency.

The magnetic flux density is, therefore, proportional to the quotient of

voltage and frequency (V/f). Over fluxing can, therefore, occur either due to
increase in voltage or decrease in-frequency of both.

The probability of over fluxing is relatively high in step-up transformers in

Power stations compared to step - down transformers in Sub-Stations, where
voltage and frequency usually remain constant. However, under very abnormal
system condition, over-fluxing trouble can arise in step-down Sub-Station
transformers as well.

Protection against over fluxing (v/f - Protection) in Transformer

The condition arising out of over-fluxing does not call for high speed
tripping. Instantaneous operation is undesirable as this would cause tripping
on momentary system disturbances which can be borne safely but the normal
condition must be restored or the transformer must be isolated within one or
two minutes at the most.

Flux density is proportional to V/f and it is necessary to detect a ratio of

V/f exceeding unity, V and f being expressed in per unit value of rated
quantities. In a typical scheme designed for over fluxing protection, the
system voltage as measured by the voltages transformer is applied to a
resistance to product a proportionate electric current; this current on being
passed through a capacitor, produces a voltage drop which is proportional to
the functioning in question i.e. V/f and hence to flux in the power
transformer. This is accompanied with a fixed reference D.C. voltage obtained
across a Zener diode. When the peak A.C. signal exceeds the D.C. reference it
triggers a transistor circuit which operates two electromechanical auxiliary
elements. One is initiated after a fixed time delay, the other after an
additional time delay which is adjustable. The over fluxing protection
operates when the ratio of the terminal voltage to frequency exceeds a
predetermined setting and resets when the ratio falls below 95 to 98% of the
operating ratio. By adjustment of a potentiometer, the setting is calibrated
from 1 to 1.25 times the ratio of rated volts to rated frequency.

The output from the first auxiliary element, which operates after fixed time
delay available between 20 to 120 secs. second output relay operates and
performs the tripping function.

It is already pointed out that high V/f occur in Generator Transformers and
Unit-Auxiliary Transformers if full exaltation is applied to generator before
full synchronous speed is reached. V/f relay is provided in the automatic
voltage regulator of generator. This relay blocks and prevents increasing
excitation current before full frequency is reached.

When applying V/f relay to step down transformer it is preferable to connect

it to the secondary (L.V. said of the transformer so that change in tap
position on the H.V. is automatically taken care of Further the relay should
initiate an Alarm and the corrective operation be done / got done by the
operator. On extreme eventuality the transformer controlling breaker may be
allowed to trip.

Effect of Over Fluxing in Transformers

The flux in a transformer, under normal conditions is confined to the core of

transformer because of its high permeability compared to the surrounding
volume. When the flux density in the increases beyond saturation point, a
substantial amount of flux is diverted to steel structural parts and into the
air. At saturation flux density the core steel will over heat.

Structural steel parts which are nu-laminated and are not designed to carry
magnetic flux will heat rapidly. Flux flowing in unplanned air paths may link
conducing loops in the windings, loads, tank base at the bottom of the core
and structural parts and the resulting circulating currents in these loops
can cause dangerous temperature increase. Under conditions of excessive over
fluxing the heating of the inner portion of the windings may be sufficiently
extreme as the exciting current is rich in harmonies. It is obvious that the
levels of loss which occur in the winding at high excitation cannot be
tolerated for long if the damage is to be avoided.

Physical evidences of damage due to over fluxing will very with the degree of
over excitation, the time applied and the particular design of transformer.
The Table given below summarizes such physical damage and probable
consequences.
 It may be seen that metallic support structures for core and coil, windings,
lead conductors, core lamination, tank etc. may attain sufficient temperature
with the evolution of combustible gas in each case due to over fluxing of
transformer and the same gas may be collected inBuchholz Relay with
consequent Alarm/Trip depending upon the quantity of gas collected which
again depends upon the duration of time the transformer is subjected to over
fluxing.

Due to over fluxing in transformer its core becomes saturated as such induced
voltage in the primary circuit becomes more or less constant. If the supply
voltage to the primary is increased to abnormal high value, there must be
high magnetizing current in the primary circuit. Under such magnetic state of
condition of transformer core linear relations between primary and secondary
quantities (viz. for voltage and currents) are lost. So there may not be
sufficient and appropriate reflection of this high primary magnetizing
current to secondary circuit as such mismatching of primary currents and
secondary currents is likely to occur, causing differential relay to operate
as we do not have over fluxing protection for sub-stn. transformers.

Over Current and Earth Fault Protection of Transformer

Backup protection of electrical transformer is simple Over Current and Earth

Fault protection applied against external short circuit and excessive over
loads. These over current and earth Fault relays may be of Inverse Definite
Minimum Time (IDMT) or Definite Time type relays. Generally IDMT relays are
connected to the in-feed side of the transformer.

The over current relays cannot distinguish between external short circuit,
over load and internal faults of the transformer. For any of the above
fault, backup protection i.e. over current and earth fault
protection connected to in-feed side of the transformer will operate. Backup
protection is although generally installed at in feed side of the
transformer, but it should trip both the primary and secondary circuit
breakers of the transformer.
Over Current and Earth Fault protection relays may be also provided in load
side of the transformer too, but it should not inter trip the primary side
Circuit Breaker like the case of backup protection at in-feed side. The
operation is governed primarily by current and time settings and the
characteristic curve of the relay. To permit use of over load capacity of the
transformer and co- ordination with other similar relays at about 125 to 150%
of full load current of the transformer but below the minimum short circuit
current.

Backup protection of transformer has four elements; three over current relays
connected each in each phase and one earth fault relay connected to the
common point of three over current relays as shown in the figure. The normal
ranges of current settings available on IDMT over current relays are 50% to
200% and on earth fault relay 20 to 80%.

Another range of setting on earth fault relay is also available and may be
selected where the earth fault current is restricted due to insertion of
impedance in the neutral grounding. In the case of transformer winding with
neutral earthed, unrestricted earth fault protection is obtained by
connecting an ordinary earth fault relay across a neutral current
transformer.
The unrestricted over current and earth fault relays should have proper time
lag to co - ordinate with the protective relays of other circuit to avoid

indiscriminate tripping.

Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Transformer

An external fault in the star side will result in current flowing in the
line current transformer of the affected phase and at the same time a
balancing current flows in the neutral current transformer, hence the
resultant electric current in the relay is therefore zero. So this REF relay
will not be actuated for external earth fault. But during internal fault the
neutral current transformer only carries the unbalance fault current and
operation of Restricted Earth Fault Relay takes place. This scheme
of restricted earth fault protection is very sensitive for internal earth
fault of electrical power transformer. The protection scheme is comparatively
cheaper than differential protection scheme

Restricted earth fault protection is provided in electrical power

transformer for sensing internal earth fault of the transformer. In this
scheme the CT secondary of each phase of electrical power transformer are
connected together as shown in the figure. Then common terminals are
connected to the secondary of a Neutral Current Transformer or NCT. The CT
or Current Transformer connected to the neutral of power transformer is
called Neutral Current Transformer or Neutral CT or simply NCT. Whenever
there is an unbalancing in between three phases of the power transformer, a
resultant unbalance current flow through the close path connected to the
common terminals of the CT secondary’s. An unbalance current will also flow
through the neutral of power transformer and hence there will be a secondary
current in Neutral CT because of this unbalance neutral current.
In Restricted Earth Fault scheme the common terminals of phase CTs are
connected to the secondary of Neutral CT in such a manner that secondary
unbalance current of phase CTs and the secondary current of Neutral CT will
oppose each other. If these both electric currents are equal in amplitude
there will not be any resultant current circulate through the said close
path. The Restricted Earth Fault Relay is connected in this close path. Hence
the relay will not response even there is an unbalancing in phase current of
the power transformer.

Differential protection relay for two line ends with 4-line display,
The 7SD610 relay is a differential protection relay suitable for all types of
applications and incorporating all those functions required for differential
protection of lines, cables and transformers. Transformers and compensation
coils within the differential protection zone are protected by means of
integrated functions, which were previously to be found only in transformer
differential protection. It is also well-suited for complex applications such
as series and parallel compensation of lines and cables.
It is designed to provide differential and directional back-up protection for
all voltage levels and types of networks. The relay features high speed and
phase-selective short circuit measurement. The unit is thus suitable for
single-phase and three-phase fault clearance.
Digital data communication for differential current measurement is effected
via fiber optic cables, networks or pilot wires connections, so that the line
ends can be quite far apart. The serial protection data interface (R2R
interface) of the relay can flexibly be adapted to the requirements of all
existing communication media. If the communication method is changed,
flexible retrofitting of communication modules to the existing configuration
is possible.
Apart from the main protection function, i.e. the differential protection,
the 7SD610 has a full range of configurable emergency and / or back-up
protection functions such as phase and earth over current protection with
directional elements if voltage transformers are connected. Overload, under
and over-voltage/frequency and breaker failure protection round off the
functional scope of the 7SD610.
Multi-end differential protection relay for two to six line ends, 4-line
backlit display
Description
Power system configurations need to be adjusted onto changing needs. New
challenges, like multi-circuit and multivendor overhead lines, embedded
generation etc. require alterations of traditional transmission line relaying
concepts. Apart from technical issues, the utility has to survive in a
competitive environment. The challenge is sustaining system reliability at
lower costs.

Dependable fault clearance and quick transmission line restoration contribute

significantly to efficiency in power system management. In such economic
schemes fit ideally SIPROTEC 7SD5. Fully redundant operating Differential-
and Distance relays accommodated in on single IED provide high speed
operation of both relays and excellent fault coverage, even of peculiar
conditions. Precise distance-to-fault location avoids time consuming line
patrolling and reduces the down time of the line to a minimum.

Features:
The protected differential zone may be easily extended from 2 up to 6 line
ends. Complex system configurations receive clearly defined protection zones
and maximum fault coverage. The high-speed distance relay operates fully
independent from the differential relay. Back-up zones provide remote back-up
for upstream and downstream lines and other power system components. Contrary
to traditional measurement approaches, the distance-to-fault locator uses
measurement quantities from both line terminals. This results in precise
readings, even under difficult system conditions, e.g. parallel lines or
resistive line faults fed from both line terminals. The readings are
available right after fault clearance for quick line clearance and system
restoration.
The high-speed distance relay operates fully independent from the
differential relay. Back-up zones provide remote back-up for upstream and
downstream lines and other power system components.
Contrary to traditional measurement approaches, the distance-to-fault locator
uses measurement quantities from both line terminals. These results in
precise readings, even under difficult system conditions, e.g. parallel lines
or resistive line faults fed from both line terminals. The readings are
Available right after fault clearance for quick line clearance and system
restoration.
The relays provide optical ports for relay-to-relay (R2R). The adjustment to
other communication media takes place via media converter. They accept all
traditional and modern communication media, i.e. fibers, commas networks and
pilot wires. The relays remain unchanged.
For multi-ended lines the communication links may be operated in open or
closed rings. The latter provides communication even if one link is broken.

Core Losses in Transformer

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend upon magnetic properties of the materials used to construct the core of
transformerand its design. So these losses in transformer are fixed and do not depend upon the load current. So core
losses in transformer which is alternatively known as iron loss in transformer and can be considered as constant for all range of
load.

Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as,

Eddy Current loss in transformer is denoted as,

Where, Kh = Hysteresis Constant.

Ke = Eddy Current Constant.

Kf = form Constant.
Copper loss can simply be denoted as,

IL2R2′ + Stray loss

Where, IL = I2 = load of transformer, and R2′ is the resistance of transformer referred to secondary.

Now we will discuss Hysteresis loss and Eddy Current loss in little bit more details for better understanding the topic of losses in
transformer

Hysteresis Loss in Transformer

Hysteresis loss in transformer can be explained in different ways. We will discuss two of them, one is physical explanation other is
mathematical explanation.

Physical Explanation of Hysteresis Loss

The magnetic core of transformer is made of ′Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Silicon Steel′. Steel is very good ferromagnetic
material. This kind of materials is very sensitive to be magnetized. That means whenever magnetic flux passes through,it will
behave like magnet. Ferromagnetic substances have numbers of domains in their structure. Domain are very small region in the
material structure, where all the dipoles are paralleled to same direction. In other words, the domains are like small permanent
magnet situated randomly in the structure of substance. These domains are arranged inside the material structure in such a random
manner, that net resultant magnetic field of the said material is zero. Whenever external magnetic field or mmf is is applied to that
substance, these randomly directed domains are arranged themselves in parallel to the axis of applied mmf. After removing this
external mmf, maximum numbers of domains again come to random positions, but some few of them still remain in their changed
position. Because of these unchanged domains the substance becomes slightly magnetized permanently. This magnetism is called
“Spontaneous Magnetism". To neutralize this magnetism some opposite mmf is required to be applied. The magneto motive force or
mmf applied in the transformer core is alternating. For every cycle, due to this domain reversal there will be extra work done. For
this reason, there will be a consumption of electrical energy which is known as Hysteresis loss of transformer.

Mathematical Explanation of Hysteresis Loss in Transformer

Determination of Hysteresis Loss

Consider a ring of ferromagnetic specimen of circumference L meter, cross - sectional area a m2 and N turns of insulated wire as
shown in the picture beside,

Let us consider, the electric current flowing through the coil is I amp,

Magnetizing force,

Let, the flux density at this instant is B,

Therefore, total flux through the ring, Φ = BXa Wb

As the electric current flowing through the solenoid is alternating, the flux produced in the iron ring is also alternating in
nature, so the emf (e′) induced will be expressed as,
According to Lenz,s law this induced emf will oppose the flow of electric current, therefore, in order to maintain the
current I in the coil, the source must supply an equal and opposite emf. Hence applied emf ,

Energy consumed in short time dt, during which the flux density has changed,

Thus, total work done or energy consumed during one complete cycle of magnetism,

Now aL is the volume of the ring and H.dB is the area of elementary strip of B - H curve shown in the figure above,
= total area enclosed by Hysteresis Loop.

Therefore, Energy consumed per cycle = volume of the ring X area of hysteresis loop.

In the case of transformer, this ring can be considered as magnetic core of transformer. Hence this work done is nothing but
electrical energy loss in transformer core and this is known as hysteresis loss in transformer.

What is Eddy Current Loss?

In transformer we supply alternating current in the primary, this alternating current produces alternating magnetizing flux in the core
and as this flux links with secondary winding there will be induced voltage in secondary, resulting current to flow through the load
connected with it. Some of the alternating fluxes of transformer may also link with other conducting parts like steel core or iron body
of transformer etc. As alternating flux links with these parts of transformer, there would be an locally induced emf. Due to these emfs
there would be currents which will circulate locally at that part of the transformer. These circulating current will not contribute in
output of the transformer and dissipated as heat. This type of energy loss is called eddy current loss of transformer. This was a
broad and simple explanation of eddy current loss. The detail explanation of this loss is not in the scope of discussion in that
chapter.

Why CT Secondary Should Not Be Kept Open?

The Electrical power system load current always flows through current transformer primary; irrespective of whether the Current
Transformer is open circuited or connected to burden at its secondary.

If CT secondary is open circuited, all the primary current will behave as excitation current, which ultimately produce huge voltage.
Every Current Transformer has its won non - Linear magnetizing curve, because of which secondary open circuit voltage should be
limited by saturation of the core. If one can measure the rms voltage across the secondary terminals, he or she will get the value
which may not appear to be dangerous. As the CT primary current is sinusoidal in nature, it zero 100 times per second.(As
frequency of the electric current is 50Hz). The rate of change of flux at every current zero is not limited by saturation and is high
indeed. This develops extremely high peaks or pulses of voltage. These high peaks of voltage may not be measured by
conventional voltmeter. But these high peaks of induced voltage may breakdown the CT insulation, and may case accident to
personnel. The actual open - circuit voltage peak is difficult to measure accurately because of its very short peaks. That is why CT
secondary should not be kept open.
 Is a device whose principal function is to connect a machine to its source
of running or
Operating voltage. This function may also be used for a device, such as a
contractor, that is used in series with a circuit breaker or other fault
protecting means, primarily for frequent opening and closing of the circuit.
Lenz’s law

Back emf

There were many other oddities that have been explained by the production of eddy currents,
including the back emf produced in electric motors. When a motor starts up, the coils are rotating
through an external magnetic field and so there is an induced back emf.
The net emf is the sum of the supply emf and the opposing back emf (the minus sign indicates it is
against the direction of the supply emf).

When current is flowing through the armature conductor of dc motor, it starts rotating inside the
magnetic field of stator pole. As the armature conductors move inside the magnetic field there will
be an induced emf in the armature conductor. This emf would be due to Faraday law of
electromagnetic induction. The direction of the induced emf will be as per Fleming right hand rule
and the induced emf will oppose the applied voltage across the armature terminals. In other words
in dc motor the rotating armature will generate an emf as it is rotating under magnetic field, in
opposite of the applied voltage and this generated emf in dc motor is called back emf.
Supply Unbalance & Sequence components :
When the power supply to the motor is unbalanced, the unbalanced voltage and the resulting
unbalanced currents in the three phases can be resolved into three balanced components as follows :
Positive Sequence component: This component is in the same phase sequence as that of the motor
current. All its three phases are perfectly balanced - they are equal in magnitude and are displaced by
120 degrees. The positive sequence component represents the amount of balance in the power supply
and consequently is instrumental in delivering useful power.
Negative Sequence component: This component has a phase sequence opposite to that of the motor
current hence the name negative sequence. It represents the amount of unbalance in the feeder. All its
three phases are perfectly balanced - they are equal in magnitude and are displaced by 120 degrees.
This component does not produce useful power - however by being present it contributes to the losses
and causes temperature rise.
Zero Sequence components: This, if present, represents extent of earth fault in the feeder. All its three
phases are in the same direction.
Negative Sequence
When the load on the generator becomes unbalanced, negative
phase sequence currents flows. The negative sequence
components produce a rotating magnetic field which rotates
at synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the
direction of rotor field. Hence effectively the relative
speed between the two is double the synchronous speed. Thus
double frequency currents are induced in the rotor. These
currents cause severe heating of the rotor and can cause
damage to the rotor. The unbalanced stators currents also
cause sever vibration and heating of stator. Hence it is
necessary to provide the negative sequence protection to
the generators against the unbalanced load condition.

The negative phase sequence filter along with the

over current relay provides the necessary protection against
the unbalanced loads.
Need for Negative Sequence Protection
Primary cause of motor failure is excessive heating, which if sustained over long time periods will result
in motor burn out. Over heating also reduces the life of motor. If a motor is continuously over heated by
just 10 degrees, its life can get reduced by almost 50%.
Over heating normally occurs due to over current, which in turn may be due to over loads or locked
rotor condition or low voltage or phase failure or repeat starts or phase unbalance.
Bimetallic relays are most economical solution for heating due to over loads. However they suffer from
inherent deficiencies like poor accuracy, rigid inverse time characteristics, poor repeatability etc. They are
totally insensitive to current unbalance, which is one of the major contributors to over heating in motors.
Though the three-phase motor is supposed to be a balanced load, current unbalance occurs frequently
in motor feeders due to following:
voltage unbalance in the feeder supply
phase reversal
single phasing
Current unbalance in a motor is best represented by the presence of excessive negative sequence
component in the motor current. Consequently it is necessary to protect motors against negative
sequence .

Effect of Unbalance in Motors :

When the supply voltage is unbalanced, the positive sequence component reduces and results in low
power delivery.
An unbalance of only 5% ( R phase = 415 V , Y phase = 415 V, B phase = 436 V) can reduce the out put
by 25%, even though the motor continues to draw the same current as at the time of balanced
condition. This means that the motor current has to increase under unbalanced condition in order to
deliver the same power. This increase will result in motor heating.
During supply unbalance, negative sequence currents flow through the stator windings. This results in
induction of negative sequence voltage in the rotor windings. Since the rotor is short circuited, this will
result in abnormal current flow in the rotor and damage the rotor winding. A voltage unbalance of the
order of 3% can increase the heating by nearly 20% in the rotor.
The negative sequence impedance of the motor is approximately same as the locked rotor impedance
which in turn is approximately one sixth of normal motor impedance. Due to this even small voltage
unbalance can produce large negative sequence current in the motor.
The frequency of the negative sequence current induced in the rotor will be equal to (supply
frequency) x (2-slip) Hz. This is due to the fact that it is revolving in the opposite direction . This
frequency will be typically around 99 Hz during normal motor operation . Due to skin effect, high
frequency negative sequence currents encounter high rotor resistance. This inturn results in over
heating. The increased resistance is typically 5 times the normal positive sequence resistance.

Reasons for Unbalance :

Voltage unbalance can be due to many reasons. These include unsymmetrical loading, blown fuses in
capacitor banks and single phasing.

Single phasing :
Single phasing causes worst kind of unbalance - it produces equal amount of positive and negative
sequence components. The prime causes for single phasing are :
broken or burn out of connecting leads to motor
blown fuses
faulty contact in switching element
To understand the effect of single phasing in motors, consider the condition shown below .
It can be seen that the current in winding C will be larger than that in A and B and consequently it will
burn out. Typical currents in the windings are shown below >

Current in windings when single phasing has

Motor Current (% of full load)
occurred
3 phase Lines L1 &
Winding A&B Winding C
current L3
50 80 50 108
55 90 58 118
60 102 62 131
65 120 70 147
70 130 79 161
75 147 87 180
80 165 95 198
85 180 102 215
90 200 111 235
95 222 120 258
100 243 129 285
From the above table , we can see that in a motor running at 50% load, on single phasing in L2,
the healthy lines L1 and L3 will carry 80% of full load
the windings will carry 50% of full load
the winding C carries more than twice full load (108%)
A thermal over load relay in this case , will not trip since it is seeing only 80% current in healthy lines L1
& L3 while the winding C is already over stressed. This situation gets worse with increasing loads at the
time of single phasing
A negative sequence calculation would have helped in this case.

Phase reversal :
Phase reversal in a motor can be very dangerous - the motor will run in the opposite direction resulting
in severe damage to gear boxes, material flow problems and hazard to operating personnel.
Phase reversal in a motor feeder produces a negative sequence of nearly 100% and is well detected by a
relay with negative sequence protection.
Considering the above details, it can be easily concluded that a motor protection relay will
provide an effective protection to the motor only when it is equipped to measure the
negative sequence component level in the motor feeder.

THE OIL SURGE RELAY

IS CONNECTED IN BETWEEN OLTC CHAMBER AND CONSERVATOR (SEPARATE FOR OLTC) WITH
BREATHER. A SEPAATION SHOULD BE ARRANGING SUCH THAT THE OIL IN OLTC CHAMBER AND
TRANSFORMER CHAMBER SHOULD NOT BE MIXED TOGETHER. IN CASE ANY ON LOAD TAPCHANGER A
PROBLEMS DEVELOPED DURING OPERATION A GAS IS DEVELOPED AND THAT GAS WILL ACTUTE THE
OIL SURGE RELAY AND THE RELAY ACTIVATES OTHER CIRCUITS AND MAIN CIRCUIT HT WILL BE OPNED
WITH ALARAM INDICATION AND FLAG INDICATION.
Buchholz Relay & Oil Surge Relay

What is a Protocol?

A standard set of regulations and requirements that allow two electronic items to connect to and exchange information with
one another. Protocols regulate data transmission among devices as well as within a network of linked devices through both
error control and specifying which data compression method to use. In particular, protocols decide: the method of error
checking, how to compact data (if required), how the transmitting device signals that it has concluded sending data, and
how the receiving device signals that it has completed receiving data.

True, Reactive, and Apparent power.

We know that reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors dissipate zero power, yet the fact that they
drop voltage and draw current gives the deceptive impression that they actually do dissipate power. This
“phantom power” is called reactive power, and it is measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR),
rather than watts. The mathematical symbol for reactive power is (unfortunately) the capital letter Q. The
actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is called true power, and it is measured in
watts (symbolized by the capital letter P, as always). The combination of reactive power and true power is
called apparent power, and it is the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase
angle. Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA) and is symbolized by the capital letter S.

As a rule, true power is a function of a circuit's dissipative elements, usually resistances (R). Reactive power
is a function of a circuit's reactance (X). Apparent power is a function of a circuit's total impedance (Z).
Since we're dealing with scalar quantities for power calculation, any complex starting quantities such as
voltage, current, and impedance must be represented by their polar magnitudes, not by real or imaginary
rectangular components. For instance, if I'm calculating true power from current and resistance, I must use
the polar magnitude for current, and not merely the “real” or “imaginary” portion of the current. If I'm
calculating apparent power from voltage and impedance, both of these formerly complex quantities must
be reduced to their polar magnitudes for the scalar arithmetic.
There are several power equations relating the three types of power to resistance, reactance, and
impedance (all using scalar quantities):
Please note that there are two equations each for the calculation of true and reactive power. There are
three equations available for the calculation of apparent power, P=IE being useful only for that purpose.
Examine the following circuits and see how these three types of power interrelate for: a purely resistive
load in Figure below, a purely reactive load in Figure below, and a resistive/reactive load in Figure below.
Resistive load only:

True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a purely resistive load.

Reactive load only:

True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a purely reactive load.

Resistive/reactive load:

True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a resistive/reactive load.
These three types of power -- true, reactive, and apparent -- relate to one another in trigonometric form.
We call this the power triangle: (Figure below).
Power triangle relating appearant power to true power and reactive power.
Using the laws of trigonometry, we can solve for the length of any side (amount of any type of power),
given the lengths of the other two sides, or the length of one side and an angle.
LOAD ENCROCHMENT
Abstract - Cascaded tripping of power lines due to mal-operation
of zone 3 distance relays was one of the main causes of many
previous blackouts worldwide. Encroachment of load into the
zone 3 characteristics is one of the main causes for the mal-operation
of the relays. By improving the operation of zone 3 of
distance relays it is possible to prevent such mal-operations so
that cascaded line tripping can be avoided.
A new algorithm that utilizes
Synchronized Phasor Measurements (SPM) to control the
operation of distance protection zone 3. Based on the proposed
algorithm, several improvements in operation of zone 3 can be
achieved. For instance, the relay can differentiate between actual
system faults and load encroachment.

Types of protection
Protection schemes can be divided into two major groupings:
1. Unit schemes
2. Non-unit schemes

1. Unit Type Protection

Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system, i.e., a transformer, transmission line, generator or bus bar.

The unit protection a scheme is based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law – the sum of the currents entering an area of the system must
be zero.

Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path. In these schemes, the effects of any disturbance or
operating condition outside the area of interest are totally ignored and the protection must be designed to be stable above the
maximum possible fault current that could flow through the protected area.

2. Non unit type protection

The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as
protecting their own designated areas, the protective zones can overlap into other areas. While this can be very beneficial for
backup purposes, there can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault is detected by different non unit schemes.
The most simple of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time characteristic into the protection operation
to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate first.

The non unit type protection system includes following schemes:

1. Time graded overcurrent protection

2. Current graded overcurrent protection

Distance or Impedance Protection

2.1 Over current protection

This is the simplest of the ways to protect a line and therefore widely used.
It owes its application from the fact that in the event of fault the current would increase to a value several times greater than
maximum load current. It has a limitation that it can be applied only to simple and non costly equipments.

2.2 Earth fault protection

The general practice is to employ a set of two or three over current relays and a separate over current relay for single
line to ground fault. Separate earth fault relay provided makes earth fault protection faster and more sensitive.
Earth fault current is always less than phase fault current in magnitude.
Therefore, relay connected for earth fault protection is different from those for phase to phase fault protection.

Various types of Line Faults

No Type of Fault Operation of Relay

1 Phase to Ground fault (Earth Fault) Earth Fault Relay

2 Phase to Phase fault Not with Ground Related Phase Over current relays

3 Double phase to Ground fault Related Phase Over current relays and Earth Fault
relays

Over current Relay Purpose and Ratings

A relay that operates or picks up when it’s current exceeds a predetermined value (setting value) is called Over current Relay.
Over current protection protects electrical power systems against excessive currents which are caused by short
circuits, ground faults, etc. Over current relays can be used to protect practically any power system elements, i.e.
transmission lines, transformers, generators, or motors.

For feeder protection, there would be more than one over current relay to protect different sections of the feeder. These over
current relays need to coordinate with each other such that the relay nearest fault operates first.

Use time, current and a combination of both time and current are three ways to discriminate adjacent over current relays.

Over Current Relay gives protection against:

Over current includes short-circuit protection, and short circuits can be:

1. Phase faults
2. Earth faults
3. Winding faults
Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on
short circuits.

Primary requirement of Over current protection

The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible over current, current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is
provided (in case of inverse relays).
The protection should be co-ordinate with neighboring overcurrent protection.

Overcurrent relay is a basic element of overcurrent protection.

Purpose of overcurrent Protection

These are the most important purposes of overcurrent relay:
 Detect abnormal conditions
 Isolate faulty part of the system
 Speed Fast operation to minimize damage and danger
 Discrimination Isolate only the faulty section
 Dependability / reliability
 Security / stability
 Cost of protection / against cost of potential hazards

Overcurrent Relay Ratings

In order for an overcurrent protective device to operate properly, overcurrent protective device ratings must be properly selected.
These ratings include voltage, ampere and interrupting rating.

If the interrupting rating is not properly selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist.

Current limiting can be considered as another overcurrent protective device rating, although not all overcurrent protective devices
are required to have this characteristic

Voltage Rating: The voltage rating of the overcurrent protective device must be at least equal to or greater than the circuit
voltage. The overcurrent protective device rating can be higher than the system voltage but never lower.
Ampere Rating: The ampere rating of a overcurrent protecting device normally should not exceed the current carrying capacity of
the conductors As a general rule, the ampere rating of a overcurrent protecting device is selected at 125% of the continuous load
current.

Difference between Over current and Overload protection

Over current protection protects against excessive currents or currents beyond the acceptable current ratings, which are
resulting from short circuits, ground faults and overload conditions.
While, the overload protection protects against the situation where overload current causes overheating of the protected
equipment.

The overcurrent protection is a bigger concept So that the overload protection can be considered as a subset of overcurrent
protection.

The overcurrent relay can be used as overload (thermal) protection when protects the resistive loads, etc., however, for motor
loads, the overcurrent relay cannot serve as overload protection Overload relays usually have a longer time setting than the
overcurrent relays.

Types of Overcurrent Relay

These are the types of overcurrent relay:
1. Instantaneous Overcurrent (Define Current) Relay
2. Define Time Overcurrent Relay
3. Inverse Time Over current Relay (IDMT Relay)
1. Moderately Inverse
2. Very Inverse Time
3. Extremely Inverse
Directional overcurrent Relay

1. Instantaneous Over current relay (Define Current)

Definite current relay operate instantaneously when the current reaches a predetermined value.

 Operates in a definite time when current exceeds its Pick-up value.

 Its operation criterion is only current magnitude (without time delay).
 Operating time is constant.
 There is no intentional time delay.
  Coordination of definite-current relays is based on the fact that the fault current varies with the position of the fault because
of the difference in the impedance between the fault and the source
 The relay located furthest from the source operate for a low current value
 The operating currents are progressively increased for the other relays when moving towards the source.
 It operates in 0.1s or less
Application: This type is applied to the outgoing feeders.

2. Definite Time Over current Relays

In this type, two conditions must be satisfied for operation (tripping), current must exceed the setting value and the fault must be
continuous at least a time equal to time setting of the relay.

Definite time of over current relay

Modern relays may contain more than one stage of protection each stage includes each own current and time setting.

1. For Operation of Definite Time Over current Relay operating time is constant
2. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick-up value.
3. It has pick-up and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism.
4. Easy to coordinate.
5. Constant tripping time independent of in feed variation and fault location.

Drawback of Relay:
1. The continuity in the supply cannot be maintained at the load end in the event of fault.
2. Time lag is provided which is not desirable in on short circuits.
3. It is difficult to co-ordinate and requires changes with the addition of load.
4. It is not suitable for long distance transmission lines where rapid fault clearance is necessary for stability.
5. Relay have difficulties in distinguishing between Fault currents at one point or another when fault impedances between
these points are small, thus poor discrimination.
Application:
Definite time over current relay is used as:
1. Back up protection of distance relay of transmission line with time delay.
2. Back up protection to differential relay of power transformer with time delay.
3. Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable time delay setting.

3. Inverse Time Over current Relays (IDMT Relay)

In this type of relays, operating time is inversely changed with current. So, high current will operate overcorrect relay faster than
lower ones. There are standard inverse, very inverse and extremely inverse types.

Discrimination by both ‘Time’ and ‘Current’. The relay operation time is inversely proportional to the fault current.
Inverse Time relays are also referred to as Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)

The operating time of an over current relay can be moved up (made slower) by adjusting the ‘time dial setting’. The lowest time
dial setting (fastest operating time) is generally 0.5 and the slowest is 10.
 Operates when current exceeds its pick-up value.
 Operating time depends on the magnitude of current.
 It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time characteristics at higher values
 An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below 10, for values between 10 and 20
characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics.
 Widely used for the protection of distribution lines.
Based on the inverseness it has three different types:

Inverse types
3.1. Normal Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
The accuracy of the operating time may range from 5 to 7.5% of the nominal operating time as specified in the relevant
norms. The uncertainty of the operating time and the necessary operating time may require a grading margin of 0.4 to 0.5
seconds.

It’s used when Fault Current is dependent on generation of fault not fault location.

Normal inverse time Overcurrent Relay is relatively small change in time per unit of change of current.

Application:
Most frequently used in utility and industrial circuits. especially applicable where the fault magnitude is mainly dependent on the
system generating capacity at the time of fault.

3.2. Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

 Gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT.
 Used where there is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source increases.
 Particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics.
 Suitable if there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the fault distance from the power source increases.
 Very inverse overcurrent relays are particularly suitable if the short-circuit current drops rapidly with the distance from the
substation.
 The grading margin may be reduced to a value in the range from 0.3 to 0.4 seconds when overcurrent relays with very
inverse characteristics are used.
 Used when Fault Current is dependent on fault location.
 Used when Fault Current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.

3.3. Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
 It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse overcurrent relay.
 Suitable for the protection of machines against overheating.
 The operating time of a time overcurrent relay with an extremely inverse time-current characteristic is approximately
inversely proportional to the square of the current
 The use of extremely inverse overcurrent relays makes it possible to use a short time delay in spite of high switching-in
currents.
 Used when Fault current is dependent on fault location
 Used when Fault current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.
Application:
 Suitable for protection of distribution feeders with peak currents on switching in (refrigerators, pumps, water heaters and so
on).
 Particular suitable for grading and coordinates with fuses and re closes
 For the protection of alternators, transformers. Expensive cables, etc.

3.4. Long Time Inverse over current Relay

The main application of long time overcorrect relays is as backup earth fault protection.

4. Directional Over current relays

When the power system is not radial (source on one side of the line), an over current relay may not be able to provide adequate
protection. This type of relay operates in on direction of current flow and blocks in the opposite direction.

Three conditions must be satisfied for its operation: current magnitude, time delay and directionality. The directionality of current
flow can be identified using voltage as a reference of direction.
Application of over current Relay
Motor Protection:
 Used against overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motor.
 Inverse time and instantaneous over current phase and ground
 Over current relays used for motors above 1000 kW.
Transformer Protection:
 Used only when the cost of over current relays are not justified.
 Extensively also at power-transformer locations for external-fault back-up protection.
Line Protection:
 On some sub transmission lines where the cost of distance relaying cannot be justified.
 Primary ground-fault protection on most transmission lines where distance relays are used for phase faults.
 For ground back-up protection on most lines having pilot relaying for primary protection.
Distribution Protection:
Over current relaying is very well suited to distribution system protection for the following reasons:

 It is basically simple and inexpensive.

 Very often the relays do not need to be directional and hence no PT supply is required.
 It is possible to use a set of two O/C relays for protection against inter-phase faults and a separate over current relay for
ground faults.

Quiescent Current

The term given to describe the amount of current consumed by a circuit when it is not performing any work
(sometimes referred to as standby current). This is a particularly important concept in designing battery-operated
systems such as wireless belt pack transmitters. Battery life is determined by the total current drain composed of
quiescent current and load current. Usually battery-operated devices are in standby mode more than in operation
mode so the quiescent current consumption is the more dominant consideration. Quiescent current consumption
should be as low as possible in order to prolong the battery’s life.

Class A amplifiers have the general property that the output device(s) always carry a significant current level, and
hence have a large quiescent current. The quiescent current is defined as the current level in the amplifier when it is
producing an output of zero. Class A amplifiers vary the large quiescent current in order to generate a varying current
in the load hence they are always inefficient in power terms.

A Restricted Earth Fault (REF) means an earth fault from a restricted/localized zone of a
circuit. The term "REF protection method” means not to sense any earth faults outside this
restricted zone. REF is a type of "unit protection" applied to transformers or generators and
is more sensitive than the method known as differential protection. An REF relay works by
measuring the actual current flowing to earth from the frame of the unit. If that current
exceeds a certain preset maximum value of milliamps (mA) then the relay will trip to cut off
the power supply to the unit. Differential protection can also be used to protect the windings
of a transformer by comparing the current in the power supply's neutral wire with the current
in the phase wire: if the currents are equal then the differential protection relay will not
operate; if there is a current imbalance then the differential protection relay operates.
However, REF protection is also applied to transformers in order to detect ground faults on a
given winding much more sensitively than differential protection can do. Read more:
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_restricted_earth_fault_protection_and_how_is_it_provided
#ixzz1sjyn901n Re: what is the diff. b/w restricted earth fault relay & standby earth fault relay
and where they are used? Answer# 1Restricted earth fault (REF) relay is a unit protection
intended for one winding of a transformer (neutral winding) the input of which is from a
neutral bushing CT and in some applications, balanced by the output of three line CTs in the
Y-winding directly connected to neutral. This provides accurate sensing of zero-sequence
leakage currents for a fault within its zone of protection, i.e., on the windings. Whereas,
standby EF relay is a back-up over current ground protection usually connected on the HV
side and its main purpose is to provide local back-up protection in case for a failure of main
protections of the LV feeder/line ports., bus ports., and the transf. main protections. Re: what
is the diff. b/w restricted earth fault relay & standby earth fault relay and where they are
used? Answer# 2i agree with this answer with little correction Standby Earth Fault relay is also
connected to star side the difference between SEF and REF is REF operates in In Zone only
SEF operates in In and Out Zones. If there is an earth fault in outgoing feeders and the feeder
protection is not

Internal Phase to Phase Faults in Power Transformer

Phase to phase fault in the transformer are rare. If such a fault does occur, it will give rise to substantial current to
operate instantaneous over current relay on the primary side as well as the differential relay.

Accuracy class of 0.2 means +/ - 0.2 % error. But, the declared accuracy is guaranteed only
between 100% & 120%
rating. And, with some increased error, the CT performance
can be guaranteed from 5% loading. Below this load, the
error is not guaranteed. It can be anything.

Normally these classes of accuracy are used for Tariff

Metering by the Utility Company.

In large industrial projects, the project would be

commissioned in steps only. In such a case, initially the
loading will be very low. If the tariff metering CT errors
are haphazard, it may not be acceptable either to the
supplier (in case of negative error) or to the consumer (in
the case of positive error). And the magnitude can be quite
large, say, with a sanctioned demand of 10MVA, even 1%
error means 100kVA.

To cater to such situations, Standards have introduced two

new accuracy classes, 0.2S & 0.5S for tariff metering
purposes. These special CTs guarantee the declared
accuracy, even with 20% loading. And some definite error
can be defined even with a load as low as 1%. Thus they are
suitable for industries where loads are commissioned in
steps or stages.

Accuracy class:0.2S more accurate, for protection s ee data sheet. CT s, accuracy class is
typically, 0.2, 0.5, 1 or 3. This means that the errors have to be within the limits specified in
the standards for that particular accuracy class. The metering CT has to be accurate from 5%
to 120% of the rated primary current, at 25% and 100% of the rated burden at the specified
power factor. In the case of protection CT s, the CT s should pass both the ratio and phase
errors at the specified accuracy class, usually 5P or 10P, as well as composite error at the
accuracy limit factor of the CT.

Error in Current Transformer or CT

But in an actual CT, errors with which we are connected can best be considered through a study of phasor diagram
for a CT,

Is – Secondary current.
Es – Secondary induced emf.
Ip – Primary current.
Ep – Primary induced emf.
KT – Turns ratio = Numbers of secondary turns/number of primary turns.
I0 – Excitation current.
Im – Magnetizing component of I0.
Iw – Core loss component of I0.
Φm – Main flux.

Let us take flux as reference. EMF Es and Ep lags behind the flux by 90°. The magnitude of the passers Es and Ep are
proportional to secondary and primary turns. The excitation current Io which is made up of two components Im and Iw.

The secondary current I0 lags behind the secondary induced emf Es by an angle Φ s. The secondary current is now
transferred to the primary side by reversing Is and multiplied by the turns ratio KT. The total current flows through the
primary Ip is then vector sum of KT Isand I0.

The Current Error or Ratio Error in Current Transformer or CT

From above passer diagram it is clear that primary current Ip is not exactly equal to the secondary current multiplied
by turns ratio, i.e. KTIs. This difference is due to the primarycurrent is contributed by the core excitation current.
The error in current transformerintroduced due to this difference is called current error of CT or some times ratio
error incurrent transformer.
It is an
electro-mechanical relay with a consistent positive action, a
XR351

Long service life and complying with the appropriate requirements

Of IEC 60255. The XR351 has three attracted armature elements.
It incorporates a time delay on de-enegrization, to keep the
Relay in an operated condition, during temporary reduction in the battery voltage.
METROSILS

In some applications of high Impedance relays a non-linear metrosil resistor is required to limit the current
transformer secondary voltage to a safe level during maximum internal fault condition. The metrosil
chosen depends on the relay setting voltage and the maximum secondary internal fault current.

ADVANTAGES OF THREE PHASE POWER OVER SINGLE PHASE POWER

Three phase power transmission has become the standard for power distribution. Three phase
power generation and distribution is advantageous over single phase power distribution.
Three phase power distribution requires lesser amount of copper or aluminium for transferring the
same amount of power as compared to single phase power
The size of a three phase motor is smaller than that of a single phase motor of the same rating.
Three phase motors are self starting as they can produce a rotating magnetic field. The single phase
motor requires a special starting winding as it produces only a pulsating magnetic field.
In single phase motors, the power transferred in motors is a function of the instantaneous current
which is constantly varying. Hence, single phase motors are more prone to vibrations. In three phase
motors, however, the power transferred is uniform through out the cycle and hence vibrations are
greatly reduced.
The ripple factor of rectified DC produced from three phase power is less than the DC produced from
single phase supply.
Three phase motors have better power factor regulation.
Motors above 10HP are usually three phase.

CALCULATING THE PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER

The impedance of a transformer is defined as the percentage of the drop in voltage to the at full load to
the rated voltage of the transformer. This drop in voltage is due to the winding resistance and leakage
reactance.

Alternatively, the percentage of a transformer can be described as the percentage of the nominal
voltage in the primary that is required to circulate the rated current in the secondary.

The impedance of a transformer can be measured by means of a short-circuit test.

The secondary of the transformer whose percentage impedance is to be measured is shorted. The
voltage on the primary is gradually increased from zero till the secondary current reaches the
transformer's rated value.

The percentage impedance of the transformer is calculated as

Z%= (Impedance Voltage/Rated Voltage)*100

Thus a transformer with a primary rating of 110V which requires a voltage of 10V to circulate the rated
current in the short-circuited secondary would have an impedance of 9%.

The percentage impedance of a transformer a crucial parameter when operating transformers in

parallel. It also determines the fault level of a system during faults.

REVERSE POWER RELAY - FUNCTION AND OPERATION

A reverse power relay is a directional power relay that is used to monitor the power from a generator
running in parallel with another generator or the utility. The function of the reverse power relay is to
prevent a reverse power condition in which power flows from the bus bar into the generator. This
condition can occur when there is a failure in the prime mover such as an engine or a turbine which
drives the generator.
Causes of Reverse Power

The failure can be caused to a starvation of fuel in the prime mover, a problem with the speed controller
or an other breakdown. When the prime mover of a generator running in a synchronized condition fails.
There is a condition known as motoring, where the generator draws power from the bus bar, runs as a
motor and drives the prime mover. This happens as in a synchronized condition all the generators will
have the same frequency. Any drop in frequency in one generator will cause the other power sources to
pump power into the generator. The flow of power in the reverse direction is known as the reverse
power relay.

Another cause of reverse power can occur during synchronization. If the frequency of the machine to be
synchronized is slightly lesser than the bus bar frequency and the breaker is closed, power will flow from
the bus bar to the machine. Hence, during synchronization (forward), frequency of the incoming
machine is kept slight higher than that of the bus bar i.e. thesynchroscope is made to rotate in the "Too
fast" direction. This ensures that the machine takes on load as soon as the breaker is closed.

Setting the Reverse Power Relay

The reverse power relay is usually set to 20% to 50% of the motoring power required by prime mover.
By motoring power we mean the power required by the generator to drive the prime mover at the rated
rpm. This is usually obtained from the manufacturer of the prime mover (turbine or engine).

DF/DT PROTECTION FOR GENERATORS

The df/dt protection is used to identify abnormal changes in system frequency and take remedial actions
in order to prevent generator overload and the resulting blackout. The df/dt operates faster than
ordinary under frequency relays as it is able to predict the under frequency much earlier.

df/dt relays are also known as ROCOF relays (Rate Of Change of Frequency Relays) The df/dt is usually
wired to a load sheddingsystem which trips select breakers to isolate loads.
The df/dt functions by measuring the rate of change of frequency. When the frequency changes too
fast, it is an indicator of a forthcoming under frequency. The setting of the df/dt relay is in
Frequency/Time in seconds. e.g. 0.3Hz/second or 0.4 Hz/.5 seconds.
Some manufacturers provide a more reliable setting involves specifying two frequency set points and
the time taken for the frequency to cross the two limits. For instance, a df/dt relays can be programmed
to operate if the system frequency crosses 48.5 Hz and 48 Hz in 0.4 seconds

POWER SWING
A transmission line trip during a power swing may cause instability of a power system. It is
necessary to recognize the power swing from fault. Based on stability boundary, the power
swing blocking relays must be set. To do that, first power swing should be analyzed. Second
a way of probability of occurrence of fault must be found. Third, the critical condition under
which the stability of a power system not disturbed is recognized. Finally the settings of the
power swing relays are calculated. In this paper, analysis of the power swing occurrence
has been made. By defining transmissions and generators sensitivities coefficients, the way
of making the line under consideration full load is found. The way of minimization of
distance between load impedance and the last zone of distance protection is given and the
settings of the power swing relays are calculated.

POLE SLIP VEDIO

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkYSsbFoyI0

Pole slip becomes inevitable generator protection. Why?

Changes in power industry

The power industry has experienced swift changes over the last few years; the most obvious is the move
towards larger number of smaller decentralized power sources, which impose higher demand on
thegrid stability. As result, the network operator requirements on functionality and performance of
protection devices become more demanding and are still increasing.
To avoid any dangerous situation, like the vast rolling black-out that happened in the US in 2003,
generator operators are lately requested to embed protection against pole slip and so prevent the grid
from island non-synchronous operation.

What is pole slip

Pole slip, in the art also called out of step, is a specific phenomenon, caused either by low
excitation, faulty regulator or abrupt changes of load within the mains, which causes severe
mechanical stress on the machine, putting windings at risk, shaft damage or effecting normal operation of
control systems. Moreover, the simultaneous very high currents can be thermally very devastating and
lead to complete generator destruction and massive instability to the grid.
Conventional protection, such as over-current, vector shift or ROCOF, is not sufficient because it is not
fast and reliable enough especially if oscillations caused by large load jumps develop.
Pole slip protection
The innovative patent pending solution for pole slip protection from ComAp, the Czech generator and
engine control manufacturer, strengthens the overall protection of synchronous generators, meets current
legislation and provides improved 'peace of mind' by preventing unnecessary damage to embedded
power systems, both large and small. This brand new technology predicts eminent pole slip occurrence in
time to minimize destructive effects of lost synchronism without any complicated settings.
Have a look at a Pole Slip video and find out, how it works. See video >>
Read more articles about mains protection. You can also download all information about this topic.
Please,share with us your opinion or ideas in our forum.

Introduction
Three phase transformer consists of three sets of primary windings, one for each phase, and three sets of secondary
windings wound on the same iron core.

Separate single-phase transformers can be used and externally interconnected to yield the same results as a 3-phase unit.

The primary windings are connected in one of several ways. The two most common configurations are the delta, in which
the polarity end of one winding is connected to the non-polarity end of the next, and the star, in which all three non-polarities
(or polarity) ends are connected together. The secondary windings are connected similarly. This means that a 3-phase transformer
can have its primary and secondary windings connected the same (delta-delta or star-star), or differently (delta-star or star-delta).

It’s important to remember that the secondary voltage waveforms are in phase with the primary waveforms when the primary and
secondary windings are connected the same way. This condition is called “no phase shift.”

But when the primary and secondary windings are connected differently, the secondary voltage waveforms will differ from the
corresponding primary voltage waveforms by 30 electrical degrees. This is called a 30 degree phase shift. When two transformers
are connected in parallel, their phase shifts must be identical; if not, a short circuit will occur when the transformers are energized.”

Basic Idea of Winding

An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked by a magnetic path.
The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which ways round the coils are connected. The voltages will either
be in-phase or displaced by 180 degree.

When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil voltages can be in phase or displaced
as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an
external terminal or not.

Six Ways to wire Star Winding:

Six Ways to wire Star Winding

Six Ways to wire Delta Winding:

Six Ways to wire Delta Winding
Loss of Field or Excitation Protection of Alternator or Generator
Under Electrical Protection Loss of field or excitation can be caused in the generated due to excitation
failure. In larger sized generator, energy for excitation is often taken from a separate auxiliary source or
from a separately driven DC generator. The failure of auxiliary supply or failure of driving motor can also
cause the loss of excitation in a generator. Failure of excitation that is failure of field system in the
generator makes the generator run at a speed above the synchronous speed. In that situation the
generator or alternator becomes an induction generator which draws magnetizing current from the
system. Although this situation does not create any problem in the system immediately but over loading
of the stator and overheating of the rotor due to continuous operation of the machine in this mode may
create problems in the system in long-run. Therefore special care should be taken for rectifying the field
or excitation system of the generator immediately after failure of that system. The generator should be
isolated from rest of the system till the field system is properly restored.

There are mainly two schemes available for protection against loss of field or excitation of a generator. In
1st scheme, we use an undercurrent relay connected in shunt with main field winding circuit. This relay will
operate if the excitation current comes below it predetermined value. If the relay is to operate for
complete loss of field along, it must have a setting lies well below the minimum excitation current value
which can be 8% of the rated full load current. Again when loss of field occurs due to failure of exciter but
not due to problem in the field circuit (field circuit remains intact) there will be an induced current at slip
frequency in the field circuit. This situation makes the relay to pick up and drop off as per slip frequency
of the induced current in the field. This problem can be overcome in the following manner.

In this case a setting of 5% of normal of full load current is recommended. There is a normally closed
contact attached with the undercurrent relay. This normally closed contact remains open as the relay coil
is energized by shunted excitation current during normal operation of the excitation system. As soon as
there is any failure of excitation system, the relay coil becomes de-energized and the normally closed
contact closes the supply across the coil of timing relay T1. As the relay coil is energized, the normally
open contact of this relay T 1 is closed. This contact closes the supply across another timing relay T 2 with
an adjustable pickup time delay of 2 to 10 seconds. Relay T 1 is time delayed on drop off to stabilize
scheme again slip frequency effect. Relay T 2 closes its contacts after the prescribed time delay to either
shut down the set or initiate an alarm. It is time delayed on pickup to prevent spurious operation of the
scheme during an external fault. For larger generator or alternator, we use a more sophisticated scheme
for that purpose. For larger machines, it is recommended to trip the machine after a certain prescribed
delay in presence of swing condition resulting from loss of field. In addition to that there must be
subsequent load shedding to maintain stability of the system. In this scheme of protection, an automatic
imposition of load shedding to the system is also inherently required if the field is not restored within is
described time delay. The scheme comprises an offset mho relay, and an instantaneous under voltage
relay. As we have said earlier that it is not always required to isolate the generator immediately in the
event of loss of field, unless there is a significant disturb in system stability. We know that system voltage
is the main indication of system stability. Therefore the offset mho relay is arranged to shut the machine
down instantaneously when operation of generator accompanied by a system voltage collapse. The drop
in system voltage is detected by an under voltage relay which is set to approximately 70% of normal rated
system voltage. The offset mho relay is arranged to initiate load shedding to the system up to a safe value
and then to initiate a master tripping relay after a predetermined time.
Power Swing

Power Swing which is basically caused by the large disturbances in the power system which if
not blocked could cause wrong operation of the distance relay and can generates wrong or
undesired tripping of the transmission line circuit breaker.

Power swings can cause the change in load impedance which under steady state conditions,
whereas within the relay’s operating characteristic, to induce unwanted relay operations at
different network locations. These undesirable measurements may aggravate the power-system
disturbance and cause major power outages, or even power blackout. Particularly, distance
relays should not trip unexpectedly during dynamic system conditions such as stable or
unstable power swings, and allow the power system to return to a stable operating condition.
Thereby, a Power Swing Block (PSB) function is adopted in modern relays to prevent unwanted
distance relay element operation during power swing. The main purpose of the PSB function is
to differentiate between power faults and power swings, and block distance or other relay
elements from operations during a power swing.

Out-of-Step (OOS) phenomena, which is same as an unstable power swing . Uncontrolled

tripping of circuit breakers during an OOS condition could cause equipment damage, pose a
safety concern for operating personnel, and further contribute to cascading outage and
shutdown of larger areas of the power system. So, the main purpose of the Out-of-Step Trip
(OST) function should be taken into account to accomplish differentiation stable from unstable
power swings, and separation to system areas at the predetermined network locations and at
the appropriate source-voltage phase-angle difference between systems, in order to maintain
power system stability and service continuity.

The power system disturbances cause big oscillations in active and reactive power, low voltage,
voltage instability and phase or angular instability between the generated and consumed power
which results in loss of generation and load which effected both the power generation and the
end customers. During the steady state condition, power systems operate on the nominal
frequency (50Hz or 60Hz). The complete synchronism of nominal frequency and voltage at the
sending and receiving ends cause complete balance of active and reactive power between
generated and consumed active and reactive powers. In steady state operating condition
Frequency= Nominal frequency (50 or 60 Hz) +/– 0.02 Hz and Voltage=Nominal voltage +/– 5%
[1].

Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection, and the loss or application of large
blocks of load result in sudden changes to electrical power

Whereas the mechanical power input to generators remains relatively constant.

The electrical power, Pg transferred from the generator, an electric machine, to the load is given
by the equation:

where:

Eg = Internal voltage and is proportional to the excitation current

El = Load Voltage

X = Reactance between the generator and the load

Angle that the internal voltage leads the load voltage

Pm = Mechanical Turbine Power of the generating unit

Pg = Electromagnetic Power output of the generating unit

Pa = Accelerating Power

The mechanical power, Pm, is provided by the turbine and the average mechanical power must
be equal to the average electrical power. When a system disturbance occurs there is a change
in one of the parameters of the electrical power equation. For faults, typically the reactance
between the generator and the load (X), the load voltage (El), or some combination of these two
parameters causes the electrical power to change. For example, for a short circuit the load
voltage is reduced, for a breaker opening the reactance increases. When a generation unit trips,
the required electrical power from the remaining generators increases. In this case, the
instantaneous mechanical power provided by the turbine is no longer equal to the instantaneous
electrical power delivered or required by the load. When the load on a unit is suddenly
increased, the energy furnished by the rotor results in a decrease in the rotor angular velocity.
And this decrease in rotor velocity will cause oscillations in rotor angle and can result in severe
power flow swings.

Generator disconnection due to fault

Suppose we have two generators G1&G2 in parallel, and both the generators are sharing load.
On the sudden disconnection of G2, there will be an increase in load on G1 and due to this
there will be the oscillations in the rotor angle of G1, which is represented in Fig.

In Fig, d is the steady state rotor angle and d’ is the change in rotor angle due to oscillations
which will result in
The oscillation of nominal voltage and this oscillation in the nominal voltage cause loss of
synchronism between the generators in parallel or between the generation and load.

Depending on the severity of the disturbance and the actions of power system controls, the
system may remain stable and return to a new equilibrium state experiencing what is referred to
as a stable power swing. Severe system disturbances, on the other hand, could cause large
separation of generator rotor angles, large swings of power flows, large fluctuations of voltages
and currents, and eventual loss of synchronism between

groups of generators or between neighboring utility systems. Stable Power Swing: Small
disturbances which can be control by the action of Power System and the system remain in its
steady state condition. Unstable Power Swing: Severe disturbances can produce a large
separation of System Generator Rotor angles, large swings of power flow, large fluctuations of
voltages and currents, and eventually lead to lose synchronism.

Power Swing Effect on the Distance Relay

Power swings can cause the load impedance, which under steady state conditions is not within
the relay’s operating characteristic, to enter into the relay’s operating characteristic. Operation of
these relays during a power swing may cause undesired tripping of transmission lines or other
power system elements, thereby weakening the system and possibly leading to cascading
outages and the shutdown of major portions of the power system.

Distance or other relays should not trip during such as stable or unstable power swings, and
allow the power system to return to a stable operating condition. Distance relay elements prone
to operate during stable or transient power swings should be temporarily inhibited from
operating to prevent system separation from occurring at random or in other than pre-selected
locations. A Power Swing Block (PSB) function is available in modern relays to prevent
unwanted distance relay element operation during power swings. The main purpose of the PSB
function is to differentiate between faults and power swings and block distance or other relay
elements from operating during a power swing. However, faults that occur during a power swing
must be detected and cleared with a high degree of selectivity and dependability. Severe
system disturbances could cause large separation of the rotor angles between groups of
generators and eventual loss of synchronism between groups of generators or between
neighboring utility systems. When two areas of a power system, or two interconnected systems,
lose synchronism, the areas must be separated from each other quickly and automatically to
avoid equipment damage and power blackouts. Ideally, the systems should be separated in
predetermined locations to maintain a load-generation balance in each of the separated areas.
System separation may not always achieve the desired load-generation balance. In cases
where the separated area load is in excess of local generation, some form of load shedding is
necessary to avoid a complete blackout of the area. Uncontrolled tripping of circuit breakers
during an Out-of- Step (OOS) condition could cause equipment damage, pose a safety concern
for utility personnel, and further contribute to cascading outages and the shutdown of larger
areas of the power system.

Therefore, controlled tripping of certain power system elements is necessary to prevent

equipment damage and widespread power outages and to minimize the effects of the
disturbance. The Out-of-Step Trip (OST) function accomplishes this separation. The main
purpose of the OST function is to differentiate stable from unstable power swings and initiate
system area separation at the predetermined network locations and at the appropriate source-
voltage phase-angle difference between systems, in order to maintain power system stability
and service continuity.

Why Is CT Short Circuited?

*Unless a burden (i.e. meters, relays, etc.) is connected to the CT, current transformers should
always be shorted across the secondary terminals. The reason is very high voltages will be
induced at the terminals. Think of the CT as a transformer, with a 1 turn primary and many turns
on the secondary. When current is flowing through the primary, the resulting voltage induced in
the secondary can be quite high, on the order of kilovolts. When a CT fails under open circuit
conditions, the cause of failure is insulation breakdown, either at the shorting terminal strip, or at
the feed through (in the case of oil filled apparatus), because the distances between terminals
are not sufficient for the voltages present.

*Basically act is a step up transformer, normally in the primary of a ct high currents are flowing.
If the secondary is opened then as it's a step up transformer.
A high voltage is induced in the secondary, the induced secondary voltage is very high, it may
damage the instrument itself or it may damage the observer or the insulation may break down
so it must be shorted with an ammeter of suitable range or must be shorted.

Difference between Current Transformer (CT) and Potential Transformer (PT)

Current Transformers (CT) and Potential Transformers (PT) are used to measure the current and voltage in a circuit of the order of hundreds
of amperes and volts respectively.

A CT has large number of turns on its secondary winding, but very few turns on its primary winding. The primary winding is connected in
series with the load so that it carries full load current. A low voltage range ammeter (0-5A) is connected across the secondary winding
terminals. Secondary of the CT is practically short circuited since the ammeter resistance is very low. It should be remembered that
secondary of the CT should not be made open as it draws heavy current and damages the primary winding of the CT

A PT has large number of turns in the primary and fewer turns in the secondary and hence it steps down the voltage. The primary winding is
connected across the supply voltage and low range voltmeter (0-110V) is connected across the secondary winding terminals

Some of the main difference between current transformers (CT) and potential transformers (PT) are given below:

 The secondary of the CT is almost short circuit, whereas the secondary of the PT is practically a open circuit
 The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the load so that it carries the full line current, but there is only a small
voltage across it. However the primary winding of the PT has the full supply voltage applied across it
 In CT the excitation current I0 and flux density vary over a wide range whereas in PT, they vary over a limited range only.

Current transformer: Secondary current is proportional to Primary current. Secondary voltage depends upon the current as well as
load resistance
Potential transformer: Secondary current is proportional to Primary current. Secondary current depends upon the voltage as well as
load resistance.

Current transformer: Secondary can be short circuited. Open secondary may result in failure of the transformer.
 Potential transformer: Secondary can be opening circuited. Short secondary may result in failure of the transformer.

Current transformer: Primary of current transformer should be connected in series of the circuit of which current needs to be
measured.
Potential transformer: Primary of voltage transformer should be connected in parallel of the circuit of which voltage needs to be
measured.

Current transformer: Used for measurements and operating protective relays. Never used as power source.
Potential transformer: Used as power source as well as for measurements and operating protective relays.

Current transformer: Primary impedance is very low as compared to impedance of the circuit of which current needs to be measured.
Potential transformer: Primary impedance is very high.

Accuracy class of 0.2 means +/- 0.2 % error. But, the

declared accuracy is guaranteed only between 100% & 120%
rating. And, with some increased error, the CT performance
can be guaranteed from 5% loading. Below this load, the
error is not guaranteed. It can be anything.

Normally these classes of accuracy are used for Tariff

Metering by the Utility Company.

In large industrial projects, the project would be

commissioned in steps only. In such a case, initially the
loading will be very low. If the tariff metering CT errors
are haphazard, it may not be acceptable either to the
supplier (in case of negative error) or to the consumer (in
the case of positive error). And the magnitude can be quite
large, say, with a sanctioned demand of 10MVA, even 1%
error means 100kVA.

To cater to such situations, Standards have introduced two

new accuracy classes, 0.2S & 0.5S for tariff metering
purposes. These special CTs guarantee the declared
accuracy, even with 20% loading. And some definite error
can be defined even with a load as low as 1%. Thus they are
suitable for industries where loads are commissioned in
steps or stages.
TPS Class CT is used for transient performance (TP). TPS class Current Transformer has Low Leakage Flux and there is no limit for remanent flux)
further there are also TPX,TPY and TPZ class CTs
1. TPX- No Limit for remanent flux due to nil air gap in the core
2. TPY - remanent flux does not exceeded 10 % due to less air gap in the core
3. TPZ- Having practically null remanent flux because there is large air gap is provide in the Core

SHUNT REACTOR USED IN HV AND EHV SYSTEMS

Shunt reactors are designed for connection to the ends of high voltage transmission lines or to high-voltage cables for
the purpose of controlling the line voltage by absorbing reactive power. Let us look at the equivalent circuit of the transmission line
and see shunt reactor effect on the line parameters.

*what is a shunt reactor in substation.

A shunt reactor is an absorber of reactive power, thus increasing the energy efficiency of the system. It is the most compact device
commonly used for reactivepower compensation in long high-voltage transmission lines and in cable systems
Main Power System parameters are System Voltages and Frequency which normally indicate the healthiness level (they indicate
the level of Generated active and reactive Powers against the load power requirement). In a healthy system, Voltage and
frequency are close to the rated system values.
Increased active and reactive power load tends to decrease the system frequency and voltage levels respectively. It then becomes
essential to generate additional active and reactive power. Synchronous Generators respond to the demand by means of
Governor/AVR control systems.

In order to preserve MVA capability of Generators (stator thermal limit) it is preferred to have reactive load support from other
sources of reactive power like fixed Capacitor banks or other FACTS .

Shunt Reactors are Inductive device commonly used in HV and EHV Systems for compensating the excess capacitive VArs in a
power system.

Due to their inductive nature of the Shunt Reactor, it is used whenever there is need for compensation of capacitive
reactance. Power System loads are predominantly inductive in nature and Capacitor banks are used to compensate for the
inductive loads. During system light load condition, often voltages increase beyond the normal operating levels and such a
condition demands additional inductive loads to maintain system voltage levels within the normal range.
Generators have limited capacity with regard to under and over excitation operation. Typical Generators have rated power factor
(pf) of between 0.8 to 0.85 (lead and lag) at rated MVA. At different MVA loading, Synchronous Generators can be operated wit hin
its limit of stability, stator/rotor thermal capacity as over and under-excited.

These limiting values of under and over excitation are given as Generator capability curves by the Generator Manufacturer.

As mentioned above, during light load condition there is risk of system instability due to generated VAr larger than system can
absorb. When system VAr generation is higher than the required VAr load, Generators tend to go to under-excitation. Under
excitation limit of AVR is used to prevent level of under- excitation below stability limit.

Voltage rise due to increased total system generated VAr is dependent on the source impedance of the system. Source
impedances are inductive in nature and weaker system has larger inductive reactance. It is known that inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance are opposite in sign.

Series reactors are used as current limiting reactors to increase the impedance of a system. They are also used for neutral
earthing. Such reactors are also used to limit the starting currents of synchronous electric motors and to compensate Reactive
Power in order to improve the transmission capacity of power lines.

*A shunt reactor is an absorber of reactive power, thus increasing the energy efficiency of the system. It is the most compact device
commonly used for reactive power compensation in long high-voltage transmission lines and in cable systems. The shunt reactor
can be directly connected to the power line or to a tertiary winding of a three-winding transformer.

The shunt reactor could be permanently connected or switched via a circuit breaker. To improve the adjustment of the consumed
reactive power the reactor can also have a variable rating. If the load variation is slow, which it normally is (seasonal, daily or
hourly), a variable shunt reactor (VSR) could be an economical solution for some customer applications.

How to Size Current Transformers

The IEC 60044 Method
IEC 60044 specifies the requirements for protection CTs (in addition to measuring CT's, VTs and electronic sensors).
The key to CT dimensioning under the standard, is the symmetrical short circuit current and transient dimensioning factors:

 Kssc - rated symmetrical short-circuit current factor

 K’ssc - effective symmetrical short-circuit current factor
 Ktd - transient dimensioning factor
Example IEC 60044 Calculation
Consider a CT with the following specification and protection requirements:

 CT: 600/1 5P20 15 VA, Rct = 4 Ω

 CT Leads: 6 mm2, 50 m long
- use R=2 ρ l /a to calculate = 0.0179 Ω/m
 Relay: Siemens 7SJ45, Ktd = 1
 Short circuit current, Iscc max = 30 kA

To find the lead resistance Rleads (two leads – supply, return) we can use the standard formulae for resistivity:
Rleads = 2 ρ l /a = 2 x 0.0175 x 50 / 6 = 0.3 Ω
Numerical relays have low burdens, typically 0.1 Ω (where possible the relay manual should be consulted).

Plugging everything into the equations:

Rb = 15 VA / 1 A2 = 15 Ω
R’b = Rleads + Rrelay = 0.3 + 0.1 = 0.4 Ω
K’scc = Kscc (Rct + Rb)/(Rct + R’b)
= 20 (4 + 15 )/ (4 + 0.4) = 86.4

Required K’scc > 1 x 30000/600 = 50

In this case the effective K’scc of 86.4 is greater than the required K’scc of 50 and the CT meets the stability criteria.

The factor Kssc is relatively easy to understand and relates to the liner portion of a CT characteristic. The voltage and current across a CT are linear only up till a
certain value (normally specified as a multiple of the nominal rating), after which the CT will saturate and the curve will level off. A CT rated at say 5P20 will stay
linear to approximately 20 times its nominal current. This linear limit is the Kssc (i.e. Kssc = 20). As a reminder, the 5 [in the 5P20] would be the CT accuracy class
and the ‘P’ signifies a protection class CT.
Slightly more complicated is the effective factor, K’scc. This is a calculated value which takes into account the burden (resistance) of the relay, resistance of the CT
windings and resistance of the leads:

 Rct - secondary winding d.c. resistance at specified temperature

 Rb - rated resistive burden of the relay
 R’b - Rleads + Rrelay; this is thel connected burden
CTs need to be able to supply the required current to drive the relays during transient fault conditions. The ability of the CT and relay to operate under these
conditions is a function of K’scc and the transient performance of the relay, Ktd. The factor, Ktd is supplied by the relay manufacturer. Correct functioning is achieved
by ensuring the following is valid:

 Issc max - maximum symmetrical short-circuit current

 Ipn - CT rated primary current
That it. Once you have confirmed the above is ok, you know your CT is ok.

What the Manufacturer Wants

There is a slight complication in the manufacturers know their relays better than we (or the IEC) do. As general advice, you should always refer to the
manufacturers information:
 firstly it is the only way to get the factor Ktd
 secondly manufacturers sometimes have additional requirements; for example Siemens’ overcurrent, motor protection, line differential (non-pilot)and transformer
differential are good to go with the above, while their line differential (pilot wire) and distance relays require the above and have additional limitations on K’scc

Connection Leads
In the sizing of protection transformers, the resistance (burden) of the connection leads can have a considerable effect. In calculations, the resistance of the
connection leads can be estimated from:

where:

l is the connection lead length in m

ρ is the resistivity in Ω mm2 m-1 (=0.0179 for copper)
A is the cross sectional area in mm2

Other CT Sizing Methods and Requirements

BS 3938 and BS 7626
BS 3938 and BS 7626 are older British Standards which deal the the specification and sizing of current transformers. Both of these have been withdrawn and are
superseded by the IEC 6044 standard.

The standards adopted the concept of knee voltage and it is still common to find knee voltage voltage being used as a CT sizing parameter.

Knee voltage is defined as the point at which a 10% increase in voltage across the terminals, causes a 50% increase in excitation current

Utilising the British Standards, CTs were defined by the knee point voltage UKN and the internal secondary resistance Ri. To convert an IEC design the following
can be used:

where: I2N is the nominal secondary current

ANSI/IEEE C57.13
The IEEE standard C57.13 covers the requirements for CT sizing in the North American markets.

Class C of the standard defines CTs by their secondary terminal voltage at 20 times nominal current (for which the ratio error shall not exceed 10%). Standard
classes are C100, C200, C400 and C800 for 5 A nominal secondary current.

This terminal voltage can be calculated from the IEC data as follows:

with

and

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WHAT IS BASIC FUNDAMENTAL FOR CHOOSING NGR OR NGT FOR ANY
GENERATOR NEUTRAL GROUNDING.
As we know that in Y connection there are 3 phases [R,Y&B] & a neutral.
In neutral we provide a resistance & than we used to ground it. Such system called neutral
ground resistance [NGR].
Why we use NGR?
AS we know ideally the sum of current Ir+Iy+Ib is zero. So in normal condition the current which
flow through neutral of Y winding is very low.
In case of occurrence of phase to phase or phase to ground fault heavy unbalance current will
be generated & that will flow through neutral. To restrict this current we provide a resistance in
neutral.
If we do not provide resistance in neutral & fault occurs at that time a heavy current will flow &
it cause excessive heating in stator winding & it may damage the winding. To prevent this we
provided a resistance in neutral.
Criteria-in order to protect the stator core from damage
during internal earth fault it is necessary to limit the
stator earth fault current al low as possible. May be upto
10 amp for generator.
basis for selection of ngtr-
if generator is connected to the system through generator
transformer then generator can be treated as an isolated
system which is not influenced by the distribution earthling
system. in this case you can select earth fault current as
low as possible, but if we use ngr then in order to limit
the low earth fault current size of the ngr will be
increased. due to big size of ngr we required more space &
also its too costly.

v = ir means if v constant i is inversely proportional to r

exp:-to limit 10amp current , v =11kv/root 3

r = 11/root 3/10*1000=635.10 ohm ( very high value)

for overcome on this, general practice to use a ngtr so that

we can limit low earth current without any extra cost.
exp:- ngtr 11/240v
to limit 10amp current
current reflect on secondary side of ngtr will be
= (11000/root 3/240)*10=264.6 amp.
Resistor value on secondary side r =240/264.6 =0.9 ohm (
approximately) which is much lower than 635.10 ohm.

Basis for selection of ngr-

if generator is directly connected to the system then we cannot limit the earth fault current up
to 10 amp. We have to
select the earth fault current value above the residual
capacitive charging current of system. Also we need to check
the possibility of relay setting operation with ct ratio.
For example- if ct ratio is 2000/1amp & earth fault limit
current is 100amp relay selected with 10 % setting.
Then that relay will see only 200amp earth fault current it
will not operate on 100amp current.

Also we cannot keep generator solidly grounded because of

high earth fault current stator can damage same will happen
with ht motor if it is connected to this system.
so for this case we need to select the ngr with proper earth
 fault current (above the residual capacitive charging
current of system) to avoid unwanted tripping.
Current transformers

Principle of operation of CT

 A current transformer is defined as “as an instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially
proportional to the primary current (under normal conditions of operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle
which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections.”
 Current transformers are usually either “measuring” or “protective” types.
Some Definitions used for CT:

1) Rated primary current:

 The value of primary current which appears in the designation of the transformer and on which the performance of
the current transformer is based.
2) Rated secondary current:
 The value of secondary current which appears in the designation of the transformer and on which the performance
of the current transformer is based.
 Typical values of secondary current are 1 A or 5 A. In the case of transformer differential protection, secondary
currents of 1/ root 3 A and 5/ root 3 A are also specified.
3) Rated burden:
 The apparent power of the secondary circuit in Volt-amperes expressed at the rated secondary current and at a
specific power factor (0.8 for almost all standards)
4) Rated output:
 The value of the apparent power (in volt-amperes at a specified power (factor) which the current transformer is
intended to supply to the secondary circuit at the rated secondary current and with rated burden connected to it.
5) Accuracy class:
 In the case of metering CT s, accuracy class is typically, 0.2, 0.5, 1 or 3.
 This means that the errors have to be within the limits specified in the standards for that particular accuracy class.
 The metering CT has to be accurate from 5% to 120% of the rated primary current, at 25% and 100% of the rated
burden at the specified power factor.
 In the case of protection CT s, the CT s should pass both the ratio and phase errors at the specified accuracy
class, usually 5P or 10P, as well as composite error at the accuracy limit factor of the CT.
6) Current Ratio Error:
 The error with a transformer introduces into the measurement of a current and which arises from the fact that
actual transformation ratio is not equal to the rated transformer ratio. The current error expressed in percentage is
given by the formula:
 Current error in % = (Ka(Is-Ip)) x 100 / Ip
 Where Ka= rated transformation ratio ,Ip= actual primary current, Is= actual secondary current when Ip is flowing
under the conditions of measurement
7) Accuracy limit factor:
 The value of primary current up to which the CT complies with composite error requirements. This is typically 5, 10
or 15, which means that the composite error of the CT has to be within specified limits at 5, 10 or 15 times the
rated primary current.
8) Short time rating:
 The value of primary current (in kA) that the CT should be able to withstand both thermally and dynamically without
damage to the windings, with the secondary circuit being short-circuited. The time specified is usually 1 or 3
seconds.
9) Instrument security factor (factor of security):
 This typically takes a value of less than 5 or less than 10 though it could be much higher if the ratio is very low. If
the factor of security of the CT is 5, it means that the composite error of the metering CT at 5 times the rated
primary current is equal to or greater than 10%. This means that heavy currents on the primary are not passed on
to the secondary circuit and instruments are therefore protected. In the case of double ratio CT’s, FS is applicable
for the lowest ratio only.
10) Class PS X CT:
 In balance systems of protection, CT s with a high degree of similarity in their characteristics is required. These
requirements are met by Class PS (X) CT s. Their performance is defined in terms of a knee-point voltage (KPV),
 the magnetizing current (Imag) at the knee point voltage or 1/2 or 1/4 the knee-point voltage, and the resistance of
the CT secondary winding corrected to 75C. Accuracy is defined in terms of the turn’s ratio.
11) Knee point voltage:
 That point on the magnetizing curve where an increase of 10% in the flux density (voltage) causes an increase of
50% in the magnetizing force (current).
 The ‘Knee Point Voltage’ (Vkp) is defined as the secondary voltage at which an increase of 10% produces an
increase in magnetizing current of 50%. It is the secondary voltage above which the CT is near magnetic
saturation.
12) Core balance CT (CBCT):
 The CBCT, also known as a zero sequence CT, is used for earth leakage and earth fault protection. The concept is
similar to the RVT. In the CBCT, the three core cable or three single cores of a three phase system pass through
the inner diameter of the CT. When the system is fault free, no current flows in the secondary of the CBCT. When
there is an earth fault, the residual current (zero phase sequence current) of the system flows through the
secondary of the CBCT and this operates the relay. In order to design the CBCT, the inner diameter of the CT, the
relay type, the relay setting and the primary operating current need to be furnished.
13) Phase displacement:
 The difference in phase between the primary and secondary current vectors, the direction of the vectors being so
chosen that the angle is zero for the perfect transformer. The phase displacement is said to be positive when the
secondary current vector leads the primary current vector. It is usually express in minutes
14) Highest system voltage:
 The highest rms line to line voltage which can be sustained under normal operating conditions at any time and at
any point on the system. It excludes temporary voltage variations due to fault condition and the sudden
disconnection of large loads.
15) Rated insulation level:
 That combination of voltage values (power frequency and lightning impulse, or where applicable, lightning and
switching impulse) which characterizes the insulation of a transformer with regard to its capability to withstand by
dielectric stresses. For low voltage transformer the test voltage 4kV, at power-frequency, applied during 1 minute.
16) Rated short-time thermal current (Ith):
 The rms value of the primary current which the current transformer will withstand for a rated time, with their
secondary winding short circuited without suffering harmful effects.
17) Rated dynamic current (Idyn):
 The peak value of the primary current which a current transformer will withstand, without being damaged
electrically for mechanically by the resulting electromagnetic forces, the secondary winding being short-circuited.
18) Rated continuous thermal current (Un)
 The value of current which can be permitted to flow continuously in the primary winding, the secondary windings
being connected to the rated burdens, without the temperature rise exceeding the specified values.
19) Instrument security factor (ISF or Fs):
 The ratio of rated instrument limits primary current to the rated primary current. The times that the primary current
must be higher than the rated value, for the composite error of a measuring current transformer to be equal to or
greater than 10%, the secondary burden being equal to the rated burden. The lower this number is, the more
protected the connected instrument are against.
20) Sensitivity
 Sensitivity is defined as the lowest value of primary fault current, within the protected zone, which will cause the
relay to operate. To provide fast operation on an in zone fault, the current transformer should have a ‘Knee Point
Voltage’ at least twice the setting voltage of the relay.
21) Field Adjustment of Current Transformer Ratio:
 The ratio of current transformers can be field adjusted to fulfil the needs of the application. Passing
more secondary turns or more primary turns through the window will increase or decrease the turns ratio.
Actual Turns Ratio = (Name Plate Ration- Secondary Turns Added) / Primary Turns.
Types of Current transformers (CT’s)

According to Construction of CT:

1) Bar Type:
 Bar types are available with higher insulation levels and are usually bolted to the current caring device.

 Bar type current transformers are insulated for the operating voltage of the system.
 Bar-type CTs operate on the same principle of window CTs but have a permanent bar installed as a primary
conductor
2) Wound CT’s:
 Capacity: There are designed to measure currents from 1 amp to 100 amps.
 the most common one is the wound type current transformer. The wound type provides excellent performance
under a wide operating range. Typically, the wound type is insulated to only 600 volts.

 Since the load current passes through primary windings in the CT, screw terminals are provided for the load and
secondary conductors. Wound primary CT’s are available in ratios from 2.5:5 to 100:5.
 Wound CTs have a primary and secondary winding like a normal transformer. These CTs are rare and are usually
used at very low ratios and currents, typically in CT secondary circuits to compensate for low currents, to match
different CT ratios in summing applications, or to isolate different CT circuits. Wound CTs have very high burdens,
and special attention to the source CT burden should be applied when wound CTs are used.
3) Window:
 Window CTs are the most common. They are constructed with no primary winding and are installed around the
primary conductor. The electric field created by current flowing through the conductor interacts with the CT core to
transform the current to the appropriate secondary output. Window CTs can be of solid or split core construction.
The primary conductor must be disconnected when installing solid window CTs. However, split core CTs can be
installed around the primary conductor without disconnecting the primary conductor

 Ring Core CT’s :

 Capacity: There are available for measuring currents from 50 to 5000 amps

 Size: with windows (power conductor opening size) from 1″ to 8″ diameter.

 Split Core CT’s:
 Capacity: There are available for measuring currents from 100 to 5000 amps.
 Size: with windows in varying sizes from 1″ by 2″ to 13″ by 30″.
 Split core CT’s have one end removable so that the load conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected to
install the CT.
4) Bushing
 Bushing CTs are window CTs specially constructed to fit around a bushing. Usually they cannot be accessed, and
their nameplates are found on the transformer or circuit-breaker control cabinets.
 The bushing type is typically used around the bushing on circuit breakers and transformers and may not have a
hard protective outside cover.
 Donut type current transformers are typically insulated for 600 volts. To ensure accuracy, the conductor should be
positioned in the center of the current transformer opening.
According to Application of CT:
1) Measuring CT:
 The principal requirements of a measuring CT are that, for primary currents up to 120% or 125% of the rated
current, its secondary current is proportional to its primary current to a degree of accuracy as defined by its “Class”
and, in the case of the more accurate types, that a specified maximum phase angle displacement is not exceeded.
 A desirable characteristic of a measuring CT is that it should “saturate” when the primary current exceeds the
percentage of rated current specified as the upper limit to which the accuracy provisions apply. This means that at
 these higher levels of primary current the secondary current is less than proportionate. The effect of this is to
reduce the extent to which any measuring device connected to the CT secondary is subjected to current Overload.
 On the other hand the reverse is required of the protective type CT, the principal purpose of which is to provide a
secondary current proportional to the primary current when it is several, or many, times the rated primary current.
The measure of this characteristic is known as the “Accuracy Limit Factor” (A.L.F.).
 A protection type CT with an A.L.F. of 10 will produce a proportional current in the secondary winding (subject to
the allowable current error) with primary currents up to a maximum of 10 times the rated current.
 It should be remembered when using a CT that where there are two or more devices to be operated by the
secondary winding, they must be connected in series across the winding. This is exactly the opposite of the
method used to connect two or more loads to be supplied by a voltage or power transformer where the devices are
paralleled across the secondary winding.
 With a CT, an increase in the burden will result in an increase in the CT secondary output voltage. This is
automatic and necessary to maintain the current to the correct magnitude. Conversely, a reduction in the burden
will result in a reduction in the CT secondary output voltage.
 This rise in secondary voltage output with an increase in burden means that, theoretically, with infinite burden as is
the case with the secondary load open circuit, an infinitely high voltage appears across the secondary terminals.
For practical reasons this voltage is not infinitely high, but can be high enough to cause a breakdown in the
insulation between primary and secondary windings or between either or both windings and the core. For this
reason, primary current should never be allowed to flow with no load or with a high resistance load connected
across the secondary winding.
 When considering the application of a CT it should be remembered that the total burden imposed on the secondary
winding is not only the sum of the burden(s) of the individual device(s) connected to the winding but that it also
includes the burden imposed by the connecting cable and the resistance of the connections.
 If, for example, the resistance of the connecting cable and the connections is 0.1 ohm and the secondary rating of
the CT is 5A, the burden of the cable and connections (RI2) is 0.1 x 5 x 5 = 2.5VA. This must be added to the
burden(s) of the connected device(s) when determining whether the CT has an adequately large burden rating to
supply the required device(s) and the burden imposed by the connections.
 Should the burden imposed on the CT secondary winding by the connected device(s) and the connections exceed
the rated burden of the CT the CT may partly or fully saturate and therefore not have a secondary current
adequately linear with the primary current.
 The burden imposed by a given resistance in ohms [such as the resistance of a connecting cable] is proportional to
the square of the rated secondary current. Therefore, where long runs of cable between CT and the connected
device(s) are involved, the use of a 1A secondary CT and a 1A device rather than 5A will result in a 25-fold
reduction in the burden of the connecting cables and connections. All burden ratings and calculations are at rated
secondary current.
 Because of the foregoing, when a relatively long [more than a very few meters] cable run is required to connect a
CT to its burden [such as a remote ammeter] a calculation should be made to determine the cable burden. This is
proportional to the “round trip” resistance, i.e. twice the resistance of the length of twin cable used. Cable tables
provide information on the resistance values of different sizes of conductors at 20o C per unit length.
2) Protective CT:
 The calculated resistance is then multiplied by the square of the CT secondary current rating [25 for 5A, 1 for 1A].
If the VA burden as calculated by this method and added to the rated burden(s) of the device(s) to be driven by the
CT exceeds the CT burden rating, the cable size must be increased [to reduce the resistance and thus the burden]
or a CT with a higher VA burden rating must be used, or a lower CT secondary current rating [with matching
change in the current rating of the device(s) to be driven] should be substituted
Nomenclature of CT:

1. Ratio: input / output current ratio

2. Burden (VA): total burden including pilot wires. (2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 30VA.)
3. Class: Accuracy required for operation (Metering: 0.2, 0.5, 1 or 3, Protection: 5, 10, 15, 20, 30).
4. Accuracy Limit Factor:
5. Dimensions: maximum & minimum limits
6. Nomenclature of CT: Ratio, VA Burden, Accuracy Class, Accuracy Limit Factor.
7. Example: 1600/5, 15VA 5P10 (Ratio: 1600/5, Burden: 15VA, Accuracy Class: 5P, ALF: 10)
8. As per IEEE Metering CT: 0.3B0.1 rated Metering CT is accurate to 0.3 percent if the connected secondary
burden if impedance does not exceed 0.1 ohms.
9. As per IEEE Relaying (Protection) CT: 2.5C100 Relaying CT is accurate within 2.5 percent if the secondary
burden is less than 1.0 ohm (100 volts/100A).
1) Current Ratio of CT:

 The primary and secondary currents are expressed as a ratio such as 100/5. With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100A flowing
in the primary winding will result in 5A flowing in the secondary winding, provided the correct rated burden is
 connected to the secondary winding. Similarly, for lesser primary currents, the secondary currents are
proportionately lower.
 It should be noted that a 100/5 CT would not fulfil the function of a 20/1 or a 10/0.5 CT as the ratio expresses the
current rating of the CT, not merely the ratio of the primary to the secondary currents.
 The rated secondary current is commonly 5A or 1A, though lower currents such as 0.5A are not uncommon. It
flows in the rated secondary load, usually called the burden, when the rated primary current flows in the primary
winding.
 Increasing or Decreasing Turns Ratio of CT:
 Increasing Number of Turn: Increasing the number of primary turns can only decrease the turn’s ratio. A current
transformer with a 50 to 5 turn’s ratio can be changed to a 25 to 5 turn’s ratio by passing the primary twice through
the window.
 Increasing or Decreasing Turns Ratio:
 The turn’s ratio can be either increased or decreased by wrapping wire from the secondary through the window of
the current transformer.
 Increasing the turn’s ratio with the secondary wire, turns on the secondary are essentially increased. A 50 to 5
current transformer will have a 55 to 5 ratio when adding a single secondary turn.
 Decreasing the turn’s ratio with the secondary wire, turns on the secondary are essentially decreased. A 50 to 5
current transformer will have a 45 to 5 ratio when adding a single secondary turn.
 Decreasing the turn’s ratio with the primary, accuracy and VA burden ratings are the same as the original
configuration.
 Increasing the turn’s ratio with the secondary will improve the accuracy and burden rating.
 Decreasing the turn’s ratio with the secondary will worsen the accuracy and burden rating.
 When using the secondary of a current transformer to change the turn’s ratio, the right hand rule of magnetic fields
comes into play. Wrapping the white lead or the X1 lead from the H1 side of the transformer through the window to
the H2 side will decrease the turn’s ratio. Wrapping this wire from the H2 side to the H1 side will increase the
turn’s ratio.
 Using the black or X2 lead as the adjustment method will do the opposite of the X1(white) lead. Wrapping from the
H1 to the H2 side will increase the turns ratio, and wrapping from the H2 to the H1 side will decrease the turns
ratio.
2) Burden of CT:

 Common burden ratings of CT: 2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 30VA.

 The external load applied to the secondary of a current transformer is called the “burden”.
 The burden of CT is the maximum load (in VA) that can be applied to the CT secondary.
 The burden can be expressed in two ways.
 The burden can be expressed as the total impedance in ohms of the circuit or the total volt-amperes (VA) and
power factor at a specified value of current or voltage and frequency.
 Formerly, the practice was to express the burden in terms of volt-amperes (VA) and power factor, the volt-
amperes being what would be consumed in the burden impedance at rated secondary current (in other
words, rated secondary current squared times the burden impedance). Thus, a burden of 0.5Ωimpedance may be
expressed also as “12.5 VA at 5 amperes,” if we assume the usual 5-ampere secondary rating. The VA
terminology is no longer standard, but it needs defining because it will be found in the literature and in old data.
Burden for Measuring CT:

 Total burden of Measuring CT = Sum of Meters Burden in VA (Ammeter, Wattmeter, Transducer etc.)
connected in series to the CT secondary circuit + Connecting Secondary Circuit Cable Burden in VA.
 Cable burden = I2 x R x2 L, where I = CT secondary current, R = cable resistance per length, 2L is the tro &fro
distance of cable length L from CT to metering circuits. If the proper size and short length of wire is used, cable
burden can be ignored.
 The CT secondary circuit load shall not be more than the CT VA rating. If the load is less than the CT burden, all
meters connected to the measuring CT should provide correct reading.
 In the case of Measuring Current transformer, the burden depends on the connected meters and quantity of meters
on the secondary i.e. no of Ammeters, KWh meters, Kvar meters, Kwh meters, transducers and also the
connection cable burden (I2 x R x2 L) to metering shall be taken into account.
 Note Meters burden can be obtained from manufacturer catalogue.
 Selected CT burden shall be more than the calculated burden
Burden for Protecting CT:

 In the case of Protection CTs the burden is calculated in the same way as above except the burden of individual
protective relays burden shall be considered instead of meters. The connecting cable burden is calculated in the
same way as metering CT
 Total burden of Protection CT=Connecting cable Burden in VA + sum of Protective relays Burden in VA.
 All manufacturers can supply the burden of their individual devices. Although not used very often these days,
induction disk over-current devices always gave the burden for the minimum tap setting. To determine the
impedance of the actual tap setting being used, First Square the ratio of minimum divide by the actual tap setting
used and, second multiply this value by the minimum impedance.
 Suppose an impedance of 1.47 + 5.34j at the 1A tap. To apply the relay at the 4A tap the engineer would multiply
the impedance at the 1A taps setting by (1/4)2. The impedance at the 4A tap would be 0.0919 + 0.3338j or 0.3462
Z at 96.4 power factor.
 The CT burden impedance decreases as the secondary current increases, because of saturation in the
magnetic circuits of relays and other devices. Hence, a given burden may apply only for a particular value of
secondary current. The old terminology of volt-amperes at 5 amperes is most confusing in this respect since it is
not necessarily the actual volt amperes with 5 amperes flowing, but is what the volt-amperes would be at 5
amperes
 If there were no saturation. Manufacturer’s publications give impedance data for several values of over current for
some relays for which such data are sometimes required. Otherwise, data are provided only for one value of CT
secondary current.
 If a publication does not clearly state for what value of current the burden applies, this information should be
requested. Lacking such saturation data, one can obtain it easily by test. At high saturation, the impedance
approaches the DC resistance. Neglecting the reduction in impedance with saturation makes it appear that a CT
will have more inaccuracy than it actually will have. Of course, if such apparently greater inaccuracy can be
tolerated, further refinements in calculation are unnecessary. However, in some applications neglecting the effect
of saturation will provide overly optimistic results; consequently, it is safer always to take this effect into account.
 It is usually sufficiently accurate to add series burden impedances arithmetically. The results will be slightly
pessimistic, indicating slightly greater than actual CT ratio inaccuracy. But, if a given application is so borderline
that vector addition of impedances is necessary to prove that the CTÕs will be suitable, such an application should
be avoided.
 If the impedance at pickup of a tapped over current-relay coil is known for a given pickup tap, it can be estimated
for pickup current for any other tap. The reactance of a tapped coil varies as the square of the coil turns, and the
resistance varies approximately as the turns. At pickup, there is negligible saturation, and the resistance is small
compared with the reactance. Therefore, it is usually sufficiently accurate to assume that the impedance varies as
the square of the turns. The number of coil turns is inversely proportional to the pickup current, and therefore the
impedance varies inversely approximately as the square of the pickup current.
 Whether CT is connected in wye or in delta, the burden impedances are always connected in wye. With wye-
connected CT the neutrals of the CT and of the burdens are connected together, either directly or through a relay
coil, except when a so-called zero phase-sequence-current shunt is used.
 It is seldom correct simply to add the impedances of series burdens to get the total, whenever two or more CT are
connected in such a way that their currents may add or subtract in some common portion of the secondary circuit.
Instead, one must calculate the sum of the voltage drops and rises in the external circuit from one CT secondary
terminal to the other for assumed values of secondary currents flowing in the various branches of the external
circuit. The effective CT burden impedance for each combination of assumed currents is the calculated CT terminal
voltage divided by the assumed CT secondary current. This effective impedance is the one to use, and it may be
larger or smaller than the actual impedance which would apply if no other CTÕs were supplying current to the
circuit.
 If the primary of an auxiliary CT is to be connected into the secondary of a CT whose accuracy is being studied,
one must know the impedance of the auxiliary CT viewed from its primary with its secondary short-circuited. To this
value of impedance must be added the impedance of the auxiliary CT burden as viewed from the primary side of
the auxiliary CT; to obtain this impedance, multiply the actual burden impedance by the square of the ratio of
primary to secondary turns of the auxiliary CT. It will become evident that, with an auxiliary CT that steps up the
magnitude of its current from primary to secondary, very high burden impedances, when viewed from the primary,
may result.
 Burden is depending on pilot lead length
 For Metering Class CTs burden is expressed as ohms impedance. For Protection-class CTs burden is
express as volt-amperes (VA).
VA Applications

1 To 2 VA Moving iron ammeter

1 To 2.5VA Moving coil rectifier ammeter

 2.5 To 5VA Electrodynamics instrument

3 To 5VA Maximum demand ammeter

1 To 2.5VA Recording ammeter or transducer

 Burden (VA) of copper wires between instrument & current transformer for 1A and 5A secondary’s
Cross CT 1 Amp Secondary Burden in VA (Twin Wire)
Section
(mm2) Distance
10 20 40 60 80 100
meter meter meter meter meter meter

1.0 0.35 0.71 1.43 2.14 2.85 3.57

1.5 0.23 0.46 0.92 1.39 1.85 2.31
2.5 0.14 0.29 0.57 0.86 1.14 1.43
4.0 0.09 0.18 0.36 0.54 0.71 0.89
6.0 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.48 0.6

Cross CT 5 Amp Secondary Burden in VA (Twin Wire)

Section
(mm2) Distance
1 2 4 6 8 10
meter meter meter meter meter meter

1.5 0.58 1.15 2.31 3.46 4.62 5.77

2.5 0.36 0.71 1.43 2.14 2.86 3.57
4.0 0.22 0.45 0.89 1.34 1.79 2.24
6.0 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.89 1.19 1.49
10.0 0.09 0.18 0.36 0.54 0.71 0.89
CT Burden Calculation:

 The Actual burden is formed by the resistance of the pilot conductors and the protection relay(s). The resistance of
a conductor (with a constant cross-sectional area) can be calculated from the equation:
 R =ƿxL / A
 where ƿ = resistivity of the conductor material (given typically at +20°C) ,L= length of the conductor , A = cross
sectional area
 If the resistivity is given in μΩm, the length in meters and the area in mm2, the equation 1 will give the resistance
directly in ohms.
 Resistivity: Copper 0.0178 µΩm at 20 °C and 0.0216 µΩm at 75 °C
Burden of CT for 4 or 6 wire connection:
 If 6-wire connection is used, the total length of the wire, naturally, will be two times the distance between the CT
and the relay. However, in many cases a common return conductor is used as shown in figure then, instead of
multiplying the distance by two, a factor of 1.2 is typically used. This rule only applies to the 3-phase connection
only. The factor 1.2 allows for a situation, where up to 20% of the electrical conductor length, including terminal
resistances, uses 6-wire connection and at least 80% 4-wire connection.
 Example: the distance between the CT and the relay is 5 meters the total length is 2 x 5 m = 10 meter for 6-wire
connection, but only 1.2 x 5 m = 6.0 meter when 4-wire connection is used.
Burden of the relay:
 Example: The Distance between the CTs and the protection relay is 15 meters, 4 mm2 Cu conductors in 4-wire
connection are used. The burden of the relay input is less than 20 mΩ (5 A inputs). Calculate the actual burden of
the CT at 75°C , the input impedance is less than 0.020 Ω for a 5 A input (i.e. burden less than 0.5 VA) and less
than 0.100 Ω for a 1 A input (i.e. less than 0.1 VA):
 Solution:
 ƿ = 0.0216 µΩm (75°C) for copper conductor.
 R =ƿxL / A ,R = 0.0216 µΩm x (1.2 x 15 m) / 4 mm2 = 0.097 Ω
 Burden of CT = 0.097 Ω + 0.020 Ω = 0.117 Ω.
 Using CTs of burden values higher than required, is unscientific since it leads to inaccurate reading (meter) or
inaccurate sensing of fault / reporting conditions.
 Basically, such high value of design burden extends saturation characteristics of CT core leading to likely damage
to the meter connected across it under overload condition. e.g. When we expect security factor (ISF) to be 5, the
secondary current should be restricted to less than 5 times in case primary current shoots to more than 5 times its
rated value.
 In such an overload condition, the core of CT is desired to go into saturation, restricting the secondary current thus
the meter is not damaged. However, when we ask for higher VA, core doesn’t go into saturation due to less load
(ISF is much higher than desired) which may damage the meter.
 To understand the effect on Accuracy aspect, let’s take an example of a CT with specified burden of 15 VA, and
the actual burden is 2.5 VA:15 VA CT with less than 5 ISF will have saturation voltage of 15 Volts (15/5×5), and
actual burden of 2.5 VA the saturation voltage required shall be ( 2.5/5 x 5) 2.5 Volts against 15 Volts resulting ISF
= 30 against required of 5.
 Example: Decide Whether 5A,20VA CT is sufficient for following circuit

 Total instrument burden = 2 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 4 = 13V A.

 Total pilot load resistance = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2 ohm.
 With 5A secondary current, volt-drop in leads is 5 x 0.2 = 1 V.
 Burden imposed by both leads = 5A x 1 V = 5V A.
 Total burden on CT = 13 + 5 = 18V A.
 As the CT is rated 20V A, it has sufficient margin.
3) Accuracy Class of CT:

 The CT accuracy is determined by its certified accuracy class which is stamped on nameplate. For example, CT
accuracy class of 0.3 means that the CT is certified by the manufacturer to be accurate to within 0.3 percent of its
rated ratio value for a primary current of 100 percent of rated ratio.
 CT with a rated ratio of 200/ 5 with accuracy class of 0.3 would operate within 0.45 percent of its rated ratio value
for a primary current of 100 amps. To be more explicit, for a primary current of 100A it is certified to produce a
secondary current between 2.489 amps and 2.511 amps.
 Accuracy is specified as a percentage of the range, and is given for the maximum burden as expressed in VA. The
total burden includes the input resistance of the meter and the loop resistance of the wire and connections
between the current transformer and meter.
 Example: Burden = 2.0 VA. Maximum Voltage drop = 2.0 VA / 5 Amps = 0.400 Volts.
 Maximum Resistance = Voltage / Current = 04.00 Volts / 5 Amps =0.080 Ohms.
 If the input resistance of the meter is 0.010Ω, then 0.070Ω is allowed for loop resistance of the wire, and
connections between the current transformer and the meter. The length and gauge of the wire must be considered
in order to avoid exceeding the maximum burden.
 If resistance in the 5 amp loop causes the burden to be exceeded, the current will drop. This will result in
the meter reading low at higher current levels.
 As in all transformers, errors arise due to a proportion of the primary input current being used to magnetize the
core and not transferred to the secondary winding. The proportion of the primary current used for this purpose
determines the amount of error.
 The essence of good design of measuring current transformers is to ensure that the magnetizing current is low
enough to ensure that the error specified for the accuracy class is not exceeded.
 This is achieved by selecting suitable core materials and the appropriate cross-sectional area of core. Frequently in
measuring currents of 50A and upwards, it is convenient and technically sound for the primary winding of a CT to
have one turn only.
 In these most common cases the CT is supplied with a secondary winding only, the primary being the cable or bus
bar of the main conductor which is passed through the CT aperture in the case of ring CTs (i .e. single primary
turn) it should be noted that the lower the rated primary current the more difficult it is (and the more expensive it is)
to achieve a given accuracy.
 Considering a core of certain fixed dimensions and magnetic materials with a secondary winding of say 200 turns
(current ratio 200/1 turns ratio 1/200) and say it takes 2 amperes of the 200A primary current to magnetize the
core, the error is therefore only 1% approximately. However considering a 50/1 CT with 50 secondary turns on the
same core it still takes 2 amperes to magnetize to core. The error is then 4% approximately. To obtain a 1%
accuracy on the 50/1 ring CT a much larger core and/or expensive core material is required
 Accuracy Class of Metering CT:
Metering Class CT
Class Applications

0.1 Precision measurements

To
0.2

0.5 High grade kilowatt hour meters for commercial grade

kilowatt hour meters

3 General industrial measurements

3 OR Approximate measurements
5

Protective CT
VA Class
System Secondary

Per current 1A 2.5 10P20 Or 5P20

for phase &
earth fault 5A 7.5 10P20 Or 5P20

1A 2.5 10P20 Or 5P20

Unrestricted
earth fault
5A 7.5 10P20 Or 5P20
 Sensitive Class PX use relay
1A or 5A
earth fault manufacturers formula

Distance Class PX use relay

1A or 5A
protection manufacturers formula

Differential Class PX use relay

1A or 5A
protection manufacturers formula

High
impedance Class PX use relay
1A or 5A
differential manufacturers formula
impedance

High speed
Class PX use relay
feeder 1A or 5A
manufacturers formula
protection

Motor
1A or 5A 5 5P10
protection

 Accuracy Class of Letter of CT:

Metering Class CT
Accuracy Applications
Class

B Metering Purpose

Protection Class CT
C CT has low leakage flux.

T CT can have significant leakage flux.

H CT accuracy is applicable within the entire range of

secondary currents from 5 to 20 times the nominal CT
rating. (Typically wound CTs.)

L CT accuracy applies at the maximum rated secondary

burden at 20 time rated only. The ratio accuracy can
be up to four times greater than the listed value,
depending on connected burden and fault current.
(Typically window, busing, or bar-type CTs.)

 Accuracy Class of Protection CT:

Class Applications

10P5 Instantaneous over current relays & trip coils: 2.5VA

10P10 Thermal inverse time relays: 7.5VA

10P10 Low consumption Relay: 2.5VA

 10P10/5 Inverse definite min. time relays (IDMT) over current

10P10 IDMT Earth fault relays with approximate time

grading:15VA

5P10 IDMT Earth fault relays with phase fault stability or

accurate time grading: 15VA

 Accuracy Class: Metering Accuracy as per IEEE C37.20.2b-1994

Ratio B0.1 B0.2 B0.5 B0.9 B1.8 Relaying

Accuracy

50:5 1.2 2.4 – – – C or T10

75:5 1.2 2.4 – – – C or T10

100:5 1.2 2.4 – – – C or T10

150:5 0.6 1.2 2.4 – – C or T20

200:5 0.6 1.2 2.4 – – C or T20

300:5 0.6 1.2 2.4 2.4 – C or T20

400:5 0.3 0.6 1.2 1.2 2.4 C or T50

600:5 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.2 2.4 C or T50

800:5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.2 C or T50

1200:5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 C100

1500:5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 C100

2000:5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 C100

3000:5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 C100

4000:5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 C100

Important of accuracy & phase angle

 Current error is an error that arises when the current value of the actual transformation ratio is not equal to rated
transformation ratio.
 Current error (%) = {(Kn x Is – Ip) x 100}/Ip
 Kn = rated transformation ratio, Ip = actual primary current, Is = actual secondary current
 Example: In case of a 2000/5A class 1 5VA current transformer
 Kn = 2000/5 = 400 turn, Ip = 2000A, Is = 4.9A
 Current error = ((400 x 4.9 – 2000) x100)/2000 = -2%
 For protection class current transformer, the accuracy class is designed by the highest permissible percentage
composite error at the accuracy limit primary current prescribed for the accuracy class concerned.
 Accuracy class includes: 5P, 10P
By phase angle
 Phase error is the difference in phase between primary & secondary current vectors, the direction of the vectors to
be zero for a perfect transformer.
 You will experience a positive phase displacement when secondary current vector lead primary current vector.
 Unit of scale expressed in minutes / cent radians.
 Circular measure = (unit in radian) is the ratio of the distance measured along the arc to the radius.
 Angular measure = (unit in degree) is obtained by dividing the angle subtended at the center of a circle into 360
deg equal division known as “degrees”.
 Limits of current error and phase displacement for measuring current transformer (Classes 0.1 To 1)
Accur +/- Percentage Current (Ratio) +/- Phase Displacement at % Rated Current
acy Error at % Rated Current
Class Minutes Centi radians

5 20 10 12 5 2 10 12 5 20 10 12
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.4 0.2 0. 0. 15 8 5 5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1
1 1 5 4 5 5
0.2 0.7 0.3 0. 0. 30 1 10 10 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3
5 5 2 2 5 5
0.5 1.5 0.7 0. 0. 90 4 30 30 2.7 1.3 0.9 0.9
5 5 5 5 5
1.0 3 1.5 1 1 18 9 60 60 5.4 2.7 1.8 1.8
0 0
 limits of current error and phase displacement for measuring current transformer For special application
Ac +/- Percentage Current (Ratio) +/- Phase Displacement at % Rated Current
cur Error at % Rated Current
acy Minutes Centi radians
Cla 1 5 2 1 1 1 5 2 1 1 1 5 2 1 1
ss 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.2 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
S . . . . . 0 5 0 0 0 . . . . .
7 3 2 2 2 9 4 3 3 3
5 5
0.5 1 0 0 0 0 9 4 3 3 3 2 1 0 0 0
S . . . . . 0 5 0 0 0 . . . . .
5 7 5 5 5 7 3 9 9 9
0 5
 limits of current error for measuring current transformers (classes 3 and 5)
Accuracy Class +/- Percentage Current (Ratio) Error at
% Rated Current

50 120

3 3 3

5 5 5

Class X Current Transformer:

 Class X current transformer is use in conjunction with high impedance circulating current differential protection
relay, eg restricted earth fault relay. As illustrated in IEC60044-1, the class X current transformer is needed.
 The following illustrates the method to size a class X current transformer.
 Step 1: calculating knee point voltage Vkp
 Vkp = {2 x Ift (Rct+Rw)}/ k
 Vkp = required CT knee point voltage, Ift = max transformer through fault in ampere
 Rct = CT secondary winding resistance in ohms, Rw = loop impedance of pilot wire between CT and the
 K = CT transformation ratio
 Step 2: calculate Transformer through fault Ift
 Ift = (KVA x 1000)/ (1.732 x V x Impedance)
 KVA = transformer rating in kVA , V = transformer secondary voltage, Impedance = transformer impedance
 Step 3: How to obtain Rct
 To measure when CT is produce
 Step 4: How to obtain Rw
 This is the resistance of the pilot wire used to connect the 5th class X CT at the transformer star point to the relay
 In the LV switchboard. Please obtain this data from the Electrical contractor or consultant. We provide a table
toServe as a general guide on cable resistance.
 Example:
 Transformer Capacity: 2500kVA
Transformer impedance: 6%
Voltage system : 22kV / 415V 3phase 4 wire
Current transformer ratio: 4000/5A
Current transformer type: Class X PR10
Current transformer Vkp : 185V
Current transformer Rct : 1.02½ (measured)
Pilot wire resistance Rw : 25 meters using 6.0mm sq cable
= 2 x 25 x 0.0032 = 0.16½
Ift = (kVA x 1000) / (1.732 x V x impedance) = (2500 x 1000) / (1.732 x 415 x 0.06)= 57,968 (Say 58,000A)
Vkp = {2 x Ift (Rct+Rw)} / k= {2 x 58000 (1.02+0.16)} / 800= 171.1½.
4) Accuracy Limit Factor:

 Standard Accuracy Limit Factors: 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.

 Accuracy of a CT is another parameter which is also specified with CT class. For example, if a measuring CT class
is 0.5M (or 0.5B10), the accuracy is 99.5% for the CT, and the maximum permissible CT error is only 0.5%.
 Accuracy limit Factor is defined as the multiple of rated primary current up to which the transformer will comply with
the requirements of ‘Composite Error’. Composite Error is the deviation from an ideal CT (as in Current Error), but
takes account of harmonics in the secondary current caused by non-linear magnetic conditions through the cycle at
higher flux densities.
 The electrical requirements of a protection current transformer can therefore be defined as :
 Selection of Accuracy Class & Limit Factor.
 Class 5P and 10P protective current transformers are generally used in over current and unrestricted earth leakage
protection. With the exception of simple trip relays, the protective device usually has an intentional time delay,
thereby ensuring that the severe effect of transients has passed before the relay is called to operate. Protection
Current Transformers used for such applications are normally working under steady state conditions Three
examples of such protection is shown. In some systems, it may be sufficient to simply detect a fault and isolate that
circuit. However, in more discriminating schemes, it is necessary to ensure that a phase to phase fault does not
operate the earth fault relay.
 Calculation of the Accuracy limit factor
 Fa=Fn X ( (Sin+Sn) / (Sin+Sa) )
 Fn = Rated Accuracy Limit Factor, Sin = Internal Burden of CT secondary Coil
 Sn= Rated Burden of CT (in VA), Sa= Actual Burden of CT (in VA)
 Example: The internal secondary coil resistance of the CT(5P20) is 0.07 Ω, the secondary burden (including wires
and relay) is 0.117 Ω and the CT is rated 300/5, 5P20, 10 VA. Calculate the actual accuracy limit factor.
 Fn = 20 (CT data 5P20), Sin = (5A)2 × 0.07 Ω =1.75 VA, Sn = 10 VA (from CT data),
 Sa = (5A)2 × 0.117 Ω = 2.925 VA
 Accuracy limit factor ALF (Fa) = 20 X ((1.75+10) / (1.75+2.925)) =50.3
Selection of CT:

1) Indoors or Out Door:

 Determine where CT needs to be used. Indoor transformers are usually less costly than outdoor transformers.
Obviously, if the current transformer is going to be enclosed in an outdoor enclosure, it need not be rated for
outdoor use. This is a common costly error in judgment when selecting current transformers.
2) What do We need:
 The first thing we need to know that what degree of accuracy is required. Example, if you simply want to know if a
motor is lightly or overloaded, a panel meter with 2 to 3% accuracy will likely suit for needs. In that case the current
transformer needs to be only 0.6 to 1.2% accurate. On the other hand, if we are going to drive a switchboard type
instrument with 1% accuracy, we will want a current transformer with 0.3 to 0.6 accuracy. We must keep in mind
that the accuracy ratings are based on rated primary current flowing and per ANSI standards may be doubled (0.3
becomes 0.6%) when 10% primary current flows. As mentioned earlier, the rated accuracies are at stated burdens.
We must take into consideration not only the burden of the load (instrument) but you must consider the total
burden. The total burden includes the burden of the current transformers secondary winding, the burden of the
leads connecting the secondary to the load, and the burden of the load itself. The current transformer must be able
to support the total burden and to provide the accuracy required at that burden. If we are going to drive a relay you
must know what relay accuracy the relay will require.
3) Voltage Class:
 You must know what the voltage is in the circuit to be monitored. This will determine what the voltage class of the
current transformer must be as explained earlier.
4) Primary Conductor:
 If you have selected a current transformer with a window you must know the number, type and size of the primary
conductor(s) in order to select a window size which will accommodate the primary conductors.
5) Application:
 The variety of applications of current transformers seems to be limited only by ones imagination. As new electronic
equipment evolves and plays a greater role in the generation, control and application of electrical energy, new
demands will be placed upon current transformer manufacturers and designers to provide new products to meet
these needs
6) Safety:
 For personnel and equipment safety and measurement accuracy, current measurements on conductors at high
voltage should be made only with a conducting shield cylinder placed inside the CT aperture. There should be a
low electrical impedance connection from one end only to a reliable local ground. An inner insulating cylinder of
adequate voltage isolation should be between the shield cylinder and the conductor at high voltage. Any leakage,
induced or breakdown current between the high voltage conductor and the ground shield will substantially pass to
local ground rather than through the signal cable to signal ground. Do not create a “current loop” by connecting the
shield cylinder to ground from both ends. Current flowing in this loop will also be measured by the CT.
7) CT output signal termination:
 The CT output coaxial cable should preferably be terminated in 50 ohms. CT characteristics are guaranteed only
when CT is terminated in 50 ohms. The termination should present sufficient power dissipation capability. When
CT output is terminated in 50 ohms, its sensitivity is half that when terminated in a high-impedance load.
Installing of CT:

 Measurements must have the same polarity to keep the power factor and direction of power flow measurements
accurate and consistent.
 Most CTs are labelled that shows which side of the CT should face either the source or the load.

 Primary Side : The Primary of CT is marked with H1 and H2 ( or only marking dot on one side)
 The label “H1” or dot defines the direction as flowing current into the CT (H1 or the dot should face the Power
source side). H2 side to load facing direction
 Secondary Side: The Secondary (The output wires) of CT is marked with X1 and X2.
 X1 corresponds to H1, or the input side.The X1 secondary terminal is the polarity terminal. The polarity marks of a
current transformer indicate that when a primary current enters at the polarity mark (H1) of the primary, a current in
phase with the primary current and proportional to it in magnitude will leave the polarity terminal of the secondary
(X1).
 Normally CT’s should not be installed on live services. The power should be disconnected when the CT’s are
installed. Many times this is not possible because of critical loads such as computers, laboratories, etc. that cannot
be shut down. Split core CT’s should not be installed on live un insulated bus bars under any conditions.
Modification of Primary & Secondary Turns Ratio:
 The nameplate current ratio of the current transformer is based on the condition that the primary conductor will be
passed once through the transformer opening. If necessary, this rating can be reduced in even multiples by looping
this conductor two or more times through the opening.
 A transformer having a rating of 300 amperes will be changed to 75 amperes if four loops or turns are made with
the primary cable.
 The ratio of the current transformer can be also modified by altering the number of secondary turns by forward or
back-winding the secondary lead through the window of the current transformer.
 By adding secondary turns, the same primary amperage will result in a decrease in secondary output.
 By subtracting secondary turns, the same primary amperage will result in greater secondary output. Again using
the 300:5 example, adding two secondary turns will require 310 amps on the primary to maintain the 5 amp
secondary output or 62/1p = 310p/5s.
 Subtracting two secondary turns will only require 290 amps on the primary to maintain the 5 amp secondary output
or 58s/5p = 290p/5s. The ratio modifications are achieved in the following manner:
 To add secondary turns, the white lead should be wound through the CT from the side opposite the polarity mark.
 To subtract turns, the white lead should be wound through the CT from the same side as the polarity mark.
1) Modifications in Primary Turns Ratio of CT:
 The ratio of the current transformer can be modified by adding more primary turns to the transformer. By adding
primary turns, the current required to maintain five amps on the secondary is reduced.
 Ka = Kn X (Nn/Na)
 Ka= Actual Turns Ration.
 Kn=Name Plate T/C Ratio.
 Nn=Name Plate Number of Primary Turns.
 Na=Actual Number of Primary Turns.
 Example: 100:5 Current Transformers.
 2) Modifications in Secondary Turns Ratio of CT:
 Formula : Ip/Is = Ns/Np
 Ip = Primary Current , Is = Secondary Current , Np = No of Primary Turns, Ns = No of Secondary Turns
 Example: A 300:5 Current Transformer.
 The ratio of the current transformer can be modified by altering the number of secondary turns by forward or back
winding the secondary lead through the window of the current transformer.
 By adding secondary turns, the same primary current will result in a decrease in secondary output. By subtracting
secondary turns, the same primary current will result in greater secondary output.
 Again using the 300:5 example adding five secondary turns will require 325 amps on the primary to maintain the 5
amp secondary output or: 325 p / 5s = 65s / 1p
 Deducting 5 secondary turns will only require 275 amps on the primary to maintain the 5 amp secondary output or:
275p / 5s = 55s / 1p
 The above ratio modifications are achieved in the following manner:
 Current Transformer Ratio Modification:
Number of Primary
CT Ratio Modified Ratio
Turns
100:5A 2 50:5A
200:5A 2 100:5A
300:5A 2 150:5A
100:5A 3 33.3:5A
200:5A 3 66.6:5A
300:5A 3 100:5A
100:5A 4 25:5A
200:5A 4 50:5A
300:5A 4 75:5A
 A primary turn is the number of times the primary conductor passes through the CT’s window. The main advantage
of this ratio modification is you maintain the accuracy and burden capabilities of the higher ratio. The higher the
primary rating the better the accuracy and burden rating.
 You can make smaller ratio modification adjustments by using additive or subtractive secondary turns.
 For example, if you have a CT with a ratio of 100:5A. By adding one additive secondary turn the ratio modification
is 105:5A, by adding on subtractive secondary turn the ratio modification is 95:5A.
 Subtractive secondary turns are achieved by placing the “X1” lead through the window from the H1 side and out
the H2 side. Additive secondary turns are achieved by placing the “X1” lead through the window from the H2 and
out the H1 side.
 So, when there is only one primary turn each secondary turn modifies the primary rating by 5 amperes. If there is
more than one primary turn each secondary turn value is changed (i.e. 5A divided by 2 primary turns = 2.5A).
 The following table illustrates the effects of different combination of primary and secondary turns:
CT RATIO 100:5A
PRIMARY SECONDARY
RATIO ADJUSTMENT
TURNS TURNS
1 -0- 100:5A
1 1+ 105:5A
1 1- 95:5A
2 -0- 50:5A
2 1+ 52.5:5A
2 2- 45.0:5A
3 -0- 33.3:5A
3 1+ 34.97:5A
3 1- 31.63:5A
 Advantages of using a CT having 1A Secondary:

 The standard CT secondary current ratings are 1A & 5A,The selection is based on the lead burden used for
connecting the CT to meters/Relays.5A CT can be used where Current Transformer & protective’s device are
located within same Switchgear Panel.
 1A CT is preferred if CT leads goes out of the Switchgear.
 For Example if CT is located in Switch Yard & CT leads have to be taken to relay panels located in control room
which can be away.1A CT is preferred to reduce the load burden. For CT with very High lead length, CT with
Secondary current rating of 0.5 Amp can be used.
 In large Generator Circuits, where primary rated current is of the order of few kilo-amperes only,5A CTs are used,
1A CTs are not preferred since the turns rations becomes very high & CT becomes unwieldy.
Danger with Current Transformer:

 When a CT secondary circuit is closed, current flows through it, which is an exact proportion of the primary current,
regardless of the resistance of the burden. In the CT have a ratio of 1OOO/5A and to have 1OOOA flowing in the
primary is carrying exactly 5A.

 If the secondary terminals S1 and S2 are short- circuited, there is no voltage between them.
 If now the short-circuit be replaced by a resistance of, say, 0.5 ohm the same 5A will flow through, causing a volt-
drop of 2.5V and a burden of 5 x 2.5 = 12.5V A. If the resistance were increased to 5 ohms the terminal voltage
with 5A flowing would rise to 25V and the burden to 125V A.
 The greater the resistance, the greater would be the voltage and burden until, as it approached infinity (the open-
circuit condition), so also in theory would the voltage (and burden) become infinite. This cannot of course happen
in practice because the CT would saturate or the terminals flash over due to the very high secondary voltage
between them. But it does show the danger of open-circuiting the secondary of running CT. lethal voltages can be
produced at the point of opening. This is why CT secondaries are never fused.
 The danger from an open-circuited CT is twofold. It can produce lethal voltages and so is a very real danger to
personnel. The high voltage across the secondary winding could also cause insulation failure in that winding,
leading at best to inaccuracy and at worst to burn- out or fire.
 Before ever an instrument or relay is removed from the secondary loop of a running CT (if such a thing had to be
done), the wires feeding that instrument must first be securely short- circuited at a suitable terminal box or, better,
 at the CT itself. Similarly, if a running CT is ever to be taken out of circuit, it must first be firmly shorted. CTs with 1
A secondary’s are more dangerous than those with 5A, as the induced voltages are higher.
 Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works short circuited.
 If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the secondary winding must be short
circuited with the help of short circuit switch .
 If this is not done, then due to high m.m.f. will set up high flux in the core and it will produces excessive core loss
which produce heat and high voltage across the secondary terminals
 Hence the secondary of current transformer is never left open
Sizing of CT for Building:

 New construction: size the CT to handle about 80% of the circuit breaker capacity. If the building is served by a
2000 amp breaker, use 1600 amp (2000 x 0.8) CT’s.
 Older buildings: the peak demand can generally be determined from the power company or from past billings. In
this case add 20 to 30% to the peak demand and size the CT’s for this load. If the peak demand was 500 kW, the
peak current on a 480/3/60 system would be 500,000 / (480 x 1.73 x 0.9 pf) = 669 amps. This assumes a 0.9
power factor. (Peak current would be higher with a lower power Factor.) Use CT’s about 20% larger. 800:5 CT’s
would be a good selection.
 For older buildings with no demand history, size the CT’s the same as for new construction. Where possible, use
multi-tap CT’s so that the ratio can be reduced if the maximum load is much less than 80% of the breaker size.
 CT’s that are used to monitor motor loads can be sized from the nameplate full load motor amps.

Anti Pumping Relay and its Operating Principle

It is a device in the circuit breaker that prevents multiple closures of the breakers. Multiple breaker closures can
damage the closing mechanism of the breaker. The anti-pump function is a very important feature of control circuits.
Without the anti-pump function, if the user connected a maintained contact in the close circuit, and the circuit
breaker were closed into a fault current, the protective relays would cause an immediate trip action, but the
maintained contact in the close circuit would initiate closing (again) into the fault. This process is called pumping,
and would lead to ultimate catastrophic failure of some element in the system, perhaps the conductors leading to the
fault, perhaps the circuit breaker, or elsewhere in the system. Therefore, anti-pump control is one of the fundamental
requirements for every medium-voltage circuit breaker. Anti-pumping relay is used to prevent multiple breaker
closures. The effect of continuous closing of circuit breaker is called breaker hunting effect. Anti-pumping relay
insures that the breaker closes only once and removes the hunting effect of the breaker. It is also called trip free
mechanism of the circuit breaker. Sometimes anti-pumping relay is built-in in the circuit breaker and sometimes it
works as auxiliary relay with circuit breaker.

Note that the anti-pump function is reset if the control power supply is removed for some reason. When this
happens, the anti-pump relay contact in the close circuit closes to complete the close circuit. Then, if a maintained
contact in the user’s control circuit is closed, and the control power is restored, the circuit breaker will close.
However, after this initial close operation, the anti-pump relay will be sealed in, and further closing operations will
be prevented until the maintained contact is opened or the control power supply is interrupted.

Multiple closure of circuit breaker can cause damage to breaker and it can be avoided by using 52 relay (circuit
breaker anti-pumping relay). The main function of this relay is to cut off the supply to 52C (circuit breaker closing
coil) coil in case of TNC (trip neutral close push button) switch spring failure and prevent multiple closure of circuit
breaker (hunting effect of CB).

Trip coil along with anti-pumping relay

Closing coil circuit with 52 present is as shown in above figure below. Path 1 in the figure shows how 52C (CB
closing coil) will be energized when we press TNC switch. If switch comes to its original state once we release it
then 52 will not come in picture. If switch does not comes to its original state then 52 will be energized as shown in
path 2. Then 52-NC (normally closed) contact present in path 1 will be got opened up and prevents extension of
supply. The auxiliary contacts and anti-pumping relay contacts are shown in the figure with blue arrow.
We have the concept that initially for the energization of 52 80% to 90% of 110V is required. But once after
energization 60-70% of 110V is sufficient to maintain its energization state. This logic is achieved by introducing a
resistance in 52 energization maintenance path.

Trip-free mechanism or anti-pumping control is an important safety feature, as it assures that the decision to open a
circuit breaker dominates over the command to close.

Effect and influence of residual current compensation on earth-fault distance

relays

For residual compensation of an earth-fault distance relay, a compensation method using only a reactive
compensation factor (X0/X1) for the transmission line or a compensation method using both a reactive
compensation factor (X0/X1) and a resistive compensation factor (R0/R1) which are widely used in Japan. In this
paper, we present the reason why measuring distance errors of earth-fault distance relays occur even when these two
residual current compensation methods are used. Furthermore, with the compensation method that uses both reactive
and resistive compensation factors, we have shown that depending upon whether the ratio, (RG/RA) of the line to
earth resistance (RG) to line to line resistance (RA) is larger or smaller than the resistive compensation factor
(R0/R1) that an earth-fault distance relay will respectively either overreach or under reach for a double line to earth
fault.
Charging Current in Transmission Line
In a transmission line, air acts as a dielectric medium between the conductors. When the voltage is
applied across the sending end of the transmission line, current starts flowing between the conductors
(due to imperfections of the dielectric medium). This current is called the charging current in the

transmission line. In
other words, we can say, the current associated with the capacitance of a line is known as the charging
current. The strength of the charging current depends on the voltage, frequency, and capacitance of the
line. It is given by the equations shown below.

For a single-phase line, the charging current

Where, C= line-to-line in farads

Xc= capacitive reactance in ohms
V= line voltage in volts

Also, reactive
volt-ampere generated by the line = charging volt-amperes of the lines
 For a three phase line, the charging current phase

where Vn =voltage to neutral in volts =

phase voltages in volts
Cn = capacitance to neutral in farads

Reactive volt-ampere generated by the line = charging volt-amperes of the lines

where Vt = line-to-line voltage in volts.

Significance of charging current

1. It reduces the load current, due to which line losses decreases, and hence the efficiency of the line is
increased.
2. It improves the power factor of the transmission line.
3. Charging current improves the load capacity of the line.
4. It improves the voltage regulation of the line because the voltage drop is quite small.

Read more: http://circuitglobe.com/charging-current-in-transmission-

line.html#ixzz4GF0BH1ZD
Why DC is used in digital integrated circuits?

All digital circuits work on logic. that is logic of zero and one. Everything in digital electronics is
summarized in 1 and 0. Here 1 represents +5 voltage and and 0 represents 0 voltage or ground level.

DC voltages/ current :
are ideally steady. i.e there is no fluctuation in it. Like battery. it gives 1.5 V if it is rated for 1.5V.

AC current :
where as ac current i.e. Alternating Current as name suggests varies with time. Means for every given
moment the voltage is changing and so is current. It is like if as time increases voltage and current
increases and after reaching certain top level it goes down again to level 0 and then it further goes down
in -ve to certain lowest level and then again it goes up to 0 level and this goes on.
It has sinusoidal wave form. We have in India 60 hz (hertz) current that means voltage changes from 0 -
230-0- -230 -0 sixty times in a second.

Now how can a digital circuit work for its requirement of constant ± 5 V status if the current is varying
every moment ? So dc is the only source for digital circuits. AC voltages are converted to dc voltage by
using rectifier circuits comprising of diode, capacitor so some voltage stabilizer ICs etc.. as per need.

Now how the electricity is produced? DC or direct current is available in lightning happening in sky or
the by converting from AC to DC or by using battery [ NICD, Lead Acid ect ]. And ac is produced by the
rotation of copper coils in the magnetic field.i.e. nutshell. You may have heard of wind electricity / coal
electricity / water electricity etc.... ultimately all they do is to rotate the copper coils in the magnetic
field to produce electricity. And this method is far cheaper than producing DC current. So it is widely
used in producing electricity world wide.

What is the temperature coefficient of resistance

The resistance-change factor per degree Celsius of temperature change is called the temperature
coefficient of resistance. This factor is represented by the Greek lower-case letter “alpha” (α). A positive
coefficient for a material means that its resistance increases with an increase in temperature.

You might have noticed on the table for specific resistances that all figures were specified at a
temperature of 20o Celsius. If you suspected that this meant specific resistance of a material may
change with temperature, you were right!
Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard temperature (usually
specified at 20 Celsius) on the specific resistance table must be determined through yet another
formula:
The “alpha” (α) constant is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance, and symbolizes the
resistance change factor per degree of temperature change. Just as all materials have a certain specific
resistance (at 20o C), they also change resistance according to temperature by certain amounts. For
pure metals, this coefficient is a positive number, meaning that resistance increases with increasing
temperature. For the elements carbon, silicon, and germanium, this coefficient is a negative number,
meaning that resistance decreases with increasing temperature. For some metal alloys, the
temperature coefficient of resistance is very close to zero, meaning that the resistance hardly changes
at all with variations in temperature (a good property if you want to build a precision resistor out of
metal wire!). The following table gives the temperature coefficients of resistance for several common
metals, both pure and alloy:

OPERATION OF NEUTRAL VOLTAGE DISPLACEMENT RELAYS

the zero sequence current that flows for an earth-fault on an un-earthed network is determined by the
capacitance of the cable to earth. This flow of current leads to a rise in the voltage of the neutral point
of the incoming supply (the star-point of either the generator or transformer). It is this rise that is
detected by a neutral voltage displacement relay. If the network is quite small (i.e. short cables), then
the zero-sequence voltage will be unstable. This is why an instantaneous relay is only generally used to
provide an alarm. In the event of a fault, neutral voltage protection cannot detect the location of a fault,
so all sources of supply should be disconnected.

CONNECTION OF NEUTRAL VOLTAGE DISPLACEMENT RELAYS

Neutral voltage displacement relays are connected in one of two ways as shown in the wiring diagrams
of the relays (contact us if you do not have copies). Our wiring diagrams show that the primary star-
point of the VTs should be earthed. Although the relays should operate successfully without the earth,
this is how VTs should be connected. Earthing the VTs in this way will not affect the earthing of an
isolated neutral network.
Difference between single mode fiber and multi-mode fiber
Single Mode
Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has
one mode of transmission. Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow diameter, through which
only one mode will propagate typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than
multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms are mono-
mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber.
Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than
multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core than multimode.
The small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from
overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission
speeds of any fiber cable type.
Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order bound mode can
propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.
Multi-Mode
Multimode cable is made of glass fibers, with common diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range
for the light carry component (the most common size is 62.5). POF is a newer plastic-based cable
which promises performance similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.
Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds over medium distances. Light waves
are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the cable's core typically 850
or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers.
However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4 ml), multiple paths of light can cause
signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission.
How do I know what type of fiber I need?
This is based on transmission distance to be covered as well as the overall budget allowed. If the
distance is less than a couple of miles, multimode fiber will work well and transmission system
costs (transmitter and receiver) will be in the $500 to $800 range. If the distance to be covered is
more than 3-5 miles, single mode fiber is the choice. Transmission systems designed for use with
this fiber will typically cost more than $1000 (due to the increased cost of the laser diode).
What is the difference between multimode and single mode fiber?
Multimode fiber has a relatively large light carrying core, usually 62.5 microns or larger in
diameter. It is usually used for short distance transmissions with LED based fiber optic
equipment. Single-mode fiber has a small light carrying core of 8 to 10 microns in diameter. It is
normally used for long distance transmissions with laser diode based fiber optic transmission
equipment.
Should I install single-mode or multimode fiber?
This depends on the application. Multimode fiber will allow transmission distances of up to
about 10 miles and will allow the use of relatively inexpensive fiber optic transmitters and
receivers. There will be bandwidth limitations of a few hundred MHz per Km of
length. Consequently, a 10 mile link will be limited to about 10 to 30 MHz For CCTV this will
be fine but for high speed data transmission it may not be.
Single-mode fiber on the other hand will be useful for distances well in excess of 10 miles but
will require the use of single-mode transmitters (which normally use solid-state laser diodes).
The higher cost of these optical emitters mean that single-mode equipment can be anywhere
from 2 to 4 times as expensive as multimode equipment.
I already have single-mode fiber installed, but I am only going a short distance. Can I use
lower cost multimode equipment?
No. Multimode equipment will not launch (inject) enough light into a single-mode fiber since the
light carrying core of this fiber is only 9 microns in diameter compared to 62.5 microns in
diameter for multimode fiber. Unfortunately you must use single-mode equipment. If the fiber
distance is short however, the cost for replacing the single-mode fiber with multimode fiber may
be more economical than the higher cost for the single-mode electronics.

What is the firmware?

Firmware is programming that's written to the read-only memory (ROM) of a computing device.
Firmware, which is added at the time of manufacturing, is used to run user programs on the
device.
Why Neutral Grounding Transformer is used for generator?
Sunday, January 18, 2015
A Neutral Grounding Transformer is NOT a three phase transformer, but a single phase
transformer, with the primary (HV) rated voltage equal to the system phase-to-neutral
voltage and the secondary (LV) rated voltage either 110V or 240V.

Why is it required? For economic reasons. Let us see how. Supposing you have an 11kV
System, whose neutral you want to ground through a resistance. The desired ground fault
current, let us say, is 10A. Now, if you want to connect a resistor directly in the path
between the system neutral and earth, the value of the resistor would be (6350/10 = 635
Ohms) and the voltage rating of the resistor would be 6350V. A 6350V, 635 Ohms resistor
would not be cheap.

Now, if you opt for a single phase 6350V/240V, neutral grounding transformer, whose
6350V winding is connected in the neutral to ground path, you can connect a simple 0.9
Ohms resistor across the 240V secondary of this neutral grounding transformer. This 0.9
Ohms resistor at 240V side will reflect multiplied by the square of the turn’s ratio, at the HV
side (i.e.) 6350/240 is 26.45 whose square is 700. The 0.9 Ohms resistor connected across
the 240V secondary of the neutral grounding transformer would appear as (700 x 0.9 =
about 630 Ohms). And, the added advantage is that this resistor needs to be insulated only
for 240V. A reduced Ohmic value resistor, with a reduced insulation rating is cheaper. And,
the neutral grounding transformer can be short-time rated, to optimize on the size & cost of
the neutral grounding transformer.

Neutral Grounding Transformer

Neutral grounding transformers in resistance grounding resistor systems protect power

transformers and generators from damaging fault currents. Low resistance grounding of the
neutral limits the ground fault current to a high level (typically 50 amps or more) in order to
operate the protective fault clearing relays and current transformers. These devices are then
able to quickly clear the fault, usually within a few seconds. 24 hour turn around on
neutral quotes.

The limited fault current and fast response time also prevent over-heating and mechanical
stress on conductors. Low resistance grounding resistors are typically rated up to 400 amps for
10 seconds, and are commonly found on medium voltage systems. Ground fault protection for
high voltage transformer and generator grounding applications typically require a grounding
transformer to lower the voltage reflected to the neutral grounding resistor.

Post Glover’s GT product line is designed for applications up to 15kV primary. Secondary
voltage is typically 240 V, and resistors are designed according to customer specification.
Typical construction is a dry type transformer with a secondary resistor mounted in a common
enclosure.
Features

 Stainless steel grid resistor banks standard

 Optional Edge wound resistor banks (application dependent)
 Dry Type Transformer
 Mill Galvanized Type 3R enclosure
 Extra heavy duty mounting channels for transformer
 Junction box/ Terminal block for easy addition of protective relaying equipment.

4-20MA CURRENT LOOP PRODUCTS

Current loops are useful for accurately communicating analog signals over long distances. Unlike voltage,
current does not vary due to line resistance or capacitance—both which change with cable length. Current
loops provide a high level of noise immunity. As a result, they are widely used in electrically noisy
environments.

Maxim provides a wide range of products designed for implementing and protecting 4-20mA communication
links.