ENGR 451 – Groundwater Hydrology

Jianbing (Jason) Li, PhD, P.Eng.

Office location: Labb. 8-408
Email: Jianbing.Li@unbc.ca; Tel: 6397

Grading: HW 25%; Midterm 35%; Final 40%

Website: http://web.unbc.ca/~li/ENGR451

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1. Introduction

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 Groundwater Hydrology: What is it?
 Hydrology: study of the occurrence, distribution, movement
and properties of the waters of the earth and their
environmental relationship  including surface water
hydrology and groundwater hydrology
 Groundwater Hydrology: the science of the occurrence,
distribution, and movement of water below the surface of the
earth  volume, water fluxes, and water quality are
important issues

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 What is groundwater?

 Groundwater is water that is found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil,
sand and rock.
 Groundwater is stored in--and moves slowly through layers of soil, sand and rocks
4
Spring

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 Vertical Distributions of Subsurface Water
 Zone of aeration: consists
of interstices occupied
partially by water and
partially by air.
 Zone of saturation: all
interstices are filled with
water under hydrostatic
pressure
 Water table: the upper
surface of the zone of
saturation  the surface of
atmospheric pressure

 Soil water zone: extends from the ground surface down

through the major root zone, varies with soil type and
vegetation but is usually a few feet in thickness
 Vadose zone (unsaturated zone): extends from the
surface to the water table through the root zone,
intermediate zone, and the capillary zone
 Capillary zone: extends from the water table up to the
limit of capillary rise, which varies inversely with the pore
size of the soil and directly with the surface tension
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 Hydrogeologic Formations
 Aquifer: a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material
to allow significant water transmission under ordinary hydraulic gradients
(e.g., unconsolidated sands & gravels; sandstone, limestone, fractured
volcanics & fractured crystalline rocks)
 Aquiclude: A saturated but relatively impermeable material incapable of
transmitting significant water (e.g. clay)
 Aquifuge: A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor
transmitting water
 Aquitard: A saturated material
with low permeability that
allows some water transmission,
but in an amount insufficient for
production (often forms a leaky
confining layer through which
little water moves)
(e.g. sandy clays, shales,
unfractured crystalline rocks)

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Unconsolidated Semi-consolidated

Principal
Aquifer
Rock Types
Sandstone

Carbonate

Volcanic
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 Types of Aquifer
 Confined (or artesian) - an aquifer that is immediately overlain by a low-
permeability unit (confining layer). A confined aquifer does not have a water table.
 Unconfined (or water-table) - the upper surface of the aquifer is the water table.
Water-table aquifers are directly overlain by an unsaturated zone or a surface
water body.
Recharge
area Water
Piezometric surface
table
Ground
surface Flowing well
Deep
well
well

Water
Table
Unconfined
aquifer

Impermeable
strata Confining Stratum

Confined aquifer
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Piezometric surface: in a
confined aquifer, the
hydrostatic pressure level
of water in the aquifer,
defined by the water level
that occurs in a lined
penetrating well

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 Special Aquifer Systems
 Leaky confined aquifer: represents a stratum that allows water to flow
from above through a leaky confining zone into the underlying aquifer
 Perched aquifer: occurs when an unconfined water zone sits on top of a clay
lens, separated from the main aquifer below

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 Groundwater flow

(1) Recharge of groundwater

 Natural recharge (i.e. precipitation, streamflow, lakes, reservoirs)
 Artificial recharge (i.e. excess irrigation, seepage from canals, water
purposely applied to augment groundwater supplies)

(2) Discharge of groundwater

 Natural discharge (i.e. flow into surface water bodies;
evaporation from shallow groundwater)
 Artificial discharge (i.e. pumping from wells)

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 Ground Water: A
 Residence time is the amount of time that a
Valuable Resource
water molecule resides in a particular
reservoir before transferring to another
reservoir Tr = V/Q, where Q is the total
flux in or out of the reservoir, V is the
volume of reservoir

 the quantity of groundwater in

the earth would cover the entire
surface of the globe to a depth
of 120 m.
 By contrast, the volume of
surface water in lakes, rivers,
reservoirs and swamps could be
contained in a depth of about
0.25 m

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http://ess.nrcan.gc.ca/gm-ces/index_e.php
(Groundwater Mapping Program)

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 Ground Water: A Valuable Resource
 In Canada, 8.9 million people, or 30.3% of the population, rely on
groundwater for domestic use  two thirds of these users live in rural areas
 About 85% of rural population rely on groundwater

• In Ontario, Prince Edward Island,

New Brunswick, and the Yukon,
the largest users of groundwater
are municipalities;
• In Alberta, Saskatchewan, and
Manitoba, the largest user is the
agricultural industry for
livestock watering;
• In British Columbia, Quebec and
the Northwest Territories, the
largest user is industry;
• In Newfoundland and Nova
Scotia, groundwater is mainly for
rural domestic use.
• Prince Edward Island is almost
totally dependent on groundwater
for all its uses. 15
 Ancient utilization of groundwater through Qanat
 In the ancient time, Persians built
elaborate tunnel systems called qanats for
extracting groundwater in the dry mountain
basins of the present-day Iran
 Qanat tunnels were hand-dug, just large
enough to fit the person doing the digging
 Along the length of a qanat, many vertical
shafts were dug to remove excavated
material and to provide ventilation and
access for repair
 The main qanat tunnel sloped gently down
to an outlet

Note: (1) Infiltration part of the tunnel; (2) Water conveyance

part of the tunnel; (3) Open channel; (4) Vertical shafts; (5)
Small storage pond; (6) Irrigation area; (7) Sand and gravel;
(8) Layers of soil; (9) Groundwater surface

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 Pumping of groundwater

Extensive groundwater irrigation of wheat

ground water pump in mountain village in India 17

 What is the impact of widespread pumping?

 Shallow wells dry up

 Rivers and lakes dry up between rains
 Land subsidence (withdrawal of groundwater; compaction of
sediments)
 Saltwater intrusion (the water table near the coast drops; saltwater
seeps into the aquifer; coastal wells draw brackish water)
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 Cone of depression – the depression in the water
table that develops around a well from which water is
being pumped

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Land subsidence
 Land subsidence  lowering of land-surface
elevation from changes underground.
 Common causes are pumping water, oil, and gas
from underground reservoirs; dissolution of
limestone aquifers (sinkholes); collapse of
underground mines; drainage of organic soils; and
initial wetting of dry soil (hydrocompaction).
 As ground-water pumping increases, land
subsidence also will increase.
 When groundwater fills the pore space of a rock, it
holds the grains of the rock or regolith apart (i.e.
water cannot be compressed)
 The extraction of water from a pore eliminates the
support holding the grains apart (i.e. the air that
replaces the water can be compressed)
 As a result, the grains pack more closely together
 This pore collapse permanently decreases the
porosity and permeability of a rock

 The lowering of land surface elevation is usually

permanent  if lowered ground-water levels
caused land subsidence, recharging the aquifer
would not result in an appreciable recovery of the
land-surface elevation. 20
21
The flooding of Venice, Italy, is due to land subsidence
accompanying the withdrawal of groundwater

The Leaning Tower of Pisa, in Italy,

tilts because the removal of
groundwater caused its foundation
to subside

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Saltwater intrusion

 In coastal areas, fresh

groundwater lies in a
layer above saltwater
that entered the
aquifer from the
adjacent ocean (i.e.
saltwater is denser than
fresh water)
 If water is pumped out
too quickly, the
boundary between the
saline water and the
fresh groundwater rises
 If this boundary rises
above the base of the
well, the well will start
to yield useless saline
water

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 Groundwater Contamination
• Any addition of undesirable substances to groundwater caused by human
activities is considered to be contamination.
• Groundwater contamination is extremely difficult to clean up.
• Groundwater contaminants come from two categories of sources: point
sources and distributed, or non-point sources.
• Contamination problems are increasing in Canada primarily because of the
large and growing number of toxic compounds used in industry and agriculture.
• In rural Canada, many household wells are contaminated by substances from
such common sources as septic systems, underground tanks, used motor oil,
road salt, fertilizer, pesticides, and livestock wastes.

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25
Leaking Gas Tanks
• One litre of gasoline can contaminate 1,000,000 litres of groundwater.

Note: TCE
(trichloroethene)

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 Human Impact on Groundwater

 Which well will have the cleanest water?

 Why is Well D likely to be polluted?
 Will heavy pumping of Well A affect other wells?
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 What Groundwater Scientists Do?
 Water supply -- water supply wells for drinking water, irrigation, and industrial purposes are
drilled after assembling data on the hydrogeology of the region. Test wells are drilled and
hydraulic testing is done to estimate the long-term discharge capacity. The water chemistry
is checked to make sure that the water is suited for its intended purpose.
 Water resource management -- management of groundwater resources is an important area
of practice. Particularly in areas with large regional aquifers, difficult decisions must be made
about who is allowed to pump water, how much can be pumped, where wells can be located, and
where potential contaminant sources like gasoline tanks may be located.
 Engineering and construction -- dewatering of excavations is an important part of many
construction projects; all dams leak to some extent, and it is important to estimate this
seepage rate and the pore water pressures which affect stability of the dam; landfills and
other waste storage facilities are now designed to limit the risk of groundwater and surface
water contamination, so groundwater investigations are part of the design process.
 Environmental investigations and clean-up -- investigating and remediating contaminated
sites has occupied more groundwater scientists in the past several decades than any other
type of investigation.

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 Some Useful Sources for Groundwater Hydrology
(1) List of Government and Non-Government Organizations
• Freshwater Web Site of Environment Canada, http://www.ec.gc.ca/water/
• Canadian Ground Water Association, http://www.cgwa.org
• British Columbia Ground Water Association, http://www.bcgwa.org/
• Geological Survey of Canada, http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca
• National Ground Water Association, http://www.ngwa.org
• USEPA Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water, http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/
• US Geological Survey, http://www.usgs.gov
• International Association of hydrogeologists, http://www.iah.org
• Canadian Water Quality Association (CWQA), http://www.cwqa.com/

(2) Journal Publications

• Environmental Science and Technology
• Ground Water
• Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation
• Journal of Contaminant Hydrology
• Journal of Hydrology
• Journal of Hydraulics
• Hydrogeology Journal
• Water Resources Research
• Transport in Porous Media
• Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
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Groundwater – A major link in hydrologic cycle
 The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous recirculatory
transport of the water of the earth, linking atmosphere, land and
oceans.

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Schematic drawing of
the hydrologic cycle
(Fetter, 2001)

Basic Components:
(1) Precipitation
(2) Evaporation
(3) Transpiration
(4) Infiltration
(5) Surface Runoff
(6) Groundwater flow

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 Hydrological Terminology
 Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is vaporized and diffuses
into the atmosphere
 Transpiration is the process whereby vegetation extracts moisture from
the soil, passes it through the plant and evaporates it into the atmosphere
through the leaves.
 Evapo-transpiration is the total evaporative loss from soil and vegetation
to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. Modern usage
sometimes uses the term "evaporation" to mean evapo-transpiration.
 Condensation: As water vapor rises, it cools and eventually condenses on
tiny particles of dust in the air. These water particles then collect and
form clouds.
 Precipitation includes rain, snow, hail, sleet, and mist. It comes from
clouds. Clouds move around the world, propelled by air currents.
 Surface Runoff is the water that flows over the ground surface into
streams and eventually passes the outlet of the watershed, it occurs first
as sheet or overland flow.

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 Hydrological Terminology
 Infiltration is the downward movement of water (i.e. precipitation and
snowmelt) through cracks, joints and pores in soil and rocks until it
reaches the water table where it becomes groundwater.
 Aquifer is an underground formation of permeable rock or loose material
which can produce useful quantities of water when tapped by a well.
 Groundwater is the water contained in saturated soil (i.e. below the water
table). Groundwater flow is the flow from streams, lakes, and rivers to
aquifers, and vice versa.
 Water table is the level to which water will rise in an open well
 Groundwater flow is the flow from streams, lakes, and rivers to aquifers,
and vice versa.

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 Watershed Definition

 A portion of the earth’s surface that collects runoff

and concentrates it as its farthest downstream
point, referred to as the watershed outlet. The
runoff concentrated by a watershed flows either
into a larger watershed or into the ocean.
 Synonyms: drainage basin, catchment

Divide

Outlet Source:
http://www.wm.edu/as/kecklab/watershed
monitoring/watershedprimer/index.php 35
 Watershed Delineation
 Mapping out a watershed involves finding its
boundaries, called divides
 Divides are topographic highs
 Assess whether water that falls in a particular spot
will eventually flow to outlet (based entirely on
surface slope)
 Divides separate area where water will flow to basin
outlet from areas that drain elsewhere
 Note: divides are places where slope changes
direction; streams never cross divides!

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 Hydrologic Budget
 measurement of continuity of the flow of water
 change of storage of water with respect to time within the system is
equal to the inputs to the system minus the outputs from the system.
(1) Surface water the major inflows
system hydrologic and outflows of
water from a
budget parcel of land
SS= (P + Qin + Qg) – (Es, Eg =
evaporation;
(Qout + ES + TS + I) T s, T g =
transpiration,
I = infiltration
(2) Groundwater system
hydrologic budget SS = change in
water storage of
Sg= (I + Gin) – the surface
water system
(Gout + Qg + Eg + Tg) Sg = change in
water storage of
the groundwater
(3) Overall system system
hydrologic budget S= SS + Sg
= (P + Qin + Qg) – (Qout + ES + TS + I)
+ (I + Gin) – (Gout + Qg + Eg + Tg)
= P + (Qin – Qout) – (ES + Eg) – (TS + Tg) + (Gin – Gout) 37
=P+Q+G–E-T
Example 1: during 1996, the water budget terms for Lake Annie in Florida
included precipitation (P) of 43 in./yr, evaporation (E) of 53 in./yr, surface
water inflow (Qin) of 1 in./yr, surface outflow (Qout) of 173 in./yr, and a
change in lake volume (S) of -2 in./yr. Determine the net groundwater
flow (groundwater inflow minus groundwater outflow). Assuming no
transpiration.

Solution:
S= P + Q + G – E - T

 G = S + E + T – P – Q
= -2 in./yr + 53 in./yr + 0 – 43 in./yr – (Qin –Qout)
= 8 in./yr – (1 – 173) in./yr = 180 in./yr

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 Unit Conversion in hydrologic calculation

Area
1 acre = 43,560 ft2
1 mi2 = 640 acres
1 hectare = 100 m  100 m = 10,00 m2 = 2.471 acres
1 km2 = 0.386 mi2
Volume
1 acre-foot = 1 ac-ft = 1 acre of water  1 foot deep
= 43,560  1 = 43,560 ft3
1 ac-inch = 1 acre  1 inch deep = 43,560  1/12
= 3,630 ft3
Discharge
1 cfs = 1 cubic foot per second
1 cfs  3600 sec/hr  24 hrs/day = 86,400 ft3/day
86,400 ft3/day  1 ac-ft/43,560 ft3 = 1.983 ac-ft/day
(~ 2 ac-ft/day)
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 Precipitation
Precipitation definition
 Precipitation includes rain, snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew
and frost
 Precipitation results from condensation of water vapor
 Condensation occurs when amount of water vapor in
atmosphere exceeds maximum amount which air is able
to hold

Requirements for formation of precipitation

In order for significant rates of precipitation to occur, a
sequence of several conditions must be met:
 air mass cooling
 condensation or freezing nuclei must be present
 droplets must form and grow
 a source of water vapor must be maintained
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 Types of Precipitation

 Frontal Precipitation: Precipitation occurs when a warm

or light air mass meets a cold or heavy air mass, and the
lighter air mass rises up over the heavier air, and it may
cool to the dew point.
 Convective Precipitation: Air expands when heated by
solar energy and becomes lighter than the air around it.
The lighter air rises by convection, and thus may cool the
air (the higher atmosphere layers, the lower temperature)
to result in precipitation.
 Orographic Precipitation: Air flowing toward an
orographic barrier (i.e., mountain) is forced to rise in
order to pass over it. Precipitation that results from this
process is called orographic precipitation.

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Source: http://www.grc.k12.nf.ca/climatecanada/precipfactors.htm
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 Precipitation Description
 Amount -- total precipitation for a storm or period
of time (expressed as depth of precipitation, i.e.,
in., mm, m, ft, etc.)
 Duration -- the time from the beginning of a
precipitation until the end of the precipitation
 Intensity -- ratio of precipitation depth to the
duration (expressed as rate of precipitation, i.e.,
in./hr, mm/hr, cm/hr, etc.)

Presenting rainfall data

 Cummulative mass curves (in)
 Hyetographs(in/hr)
 Intensity/duration/frequency curves (IDF) (in/hr)
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 Cummulative mass curves
 Plot total
accumulated rainfall
against time
Accumulated
Rain (in)

Hyetograph
Time (hr)
 Hyetograph is a
histogram of rainfall
intensity with time Rainfall
increments as
Intensity
abscissas and the
rainfall intensity as (in/hr)
ordinates
Time (hr) 44
Example: From the following table, calculate (a) the
total rainfall amount; (b) rainfall duration; (c) peak
intensities for 5 min, 10 min, and 30 min; and (d) the
average density.
Time (min.) Rainfall Amount (mm)
0-5 1.5
5-10 5.6
10-15 13.0
15-20 5.8
20-25 5.1
25-30 9.7
30-35 4.8
35-40 1.3

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Solution:
(a) rainfall amount =
1.5+5.6+13.0+5.8+5.1+9.7+4.8+1.3=46.8 mm
(b) rainfall duration = 40 min
(c) The 5, 10, or 30 minutes peak intensities can be
found by comparing each 5, 10, or 30-minute
period to find the period which receives the
greatest amount of rainfall. From the following
tables, we can find:
5-minute peak intensity= 156 mm/hr
10-minute peak intensity= 112.8 mm/hr
30-minute peak intensity= 88 mm/hr

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Rainfall intensity (based on 5-minute breakpoint data)
Time (min.) Amount (mm) Intensity i (mm/hr)
0-5 1.5 (1.5mm60min/hr)/(5min)=18mm/hr
5-10 5.6 67.2
10-15 13.0 156
15-20 5.8 69.6
20-25 5.1 61.2
25-30 9.7 116.4
30-35 4.8 57.6
35-40 1.3 15.6
Rainfall intensity (based on 10-minute breakpoint data)
Time (min.) Amount (mm) Intensity i (mm/hr)
0-10 1.5+5.6=7.1 (7.1mm60min/hr)/(10min)=42.6mm/hr
10-20 13.0+5.8=18.8 112.8
20-30 5.1+9.7=14.8 88.8
30-40 4.8+1.3=6.1 36.6
5-15 5.6+13.0=18.6 111.6
15-25 5.8+5.1=10.9 65.4
25-35 9.7+4.8=14.5 87 47
 Rainfall intensity (based on 30-minute breakpoint data)

Time (min.) Amount (mm) Intensity i (mm/hr)

0-30 40.7 (40.7mm60min/hr)/(30min)=81.4mm/hr
5-35 44.0 88
10-40 39.7 79.4

(d) The average intensity is the total rainfall amount divided by the
storm duration:
= (46.8mm 60min/hr)/(40min)= 70.2 mm/hr

Hyetograph of
the storm Rainfall
Intensity
showing 5- (mm/hr)
minute
breakpoint data

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Time (minute)
 Intensity/Duration/Frequency (IDF) Curves

 Plot average rainfall intensity vs time

for different return periods.
 Represent conditional probabilities
Return period
(frequencies) of rainfall depths or
average intensities
 Rainfall frequency: Probability that a
certain average rainfall intensity will Rainfall
occur given a duration , i.e., if a 100 mm
rainfall event lasting 6 hr occurs on the Intensity
average once every 50 years, then the (in/hr)
100-mm, 6-hr rainfall frequency would
be 1/50=0.02. (The probability of
occurrence of this rainfall event in any
year is 0.02).
Time (hrs)
 Return period (or recurrence interval):
The reciprocal of rainfall frequency
(the amount of time over which the
magnitude for a specified event is
exceeded, on the average, once)
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 IDF Curves
 IDF curves can be
used to determine an
average rainfall
intensity for any
specified duration
and return period
(recurrence interval)

50
 Point Precipitation Measurement
Problem to quantify the space-time variability of the
precipitation falling to the earth's surface involves 2
components:
 Accuracy of point measurements
 Accuracy of methods converting point measurements
to areal ones
Principle behind measuring precipitation

 Place a vessel (rain gage or precipitation gage) open to the air;

 Periodically (or continuously) measure the volume of
precipitation caught;
 Volume divided by area of vessel opening is depth measured at
that point.
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 Rainfall measurement
 Recording gage
 Weighing type: Water collected is funneled to a
vessel on a scale and the weight is recorded;
 Float type: A float rises as water level rises in the
gage, and height of the float is recorded;
 Tipping Bucket Rain Gage: Water in the gage is
funneled to a pair of vessels with a known small
capacity. When one vessel fills, it tips and drains,
(bringing the other vessel into position) and the
time of the tipping is recorded.
 Non-recording gage
 generally a cylindrical container with readings
along the side for manually determining rainfall
amounts;
 read and emptied once a day
52
 Rainfall measurement

Belfort Tipping
Bucket Precipitation
Gage
Belfort Non-recording
Precipitation Gage 53
Rainfall measurement
-- using RADAR
 Rainfall has a significant
effect on attenuating the
radio signals
 Radar transmitter sends out a
succession of short pulses
 The backscattered return
power is used to calculate a
reflectivity factor, Z.
 The Z reflectivity factor is
then used in an equation
referred to as a "Z-R
Chibolton Advanced
relationship" to determine
Meteorological Radar
rainfall rate (R=aZb). 54
(CAMRa)
 Estimating areal precipitation

In hydrologic analysis, it is often necessary to

determine the spatial average of the rainfall depth
over the watershed, three methods:
 Arithmetic mean method
 Thiessen Polygon method

 Isohyetal method

The areal precipitation

estimate is calculated as the
arithmetic mean of the five
station point measurements,
i.e.:
(0.55+0.87+2.33+5.4+1.89)/5
=2.21" 55
Thiessen Polygon
Method

56
 Thiessen Polygon Method
 Construct Polygons by connecting stations with lines;
 Bisect the polygon sides;
 Estimate the area of each station (Ai) polygon by counting
grid squares or other suitable techniques for the polygons
formed by the bisect lines. In this case, 15.0, 33.0, 28.8,
16.4, and 24.3 units for stations A, B, C, D and E,
respectively;
 Sum the areas (A=Ai), in this case = 117.5 units;
 Determine the station weights by dividing the station area
by the total area (Ai/A), in this case, 0.128, 0.281, 0.245,
0.140 and 0.207, respectively;
 Determine areal precipitation by summing the products of
each station weight times its precipitation [(Ai/A)Pi], in
this case:
0.1280.55+0.2810.87+0.2452.33+0.1405.40+0.2071.89
=2.03 57
Isohyetal method

 Isohyets - lines of
equal precipitation.
 Isohyets can be
drawn by "eyeball" or
computer surface
fitting programs

 Draw lines of equal precipitation (isohyet);

 Isohyets divide region into subareas (Ai);
 Average precipitation (Pi) on each subarea (Ai) is the average
of the values of the isohyets that bound the subarea;
 Multiply average precipitation by area of subarea, i.e., Pi Ai;
 Sum for all subareas, i.e.,  Pi Ai
 Divide by total area to obtain average precipitation, i.e.,
Pavg= ( Pi Ai)/( Ai), in this case: Pavg =1.90'' 58
 Evapo-transpiration

 Evaporation (E) from surface water bodies;

 Evaporation from land surfaces;
 Evaporation from soil;
 Sublimation from snow and ice;
 Transpiration (T)
Factors affecting evaporation
 Sources of water: a supply of water must be present
 Solar radiation: solar radiation which drives the overall
hydrological cycle, is the dominant source of heat affecting
evaporation
 Saturation deficit: Evaporation is dependent on the saturation
deficit with an air mass
 Wind: wind not only disturbs the water surface but also carries
saturated air away from the free water surface
 Atmospheric pressure: high atmospheric pressure is conducive to
aid evaporation
 Temperature of both air and the evaporating surface: high
temperature means easily vaporization. 59
 Determination of Evaporation
 Expressed as evaporation rate in mm/day
 Different approaches
 Pan evaporation

 Water budget

 Mass transfer

 Energy budget

 Combined/mixed approaches

60
 Pan Evaporation
 Uses a standard weather bureau class A pan
 This is an open tank 4’ in diameter and 10” in depth
 Initially fill tank to a height of 8”
 Refill it when water level falls down to 7”
 Water loss is determined by daily measurement of water level
 Due to interception of solar radiation by the sides, the
measurement exaggerates actual lake or reservoir evaporation
 Must adjust using pan coefficient KP (ranges from 0.64 - .81;
typically 0.70), actual evaporation Etr = KPEpan

61
 Evapotranspiration: Lysimeter
 Evapotranspiration can be measured directly using a lysimeter
 A lysimeter is a buried container holding soil and plants equipped
with a weighing device and drainage system
 The amount of evapotranspiration from the lysimeter is measured
by means sof water balance of all inputs and outputs
ET = Si + PR + IR – Sf - DE
Where ET : evapotranspiration; Si: volume of intial soil water; PR :
precipitation into the lysimeter; IR: irrigation water added to the
lysimeter; Sf: volume of final soil water; DE: excess moisture
drained from the soil

62
Runoff definition

 Runoff refers to all the waters flowing on the surface

of the earth, either by overland sheet flow, or by
channel flow in rills, gullies, or streams

3 components contribute to runoff

 surface flow: also called direct runoff

 interflow: subsurface flow that takes place in
the unsaturated soil layers
 groundwater flow: subsurface flow that takes
place in the saturated soil layers

63
 Streamflow Measurement

 Use current meter to measure velocity at

one or two points along the vertical, in
two-point method, the meter is positioned
at 0.2 and 0.8 of the flow depth;
 Divide the channel cross-section into small
areas;
 Determine the average velocity at each
vertical(vi), i.e., vi=(vi0.2+ vi0.8)/2;
 Determine the area of each partial section
(ai), i.e., a rectangle of depth equal to the
flow depth and width equal to half the
difference of the distances to adjacent
verticals (ai =hi[(di+1-di)/2+ (di-di-1)/2];
 Determine discharge for each partial
section (qi=viai);
 Total discharge is Q= qi

Source:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1722/images
/watershed_collage.jpg
64
 Stream Hydrographs
 A stream hydrograph is the plot of the discharge of a river at a single
location versus time
 Components of streamflow
 Direct runoff (overland)
 Interflow (through near surface soil layers)
 Baseflow (from groundwater)
 Precipitation onto channel (i.e. small
contribution)

 The rising portion of a

hydrograph is called the
concentration curve
 The region in the vicinity of
the peak is called the crest
segment
 The falling portion is the
recession
65
66
 Gaining stream (or effluent Stream Types
stream): receives groundwater
discharge (i.e. the hydraulic
gradient of the surrounding
aquifer is toward the stream)
 Losing stream (or influent
stream): recharges a groundwater
reservoir  the bottom of the
stream channel is higher than the
local water table, and water
drains from the stream to the
groundwater zone

 An ephemeral stream has

streamflow only temporarily
 A perennial stream has
base flow all year.

67
 A stream that is gaining during low-flow periods can temporarily become a losing
stream during flood stage (Fetter, 2001).

 Streams that are normally gaining during baseflow may actually lose
during flood events

 Heavy groundwater
pumping near a
stream can lower the
water table to an
elevation below the
level of the stream
bottom  the reach
of the stream
affected by lowered
water table becomes
a losing stream 68
 Baseflow Separation
 The hydrograph of a stream during a period with no excess precipitation
will decay, following an exponential curve
==> the discharge is composed entirely of groundwater contributions
==> baseflow of a stream decreases during a dry period because as ground
water flows into the stream the water table falls thereby decreasing the
gradient to and discharge to the stream  baseflow recession

69
 Baseflow Separation
 Identifying the point on the recession curve where direct runoff ends
 The most common conceptualization uses the inflection point on the hydrograph
recession  the point where the hydrograph goes from being concave to
convex (i.e., the slope being greater than 1 to the slope being less than 1)
 Use empirical formula (the direct runoff is assumed to end some fixed time
after the storm peak):

D = A0.2
Where D is the number of days between the storm peak and the end of direct
runoff, A is the drainage basin area in square miles

or D = 0.827A0.2
Where D is the number of days
between the storm peak and the
end of direct runoff, A is the
drainage basin area in square
kilometers

70
 Baseflow Separation
 Baseflow recession equation:

where Q is the discharge at some time t after the initiation of recession [L3/T], Qo is the
discharge at the start of the recession [L3/T], t is the time since the recession began
[T], and k is a recession constant for the basin [1/T].

 A plot of lnQ versus t therefore gives the value of k from the slope of the line

Example 2: The figure shows the

annual summer recession of a
river for six consecutive years.
The start of the baseflow
recession was considered to be
the day when the annual
discharge dropped below 3500
ft3/s. Find the recession
constant for the basin.
What would be the baseflow
after 40 days of recession?

71
 Baseflow Separation
Solution to example 2:

Part A:  Q/Q0 = e-kt  Ln(Q/Q0) = -kt

 k = -(1/t)Ln(Q/Q0)
Q0 = 3500 ft3/s; when t = 100 d, Q = 1500 ft3/s

 k = -(1/t)Ln(Q/Q0)
= -(1/100d)Ln(1500/3500)
= -0.01d-1(-0.847)
= 8.47  10-3 d-1
Part B: when t = 40 d

 Q = Q0e-kt
= (3500 ft3/s) 
exp(-8.4710-3 d-1 40 d)
= (3500 ft3/s)  0.713
= 2500 ft3/s
72
Determining Groundwater Recharge from Baseflow
 Seasonal Recession Method (Meyboom Method)
The Meyboom method uses stream hydrograph data over two or more
consecutive years, and the discharge is plotted on a semilog scale
 The baseflow is assumed to be entirely groundwater discharged from the
unconfined aquifer.
 An annual recession is interpreted as the long-term decline during the dry
season following the phase of rising streamflow during the wet season.
The total potential groundwater discharge (Vtp) [L3] to the stream during
this complete recession phase is derived as:

Q0t1
Vtp 
2.3026
where Q0 is the baseflow at the start of the recession [L3/T], t1 is the recession
index [T] -- the time for baseflow to decline from Q0 to 0.1Q0 (i.e. the time it takes
for the recession line to cross one log cycle of discharge)
The amount of potential baseflow, Vt [L3], remaining at some time t, after
the initiation of a baseflow may be estimated by

73
 Meyboom Method
 The difference between the remaining potential groundwater discharge at the
end of a given baseflow recession and the total potential groundwater discharge
at the beginning of the next recession represents the recharge that takes place
between these two recessions.
 The Meyboom method is an idealized analysis assuming that all groundwater
discharge is by means of baseflow to streams. In reality however, there are
consumptive uses of groundwater in the basin and these uses need to be accounted
for during the analysis

Example 3: The figure shows a

hypothetical stream hydrograph.
The baseflow recessions are
shown as dashed lines, and they
were considered to start when
the summer stream level dropped
below the adjacent water table
and to end when the first spring
flood occurred. Determine the
amount of groundwater recharge
that takes place from the end of
baseflow recession of runoff year
1 to the start of the baseflow
recession of runoff year 2. 74
 Meyboom Method
Solution to example 3:
The value of Q0 for the first recession is 760 m3/s, t1 = 6.3 months (i.e. the time
it takes for the recession line to cross one log cycle of discharge)
Q0t1 760(m3 / s)  6.3(mon)  30(d / mon) 1440(min/ d )  60( s / min)
 Vtp  
2.3026 2.3026
 5.4 109 (m3 )
The value of Vt at the end of the recession which lasts 7.5 months, is:
Vtp 5.4 109 (m3 )
Vt    3.5 108 (m3 )
10(t / t1 ) 10 ( 7.5 / 6.3)

For the next year’s recession, Q0 =

1000 m3/s, t1 = 6.3 months, then:
Q0t1 1000  6.3  30 1440  60
Vtp  
2.3026 2.3026
 7.110 (m3 )
9

==> Recharge = 7.1109 – 3.5108

= 6.8109 (m3)

75
 Determining Groundwater Recharge from Baseflow
 Recession Curve Displacement Method (Rorabaugh Method)
The recession curve displacement method can be used in situations when a
series of groundwater recharge events occur during one runoff season
A recharge event would increase the total potential groundwater discharge
(from Q1 to Q2)  the recession curve is shifted upward by the recharge
event ==> the amount of groundwater recharge can be determined by the
size of the upward shift
Q2t1 Qt
 Vtp   11
2.3026 2.3026
Where Q1 is the groundwater discharge at the critical time
extrapolated from the pre-event streamflow recession [L3/T]; Q2
is the groundwater discharge at the critical time extrapolated
from the post-event streamflow recession

 Rorabaugh (1964) showed that the total potential

groundwater discharge to the stream at a critical time
(Tc) (TC = 0.2144t1) after a peak in streamflow is equal to
about one-half of the total volume of water (G) that
recharges the groundwater system during the peak period

 2(Q2  Q1 )t1
G  2Vtp 
2.3026
76
Procedures using Recession Curve
Displacement Method
1. The determination of the recession index (t1) Example
from the hydrograph during prolonged
periods of negligible recharge.
2. The calculation of the critical time (Tc) (i.e.
Tc = 0.2144t1)
3. The use of the critical time to determine the
time on the hydrograph to which streamflow
recessions will be extrapolated.
4. The determination of the hypothetical
groundwater discharge to the stream at the
critical time by extrapolation of the pre-
event recession curve (Q1).
5. The determination of the hypothetical
groundwater discharge to the stream at the
critical time by extrapolation of the post-
event recession curve (Q2).
6. Find total recharge

2(Q2  Q1 )t1
G
2.3026
77
 Recession Curve Displacement Method
Example 4: Find the recharge that caused the displacement in the baseflow
recession curve in the figure. The stream drains a catchment area of 235 mi2.
Solution :
1. The determination of the recession index (t1)  t1 = 45 d.
2. Calculation of the critical time  Tc = 0.2144t1 = 0.2144  45d = 9.65 d
3. Use of Tc to determine the time on the hydrograph to which streamflow recessions will
be extrapolated.
4. Determination of Q1 (i.e. QA) by
inspection of the hydrograph  Q1
= 5 ft3/s
5. Determination of Q2 (i.e. QB) by
inspection of the hydrograph 

Discharge, in ft3/s
Q2 = 23 ft3/s
6. Find total recharge

2(Q2  Q1 )t1
G
2.3026
2  (23  5)( ft 3 / s )  45(d )  86400( s / d )

2.3026
 6.08 10 ( ft )
7 3

78
 Energy and Hydraulic Head

 Mechanical energy in water

 elastic potential energy: gained by compressing water
 gravitational potential energy: achieved by lifting water to
higher elevation
 kinetic energy: stems from the velocity of water

 Bernoulli Equation
1 2
E  PV  mgz  mv
2
where E = mechanical energy of water with mass m, pressure P, elevation
z, volume V, and velocity v, g is acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2)

 Fluid potential
1 2
E PV  mgz  mv 2
 P v
m  
2   gz 
m w 2

Where w is fluid density 79

 Energy and Hydraulic Head

 Hydraulic head
1
E PV  mgz  mv2
h
2
2 P v
mg  h  z
mg w g 2g

Pressure head elevation head velocity head

P v2
Or: h   z  Where  is specific weight ( = wg)
 2g
Example 5: A garden hose is pointing straight up, spraying water into a
fountain that rises 2.5 m above the end of the hose. Assume the total
hydraulic head in the water at the top of the fountain exactly equals the
total hydraulic head of the water as it exits the end of the hose. What is
the velocity of the water as it leaves the hose?

80
 Energy and Hydraulic Head

 Groundwater flows with very low velocity

v2 (100m / d ) 2 1d
i.e. v = 100 m/day    ( ) 2
 6.8  10 8
m
2 g 2  9.8m / s 2
86400s
 Negligible compared to other two terms!
 For groundwater flows: P
h z
w g
 Hydrostatics
 the hydraulic head is constant  no flow (v =0)  hydrostatic
P   w g ( fluid depth )

Example 6: Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a non-pumping

well that has a 20 m of water column.

81
82
 Energy and Hydraulic Head

 Measuring Hydraulic Head with Wells and Piezometers

 Hydrostatic principles  direct
measurement of hydraulic head in the
pore water of the saturated zone 
install a pipe into the subsurface with
the upper end being open to the
atmosphere and holes or slots at the
bottom of pipe  small diameter pipe
called piezometer, and larger
diameter pipe called well

83
84
Example 7: Refer to the following figure and Table. Calculate the
hydraulic head at piezometers A and B, and the water pressure at the
bottom of these two piezometers. Does groundwater flow in the vicinity
of these two piezometers have an upward or a downward component?

85
 Aquifer Properties
 Porosity of Earth Materials
 Natural materials have pores of all sizes and shapes. The property
that measures the amount of voids in a material is called porosity
 If the porosity is due to voids created by rock grains in their natural
deposition, it is called primary porosity.

86
 Aquifer Properties
 Porosity of Earth Materials
 If the porosity is due to voids or fractures created in the rock or soil
after its natural deposition, it is called secondary porosity.

87
 Aquifer Properties
 Porosity of Earth Materials
 porosity Where Vv = volume of voids in a unit volume of earth
V
n v material [L3], Vt = the unit volume of earth material,
Vt including both voids and solids (i.e. bulk volume) [L3]
 Laboratory porosity measurement
 take a sample of known volume Vt
 the sample is dried in an oven at 105 C until it reaches a constant weight 
expel moisture clinging to surfaces in sample
 The dried sample is then submerged in a known volume of water and allowed to
remain in a sealed chamber until it is saturated
 The volume of voids (Vv) is equal to the original water volume less the volume in
the chamber after the saturated sample is removed

88
 Aquifer Properties
 Porosity of Earth Materials
 porosity Vv Vt  Vs V M V 
n   1 s  1 s  s  1 b
Vt Vt Vt Vt M s s
Where Vs = volume of solids in a unit volume of earth material [L3], Ms = mass of
solids in a unit volume of earth material [M], b = bulk density of earth material
[ML-3], s = solids particle density [ML-3] (for most rock and soil the particle
density is about 2.65 g/cm3)

 Void ratio Vv
e
Vs
Vw Where Vw = volume of water in the voids in a unit
 Water content   volume of earth material [L3],
Vt

Note that 0    n

Vw Vt 
 Water saturation Sw   
Vv nVt n
Note that 0  Sw  1

 Porosity averages about 25% to 35% for most aquifer systems

89
 Porosity - not good indicator of flow

Well-sorted sand or gravel 25-50%

Sand and gravel, mixed 20-35% Porosity Ranges
Glacial till 10-20% for Soils (Fetter,
Silt 35-50% 2001)
Clay 33-60%
90
 Aquifer Properties
Example 8: An undisturbed sample of a medium sand weighs 484.68 g. The core of the
undisturbed sample is 6 cm in diameter and 10.61 cm high. The sample is oven-dried for
24 hr at 110 C to remove the water content. At the end of the 24 hr, the core sample
weighs 447.32 g. Determine the bulk density, void ratio, water content, porosity, and
water saturation. Assume the sand particle density is 2.65 g/cm3.

Solution: Vt  r 2 h  3.14  (3cm) 2  (10.61cm)  300cm3

M s 447.32 g Ms 447.32 g
b    1.491g / cm 3
Vs    168.8cm 3
Vt 300cm 3 s 2.65 g / cm 3
Vv  Vt  Vs  300cm3  168.8cm3  131.2cm3 Vv 131.2cm 3
e   0.78
Vs 168.8cm 3
Vw M w /  w ( M t  M s ) /  w
   Vv 131.2cm 3
Vt Vt VT n  3
 0.44
Vt 300cm
(484.68 g  447.32 g ) /(1g / cm 3 )
  0.13  0.13
Sw    0.30
3
300cm
n 0.44
Example 9: The porosity of a quartz sand sample is 38.41%. Determine the bulk density
of the sample (the quartz sand particle density is 2.65 g/cm3).
Solution: n  1   b
s  b  (1  n)  s  (1  0.3841)  2.65g / cm3  1.63g / cm3
91
 Soil Classification
 Soil Classification: engineering classification of soils is based on size of the
individual grains
 Many classification systems are in use
 Canadian System of Soil Classification, 3rd edition
http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/taxa/cssc3/index.html

Clay Silt

Sand Gravel

92
 ASTM Standard D2488 --
Standard Practice for
Description and
Identification of Soils
(Visual-Manual Procedure)
is in common use by civil
and geotechnical engineers

93
 Evaluation of size distribution is accomplished by mechanical analysis (i.e.
sieving particles coarser than 0.05 mm and measuring rates of settlement
for smaller particles in suspension)
 The grain size distribution of soil may be conveniently plotted on a semi-
logarithmic paper  the cumulative percent finer by weight is plotted on
the arithmetic scale and the grain size is plotted on the logarithmic scale
 ASTM Standard D422-63 (2007) –Standard Test Method for Particle-Size
Analysis of Soils  describes how to determine grain size distributions
using standard sieves and hydrometers
 distribution of particles is characterized by the uniformity coefficient Uc
d Where d60 is the grain size that is 60% finer by
U c  60 weight, d10 is grain size that is 10% finer by weight
d10
 Low Uc  uniform material  Empirical formula
 Uc < 4  well sorted to estimate
 High Uc  well-graded material (i.e., porosity n:
made up of a range of particle sizes)  Uc > 6  poorly sorted
n  0.255(1  0.83U c )

94
d60 d10

95
96
• Soil texture: the size range of particles in the soil  determined by
separating the amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil and determining the
% of each.
• Different percentages of sand, silt and clay have been given “Textural
Class Names”
• These 12 names are put on a Textural Triangle for the various separate
percentages

97
 what the textural class
is if we have: 42% sand,
35% silt, and 23% clay.
loam

 What would we have if we

had a soil with 10% sand,
30% clay, and 60% silt?

silty clay loam

98
Example 10: Using the tabulated results of a grain size distribution test on
a field sample, prepare a grain size distribution curve for this sample. Is this
a well-graded or poorly graded sample? Classify the sample using the Table
on page 92. What would be reasonable porosity values for this sample?

US Standard sieve number Mass Retained (g)

3/8 49.95
4 26.7
8 25.29
16 50.58
30 72.57
40 25.5
100 33.6
200 7.53
Pan (passes through #200 sieve) 8.28

Total sample weight 300

99
Solution: (49.95  26.7)
 1
Grain Mass Percent 300
Size Retained finer by
Sieve (mm) (g) mass (%) (49.95  26.7  25.29  50.58  72.57)
 1
3/8 9.5 49.95 83.35 300
4 4.75 26.7 74.45
90
8 2.36 25.29 66.02

Percent finer by mass (%)

80
16 1.18 50.58 49.16 70
60
30 0.6 72.57 24.97 50

40 0.425 25.5 16.47 40

30
100 0.15 33.6 5.27 20

200 0.075 7.53 2.76 10

0
Pan < 0.075 8.28 0.01 0.1 1 10

Total sample
Particel size (mm)

weight 300
 2-3% is clay and silt, about 60% is
d60  1.6 mm sand, 37-38% is very fine to coarse
gravel  porosity could be 20-35%
d10  0.23 mm
d 1.6mm
 U c  60  7  Uc > 6  well-graded (or low uniformity)
d10 0.23mm 100
 Aquifer Properties
 specific yield: the ratio of the
volume of water that, after
saturation, can be drained by
gravity to its own volume of the soil
wy where wy is the volume of
Sy  water drained, Vt is bulk
Vt
volume of soil
 If the water table is lowered by h over
an area of A, then the volume of water
drained from soil:
Vdrained  S y (h) A
 specific retention: the ratio of the
volume of water it will retain after
saturation against the force of
gravity to its own volume of the soil
Sr 
wr where wr is the volume
Vt occupied by retained water
(i.e. held by capillary force) 101
Source: Todd and
Mays, 2005

102
 Aquifer Properties
 When the head in a saturated aquifer or confining unit changes, water will
be either stored or expelled
 Storage coefficient
(storativity): the volume of
water (Vw) that an aquifer
releases from or takes into
storage per unit change in the
component of head (h)
normal to that surface (A):
Vw
S
A(h)
 Specific storage (Ss): the
volume of water (Vw) that an
aquifer releases from or adds
to storage per unit volume (Vt)
per unit change in head (h)
1 Vw
Ss 
Vt h

103
 For unconfined aquifers, S is also called Specific Yield, Sy
 For confined aquifers: S = Ssb where b is aquifer thickness
 The values of storage coefficient is dependent whether the aquifer
is unconfined or confined.
 The load on top of a confined aquifer is supported by the solid rock
skeleton and the hydraulic pressure exerted by water. Water
derived from storage is relative to:
 the expansion of water as the aquifer is depressurized (pumped)
 compression of the aquifer  forcing some water from it.

 The storage coefficient of most confined aquifers range from

0.00005 to 0.005  large pressure changes over extensive areas
are required to produce substantial water yields.
 Conversely, in an unconfined aquifer, the predominant source of
water is from gravity drainage, and the expansion of water and
compaction of the rock skeleton is negligible.
 The storage coefficient of unconfined aquifers ranges from 0.1 to
about 0.3.
104
 For equal declines in head, the yield from an unconfined aquifer
is much greater than that from a confined aquifer

105
Example 11: Estimate the average drawdown over an area where 25 million m3
of water has been pumped through a number of uniformly distributed wells.
The area is 150 km2 and the specific yield of the unconfined aquifer is 25%.
Solution: Vdrained  S y (h) A Vdrained
 h 
Sy A
25 106 m3
 h   0.67m
0.25 150  (1000m) 2

Example 12: Determine the volume of water released by lowering the

piezometric surface of a confined aquifer by 5 m over an area of A = 1
km2. The aquifer is 35 m thick and has a storage coefficient of 0.0083.
Solution: S  Vw
A(h)

 Vw  SA(h)  (0.0083)  (1000m) 2  (5m)  41,500m3

106
 Aquifer Properties

 Effective Stress

 soil compresses or expands in response to changes in

effective stress (e)  the difference between the total
stress () and the stress supported by fluid (i.e. fluid
pressure P) W1
  e  P
A
 = soil bulk density, b = depth, A =
Where W1  g (bA) Where cross-sectional area of the soil column,
g = acceleration of gravity
W1
   gb or    gb
n

A  i i
i 1
Where i = soil bulk density
of the soil column
with a depth of bi 107
 Effective Stress

 The weight of aquifer matrix materials in a given column is

approximately fixed  changes in total vertical stress are due
mainly to changes in the amount of water in the column
 Pore water pressure changes (dP) in a confined aquifer do not usually
cause significant changes in water table position  reasonable to
assume d = 0 during transient flow in a confined aquifer

d e  dP
P dP
h Z  dh  at a fixed location
w g w g

 dP   w gdh  d e    w gdh
 Head decreases  effective stress increases
 when confined aquifers are pumped, the
aquifer compresses and the ground subsides
108
Example 13: Consider a sand that is unsaturated from the ground
surface down to a depth of 4.5 ft, and saturated below that. The total
unit weight of the unsaturated sand is g = 112 lb/ft3 and the total unit
weight of the saturated sand is g = 125 lb/ft3. The total unit weight of
water is wg = 62.4 lb/ft3. Assuming that the distribution of pore water
pressures is hydrostatic, calculate the total stress, water pressure and
effective stress at a depth of 12 ft.
Solution:
n
   i gbi  (112lb / ft 3 )  (4.5 ft )  (125lb / ft 3 )  (12  4.5) ft  1442lb / ft 2
i 1

P   w gh  (62.4lb / ft 3 )  (12  4.5) ft  468lb / ft 2

 e    P  1442  468  974lb / ft 2

109
 Soil and water compressibility

 Soil compressibility: the property of a soil pertaining to its

susceptibility to decrease in bulk volume when subjected to a load.
dVt
1 dVt
V
  t  
Vt dP Since d e  dP
d e

 Water compressibility
dVw
V 1 d w
  w 
dP  w dP

 Specific Storage Ss

S S  (  n)  w g

110
Specific Storage Ss
 Vt = ALz, Vs = (1-n)ALz, Vv = nALz
 Total mass of water contained within
the control volume:
M = WnALz (where A is a constant)
 dM  nALz d w   w ALz dn   wnAdLz

Soil grains are considered to be incompressible:

dVs  0  (1  n) AdLz  ALz d (1  n)
 (1  n) AdLz  ALz dn
 Lz dn  (1  n)dLz
 dM  nALz d w   w AdLz  Vv d w   w dVt
 Vv  w dP   wVt dP   wVt (  n)dP   wVt (  n)  w gdh
dM
 dVw   Vt (  n)  w gdh S 
1 dVw
 (  n)  w g
w S
Vt dh 111
Example 14: Calculate the water density at the bottom of a well 500 m
deep. Assume w = 1000 kg/m3 and P = 0 (atmospheric pressure) at the top
of the well, and that the water temperature is 10 C ( = 4.710-10 m2/N at
10 C).

Example 15: Consider the storage properties of a sand aquifer that is part
confined and part unconfined, as shown in the following figure. The sand has
porosity n = 0.30 and compressibility  = 10-8 m2/N. Assume the water
compressibility is  = 4.510-10 m2/N. The typical water content of the sand
in unsaturated zone is u = 0.12. Calculate both S and Sy for the sand
aquifer. Estimate how much water would be removed from storage in a 1 km2
area of confined aquifer if the head is lowered by 0.5 m. Do the same for a 1
km2 area of unconfined aquifer.

112
2. Principles of Groundwater Flow

113
 Darcy’s Law
 Henry Darcy (Darcy, 1856) investigated the flow of water through
beds of permeable sand and found that the flow rate through
porous media is proportional to the head loss (hL) and inversely
proportional to the length of flow path

hL
 Energy Equation:
2 2
p1v p v
 1  z1  2  2  z 2  hL
 2g  2g

 Introducing a
proportionality
constant K:
hL
Q   KA
L
Q
v
A
where K = Hydraulic
conductivity, v = Darcy
114
velocity or specific discharge
 Specific discharge, v (mm min-1)

Source: Fetter, 2001

115
 What is Hydraulic Conductivity K?
 K represents a measure of the ability for flow through
porous media = coefficient of permeability
 K is a function of both porous medium and the fluid
 The larger the K, the greater the flow rate (Q)
 Intrinsic permeability (k): the ability of soil to
transmit a fluid  a property only of the medium
K where μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid, K =
k
g hydraulic conductivity, g = acceleration of
gravity,  = fluid density
 Unit for intrinsic permeability can be in ft2, m2, or cm2.
In petroleum industry, the darcy is used as a unit of k

1 darcy = 9.87  10-9 cm2  10-8 cm2 = 1 m2

1 darcy = 1000 millidarcies (mD)

116
Range values of hydraulic conductivity and permeability
(Todd and Mays, 2005)

117
 An aquifer is a
geological formation
that has:
 sufficient porosity
to store large
quantities of
groundwater
 sufficient
permeability to
release these
quantities for use.

Conversion values
for hydraulic
conductivity (Fetter,
2001)
118
Example 16: A field sample of an unconfined aquifer is packed in a test
cylinder (see the following figure). The length and the diameter of the
cylinder are 50 cm and 6 cm, respectively. The field sample is tested for a
period of 3 min under a constant head difference of 16.3 cm. As a result,
45.2 cm3 of water is collected at the outlet. Determine the hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifer sample.

hL

119
Example 17: A confined aquifer with a horizontal bed has a varying
thickness as shown in the following figure. The aquifer is inhomogeneous
with K = 12 + 0.006x (m/day), where x = 0 at section (1), and the
piezometric heads at sections (1) and (2) are 14.2 m and 18.8 m,
respectively measured above the upper confining layer. Assuming the flow in
the aquifer is essentially horizontal, determine the flow rate per unit width.

(2)
(1)

K = 12 + 0.006x 75 m
30 m

3600 m

Example 18: Determine the ratio of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) conductivity

to hydraulic (water) conductivity. (Note: PCE density = 1.63 g/cm3, water
density = 1 g/cm3, PCE viscosity = 9.010-4 N.s/m2, water viscosity = 1.010-3
N.s/m2).

120
 Alternate Formulation of Darcy’s Law

 Darcy's law :

Q = KiA Where i = hydraulic gradient

Av voids A = total area
h h dh
i 1 2 Or: i
L dl
 Darcy's law can be rewritten as:

vd = Ki
Where vd = “specific discharge”, "discharge velocity" or "Darcian velocity“
 Groundwater discharge velocity can range from 1 to 500 m/yr

 The specific discharge is a macroscopic concept, and is easily measured. It

should be noted that Darcy’s velocity is different from the microscopic
velocities associated with the actual paths of individual particles of water
as they wind their way through the solid grains.
 Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that flow occurs
across the entire cross-section of the soil sample. Flow actually takes
place only through interconnected pore channels.
121
 Alternate Formulation of Darcy’s Law

 Specific discharge and average linear velocity

 Specific discharge should not be confused with the average linear
velocity or “seepage velocity” (vs) of fluid particles
 When dealing with the transport of contaminants, the “average
linear velocity” or “seepage velocity” is needed to calculate the
movement of contaminant within the porous medium

 Seepage velocity can then be related to discharge velocity:

 From the Continuity Equation: Q = A vd = AV vs
Where Q = flow rate; A = total cross-sectional area of material; AV =
area of voids; vs = seepage velocity; vd = Darcy velocity
 Therefore: vs = vd ( A/AV)
 Multiplying both sides by the length of the medium (L) 
vs = vd ( AL / AVL ) = vd ( Vt / Vv )
WhereVt = total volume; Vv = void volume
 By Definition, Vv / Vt = n, the soil porosity
1
v s  vd
 n 122
 Validity of Darcy’s Law

 Darcy’s law is empirical, based on experiment

 Darcy's law is only valid for laminar flow
 Re (Reynold's number) is used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar
flow occurring at low velocities and turbulent flow occurring at higher
ones vD
Re 

Where v = discharge velocity, D = mean
particle size, μ = dynamic viscosity of water, 
= water density
 If Re is less than some value between 1
and 10, flow in granular media is
laminar, and Darcy’s law applies.

123
Example 19: The following additional information is given for the aquifer
sample in Example 16. The sample has a mean grain size of 0.037 cm and a
porosity of 0.3. The test is conducted using pure water at 20 C ( = 1.005
 10-3 N.s/m2;  = 1000 kg/m3). Determine the Darcy velocity, seepage
velocity, and assess the validity of Darcy’s law.

 Darcy’s Law in Three Dimensions

 In real world, groundwater flows in complex 3-D patterns 
Darcy’s law for 3-D flow is analogous to the definition for 1-D:
h h h
qx  K x qy  K y qz  K z
x y z

 The vector sum of the three

components of specific
discharge gives the specific
discharge vector q , with
magnitude as:

q  qx q y qz
2 2 2
124
Example 20: There are three piezometers in an unconfined sand aquifer as
shown in the following figure. The heads at them are hA = 104.56 ft, hB =
104.53 ft, and hC = 103.42 ft. The rate of recharge here is estimated to be
1.25 ft/yr. The average horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the sand based
on testing is Kx = 8 ft/day. Assume that in the vicinity of these three
piezometers, the vertical specific discharge qz equals the recharge rate.
Estimate the vertical hydraulic conductivity using the heads at wells A and
B. Estimate the horizontal specific discharge qx, using heads at wells B and
C. Make a scaled vector sketch showing the x and z components of specific
discharge, and the total specific discharge vector (assume no flow in the y
direction).

125
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity

 heterogeneity: the value of K varies spatially

 homogeneity: the value of K is independent of location
 anisotropy: the value of K at a given location depends on direction
 isotropy: the value of K at a given location is independent of direction

Cases of heterogeneity 126

 Homogeneous isotropic Homogeneous anisotropic
Heterogeneous isotropic Heterogeneous anisotropic
Isotropic
Homogeneous (Kx)1 = (Kx)2; (Kz)1 = (Kz)2
(Kx)1 = (Kz)1; (Kx)2 = (Kz)2
Heterogeneous (Kx)1  (Kx)2; (Kz)1  (Kz)2
(Kx)1 = (Kz)1; (Kx)2 = (Kz)2
Combinations
Anisotropic
(Kx)1 = (Kx)2; (Kz)1 = (Kz)2
(Kx)1  (Kz)1; (Kx)2  (Kz)2
(Kx)1  (Kx)2; (Kz)1  (Kz)2
(Kx)1  (Kz)1; (Kx)2  (Kz)2
127
 Estimating Average Hydraulic Conductivity

 consider an aquifer consisting of two horizontal layers, each individually

isotropic, with different thickness and hydraulic conductivities
qz

q1 K1
z1

q2 z2 K2

(1) Equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity for a stratified material:

K1 z1  K 2 z 2
Kx 
z1  z 2
Where zm is the thickness of
K1 z1  K 2 z2  ...  K n zn n
K z the mth layer, Km is the
For n layers: Kx   m m
z1  z2  ...  zn m 1 z hydraulic conductivity of the
mth layer, z is the total
aquifer thickness
K h1 z1  K h 2 z2  ...  K hn zn n
K z
Or: Kx    hm m Where Km is the horizontal hydraulic
z1  z2  ...  zn z
m 1
conductivity of the mth layer
(Anisotropic situation) 128
 Estimating Average Hydraulic Conductivity
qz

q1 K1
z1

q2 z2 K2

(2) Equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity for a stratified material :

z1  z 2
Kz 
z1 z
 2
K1 K 2

z  z  ...  zn z Where zm is the thickness of the mth

Kz  1 2 
For n layers: z1 z2 zn n
zm layer, Km is the hydraulic conductivity

K1 K 2
 ... 
Kn 
m 1 K m
of the mth layer, z is the total aquifer
thickness
z1  z2  ...  zn z
Or: Kz 
z1 z2 zn
 n
zm Where Kzm is the vertical hydraulic

K z1 K z 2
 ... 
K zn 
m 1 K zm conductivity of the mth layer
(Anisotropic situation)

129
Estimating Average Hydraulic Conductivity

z1  z2  ...  zn z
Kz   n
z1 z2 zn zm

K z1 K z 2
 ... 
K zn 
m 1 K zm

n n

K z  K h 2 z2  ...  K hn zn  K hm zm K hm mz
K x  h1 1  m 1
 m 1
z1  z2  ...  zn n

z
z
m
m 1

130
Example 21: An unconfined aquifer consists of three horizontal layers,
each individually isotropic. The top layer has a thickness of 5 m and a
hydraulic conductivity of 2 m/d. The middle layer has a thickness of 2 m
and a hydraulic conductivity of 0.1 m/d. The bottom layer has a thickness
of 4 m and a hydraulic conductivity of 6 m/d. The head at the top of the
uppermost layer is 102.0 m and the head at the bottom of the lowermost
layer is 99.6 m. Calculate the equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic
conductivities. Calculate the vertical specific discharge qz, the head at
the interface between the upper and middle layers, and the head at the
interface between the middle and lower layers.

131
 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

(1) Correlations of grain size to hydraulic conductivity

 Hazen equation: where K = hydraulic conductivity (cm/s), C =
K  C (d10 ) 2 constant [ (cm.s)-1], d10 = 10% finer than grain
diameter (cm) (i.e. effective grain size)

 Kozeny-Carmen equation
  w g  n 3  (d 50 ) 2 
K    
2 


   (1  n )  180 

where K = hydraulic conductivity, w = water density, μ = dynamic viscosity of

water, g = acceleration of gravity, n = porosity, d50 = median grain diameter

132
 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Example 22: Assume a porosity of 0.38 for the soil sample with the following
grain size curve. Use the Kozeny-Carmen correlation to estimate K. [w = 1000
kg/m3;  = 10-3 N.s/m2 = 10-3 kg/m.s; g = 9.8 m/s2]

90
Percent finer by mass (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particel size (mm)

133
 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

(2) Laboratory Methods

 hydraulic conductivity can be determined by a permeameter, in which
flow is maintained through a small sample of material while
measurements of flow rate and head loss are made.
 Two types of permeameter

 Constant-head permeameter
 Falling-head permeameter

A. Constant-head permeameter
VL
K
Ath

B. Falling-head permeameter
2
rt L h1
K 2
ln( )
rc t h2

where t = time interval for the water

level in the tube to fall from h1 to h2 134
 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Example 23: A field sample with a median grain size of 0.84 mm is tested by
applying pure water at 20 C to determine the hydraulic conductivity using a
constant-head permeameter. The sample has a length of 30 cm and a
diameter of 5 cm. A 200 mL of water is collected at the outlet in 15 min
under a head difference of 5.0 cm. Determine the hydraulic conductivity of
the sample. What should be the maximum allowable piezometric head
difference be for a series of tests?

Example 24: A 20-cm long field sample of silty, fine sand with a diameter of
10 cm is tested using a falling-head permeameter. The falling-head tube has
a diameter of 3.0 cm and the initial head is 8.0 cm. Over a period of 8 hr,
the head in the tube falls to 1.0 cm. Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of
the sample.

135
 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

(3) Tracer Tests

 Field determination of K can be made by measuring the time interval
for a water tracer (i.e. dye) to travel between two observation wells
or test holes.

nL2
K
ht
where n= porosity, t = travel time
interval of the tracer between holes

136
http://toxics.usgs.gov/photo_gallery/capecod.html
 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Example 25: A tracer test is conducted to determine the hydraulic

conductivity of an unconfined aquifer. The water levels in the two
observation wells 20 m apart are 18.4 m and 17.1 m. The tracer injected in
the first well arrives at the second observation well in 167 hrs. Calculate K
of the unconfined aquifer given that the porosity of the formation is 0.25.

(4) Pumping Tests of Wells

 usually involve pumping a well at a constant
rate for several hours to several days and
measuring water levels in nearby
observation wells located at different
distances from the pumping well.

http://www.ces.clemson.edu/hydro/FieldCam 137
p/2006/Pix/Pumping%20test/index.htm
 Aquifer Transmissivity

 widely employed in groundwater hydrology

 defined as the rate at which water of prevailing kinetic
viscosity is transmitted through a unit width of aquifer under
a unit hydraulic gradient

T = Kb
Where K = hydraulic conductivity, b = saturated thickness of aquifer

 For a multilayer aquifer, the total transmissivity is the sum of

the transmissivity of each of the layers
n
T   Ti
i 1

138
 Groundwater Flow Direction

 Flow Nets: simple, flexible graphical technique for estimating the

distribution of heads, discharges and flowlines in a steady two-
dimensional flow
 two sets of lines form an orthogonal pattern of small squares

 flow line: a line such that the macroscopic velocity vector is

everywhere tangent to it)
 Equipotential line: line of constant hydraulic head

Fundamental Assumptions:
 Steady-state, source-free,
saturated flow in two
dimensions
 A homogeneous, isotropic
medium
 All boundary conditions are
known

139
 Flow Net Theory
 Possible boundary conditions
Constant Head
Impermeable
Boundary
Boundary
 The constant-head
 Adjacent flow lines will boundary represents an
be parallel to the no-flow equipotential line. Flow
boundary, and lines will intersect a
equipotential lines will constant-head boundary
intersect it at right at right angles and the
angles adjacent equipotential
line will be parallel
Water Table
Boundary
 The water table is
neither a flow line nor an
equipotential line. If
there is recharge or
discharge across the
water table, flow lines
will be at an oblique angle
to the water table140
 Flow Net Theory
A fundamental concept in flow-nets: The Flux Tube

Definition: A “flux-
tube” is that region
between two flow-
lines.
Attribute: Flux is
“conserved” within a
flux tube. Mass does
not enter nor leave
through the walls of
a flux tube.

141
 Flow Net Theory

 Hydraulic gradient i:
dh
i
ds
 The constant flow (q) in a flux
tube per unit thickness:
dh
qK dm
ds

 For the squares of the flow

net: ds  dm:
dh dh
qK dm  K ds  Kdh
ds ds

 Applying this to an entire flow net, where the total head loss h is
divided into n squares between any two adjacent flow line 
h
dh 
n
 If the flow is divided into m channels by flow lines, then the total
flow is: Kmh
Q  mq  142
n
 Construction of flow net
1. Draw to a convenient scale the cross
sections of the structure, water
elevations, and aquifer profiles.
2. Establish boundary conditions and draw
one or two flow lines and equipotential
lines near the boundaries.
3. Sketch intermediate flow lines and
equipotential lines by smooth curves
adhering to right-angle intersections and
square grids. Where flow direction is a
straight line, flow lines are an equal
distance apart and parallel.
4. Continue sketching until a problem
develops. Each problem will indicate
changes to be made in the entire net.
Successive trials will result in a
reasonably consistent flow net.
5. In most cases, 5 to 10 flow lines are
usually sufficient. Depending on the
number of flow lines selected, the number
of equipotential lines will automatically be
fixed by geometry and grid layout.
Fetter, 2001
143
(p.135)
Example of FLOW
NETS

a. Flow under Dam

b. Pumping Well
near Line Source

Domenico & Schwarcz

p.144
121
 Groundwater Flow Direction

 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours

 flow lines lie perpendicular to water table contours
 Estimation of local groundwater contours and flow directions from
observed groundwater elevation in three wells

145
 Groundwater Flow Direction

 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours

 contour maps of groundwater levels, together with flow lines, are
useful data for locating new wells

May locate new

wells at section 2

146
 Groundwater Flow Direction

 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours

 where a contour map of groundwater levels contains closed contours
around a group of wells of known total discharge Q, the transmissivity
of the regional aquifer can be calculated:

nQ
T
mh
Todd and Mays, 2005 where h = difference
(p. 110) in elevation between
any two selected
closed contour lines, m
= number of flow
channels, n = number
of squares between
any two adjacent flow
lines

147
Example 26: Three observation wells are installed to determine the
direction of groundwater movement and the hydraulic gradient in a regional
aquifer. The distance between the wells and the total head at each well are
shown in the following figure.
Solution:
Step 1: Identify the well with the
intermediate water level
Step 2: Along the straight line between
the wells with the highest head and the
lowest head, identify the location of the
same head of the well from Step 1
Step 3: Draw a straight line between
the intermediate well from Step 1 and
the point identified in Step 2  a
segment of the equipotential line along
which the total head is the same as that
in the intermediate well
Step 4: Draw a line perpendicular to the
equipotential line passing through the
well with the lowest head  hydraulic
gradient is the slope of the
perpendicular line, and the direction of
the line indicates the direction of
groundwater movement 148
Example 27: The average daily discharge from the Patuxent Formation (see
the following figure) in the Sparrows Point district of Baltimore, Maryland,
in 1945 was estimated as 1106 ft3/day. A flow net of the region is
constructed using the available contour lines as shown in the figure.
Compute the transmissivity of the regional aquifer.

149
 Groundwater Flow Direction

 Flow across the Water Table

 as long as no flow crosses a water table, it serves as a groundwater
boundary
 if flow (e.g. percolating water) reaches the water table  flow lines
no longer parallel the surface as an impermeable boundary 
refraction effect
K 
  tan  tan    
1

 vu 
where vu = unsaturated vertical
velocity approaching the water
table, vs = saturated velocity below
the water table

 For vu > 0, flow lines will

form an angle of (90--)
below water table
 For vu = 0   = 90-  vs
parallels the water table
150
Example 28: Consider a case where 1.6 m/yr of percolating water reaches
the water table of an unconfined aquifer. If the hydraulic conductivity
and the regional hydraulic gradient of the aquifer are 9.3 m/day and 0.01,
respectively, find the deflection angle of the flow lines as they cross the
water table of the unconfined aquifer.

151
 Groundwater Flow Direction

 Flow across a Hydraulic Conductivity Boundary

when flow passes from a region of hydraulic conductivity K1 to
one of K2  a change of flow direction

K1 tan1

K 2 tan 2

152
153
Example 29: Consider a case where a leaky confined aquifer with 4.5
m/day horizontal hydraulic conductivity is overlain by an aquitard with
0.052 m/day vertical hydraulic conductivity. If the flow in the aquitard is
in the downward direction and makes an angle of 5 with the vertical,
determine 2 (see figure).

154
 General Groundwater Flow Equations

 Mass inflow rate through the face ABCD =

 wqx (yz )
 Mass inflow rate through the face EFGH =
(  w qx )
[  wqx  x](yz )
x
 Net outflow rate through EFGH =
(  w qx )
 (xyz )
x
qx, qy, qz = specific discharges in x, y, and z  Net outflow rate through CDHG =
direction, respectively, w = water density
(  wq y )
 (xyz )
 Net outflow rate through BCGF = y
(  w qz )
 (xyz )
z
 Net outflow rate through all the faces =
 (  w qx ) (  w q y ) (  w qz ) 
    (xyz )
  x  y  z  155
 General Groundwater Flow Equations

 Conservation of fluid mass:

mass inflow rate – mass outflow rate = change in mass storage with time =
(  w nxyz )
t
 As the pressure in the control volume changes, the fluid density will change,
as will the porosity of the aquifer: d w
dP 
w
 The aquifer also changes in volume with a change in pressure. Assuming the
only change is vertical: d (z )
dP 
z
 As the aquifer expands or compresses, n will change, but solids volume Vs
will be constant dV  d (1  n)xyz   0
s

 (1  n)d (z )
dn 
z
 Since P = wgh  dP   w gdh

 d w   w dP   w  (  w gdh)
d (z )  zdP  z (  w gdh) dn  (1  n) (  w gdh) 156
 General Groundwater Flow Equations
 If x and y are constant, change in mass storage with time =
(  w nxyz )  (z )  ( n) (  w ) 
 (xy)   w n   w z  nz
t  t t t 
h
 (xy ) w nzw g   w z (1  n)w g  nz w  w g 
t
h h
 (xyz )  w (  n )  w g   (xyz )  w S s
t t
 Mass conservation:
 (  w qx ) (  w q y ) (  w qz )  h
    ( xyz )  ( xyz )  S
   t
w s
 x y z 
 Assume that fluid density does not change spatially 

   h    h    h  h
  K    K  
 y y  z  K    S
    t
x z s
 x  x  y    z  

157
 General Groundwater Flow Equations

 If Kx = Ky = Kz = K:

  2h  2h  2h  h
K  2  2  2   Ss
 x y z  t

Or:  2 h  2 h  2 h S s h
 2 2 
x 2
y z K t

 When h
0 
t

 2h  2h  2h
 2  2 0 Laplace Equation
x 2
y z

 Solution of flow equations

 Analytical method
 Numerical method
158