Chapter 26: CLARIFICATION
parenteral preparations
Removal or separation of a solid from a fluid/ fluid from
another fluid (Fluid means both liquids and gases)
Achieved by filtration or centrifugation
⇒ Main Reasons for Clarification:
- Remove unwanted solids
- Collect the solid as the product instead
following crystallization
FILTRATION: Types
v Solid/fluid filtration:
most common type of filtration; separation of insoluble
solid from fluid using a porous medium; it retains the
solid, but allows the passage of fluid.
Subdivided into Solid/Fluid, Solid/Liquid and Solid/Gas
Filtration
1. Solid/Liquid Filtration: gives a sparkle or brightness to
mouthwashes
- removes potential irritants for eye preps; produces water
of appropriate quality
-recovery of desired solid from suspension/slurry after
crystallization
-removes turbidity of vegetable extracts
-detects microorgs to check if preservatives work
2. Solid/Gas Filtration: For:
-removal of suspended solids from air to supply air of the
required standard (using: fluidized bed processors)
-prevents particulates to be vented to the atmosphere by
removal (using: fluidized bed and coating processes)
v Fluid/Fluid Filtration
- removal of turbidity in flavoring oils by passing oil
droplets through an appropriate filter
- removal of oil or water froplets from compressed air;
used for film coating spray guns and bottle cleaning
equipment
MECHANISMS OF FILTRATION:
1. STRAINING/SIEVING
- The material is retained by passage of fluid
through filter medium; also known as
membrane filters
- The filter is very thin (100 mcm)
- Used for small volume fluids with low
contaminant levels
- Use: removal of bacteria and fibers from
2. IMPINGEMENT
- Use of a filter fiber
- Attractive forces between the particle and
fiber retain suspended solids instead of
following the fluid path
- Also known as: depth filters
- Larger pores bet. Filter fiber can cause small
particles to follow the fluid streamline and
miss the fiber
- Thick fiber: must be used to remove every
single unwanted material
- Use: for the removal of materials from gases
3. ATTRACTIVE FORCES
- electrostatic forces
- can cause the attraction of particles
- air can be filtered by passing bet. Highly
charged surfaces to remove dust particles
4. AUTOFILTRATION
- Filtered material or filtered cake acts as its
own filter medium
- Use of metafilter
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF FILTRATION
1. The Buchner Funnel and Flask - factors
affecting rate of filtration:
a. Area available for filtration
b. Pressure differences across filter bed
c. Viscosity of fluid passing through the filter
(inverse relationship bet. Viscosity and
filtration rate)
d. Thickness of the filter medium and cake
(the cake inc. as filtration goes on). In a
large pan, add the ingredients and lightly
stew until meat is tender and soft. Serves
2. Darcy’s Equation - the permeability of filter
medium; cake will increase as porosity of bed
increases
METHODS USED TO INCREASE FILTRATION RATE
1. Increase area available for filtration
2. Increase pressure differences across filter
cake
3. Decrease filtrate viscosity
4. Decrease filter cake thickness
5. Increase cake permeability
C. ANDAL | 3IPH
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Filtration Equipment:
1. Equipment Selection
- Ideally, should allow fast filtration rate to
minimize production costs, be cheap, easy to
clean, resistant to corrosion, capable to filter
large volumes of the product.
Factors affecting:
- Chemical nature of the product
- Volume to be filtered and the filtration rate.
- Operating pressure needed
- Amount of material to be removed
- Degree of filtration required
- Product viscosity and
- Filtration temperature
Industrial Filtration Equipment: classified by method
used to drive the filtrate through filter medium. Divided
into three classes:
1. Gravity Filters: generate only low operating
pressure
- Simple and cheap; frequently used in
laboratory filtration where the volume is small
and low filtration rate is unimportant
2. Vacuum filters: rotatory vacuum filter; difficult to
achieve
-continuous in operation and has a system for
removing the cake
-cake compression rollers are often fitted to
improve efficiency of washing and draining if the
cake on the drum becomes dry
-small rotary (around 120 mm long and 75 mm in
diameter) are simpler in construction; they do not
have cake washing facility but has disposable
filler drums
-these drums can filter batchers around 100-700
L at 1-3 L/min
ADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRIAL VACUUM FILTER
ü Automatic and continuous
ü Variation of speed and control
ü Large capacity
DISADVANTAGES:
× Expensive
× Cake tends to crackerlacker because of air drawn
through vacuum system
× Pressure difference is limited
× Suitable only for straightforward slurries
3. Pressure Filters - most common type
- metafilter can be used for separating coarse
particles for finer particles
- pack of rings serves as a base
ADVANTAGES OF A METAFILTER:
ü Strength and High Pressure
ü Economical af
ü Metafilter can be made from stainless steel;
provides excellent resistance to corrosion and
avoids contamination
Metafilters are used for clarifying liquids where
contaminant level is low; suitable for viscous liquids
Centrifugation: centrifuges are used to separate solid
from a liquid
Industrial centrifuges
Types: perforated baskets and solid walled vessels:
1. Perforated baskers- perform filtration type
operation, working like a spinning dryer
2. Solid walled vessels, where particles
sediment towards the wall
3. under the influence of centrifugal force
Centrifugal filter: used for separating crystalline materials
from the prep liquor and for removing precipitated proteins
Advantages: compact, efficient, can handle con. Slurries
Tubular Bowl Centrifuges- to separate immiscible
liquids
- the inlet rate needs to be controlled so that the
sufficient time for sedimentation to occur before
product leaves the bowl
Used for:
- liquid/liquid separation
- removal of very small particles
- removal of solids that are compressible or slimy
- separation of plasma
- separation of diff. particle size fractions
- examining stability of emulsions
-compact, has high separating efficiency and good for
separating troublesome solids
- has limited capacity and are hard to construct
C. ANDAL | 3IPH
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