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SENSOR CONTROLLED ADVANCED

BLIND STICK
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.Tech.in
Electronics and Communication Engineering.

by:
Sana Nizam (1302731130)
Shraddha Singh (1302731152)
Shweta (1302731162)
Vikas Singh(1302731177)

Under the supervision of

Asst. Prof.Richa Sharma


Department Of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad


th
27 Km Stone, Delhi-Hapur Bypass Road, Adhyatmik Nagar, Ghaziabad-201009

APJ A.K. Technical University, Lucknow


April 2017
DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of our
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person, nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma by the university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Signature: Signature:
Sana Nizam Shraddha Singh
Roll No: 1302731130 Roll No: 1302731152

Signature: Signature:
Shweta Vikas Singh
Roll No: 1302731162 Roll No: 1307231177

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Project Report entitled “SENSOR CONTROLLED


ADVANCED BLIND STICK” which is submitted by Sana Nizam, Shraddha Singh,
Shweta and Vikas Singh in the partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of
degree of Bachelor of Technology (Electronics and Communication Engineering)
submitted to Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow is a record of students’
own work carried out under my supervision. The matter in this report has not been
submitted to any University or Institution for award of any degree.

Supervisor:
Asst. Prof. Richa Sharma
ECE Department

HoD:
Prof. P.K. Chopra

Date:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude and regard to Ms
Richa Sharma, Asst. Prof. (ECE Deptt.), Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College,
Ghaziabad for his continuous encouragement and able guidance, we needed to
complete this project.
We are also grateful to Mr. Jitendra Chabbra and Mr. Naveen Saini for their
continuous support and valuable suggestions.
We would pay our sincere gratitude to the Head of the Deptt. (ECE& EI), Prof. P.K.
Chopra for his precious and enlightening words of wisdom which motivated us
throughout our project work.

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ABSTRACT

The main aim of this project is to assist the blind persons without the human need. It
is well known that the blind people carry a hand stick with them whenever they need a
support. Sometimes even when they use this stick, there is no guarantee that the blind
persons are safe and secured in reaching their destinations. There may be an obstacle
in their path but is not encountered by the person with the help of the stick. Thus, the
people may be injured if the obstacle is big enough or dangerous. Thus, a design has
been developed to assist the blind and provide them a clear path.

Our project “SENSORS CONTROLLED ADVANCED BLIND STICK” focuses


on blind or visually impaired people. The main purpose of an advanced blind stick is
that it allows visually challenged people to navigate with ease using advanced
technology. The blind stick is integrated with ultrasonic sensor along with gas and
fog sensing. Our proposed project first uses ultrasonic sensors to detect obstacles
ahead using ultrasonic waves.

On sensing obstacles the sensor passes this data to the microcontroller. The
microcontroller then processes this data and calculates if the obstacle is close enough.
If the obstacle is not that close the circuit does nothing. If the obstacle is close the
microcontroller sends a signal to sound a buzzer. There is a panic switch provided in
the stick which can be used by blind person for their safety. The switch when pressed
sends messages and calls to required people who can help him. One more feature is
that it allows the blind to detect the temperature of the surrounding. The system has
one more advanced feature integrated to help the blind find their stick if they forget
where they kept it. Thus this system allows for obstacle detection as well as finding
stick if misplaced by visually disabled people.

“Blind stick is an innovative stick designed for visually disabled people for
improved navigation. We here propose an advanced blind stick that allows visually
challenged people to navigate with ease using advanced technology.”

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration ii
Certificate iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
List of figures viii
List of tables ix
List of Abbreviations x
Chapter 1. Introduction 1-4
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Project idea 2
1.3 Objective 3
1.4 Organization of the report 4
Chapter 2.Working of the project 5-15
2.1 Working Principle 5
2.2 Block diagram description 7
2.2.1 Transmitter Section 8
2.2.2 Receiver Section 9
2.3 Circuit diagram of the proposed project 10
2.4 PCB layout of the finalized circuit 13
Chapter 3. Hardware Specifications 16-35
3.1 16
3.2 18
3.2.1 21
3.3 31
Chapter 4. Software Specifications 36-59
4.1
4.2
Chapter 5. Results 60-62
5.1
5.2

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5.3
Chapter 6. Future Scope 63-65
6.1
6.2

Appendices
Appendix A. Software Methodology (Active-HDL) 66-73
A.1 Active-HDL, Overview 66
A.2 Running Active-HDL 68
A.3 Active-HDL Tools and Components 68
A.4 Design Flow Manager 71

References 74-76

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LIST OF TABLES

4.1 Types defined in the Package Standard of the std Library 25


4.2 Conversions supported by std_logic_1164 package 28
4.3 List of Operators 29
4.4 Relational Operators 30
4.5 Shift Operators 31
4.6 Addition Operators 32
4.7 Unary Operators 32
4.8 Multiplying Operators 33

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LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 RotationofavectorVbytheangle 13
3.2 VectorVwithmagnituderandphase 13
3.3 Firstthreeof10iterations 18
5.1 Hardwareelementsneeded fortheCORDICmethod 42
5.2RotationofavectorVbytheangle 44
5.3Iterativevectorrotation,initializedwithV0 45

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CORDIC - Coordinate Rotation Digital Computer


DFT - Discrete Fourier Transform
DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory
FFT - Fast Fourier transform
FPGA - Field Programmable Gate Array
HDL - Hardware Description Language
IDFT - Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Blindness is a very common disability among the peoples throughout the world. According to
the World Health Organization (WHO) 285 million people are visually impaired worldwide,
39 million are blind and 246 have low vision. About 90% of the world’s visually impaired
live in developing countries. For the indigents blindness is a curse. They need help to walk
outside and all other daily essential works. So the paper glows a system that tries to remove
the curse of blindness and make them self- dependent to do their daily chores. It is a walking
stick, normally used by the blinds. But it is fully automated, easy to maintain, cheap and it is
very comfortable to use. The power consumption is low and can be operated easily. Above all
the stick is very economic over the conventional one. The walking stick mentioned above is a
stick that consists of a circuit board that contains a PIC micro controller, different sensors,
and buzzer. The entire project is designed using micro-controller based upon its reliability.
The micro-controller is code protected so its security bridge cannot be override except the
vendor or owner.

Blindness is a state of lacking the visual perception due to physiological or neurological


factors. The partial blindness represents the lack of integration in the growth of the optic
nerve or visual center of the eye, and total blindness is the full absence of the visual light
perception. In this work, a simple, cheap, friendly user, smart blind guidance system is
designed and implemented to improve the mobility of both blind and visually impaired
people in a specific area. The proposed work includes a wearable equipment consists of light
weight blind stick and sensor based obstacle detection circuit is developed to help the blind
person to navigate alone safely and to avoid any obstacles that may be encountered, whether
fixed or mobile, to prevent any possible accident.

The walking cane (also called white cane or stick) and guide dogs. The most important
drawbacks of these aids are necessary skills and training phase, range of motion and very
little information conveyed. With the rapid advances of modern technology, both in hardware
and software front have brought potential to provide intelligent navigation capabilities.
Recently there has been a lot of Electronic Travel Aids (ETA) designed and devised to help
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the blind navigate independently and safely. Also high-end technological solutions have been
introduced recently to help blind persons to navigate independently. Many blind guidance
systems use ultrasound because of its immunity to the environmental noise. Another reason
why ultrasonic is popular is that the technology is relatively inexpensive, and also ultrasound
emitters and detectors are small enough to be carried without the need for complex circuit.
Blind people have used canes as mobility tools for centuries, but it was not until after World
War I that the white cane was introduced.

Another study in the same field to help blind people uses the pulse echo technique in order to
provide a warning sound when detecting the obstacles. This technique is used by the United
States military for locating the submarines. They used pulse of ultrasound range from 21 KHz
to 50 KHz which hit the hard surface to generate echo pulses. By calculating the difference
between signals transmit time and signal receiving time we can predict the distance between
the user and the obstacles. This system is very sensitive in terms of detecting the obstacles. It
has a detection range up to 3 meters and a detection angle 0 to 45 degree. However, this
system requires more power to operate because of the transmitter and receiver circuits. So,
this system needs to be re-designed to operate with less power consumption.

Finally, the device should work for a long time with minimum power and it could be
recharged so it operates with two rechargeable batteries and further can be recharged using
USB cable or AC adaptor. This system proposes a stick which uses ultrasonic sensors for
detection and a microcontroller that controls the system without complexity. The detection
angle is 180 degree.

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OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this project is to develop an application for blind people to detect the
objects in various directions, detecting pits and manholes on the ground to make free to walk.
It provides a cost-effective way to support blind people. The system hopes to provide a
portable unit that can easily be carried and operated by a visually impaired user. It could
easily be incorporated into a walking cane. Blindness is a state of lacking the visual
perception due to physiological or neurological factors. The partial blindness represents the
lack of integration in the growth of the optic nerve or visual centre of the eye, and total
blindness is the full absence of the visual light perception. In this work, a simple, cheap,
friendly user, smart blind guidance system is designed and implemented to improve the
mobility of both blind and visually impaired people in a specific area. The proposed work
includes a wearable equipment consists of light weight blind stick and sensor based obstacle
detection circuit is developed to help the blind person to navigate alone safely and to avoid
any obstacles that may be encountered, whether fixed or mobile, to prevent any possible
accident. The main component of this system is the ultrasonic sensor which is used to scan a
predetermined area around blind by emitting-reflecting waves. The reflected signals received
from the barrier objects are used as inputs to PIC microcontroller. Other than the collision
avoidance it also works to ensure the safety of the blind person. These objectives are met
using various types of sensors incorporated in the stick.

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CHAPTER 2

WORKING OF THE PROJECT

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Blind stick is an innovative stick designed for visually disabled people for improved
navigation. We here propose an advanced blind stick that allows visually challenged people to
navigate with ease using advanced technology. The blind stick is integrated with ultrasonic
sensor along with other features. Our proposed project first uses ultrasonic sensors to detect
obstacles ahead using ultrasonic waves. On sensing obstacles the sensor passes this data to
the microcontroller. The microcontroller then processes this data and calculates if the obstacle
is close enough. If the obstacle is not that close the circuit does nothing. If the obstacle is
close the microcontroller sends a signal to sound a speaker. This is the primary feature for
avoiding the collision from the object nearby using ultrasonic waves. One of the advanced
features of the stick is that it has a Bluetooth module (HC-05) on the stick. Through this
Bluetooth module the blind person can connect his phone with the stick and incase of
emergency, he can send SMS to the people whom he wants to inform about the danger. There
will be an application present in the mobile phone of the blind person for this purpose. Also
there is button on application provided so that in case he loses his stick. He can simply press
the button and a sound will be heard from the buzzer on the stick and with the help of that
sound he can find the stick.

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The main part in the system is the microcontroller that controls the other components in the
system. There is transmitter and receiver section in the stick. The transmitter communicates
with the receiver and gives the required command for the operation. There is also a light and
a fan switch attached with the stick. Since it will a little problematic for the blind person to
navigate in the room as objects are placed nearby and chances for collision are increased. So
for resolving this hitch, this feature is provided on the stick. The person can switch on the
light and fan switch without even moving from his place which also ensures his safety. The
transmitter sends the command to the receiver section to switch on the light and fan of the
room. Major other advances in the stick are the various gas sensor provided in order to aid the
mobility of the blind person on the roads and other outdoor places. The gas sensors attached
are carbon dioxide sensor, carbon monoxide sensor and the methane gas sensor. These three
gases are the major odors coming from sewage. These sensors senses these gases and gives a
voice output to the blind person about the presence of sewage nearby hence giving an alert to
the blind person to change his way in order to avoid falling in the sewage.

The next advanced feature of the stick is the presence of a fog sensor on the stick. This
sensor makes the people aware about the presence of the person on the road in the foggy
conditions. As output; an LED is attached to this sensor which blinks continuously in the
foggy condition during winters in order to avoid causalities such as accidents. Also there is
shock switch provided on the stick to ensure the safety of the blind person. Whenever the
person is moving around and someone tries to take the advantage of his visual impairment, he
just needs to push a button and touch his stick to the person who attacks on him. The stick
will give him a current of high voltage and the mishappening could easily be avoided.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

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PCB LAYOUT

Steps for making PCB

 Once you have decided which electronic circuit is to be made on a PCB, you
will have to make the design for the board on your PC. You can use different
PCB designing CAD softwares like EAGLE. The most important point to note is
that everything has to be designed in reverse because you are watching the
board from above. If you need the circuit to be designed on a PCB, the layout
must have a 360 degree flip.

 The next step is to print out the layout using a laser printer. You must take
special care in the type of paper that you are going to use. Though a little
expensive, photo basic gloss transparent papers are known to be the most
suitable for the process.

 You must also make sure that you are able to fit all your components on to
the print. First take a copy of the print on ordinary paper and lay down all the
IC’s and other components. The size of the layout must also fit the size of the
PCB. Try to get the highest resolution when you are printing i on the paper.
Always use black ink to take the layout. Increase the contrast and make the
print more dark and thick. Do not take the print as soon as it comes out. Wait
for some time for the ink to dry out.

 Cut the layout by leaving a generous amount of blank space. Place the paper
layout on the PCB and apply some heat by pressing an iron box on top of the
paper on to the printed circuit board. Apply pressure for some time and keep
the PCB intact for a few minutes. Now the layout is attached to both the
board and the paper. We have to get rid of the paper, so that it gets
permanently attached to the board. The only way to do this is to soak it in
water. After two minutes, peel off the first layer of paper. After two to three
hours of soaking, take it out and rub it with your finger to remove all the
paper bits off.

 PCB Etching Process


All PCB’s are made by bonding a layer of copper over the entire substrate,
sometimes on both sides. Etching process has to be done to removE unnecessary
copper after applying a temporary mask, leaving only the desired copper traces.

The most common method used by electronics hobbyists is etching using ferric
chloride ir hydrochloric acid. Both are abundant and cheap. Dip the PCB inside the
solution and keep it moving inside. Take it out at times and stop the process as soon
as the copper layer has gone. After etching, rub the PCB with a little acetone to

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remove the black colour, thus giving the PCB a shining attractive look. The PCB
layout is now complete.

 PCB Drilling
The components that have to be attached to the multi-layered PCB can be
done only by VIAS drilling. That is, a pated-through hole is drilled in the shape of
annular rings. Small drill bits that are made out of tungsten carbide is used for the
drilling. A dremel drill press is normally used to punch the holes. Usually, a 0.035
inch drill bit is used. For high volume production automated drilling machines are
used.

Sometimes, very small holes may have to be drilled, and mechanical methods may
permanently damage the PCB. In such cases, laser drilled VIAS may be used to
produce an interior surface finish inside the holes.

 Conductor Plating
The outer layer of the PCB contains copper connections (the part where the
components are placed) which do not allow solderability of the components. To
make it solderable, the surface of the material has to be plated with gold, tin, or
nickel.

 Solder Resist
The other areas which are not to be solderable are covered with a solder resist
material. It is basically a polymer coating that prevents the solder from bringing
traces and possibly creating shortcuts to nearby component leads.

 PCB Testing
In industrial applications, PCB’s are tested by different methods such as Bed of Nails
Test, Rigid Needle adaptor, CT scanning test, and so on. The basic of all tests include
a computer program which will instruct the electrical test unit to apply a small
voltage to each contact point, and verify that a certain voltage appears at the
appropriate contact points.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

9
D1 VCC D1 VCC
VCCD1 VCCD1
U 13 U 14
330E 330E

1
U3 U2
330E 330E LE D 10K LE D 10K
1

8
LM 393 LM 393
10K LED 10K LED 3 2 3 2

8
LM 393 LM 393 + POT + POT
POT 2 3 POT 2 3 1 1
+ +
1 1 2 2
M /C P IN R C 5 - -
2 2
- -

3
3

4
M /C P IN R C 4

IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN

VCC

U6 U7

16

16
3 1 1 3
4 A C LR 2 2 C LR A 4 D1 VCC D1 VCC

VC C

VC C
5 B C LK C LK B 5
VCCD1 VCCD1 6 C C 6 U 11 U 12
D D 330E 330E

1
14 9 14 LE D 10K LE D 10K

8
U4 U1 LM 393 LM 393
330E 330E 13 Q A LO A D 10 QA 13 3 2 3 2
1

+ +
10K LED 10K LED 12 Q B ENT QB 12 1 POT 1 POT
8

LM 393 LM 393
POT 2 3 POT 2 3 11 Q C QC 11 2 2
+ + QD QD - -
1 1
2 2
- -
10 9
ENT LO A D

3
RCO
RCO
GND

GND
3

15

15
8

8
74H C 165 IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN
IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN 74H C 165

VCCD1 VCCD1 D1 VCC D1 VCC

U5 U8 U9 U 10
330E 330E 330E 330E
1

1
10K LE D 10K LE D LE D 10K LE D 10K
8

8
LM 393 LM 393 LM 393 LM 393
POT 2 3 POT 2 3 3 2 3 2
+ + + POT + POT
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
- - - -
3

3
IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN
IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN

VCCD1 VCCD1
D1 VCC D1 VCC
U5 U8
330E 330E
1

U9 U 10
10K LE D 10K LE D 330E 330E
8

LM 393 LM 393
POT 2 3 POT 2 3 LED 10K LED 10K
8

+ + LM 393 LM 393
1 1 3 2 3 2
+ POT + POT
2 2 1 1
- -
2 2
- -
3

IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN

IR SENSOR IN IR SENSOR IN

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CHAPTER 3

HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS
The main basic components presented in this project are:
 Microcontroller
 Ultrasonic Sensors
 Microcontroller
 Fog sensor
 Temperature sensor
 Gas sensors
 Power supply
 Buzzer

Ultrasonic sensors
Ultrasonic sensors (also known as transceivers when they both send and receive) work on a
principle similar to radar or sonar which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the
echoes from radio or sound waves respectively. Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency
sound waves and evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor. Sensors calculate
the time interval between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance
to an object. This technology can be used for measuring: wind speed and direction
(anemometer), fullness of a tank and speed through air orwater. For measuring speed or
direction a device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the relative distances
to particulates in the air or water. To measure the amount of liquid in a tank, the sensor
measures the distance to the surface of the fluid. Further applications include: humidifiers,
sonar, medical ultra sonography, burglar alarms and non-destructive testing. Systems
typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the ultrasonic range, above 18,000
hertz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then upon receiving the echo turn the sound
waves into electrical energy which can be measured and displayed.

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The technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the density or consistency of the
material. For example foam on the surface of a fluid in a tank could distort a reading.

The ultrasonic sensors contain complete ultrasonic crystal control transmitted 40 KHz and a
very sensitive receiver measure 1 to 0.5 by 3 inches. Usually ultrasonic sensors can detect
with the range of 3 meters to 7 meters. It is an 8 bit 18 pins microcontroller that provides 200
nanosecond instruction executions. It has a flash program memory of 3.5 KB and CPU speed
up to 5 MPS. Also, it has 4 MHz internal oscillator, 224 Bytes RAM and 128 bytes
EEPROM. Addition to that, it has two comparator and operating voltage 2 V to 5.5 V with
temperature range - 40 C to 125 C.
The 28015 ultrasonic also known as The PING sensor is a 3 pin sensor that can detect
obstacles in the range of 2cm- 400cm (4 meters). It is very easy to connect to the
microcontroller using only 1 I/O pin.
Features
•Supply Voltage – 5 V (DC)
•Supply Current – 30 mA- 35 mA max
•Range – 2 cm to 4 m
•Input Trigger – positive TTL pulse, 2 uS min, 5 μs typ.
•Echo Pulse – positive TTL pulse, 115 uS to 18.5 ms
•Echo Hold-off – 750 μs from fall of Trigger pulse
•Burst Frequency – 40 kHz for 200 μs
•Burst Indicator LED shows sensor activity
•Size – 22 mm H x 46 mm W x 16 mm D (0.84 in x 1.8 in x 0.6 in)

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Pin Definitions:
1) VCC- 5V (DC)
2) GND
3) SIG- Signal I/O
The sensor emits sound waves in the ultrasonic range by converting electrical signals to
sound signals. If no obstacles are present, these waves pass without reflection. However, in
case of an obstacle being present, the waves undergo reflection from the obstacle and return
to the sensor. The sensor provides an output signal whose duration is equal to the time
required by the echo signal to return. Hence, by measuring the width of the output pulse, the
distance of the obstacle can be calculated.

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PIC Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor
core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of
Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a
typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in
contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose
applications. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such
as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size
and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output
devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and
processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed
to control non-digital electronic systems.
The system is equipped with an advanced microcontroller to increase the response speed and
to decrease computational complexity. PIC 16F877A is used detect any switch triggered.
Audio sounds and vibrations are generated by this PIC. The program stored in the memory of
the PIC is executed when this microcontroller is switched on.

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A set of instructions are stored on a single integrated circuit. The PIC is a small computer that
comprises a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. A
Microcontroller programming code is installed on the PIC, which is an important part of the
proposed system. PIC 16F877A has an On-chip ADC, thus the conversion of the analog
signals received by the sensors to digital signals is done by the microcontroller itself. The
digital signal obtained is used for calculating the distance of obstacle in the path of the blind
person. This system is advantageous compared to the other systems that use a separate
microcontroller, ADC, memory, I/O devices and other features like low cost and small size. A
+5V power supply is used to operate the PIC. If the input voltage to the PIC exceeds +5V, it
can be maintained at +5V using a voltage regulator (L7805). The program is executed using a
crystal oscillator without which the PIC cannot run. A high frequency oscillator is used as the
PIC is a real-time processing element. The PIC16F877A is an 8-bit micro controller having
40 pins, out of which 2 pins are used for Vcc, 2 pins for ground, 2 pins for crystal oscillator, 1
pin for reset and all other pins are used as I/O pins. This micro controller has 5 ports.
It’s main features are as follows, 256 bytes of EEPROM data memory, 8 channels of 10- bit
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, an ICD, 2 Comparators, self-programming, 2
capture/compare/PWMfunctions, the synchronous serial port can be configured as either 3-
wire Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI™) or the 2- wire Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C™) bus and
a Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART)

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Temperature sensor

The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature devices with an output voltage
linearly-proportional to the Centigrade temperature. The LM35 device has an advantage over
linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large
constant voltage from the output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 device
does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of ±¼°C at
room temperature and ±¾°C over a full −55°C to 150°C temperature range. Lower cost is
assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The low-output impedance, linear
output, and precise inherent calibration of the LM35 device makes interfacing to readout or
control circuitry especially easy. The device is used with single power supplies, or with plus
and minus supplies. As the LM35 device draws only 60 µA from the supply, it has very low
self-heating of less than 0.1°C in still air. The LM35 device is rated to operate over a −55°C
to 150°C temperature range, while the LM35C device is rated for a −40°C to 110°C range
(−10° with improved accuracy). The LM35-series devices are available packaged in hermetic
TO transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D devices are available in
the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D device is available in an 8-lead surface-
mount small-outline package and a plastic TO-220 package.

Features

 Calibrated directly in ˚ Celsius (Centigrade)

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 Linear + 10.0 mV/˚C scale factor
 0.5˚C accuracy guaranteeable (at +25˚C)
 Rated for full −55˚ to +150˚C range
 Suitable for remote applications
 Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
 Operates from 4 to 30 volts
 Less than 60 µA current drain
 Low self-heating, 0.08˚C in still air
 Nonlinearity only ±1⁄4˚C typical
 Low impedance output, 0.1 Ω for 1 mA load

Pin No Function Name


1 Supply voltage; 5V (+35V to -2V) Vcc
2 Output voltage (+6V to -1V) Output
3 Ground (0V) Ground

Pin 1 of the LM35 goes into +5V of the arduino


Pin 2 of the LM35 goes into analog pin A0 of the arduino
Pin 3 of the LM35 goes into ground (GND) of the arduino

Pin 1 receives positive DC voltage in order for the IC to work. This, again, is voltage
approximately 5 volts. Pin 3 is the ground, so it receives the ground or negative terminal of
the DC power supply. And Pin 2 is the output of the IC, outputting an analog voltage in
porportion to the temperature it measures.

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The arduino, with suitable code, can then interpret this measured analog voltage and output to
us the temperature in degrees celsius and fahrenheit.

Also to do this project we need a USB cable with a Type A connector on one end and a Type
B connector on the other end. This is so that we can hook our arduino to a computer and send
it code that it can run to display to us the temperature.

The temperature sensor circuit we will build is shown below:

Gas Sensors :
Methane gas sensors

This is a simple-to-use compressed natural gas (CNG) sensor, suitable for sensing natural gas
(composed of mostly Methane [CH4]) concentrations in the air. The MQ-4 can detect natural
gas concentrations anywhere from 200 to 10000ppm.

This sensor has a high sensitivity and fast response time. The sensor’s output is an analog
resistance. The drive circuit is very simple; all you need to do is power the heater coil with
5V, add a load resistance, and connect the output to an ADC.

This sensor comes in a package similar to our MQ-3 alcohol sensor, and can be used with the
breakout board below.

This methane gas sensor detects the concentration of methane gas in the air and outputs its
reading as an analog voltage. The concentration sensing range of 300 ppm to 10,000 ppm is
suitable for leak detection. For example, the sensor could detect if someone left a gas stove
on but not lit. The sensor can operate at temperatures from -10 to 50°C and consumes less
than 150 mA at 5 V

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Carbon monoxide sensor

Carbon monoxide (CO) is an invisible intruder that threatens lives in nearly every home and
sends 20,000 people to the ER with CO poisoning each year. Our hardwired CO detectors
with RealTest use electrochemical sensors to measure carbon monoxide levels and alert
residents with a flashing Temp-4 signal alarm—but that’s not all. System-connected carbon
monoxide detectors offer guaranteed 24/7 central station protection, whether residents are
home or not. Monitored CO detection is ideal for any home and provides additional peace of
mind in situations when children, the elderly, or pets are at risk.

This is a simple-to-use Carbon Monoxide (CO) sensor, suitable for sensing CO


concentrations in the air. The MQ-7 can detect CO-gas concentrations anywhere from 20 to
2000ppm.

This sensor has a high sensitivity and fast response time. The sensor’s output is an analog
resistance. The drive circuit is very simple; all you need to do is power the heater coil with
5V, add a load resistance, and connect the output to an ADC.

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Carbon di oxide sensor

The light intensity which reaches the pyroelectric detector is correlated to the concentration
of carbon dioxide. CO2 variation are detected by measuring the voltage between the two
armours of the pyroelectric detector which is proportional to the light intensity. Three main
components make up the carbon dioxide sensor: a commercialpulsable infrared emitters, a
pyroelectric detector and a porous silicon optical filter Front view of detector and of the PS
microcavity The optical filter consisting of alternating porous silicon layers of different
refractive indexes represents the sensing element. The optical filter is projected to selectively
allow the propagation of a single wavelength 4257nm, i.e. absorption wavelength of the
fundamental vibration of carbon dioxide molecule. The optical filter is allocated on top of the
pyroelectric detector.

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BUZZER

The Piezo buzzer produces sound based on reverse of the piezoelectric effect. The generation
of pressure variation or strain by the application of electric potential across a piezoelectric
material is the underlying principle. These buzzers can be used to alert a user of an event
corresp action, counter signal or sensor input. They are also used in alarm circuits. The
buzzer produces a same noisy sound irrespective of the voltage variation applied to it. It
consists of piezo crystals between two conductors. When a po conductor and pull on the
other. This, push and pull action, results in a sound wave. Most buzzers produce sound in the
range 2 to 4kHz.

Piezo buzzer is an electronic device commonly used to produce sound. Light weight, simple
construction and low price make it usable in various applications like car/truck reversing
indicator, computers, call bells etc. Piezo buzzer is based on the inverse principle of piezo
electricity discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie. It is the phenomena of generating
electricity when mechanical pressure is applied to certain materials and the vice versa is also
true. Such materials are called piezo electric materials. Piezo electric materials are either
naturally available or manmade. Piezoceramic is class of manmade material, which poses
piezo electric effect and is widely used to make disc, the heart of piezo buzzer. When
subjected to an alternating electric field they stretch or compress, in accordance with the
frequency of the signal thereby producing sound.

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FOG SENSOR

A majority of serial collision accidents happens when visibility is low due to fog. Fog

sensor measures atmospheric visibility (meteorological optical range) by

determining the amount of light scattered by particles in the air. The fog sensor’s

high sensitivity allows fog to be detected by the sensor before it is detected by

the human eye. Fog sensor is one of the most advanced feature used in the stick. It is
implemented in the blind stick in order to aware the vehicles and people around the blind
person of his presence. An LED is attached to this fog sensor which keeps on blinking when a
foggy condition is observed. Thus due to the constant blinking of the LED, the vehicle nearby
gets an alert that someone is present there. The LED blinks continuously till the fog is
present.Hence it helps the blind person in avoiding any fatal injuries and accidents.

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Fig. fog sensor

BLUETOOTH MODULE

HC‐05 module is an easy to use Bluetooth SPP (Serial Port Protocol) module, designed for
transparent wireless serial connection setup. Serial port Bluetooth module is fully qualified
Bluetooth V2.0+EDR (Enhanced Data Rate) 3Mbps Modulation with complete 2.4GHz radio
transceiver and baseband. It uses CSR Bluecore 04‐External single chip Bluetooth system
with CMOS technology and with AFH (Adaptive Frequency Hopping Feature). It has the
footprint as small as 12.7mmx27mm.

Hardware features

 Up to +4dBm RF transmit power.

 Low Power 1.8V Operation, 3.3 to 5 V I/O.

 PIO control.

 UART interface with programmable baud rate.

 With integrated antenna.

 With edge connector.

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SPEAKER

The stick designed for the blind person not only helps the person to move around but also to
escape the situations such as fire and falling off in places such as in sewage which is
dangerous for the blind person. Hence there is a speaker installed in the stick which contains
voice message regarding such situations which further avoids causalities.

LED

It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is
applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the
color of the light is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. A light-emitting
diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits
light when activated.[4]When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are
typically small (less than 1 mm2 ) and integrated optical components may be used to shape
the radiation pattern

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HEAT SINK

A heat sink (also commonly spelled heatsink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the
heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid
coolant, where it is dissipated away from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the
device's temperature at optimal levels. In computers, heat sinks are used to cool central
processing units or graphics processors. Heat sinks are used with high-power semiconductor
devices such as power transistors and optoelectronics such as lasers and light emitting diodes
(LEDs), where the heat dissipation ability of the component itself is insufficient to moderate
its temperature. It is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the cooling
medium surrounding it, such as the air. Thermal adhesive or thermal grease improve the heat
sink's performance by filling air gaps between the heat sink and the heat spreader on the
device. A heat sink is usually made out of copper and/or aluminium.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage


regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control
loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage

26
regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC
voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and
central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In
an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or
along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much
power is drawn from the line.

BATTERY

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type of electrical


battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, while a non-
rechargeable or primary battery is supplied fully charged, and discarded once discharged. It is
composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as
it accumulates and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable
batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to
megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different
combinations of electrodematerials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, nickel
cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion
polymer (Li-ion polymer).Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable
batteries, but have a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they
can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable
battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be used
interchangeably with them.

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CAPACITORS

All electrolytic capacitors (e-caps) are polarized capacitors whose anode (+) is made of a
particular metal on which an insulating oxide layer formed by anodization, acting as
the dielectric of the electrolytic capacitor. A non-solid or solid electrolyte which covers the
surface of the oxide layer in principle serves as the second electrode (cathode) (-) of the
capacitor.Due to their very thin dielectric oxide layer and enlarged anode surface, electrolytic
capacitors have—based on the volume—a much higher capacitance-voltage (CV) product
compared to ceramic capacitors or film capacitors, but a much smaller CV value than
electrochemical supercapacitors.The large capacitance of electrolytic capacitors makes them
particularly suitable for passing or bypassing low-frequency signals up to some mega-hertz
and for storing large amounts of energy. They are widely used for decoupling or noise
filtering in power supplies and DC link circuits for variable-frequency drives, for coupling
signals between amplifier stages, and storing energy as in a flashlamp.Standard electrolytic
capacitors are polarized components due to their asymmetrical construction, and may only be
operated with a higher voltage (ie, more positive) on the anode than on the cathode at all
times. Voltages with reverse polarity, or voltage or ripple current higher than specified (as
little as 1 or 1.5 volts may suffice), can destroy the dielectric and thus the capacitor. The
destruction of electrolytic capacitors can have catastrophic consequences (explosion,
fire).Bipolar electrolytic (aka non-polarized) capacitors which may be operated with either
polarity are special constructions with two anodes connected in series.

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RELAY

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one
or many sets of contacts. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power
than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to be a form of an electrical
amplifier.When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its
relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application,
this is to reduce noise.In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.If
the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the
energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is designed to be
energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This
"shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the
armature during the AC cycle.

Pole & Throw

SPST - Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be switched on/off. In
total, four terminals when the coil is also included.
SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw. These have one row of three terminals. One terminal
(common) switches between the other two poles. It is the same as a single change-over
switch. In total, five terminals when the coil is also included.

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DPST - Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two
SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. In total, six terminals when the coil is also
included. This configuration may also be referred to as DPNO Circuit symbols of relays.
The contacts can be either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed (NC), or change-over
(CO) contacts

RESISTORS

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical


resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines,
among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads
for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature,
time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a
volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment.. The nominal value of the resistance falls
within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

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ENCODER

Features

 Operating voltage

 2.4V~5V for the HT12A

 2.4V~12V for the HT12E

 Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology

 Low standby current: 0.1A (typ.) at VDD=5V

 HT12A with a 38kHz carrier for infrared transmission medium

 Minimum transmission word

 Four words for the HT12E

 One word for the HT12A Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor Data code has
positive polarity

 Minimal external components

 HT12A/E: 18-pin DIP/20-pin SOP package

DECODER

Features

 Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V

 Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology

 Low standby current

 Capable of decoding 12 bits of information

 Binary address setting

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 Address/Data number combination

 HT12D: 8 address bits and 4 data bits

 HT12F: 12 address bits only

 212 series of encoders

 18-pin DIP, 20-pin SOP package

CHAPTER 4

SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION

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