Post-tensioned Concrete Floors

A guide to design and construction

 2 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Contents About this publication

In the UK, the use of post-tensioned (PT) concrete floors in buildings
Development of post-tensioned floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 is popular and commonplace. Post-tensioned floor slabs are also
widely used in multi-storey construction overseas, particularly in
Principles of post-tensioned floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 North America, Australia and the Middle East. In California it is the
primary choice for concrete floors.
Benefits of post-tensioned floors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
In the UK, typical applications include:
Structural forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ¢¢ Offices
PT flat slab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ¢¢ Apartment buildings
¢¢ Car parks
PT ribbed and waffle slabs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
¢¢ Shopping centres
PT beam and slab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ¢¢ Hospitals
¢¢ Transfer beams.
Design theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The purpose of this publication is to widen the understanding
Design considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 of post-tensioned floor construction and show the considerable
benefits and opportunities it offers to developers, architects,
Construction considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 engineers and contractors. These benefits include:

Cost comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 ¢¢ Minimum storey heights

¢¢ Minimum number of columns
Commercial buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 ¢¢ Rapid construction

Hospitals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ¢¢ Savings on cost and programme

¢¢ Maximum design flexibility
Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ¢¢ Optimum clear spans

End of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ¢¢ Joint-free, crack-free construction

¢¢ Controlled deflections.
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
This publication also aims to address the myths and answer
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 frequently asked questions about post-tensioned concrete by
showing that:
¢¢ The design is not necessarily complicated.
¢¢ PT floors are compatible with fast-track construction.
¢¢ PT floors do not require the use of high-strength concrete.
¢¢ The formwork does not carry any of the prestressing forces.
¢¢ PT floors can be demolished safely.
¢¢ Local failure does not lead to total collapse.
¢¢ Holes can be cut in slabs at a later date.

A more detailed guide to the design of PT floors can be found in

The Concrete Society Technical Report TR43 Post-tensioned Concrete
Floors: Design Handbook [1].

Cardinal Place, London. Courtesy of Freyssinet. A KEY ADVANTAGE OF PT CONCRETE IS THAT

Cover image: Wakefield Metropolitan District Offices, Wakefield is a five-
IT CAN ECONOMICALLY SPAN FURTHER THAN
storey building with post-tensioned flat slabs and cantilevering transfer REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS AND PROVIDES
beams. A 210/250mm post-tensioned slab solution throughout the SPANS COMPARABLE TO STEEL SOLUTIONS.
building produced thinner slabs, maximised floor-to-ceiling space and
achieved the open and exposed look requested by the client. Fair faced
soffits were another key feature.

The building provided low-energy, open-plan office space around a

central atrium and was designed to BREEAM ‘Excellent’ standard. Image
courtesy of CCL Ltd.
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 3

Development of post-tensioned floors

The ‘pre’ in pre-stressing describes the stress applied before duct. This is generally referred to as a bonded system as the grouting bonds
any normal loads are applied. The ‘post’ in post-tensioned the tendon along the length of the section.
refers to the strands being tensioned after the concrete has
The bonding is similar to the way in which bars are bonded in reinforced
been cast and gained sufficient strength to be compressed
concrete. After grouting is complete there is no longer any reliance on the
in an equal and opposite reaction to the tensioning of the
anchorage to transfer the precompression into the section.
strands.
Applications in buildings have always existed in the design of large span
The practice of prestressing can be traced back as far as 440BC, when the
beams supporting heavy loadings, but these systems were not suitable for
Greeks reduced bending stresses and tensions in the hulls of their fighting
prestressing floor slabs, which cannot accommodate either the large ducts
galleys by prestressing them with tensioned ropes.
or anchorages.

One of the simplest examples of prestressing is that of trying to lift a row

During the 1960s, in the US, unbonded systems were developed. These
of books as illustrated in Figure 1a below. To lift the books it is necessary to
rely on the anchorages to transfer the forces between the strand and the
push them together, i.e. to apply a precompression to the row. This increases
concrete throughout the life of the structure.
the resistance to slip between the books so that they can be lifted.
More versatile bonded systems suitable for floor slabs were developed in
In the 19th century, several engineers tried to develop prestressing
Australia. Bonded systems became popular in the UK in the 1990s. In the
techniques without success. The invention of prestressed concrete is
UK, bonded construction is now widely used; having approximately 90% of
accredited to Eugene Freyssinet who developed the first practical post-
the PT suspended floor market.
tensioning system in 1939. Systems were developed around the use of
multi-wire tendons located in large ducts cast into the concrete section,
Both bonded and unbonded systems are suitable for floor slabs and
and fixed at each end by anchorages. They were stressed by jacking from
a comparison of the techniques is given in the section on Design
either one or both ends, and then the tendons were grouted within the
Considerations (page 14).

Figure 1a: lifting a row of books

Sheath Strand
Grease

Figure 1b: Unbonded system before pouring concrete.

Courtesy of Balvac.

Unbonded PT tendon

Bonded PT components

Figure 1c: Bonded system before pouring concrete. Figure 1d: Components of PT
Courtesy of Freyssinet.
 4 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Principles of post-tensioned floors

Concrete has a low tensile strength but is strong in
compression. By pre-compressing a concrete element, so
that when flexing under applied loads it still remains in
compression, a more efficient design for the structure can
be achieved. The basic principles of prestressed concrete
are given in Figure 2.
transferring the forces to the concrete. Considerable force is required
to stress the tendons, so pre-tensioning is principally used for precast
concrete where the forces can be restrained by fixed abutments located
at each end of the stressing bed, or carried by specially stiffened moulds.
Table 1: Post-tensioning terms

Term Definition
Under an applied load, a prestressed element will bend, reducing the
built-in compression stresses; when the load is removed, the prestressing Device to lock the strand at a
force causes the element to return to its original condition, illustrating the Anchorage pre-determined tensile force, which induces
compressive stress in the concrete.
resilience of prestressed concrete. Furthermore, tests have shown that a
virtually unlimited number of such reversals of the loading can be carried Dead-end
An anchorage where no jacking takes place.
out without affecting the element’s ability to carry its working load or anchorage
impairing its ultimate load capacity. In other words prestressing endows the
element with a high degree of resistance to fatigue. Metal or plastic tube through which the strand is
Duct
passed for the bonded system.
If the tensile stress due to applied load is less than the prestress plus the tensile
Distance between the centroid of the concrete section
capacity of the concrete, the concrete will not crack in the tension zone. Eccentricity
and the centre of the strand.
However, depending on the environment it may be acceptable to have some
cracking. Even after an element has been loaded to beyond its working load, Live The anchorage at the jacking end of the strand. Both
and well towards its ultimate capacity, removal of the load results in closing of anchorage ends of the strand can be live.
the cracks and they will not reappear under working load.
Geometric shape of the tendon in elevation, often
Profile
parabolic.
There are two methods of applying prestress to a concrete member. These are:
¢¢ Post-tensioning – where the concrete is placed around sheaths or ducts Plastic extrusion moulded directly to the strand. A
Sheath layer of grease between the strand and the sheath
containing unstressed tendons. Once the concrete has gained sufficient
prevents bonding.
strength the tendons are stressed against the concrete and locked
off by special anchor grips, known as split wedges. In this system, all
Strands High strength steel reinforcement.
tendon forces are transmitted directly to the concrete. Since no stresses
are applied to the formwork, conventional formwork may be used.
¢¢ Pre-tensioning – where the concrete is placed around previously stressed Tendon One or more strands in a common duct or sheath.
tendons. As the concrete hardens, it grips the stressed tendons and
when it has obtained sufficient strength the tendons are released, thus

a) b)

Prestressed concrete can most easily be defined as precompressed
concrete. This means that a compressive stress is put into a concrete
member before it begins its working life, and is positioned to be in
areas where tensile stresses would otherwise develop under working
load. Consider a beam of plain concrete carrying a load.
Under load, the stresses in the beam will be compressive in the top
and tensile in the bottom. We can expect the beam to crack at the
bottom, even with a relatively small load, because of concrete’s low
tensile strength. There are two ways of countering this low tensile
strength - by using steel reinforcement or by prestressing.

c) d)

In reinforced concrete, reinforcement in the form of steel bars is placed in In prestressed concrete, compressive stresses are introduced into
areas where tensile stresses will develop under load. The reinforcement areas where tensile stresses will develop under load to resist or annul
carries all the tension and, by limiting the stress in this reinforcement, the these tensile stresses. So the concrete now behaves as if it had a high
cracking of the concrete is kept within acceptable limits. tensile strength of its own.

Figure 2: Principle of prestressing

 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 5

Benefits of post-tensioned floors

Post-tensioning concrete increases the many benefits
associated with a concrete framed building. This section
is intended to explain these benefits. The economics
of a project are often the main driver and a separate
section is devoted to this topic on pages 18 to 21.
Design benefits
Long spans
A key advantage of PT concrete is that it can economically span further
than reinforced concrete slabs and provides spans comparable to steel
solutions. PT slabs can be used to economically span distances of up to
25m between columns. The benefits of the long spans are:
¢¢ Reduction in the number of columns
¢¢ Reduction in the number of foundations
¢¢ Increased flexibility for internal planning
¢¢ Maximisation of the available letting space of a floor.
Minimum floor thickness
PT concrete gives the minimum structural thickness of any solution for
typical spans and loads. This has several benefits:
¢¢ Minimising the self-weight of the structure
¢¢ Reducing foundation loads
¢¢ Minimising the overall height of the building (see Figure 3)
¢¢ Reducing cost of cladding
¢¢ Reducing vertical runs of services.
Aesthetics
Internal fair-faced concrete can be both aesthetically pleasing and durable,
ensuring buildings keep looking good with little maintenance.
In addition, by exposing the floor soffit, concrete’s thermal mass properties
can help to reduce the temperature of the working environment and
save energy.
Servicing benefits
Distribution of services
Mechanical and electrical services are an expensive and programme-critical
element in construction, with significant maintenance and replacement
issues. M&E contractors can often quote an additional cost for horizontal
services distribution below a profiled slab, of up to 15%. PT concrete floors
generally have a flat soffit which provides a zone for services distribution
free of any downstand beams. This reduces design team coordination effort
and risk of errors. It also allows flexibility in design and adaptability in use.
A flat soffit permits maximum off-site fabrication of services, higher quality
work and quicker installation.
Openings
PT concrete floors can accommodate openings without too much difficulty.
Smaller holes seldom present problems as they may be readily formed
between tendons, which are often spaced at well over one metre centres.
Larger openings can by formed by diverting the tendons around them.
Openings can also be formed adjacent to the face of columns, although
this can increase the punching shear reinforcement requirements.

Flexibility
Flexibility of layout can be achieved as PT concrete can cope with irregular
grids and unusual geometry, including curves.
The positions of the tendons can be marked on the slab’s soffit and topside
to aid identification for future openings. Alternatively, tendons can be
located using C.A.T cable detection equipment.

Using post-tensioning can mean an extra floor in a 10-storey building

10

09

08 PT floors have the

PT
07 following advantages:
Minimum
06
weight steel
¢¢ Economic
solution
05
¢¢ Minimum floor thickness
04 ¢¢ Long spans
03 ¢¢ Rapid construction
¢¢ Minimal use of materials
02
¢¢ Flexibility of layout
01
¢¢ Adaptability
10-storey building ¢¢ Inherent fire protection

Figure 3: PT concrete floors can significantly reduce building height in comparison to

steel buildings
 6 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Construction benefits Performance benefits

Speed of construction
PT concrete is highly compatible with fast programme construction as there
can be rapid mobilisation at the start of the project. Just like reinforced
concrete, sophisticated, modern formwork systems are available to reduce
floor construction cycle times. Modern formwork systems have markedly
increased construction rates. It is now common to achieve 500m2 per week
per crane. Post-tensioning reduces reinforcement congestion, which speeds
up the fixing time and makes placing of concrete easier.
Large area pours
PT slabs are thinner than reinforced concrete slabs and so a larger area can
be poured for the same volume of concrete. Large area pours reduce the
number of pours and increase construction speed and efficiency.
With bonded PT floors, when the concrete has reached a strength of
typically 12.5 N/mm2, part of the prestressing force is usually applied to
control shrinkage cracking and thus further aid larger area pours. It may be
possible to avoid two-stage stressing if there is sufficient passively stressed
reinforcement to control shrinkage cracking, such as in unbonded floors.
Programme
Speed of construction of the frame is one consideration in the programme,
but the effect of the choice of material on the whole project programme
is also important. Concrete provides a safe working platform and semi-
internal conditions, allowing services installation and follow-on trades to
commence early in the programme, while flexibility allows accommodation
of design changes later in the process.
Reduced cranage
PT slabs are thinner and use less reinforcement than reinforced concrete
slabs, so this reduces the ‘hook’ time required for the frame construction.
Deflection
Deflection is often a governing design criteria, especially where long spans
are used. To some extent the deflection of the slab can be controlled by
varying the prestress. Increasing the prestress can decrease the deflection,
albeit with a cost implication.
Vibration control
For PT concrete buildings, vibration criteria for most uses are covered
without any change to the normal design. For some uses, such as
laboratories or hospitals, additional measures may be needed, but these are
significantly less than for other materials.
In an independent study [2] into the vibration performance of hospital
floors, it was found that concrete required less modification to meet the
vibration criteria. Figure 4 shows the increases in construction depth
needed to upgrade a floor designed for office loading to meet hospital
vibration criteria for night wards and operating theatres.
Crack-free
Crack-free construction can be provided by designing the whole slab to
be in compression under normal working loads. (However, it is normal to
adopt a partially prestressed solution and allow cracks widths up to 0.2mm.)
For crack-free construction appropriate details may also be incorporated
to reduce the effects of restraint, which may otherwise lead to cracking
(see section on restraint on page 14). This crack-free construction is often
exploited in car parks where concrete surfaces are exposed to an aggressive
environment.
Fire protection
Concrete’s inherent fire resistance means concrete structures generally
do not require additional fire protection. This reduces time, costs, use of a
separate trade and ongoing maintenance for applied fire protection.

Acoustics
Additional finishings to floors are often required to meet the requirements
Figure 4: Vibration control - increase in floor thickness for hospital wards of Approved Document E. The inherent mass of concrete means additional
and theatres compared to office spaces finishings are minimised or even eliminated. Independent testing of
Vibration control: Increase in floor thickness 250mm thick concrete floors in a block
of student accommodation gave results
exceeding requirements by more than
50% 5dB for both airborne and impact sound
insulation [3]. Further acoustic test results
40% are available at www.concretecentre.com/
% increase

acoustics.
30%
Air-tightness
20% Part L of the Building Regulations requires
pre-completion pressure testing. Failing
these tests means a time consuming process
10%
of inspecting joints and interfaces, resealing
Operating thea where necessary. Concrete edge details are
0% tre simpler to seal, with less failure risk. Some
Night ward
contractors have switched to concrete
e Office
o sit ck
frames on this criterion alone.
mp de lab b
Co Sli
m
lats sla
Cf PT
R

Operational benefits
Robustness and vandal resistance
Concrete is, by its nature, very robust and is capable of being designed to
withstand explosions. It is also capable of resisting accidental damage and
vandalism.
Durability
A well detailed concrete floor is expected to have a long life and require very
little maintenance. It should easily be able to achieve a 50-year design life
and, with careful attention to detail, should be able to achieve a 100-year life,
even in aggressive environments.
Adaptability
Markets and working practices are constantly changing, so it makes sense
to consider a material that can accommodate changing needs or be
adapted with minimum effort. A PT concrete floor can easily be adapted
during its life. Holes can be cut through slabs relatively simply, and there are
methods to strengthen the frame if required (see section on alterations on
page 22).
Partitions
Sealing and fire stopping at partition heads is simplest with flat soffits.
Significant savings of up to 10% of the partitions package can be made
compared to the equivalent dry lining package abutting a profiled soffit
with downstands. This can represent up to 4% of the frame cost, and a
significant reduction in programme length.
Minimal maintenance
Unlike other materials, concrete does not need any toxic coatings or paint
to protect it against deterioration or fire. Properly designed and installed
concrete is maintenance free.
POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 7
Sustainable benefits
Local materials
The constituent parts of concrete (water, cement and aggregate) are all
readily and locally available to any construction site, minimising the impact
of transporting raw materials.
Reduced use of materials
PT is an efficient structural form, which minimises the use of concrete and
uses high-grade steel for the tendons. This has the dual benefit of reducing
the use of raw materials and reducing the number of vehicle movements to
transport the materials.
Thermal mass
A concrete structure has high thermal mass. Exposed soffits allow fabric
energy storage (FES), regulating temperature swings. This can reduce initial
plant costs and ongoing operational costs, while converting plant space
to usable space. With the outlook of increasingly hot summers, it makes
longterm sense to choose a material that reduces the requirement for
energy intensive, high maintenance air-conditioning.
Recycling
Concrete can be specified with recycled aggregate and, at the end of its
life, both the concrete and steel tendons from demolished PT floors are
100% recyclable.
Concrete mix
Modern concretes generally contain cement replacements which lower the
embodied CO2 and use by-products from other industries. Care should be
exercised to balance the environmental benefits of cement replacements
with their slower strength gain, which delays the initial prestress. For
more information on alternative mix constituents, download Specifying
Sustainable Concrete from www.concretecentre.com.
A bonded PT slab before casting concrete
at Cambridge Grand Arcade shopping
centre. The final concrete mix used was
40% ground granulated blast furnace
slag (ggbs), bringing considerable
sustainability benefits. Courtesy of Hanson.
 8 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Structural forms
The economic range for PT floors is 6m to 20m, depending The solid flat slab is economic for spans between 6m and 13m, which
on the structural form used. The shorter limit is based on makes it suitable as an alternative for many current frame options (see
the practical minimum economic depth of PT slab being Figure 5 below). Further details on flat slabs are given on page 9. For longer
spans, ribbed slabs or band beams are more economic and are described
200mm.
on pages 10 and 11.
There are three main structural forms used in the UK:
Figure 6 provides typical span-to-depth for PT floors. More detailed
¢¢ Solid flat slab guidance on sizing PT floors can be found in The Concrete Centre’s guide
¢¢ Ribbed slab Economic Concrete Frame Elements [4].
¢¢ Band beam and slab

Figure 5: Typical economic span ranges

Span (m)

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Key
RC FLAT SLAB

RC BAND BEAM AND SLAB Reinforced Concrete

RC RIBBED Post-tensioned Concrete

RC WAFFLE

PT FLAT SLAB

PT BAND BEAM AND SLAB

PT RIBBED

PT WAFFLE

Figure 6: Span to depth ratios for PT floors

Imposed load = 2.5kN/m2 Imposed load = 5.0kN/m2 Imposed load = 10.0kN/m2

900 900 900

800 800 800

700 700 700

600 600 600

500 500 500

400 400 400

300 300 300

200 200 200

100 100 100

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Span (m) Span (m) Span (m)

Key
Band Beam Ribbed Slab Flat Slab One-way Slab supported by a Band Beam
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 9

PT flat slab
An efficient post-tensioned design can be achieved with
a solid flat slab which is ideally suited to multi-storey
construction where there is a regular column grid.

Points to note
Design
The depth of a flat slab is usually controlled by deflection requirements or
by the punching shear capacity around the column.

Post-tensioning improves the control of deflections and enhances shear

Flat slab
capacity. Shear reinforcement can be provided by links, shear rails or steel
cruciforms.
Markets: Benefits:
Flat slabs may be designed using the equivalent frame method, finite
element analysis programmes or yield line analysis. Guidance is available ¢¢ Residential ¢¢ Cost
from The Concrete Centre [5,6].
¢¢ Commercial ¢¢ Speed

Construction ¢¢ Hospitals ¢¢ Flexibility

Construction of flat slabs is one of the quickest methods available. Table ¢¢ Laboratories ¢¢ Sound control
forms can be used; these are becoming more lightweight so that larger ¢¢ Hotels ¢¢ Fire resistance
areas can be constructed on one table form, with formwork lifted by crane
¢¢ Schools ¢¢ Robustness
or, for craneless construction, by hoist. Table forms should be used as
repetitively as possible to gain most advantage of the construction method. ¢¢ Thermal mass
Downstand beams should be avoided wherever possible as forming beams ¢¢ Durable finishes
significantly slows construction. Edge beams need not be used for most
cladding loads.

Economics
Flat slabs are particularly appropriate for areas where tops of partitions
need to be sealed to the slab soffit for acoustic or fire reasons. It is often
the reason that flat slabs are considered to be faster and more economic
than other forms of construction, as partition heads do not need to be cut
around downstand beams or ribs.

Flat slabs can be designed with a good surface finish to the soffit, allowing
exposed soffits to be used. This allows exploitation of the building’s thermal
mass in the design of heating, ventilation and cooling (HVAC) requirements,
increasing energy efficiency, and reducing energy consumption in use.

Speed on site
Speed of construction will vary from project to project, but a useful guide
is approximately 500m2/ crane/week. Once the final prestress is applied the
formwork can be struck.

Mechanical and electrical services

Flat slabs provide the most flexible arrangements for services distribution as
services do not have to divert around structural elements.

Holes through the slab close to the column head affect the design shear
perimeter of the column head. Holes next to the column should ideally be
small and limited to two. These should be on opposite sides rather than on
adjacent sides of the column. It is worth setting out rules for the size and
location of these holes early in the design stage to allow coordination.

As with traditionally reinforced slabs, large service holes should be located A typical bonded PT flat slab prior to concrete pour.
away from the column strips and column heads in the centre of the bays. Courtesy of Freyssinet.
Again, location and size of any holes should be agreed early in the design.
 10 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

PT ribbed and waffle slabs

For longer spans the weight of a solid slab adds to both the frame and
foundation costs. By using a ribbed slab, which reduces the self-weight,
large spans can be economically constructed. These provide a very good
slab where vibration is an issue, such as laboratories and hospitals.
The one-way spanning ribbed slab provides a very adaptable structure able
to accommodate openings. Ribbed slabs are made up of beams running
between columns with narrow ribs spanning in the orthogonal direction. A
thin topping slab completes the system.

For large two-way spans, waffle slabs give a very material-efficient option
capable of supporting high loads. Waffle slabs tend to be deeper than the
equivalent ribbed slab. Waffle slabs have a thin topping slab and narrow
Ribbed slab
ribs spanning in both directions between column heads or band beams.
The column heads are the same depth as the ribs. The major drawback
with post-tensioning waffle slabs is that it is necessary to ‘weave’ the pre-
stressing tendons.

Points to note
Design
Waffle slabs work best with a square grid. Ribbed slabs should be
orientated so that the ribs span the longer distance, and the band beams
the shorter distance. The most economic layout is an aspect ratio of 4:3.
Waffle slab
Construction
Both waffle and ribbed slabs are constructed using table forms with
moulds positioned on the table forms. Speed of construction depends Markets: Benefits:
on repetition, so that the moulds on the table forms do not need to be
re-positioned. ¢¢ Vibration critical projects ¢¢ Flexible
¢¢ Hospitals ¢¢ Relatively light, therefore
Exposed finishes
¢¢ Laboratories less foundation costs
Ribbed and waffle slabs can provide a good surface finish to the soffit,
allowing exposed soffits to be used in the final building. This allows ¢¢ Speed
the use of the thermal mass of the building in the design of the HVAC ¢¢ Fairly slim floor depths
requirements, particularly as the soffit surface area of the slab is greater ¢¢ Robustness
than a flat slab, increasing the building’s energy efficiency.
¢¢ Excellent vibration
Speed on site characteristics
This is a slower form of construction than flat slabs. The use of table forms ¢¢ Thermal mass
offers the fastest solution. ¢¢ Good services integration
¢¢ Durable finishes
Where partitions need to be sealed acoustically or for fire, up to the soffit,
ribbed and waffle slabs take longer on site. Lightweight floor blocks can be ¢¢ Fire resistance
placed between the concrete ribs to act as permanent formwork, which
give a flat soffit, although these take away some of the benefits of the
lighter weight slab design. If partition locations are known, the moulds may
be omitted on these lines.

Mechanical and electrical services

Holes should be located between ribs where possible. If the holes are
greater than the space between ribs, then the holes should be trimmed
with similar depth ribs. Post construction holes can be located between
the ribs.
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 11

PT beam and slab

Beam and slab construction involves the use of one or two way spanning
slabs onto beams spanning in one or two directions. The beams can
be wide and flat or narrow and deep, depending on the structure’s
requirements. Beams tend to span between columns or walls and can be
simply supported or continuous.

This form of construction is commonly used for irregular grids and long
spans, where flat slabs may be less suitable. It is also used for transferring
loads from columns and walls or from heavy point loads to columns or
walls below.

It is also a popular method for providing a 15.6m clear span for a standard
Band beam and slab
car park configuration with a band beam spanning 15.6m and a one-way
slab spanning 7.2m or 7.5m.

Points to note
Design
The beams will usually be designed to be PT, whereas the slabs can be
designed with conventional reinforcement if the spans are relatively short.

Construction
Using a band beam rather than a deep beam simplifies the formwork.

Deep beam and slab

Slabs tend to be lightly reinforced and can normally be reinforced with
standard mesh.
Markets: Benefits:
Mechanical and electrical services
Wide band beams can have less effect on the horizontal distribution of ¢¢ Transfer structures ¢¢ Flexible
the M&E services than deep beams which tend to be more difficult to
¢¢ Heavily loaded slabs ¢¢ Sound control
negotiate, particularly if spanning in both directions. Any holes put into the
web of the beam to ease the passage of the services must be coordinated. ¢¢ Very long spans ¢¢ Fire resistance
¢¢ Robustness
Vertical distribution of services can be located anywhere in the slab zone, ¢¢ Thermal mass
but holes through beams need to be designed into the structure at an
early stage.

A typical PT beam and slab under construction. Courtesy of Freyssinet.

 12 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Design theory
Recommendations for the design of prestressed into account the affect of other elements and to enable different load
concrete are given in Eurocode 2, part 1-1 [7]. Design combinations to be applied, or to carry out both the structural analysis and
methods for post-tensioned flat slabs are relatively prestress design.
straightforward, and detailed guidance, based on
There are currently three software programs which are widely used, but
Eurocode 2, is available in The Concrete Society
other programs also exist. They either use the finite element method to
Technical Report 43 [1]. analyse the whole floor or design strips to analyse bay widths running
across the floor plan in each direction.
At the serviceability condition the concrete section is checked at all
positions to ensure that both the compressive and tensile stresses lie within
The basic principles of prestressed concrete design can be simply
the acceptable limits given in the Codes of Practice. Stresses are checked in
understood by considering the stress distribution in a concrete section
the concrete section at the initial condition when the prestress is applied,
under the action of externally applied forces or loads. It is not intended
and at serviceability conditions when calculations are made to determine
here to provide a detailed explanation of the theory of prestressed
the deflections and crack widths for various load combinations.
concrete design.

At the ultimate limit state the pre-compression in the section is ignored

Figure 7 illustrates the simplicity of the basic theory. In essence, the design
and checks are made to ensure that the section has sufficient moment
process for serviceability entails the checking of the stress distribution
capacity. Shear stresses are also checked at the ultimate limit state in a
under the combined action of both the prestress and applied loads, at all
similar manner to that for reinforced concrete design, although the benefit
positions along the beam, in order to ensure that both the compressive
of the prestress across the shear plane may be taken into account.
and tensile stress are kept within the limits stated in design standards.

At the serviceability limit state, a prestressed slab is generally always in

PT beams and slabs are usually designed to maximise the benefit of the
compression and therefore flexure cracking is uncommon. This allows
continuity provided by adjacent spans. In this situation ‘secondary’ effects
the accurate prediction of deflections as the properties of the uncracked
should be considered in the design. The secondary effects are not necessarily
concrete section are more easily determined. Deflections can therefore be
adverse and an experienced designer can use them to refine a design.
estimated, and limited to specific values rather than purely controlling the
span-to-depth ratio of the slab, as in reinforced concrete design.
In the majority of prestressed slabs it will be necessary to add
reinforcement, either to control cracking or to supplement the capacity of
In carrying out the above checks, extensive use can be made of computer
the tendons at the ultimate load condition.
software either to provide accurate models of the structure, taking

Figure 7: Principles of prestressed design

a) Consider a beam with a force P applied at each end along the beam’s c) T he stress distribution from the flexure of the beam is calculated from
centre line. M/Z where M is the bending moment and Z the section modulus. By
considering the deflected shape of the beam it can be seen that the
P P bottom surface will be in tension. The corresponding stress diagram
can be drawn. + M/Z
P/A
Compression

This force applies a uniform compressive stress + =

across the section equal to P/A, where A is the cross
sectional area. The stress distribution is shown here. Tension - M/Z

0 d) Concrete is strong in compression but not in tension. Only small tensile

stresses can be applied before cracks that limit the effectiveness of the
b) Consider next a vertical load w applied along the beam and the
section will occur. By combining the stress distributions from the applied
corresponding bending moment diagram applied to this alone.
precompression and the applied loading it can be seen there is no longer
w
any tension, assuming the magnitude of P has been chosen correctly.
Applied load
P/A + M/Z P/A+ M/Z

Resultant Moment Diagram + =

M (max)
- M/Z P/A - M/Z
0 0 0
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 13

Load balancing Figure 8: Load balancing technique

The technique known as ‘load balancing’ offers the designer a powerful a) Proposed
tool. In this, forces exerted by the prestressing tendons are modelled as loading
equivalent upward forces on the slab. These forces are then proportioned
to balance the applied downwards forces (see Figure 8). By balancing
a chosen percentage of the applied loading it is possible to control
deflections and also make the most efficient use of the slab depth.
b) Unstressed
slab
In order to use the load balancing technique, the prestressing tendons
must be set to follow profiles that reflect the bending moment envelope
from the applied loadings. Generally parabolic profiles are used. In the case
of flat soffit slabs these are achieved by the use of supporting reinforcing
bars placed on proprietary chairs.
c) Prestressed
In post-tensioned concrete floors, the load balancing technique can enable slab
the optimum depth to be achieved for any given span. The final thickness
of the slab, as with reinforced concrete flat slabs, may also be controlled by
the punching shear around the column.

d) Final
condition

Tendons draped to reflect the bending moment profile. Courtesy of Freyssinet.

 14 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Design considerations
PT floors are fairly straightforward to design, but there
are some aspects which are different to other types of
reinforced concrete design. These should be considered
when scheming the project.
Where the walls are unfavourably arranged then a calculation of the
effects of movement should be carried out and suitable measures taken to
overcome them. This could involve:
¢¢ Using infill strips which are usually cast around 28 days after the
remainder of the floor, to allow initial shrinkage to occur (see Figure 10).

Restraint ¢¢ Increasing the quantity of conventional reinforcement, to control the

cracking.

At the early stages of a project using post-tensioned floors, care must be ¢¢ Using temporary release details (see Figure 11).
taken to avoid the problems of restraint. This is where the free movement in ¢¢ Reducing the stiffness of the restraining elements.
the length of the slab under the prestress forces is restrained, for example
by the unfavourable positioning of shear walls or lift cores (see Figure 9). The effect of the floor shortening on the columns should also be
considered in their design as this may increase their design moments.
All concrete elements shrink due to drying and early thermal effects but,
in addition, prestressing causes elastic shortening and ongoing shrinkage
due to creep. Stiff vertical members such as stability walls restrain the floor
Disproportionate collapse
slab from shrinking, which prevents the prestress from developing and thus
PT floor systems are usually designed to resist disproportionate collapse
reduces the strength of the floor.
through detailing of the tendons and reinforcement. In bonded systems
the tendons can be considered to act as horizontal ties. In unbonded
Where the restraining walls are in a favourable arrangement and the floor
systems, the tendons cannot be relied on and the conventional
is in an internal environment, the maximum length of the floor without
reinforcement acts as the horizontal ties.
movement joints can be up to 50m. However, full consideration should be
given to the effects of shrinkage due to drying, early thermal effects, elastic
shortening and creep in the design.

RESTRAINT OF THE SLAB BY SHEAR WALLS

SHOULD BE CONSIDERED AT THE EARLY STAGES
Figure 10: Typical infill strip
OF A PROJECT TO AVOID MOVEMENT JOINTS OR
TIME-CONSUMING CONSTRUCTION DETAILS.
1000 mm
Post-tensioned
Figure 9: Typical floor layouts RC infill strip slab

50mm Slab to remain

seating fully propped
until infill strip
cured

a) Favourable layout of restraining walls (low restraint) Figure 11: Temporary release detail

Infill later
Post-tensioned slab

2 layers of slip strip

b) Unfavourable layout of restraining walls (high restraint)

100mm bearing
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 15

Holes and tendon layout Figure 12: Common layout of tendons

A particular design feature of post-tensioned slabs is that the distribution

of tendons on plan within the slab does not significantly effect its
ultimate strength. There is some effect on strength and shear capacity,
but this is generally small. This allows an even prestress in each direction
of a flat slab to be achieved with a number of tendon layouts (see
Figure 12).

This offers considerable design flexibility to allow for penetrations and

subsequent openings, and the adoption of differing slab profiles, from
Layout (a)
solid slabs through to ribbed and waffle construction.

Layout (a) of Figure 12 shows the tendons banded in one direction,

and a combination of banding and even distribution in the other
direction. This does not provide quite the same flexibility in positioning
of holes, but offers increased shear capacity around column heads.
Again, this layout can be used for both solid and ribbed slabs and
banded beam construction.

Layout (b) shows banded and distributed tendons in both directions

and is logically suitable for waffle flat slabs, but may be employed for
other slabs, depending on design requirements. The disadvantage of this
layout is that it requires ‘weaving’ of the tendons. Layout (b)

Holes through post-tensioned slabs can be accommodated easily

if they are identified at the design stage. Small holes (less than
300mm x 300mm) can generally be positioned anywhere on the slab, Figure 13: Detailing of tendons around an opening
between tendons, without any special requirements. Larger holes are
accommodated by locally displacing the continuous tendons around Slab
the hole. It is good detailing practice to overlap any stopped off (or
‘dead-ended’) tendons towards the corners of the holes in order to
eliminate any cracking at the corners. In ribbed slabs, holes can be
readily incorporated between ribs or, for larger holes, by amending Dead-end
anchor
rib spacings or by stopping-off ribs and transferring forces to the
adjoining ribs. Tendon

With flat slabs it is possible to locate holes adjacent to faces of columns. It

is important to note that this significantly reduces the punching
shear capacity.

Figure 14: Layout of tendons to allow services to be placed close to

Holes are more difficult to accommodate once the slab has been cast.
column face
They can, however, be carefully cut if the tendon positions have been
accurately recorded or can be identified (see page 22). A better approach Column under
is to identify at the design stage zones where further penetrations may
be placed. These zones can then be clearly marked on the soffit and
topside of the slab.

Service holes

Openings in slab.

Large openings can be formed. Courtesy of Structural Systems.

 16 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Bonded or unbonded? Cover

As with reinforced concrete, cover is chosen to meet the following
Post-tensioned floors may be bonded, unbonded or a combination of both. requirements:
¢¢ Corrosion resistance (BS 8500)
With the bonded system the prestressing tendons run through small ¢¢ Bond (Eurocode 2, Part1-1 [7])
continuous flattened ducts which are grouted after the tendons are
¢¢ Fire (Eurocode 2, Part 1-2 [8])
stressed, creating bond between the concrete and tendons.

The ducts are formed from spirally-wound or seam-folded galvanised metal Further guidance can be found in How to design concrete structures using
strip. The limit on the curvature or profile that can be achieved with the Eurocode 2 (Getting Started section) [9].
prestressing tendons is dependent on the flexibility of the ducts.

In an unbonded system the tendon is not grouted and remains free to Procurement
move independently of the concrete. This has no effect on the serviceability
PT slabs can be procured using the same routes as any other concrete slab.
design or performance of a structure under normal working conditions. It
The post-tensioning specialist is usually sub-contracted to the concrete frame
does, however, change both the design theory and structural performance
contractor. As post-tensioning has been increasingly used since the mid
at the ultimate limit state.
1990s the concrete frame contractors are now familiar with the technique.
Table 2 summarises the main differences between the two systems. The
It is important that the PT system is supplied and installed by a suitably
greater resistance to accidental damage of bonded construction is often an
experienced company. An industry accreditation scheme is run by UK
important consideration.
CARES and the status of a particular company can be found at
www.ukcares.com. It is recommended that specifications require CARES
Concrete approved PT suppliers and installers to be used.

PT slabs do not require particularly high strength concrete and often class In the UK the PT specialist is often made responsible for the design of the
C32/40 concrete is used. For speed of construction the concrete should floor and detailing the strand and anchorages. In the US, and increasingly in
have high early strength. This allows initial prestress to be carried out as the UK, the consulting engineer undertakes the design.
early as possible, usually after 24 hours to prevent cracking. Final stressing
Whichever route is adopted on a project, it is important to be clear from the
can take place after three days, allowing striking of formwork.
outset where the responsibilities lie. The design codes highlight the need
for a sole engineer to take responsibility for the overall design, ensuring
Durability
that any design carried out by others is compatible with the design of the
The concrete should be specified in accordance with BS 8500 to ensure
remainder of the structure.
good durability. For most building structures with an internal environment
this is not an onerous requirement. However, external structures, and
in particular car parks, require more attention to detail to ensure good Specification
corrosion resistance.
The Post-tensioning Association has produced a model specification for
bonded and unbonded post-tensioned floors [14], and it is recommended
that this guide is referred to. The document is available from
www.posttensioning.co.uk.
Table 2: Comparison of PT systems
Bonded Unbonded

¢¢ Localises the effect of accidental damage ¢¢ Reduced covers to strand

¢¢ Develops higher ultimate strength ¢¢ Reduced prestressing force
¢¢ Does not depend on the anchorages after ¢¢ Tendons can be pre-fabricated leading to faster
grouting construction
¢¢ Can be demolished in the same way as reinforced ¢¢ Tendons can be deflected around obstructions
concrete structures more easily
¢¢ Greater eccentricity of the strand
A bonded live anchorage.
¢¢ Grouting not required

Grout Vent Grout

Anchor

An unbonded anchorage. Courtesy of CCL Ltd. Section through a bonded live anchorage.
Courtesy of Strongforce Engineering.
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 17

Construction considerations
Sequence of installation
A typical construction sequence is as follows:
1 Install soffit and edge formwork
2 Fix bottom reinforcement
3 Fix live anchorages to edge forms
4 Install tendons
5 Tape joints in ducts and thread the strands (bonded only)
6 Fix tendon support bars to specified heights (1m centres)
7 Fix top steel
8 Fix punching shear reinforcement
Construction joints
There are four types of construction joint that can be used between
areas of slab; these are shown in Figure 15. When used they are typically
positioned in the vicinity of a quarter or third points of the span. The most
commonly used joint is the infill or closure strip, as this is an ideal method
of resolving problems of restraint, and it also provides inboard access
for stressing, removing or reducing the need for perimeter access from
formwork or scaffolding.
Construction joint with no stressing (Figure 15a)
The slab is cast in bays and stressed when all the bays are complete. For
large slab areas, control of restraint stresses may be necessary and ideally
the next pour should be carried out on the following day.
Construction joint with intermediate stressing (Figure 15b)
On completion of the first pour containing embedded bearing plates,
intermediate anchorages or couplers are fixed to allow the tendons to
be stressed. After casting of the adjacent pour, the remainder of the
tendon is stressed. It is sometimes necessary to leave a pocket around the
intermediate anchorage to allow the wedges that anchor the tendons
during the first stage of stressing to move during the second stage of
stressing. This option is most suitable for use with unbonded tendons.
Concreting
Care must be taken when concreting to prevent operatives displacing
tendons or crushing the ducts in bonded construction.
Good compaction of the concrete is always important, but it is particularly
so around anchorages because of the high local stresses in these areas.
Stressing
Ideally after 24 hours, when the concrete has attained a strength of typically
12.5 N/mm2, initial stressing of tendons to about 25% of their final jacking
force is carried out. (The actual concrete strength and tendon force will vary
depending on loadings, slab type and other requirements.) This controls
restraint stresses.
The tendon is stressed with a hydraulic jack, and the resulting force is
locked into the tendon by means of a split wedge located in the barrel of
the recessed anchor.
At about three to five days, when the concrete has attained sufficient
design strength, the remaining stress is applied to the tendons.
The extension of each tendon under load is recorded and compared
against the calculated value. Provided that it falls within an acceptable
tolerance, the tendon is then trimmed. With an unbonded system, a
greased cap is placed over the recessed anchor and the remaining void
dry-packed. With a bonded system the anchor recess is simply dry-packed
and the tendon grouted.
Back propping
When designing the formwork systems for multi-storey construction, the
use of back-props, through more than one floor to support the floor under
construction, should be considered.

Construction joint without infill strip (Figure 15c)

Anchorages are placed into the first pour and these are stressed prior to the
second bay being poured. Continuity reinforcement is provided across the
joint and designed as a normal section without prestressing. The second
pour is anchored with a dead-end at the construction joint and the live
anchor is located at the far end.
Infill or closure strips (Figure 15d)
The slabs on either side of the strip are poured and stressed, and the strip is
infilled after allowing time for temperature stresses to dissipate and some
shrinkage and creep to take place.
Slab soffit marking
Various methods exist for marking the slab soffit to identify where groups
of tendons are fixed. The most common is to use paint markings, usually on
the soffit. Alternatively a thin ply sheet may be laid between the tendons to
give a physical demarcation. This enables areas for small holes and fixings
to be drilled after completion, safe in the knowledge that tendons will not
be damaged.
The position and maximum depth of fixings should be agreed and clearly
conveyed to follow-on trades.
Figure 15: Construction joints

Pour size/joints
Large pour areas are possible in post-tensioned slabs, and the application of
an early initial prestress, at a concrete strength of typically 12.5 N/mm2, can
a) No intermediate stressing c) Tensioning at construction
help to control restraint stresses. There are economical limits on the length
joint
of tendons used in a slab. Typically these are 35m for tendons stressed from
one end only and 70m for tendons stressed from both ends.

The slab can be divided into appropriate areas by the use of stop ends
and, where necessary, bearing plates are positioned over the unbonded
b) Intermediate stressing d) Infill or closure strip
tendons to allow for intermediate stressing. (unbonded tendons)
 18 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Cost comparisons
The frame is the key structural element of any building. Six short span options were developed including a PT flat slab. The PT
Frame choice and design can have an influential role in option is shown in Figure 16. Two long span options were also included
the performance of the final building, and importantly, which included PT band beams and slab (see Figure 17).
also influence people using the building. A programming exercise was carried out and this established that both the
post-tensioned options could be constructed one week faster than a steel
The cost of the frame alone should not dictate frame choice. Many issues
frame with long span composite cellular beams. The study compared the
should be considered when choosing the optimum solution. The Concrete
cost of the various options and found the cost for the PT flat slab option
Centre commissioned a series of cost model studies [10,11,12] to compare
was 1% cheaper than the composite steel option (see Table 3). It also found
the cost of various structural frames for a variety of different buildings. All
that, of the two long span options, PT band beams had the lowest building
the buildings were designed, costed and programmed by independent
cost and the premium for the long spans was 2.2%.
consultants. Selected information for a community hospital, a secondary
school and an office in central London is presented here. Full details of the study are available from Cost Model Study – Commercial
Buildings [10].
All the studies showed that the choice of frame had an influence on the
cost of other elements of the building which should be considered at
the early stages of a project. Whole life costs should also be considered.
Concrete has inherent benefits – such as fabric energy storage (thermal THE CHOICE OF STRUCTURAL FRAME MAY ALSO
mass), fire resistance and sound insulation – which mean that concrete
AFFECT THE COST OF:
buildings tend to have lower operating costs and lower maintenance
requirements. This is an important consideration, particularly for owner-
¡ CLADDING ¡ PRELIMINARIES
occupiers and PFI consortia.
¡ PARTITIONS ¡ FOUNDATIONS
Commercial Buildings ¡ SERVICES
For this building configuration, post-tensioned and IT MAY ALSO IMPACT ON THE NETT LETTABLE
reinforced concrete were found to be the lowest cost AREA.
options.
The commercial cost model study included a six-storey office building in
central London. The building included some retail areas at ground floor
level to reflect current trends.

Table 3: Elemental costs compared for office building (2015 costs)

Short Span Options Long Span Options

Element PT Flat Slab Composite PT Band Beams Composite
£/m2 % £/m2 % £/m2 % £/m2 %
Substructures 67 4.2% 62 3.8% 71 4.3% 64 3.9%
Frame & Upper Floors 118 7.4% 118 7.3% 134 8.2% 142 8.7%
Roof 32 2.0% 32 2.0% 32 1.9% 32 1.9%
Stairs 8 0.5% 8 0.5% 8 0.5% 8 0.5%
External Cladding 361 22.6% 367 22.7% 375 23.0% 367 22.3%
Internal Planning 17 1.1% 21 1.3% 17 1.1% 21 1.3%
Wall Finishes 13 0.8% 15 0.9% 13 0.8% 14 0.9%
Floor Finishes 71 4.4% 71 4.4% 71 4.3% 71 4.3%
Ceiling Finishes 43 2.7% 43 2.6% 43 2.6% 43 2.6%
Fittings 8 0.5% 8 0.5% 8 0.5% 8 0.5%
Sanitary 44 2.8% 44 2.7% 44 2.7% 44 2.7%
Mechanical 276 17.3% 281 17.4% 276 16.9% 281 17.1%
Electrical 150 9.4% 152 9.4% 150 9.1% 152 9.3%
Lifts 36 2.3% 36 2.3% 36 2.2% 36 2.2%
BWIC 31 1.9% 31 1.9% 31 1.9% 31 1.9%
Preliminaries 166 10.4% 167 10.4% 166 10.1% 167 10.2%
Contingency 95 6.0% 97 6.0% 98 6.0% 99 6.0%
Overheads & Profits 61 3.8% 62 3.8% 63 3.8% 63 3.8%
Total £1,595 £1,615 £1,635 £1,644
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 19

Figure 16: PT flat slab for a typical Central London office building (short span)

A B C D E F G H I
9000 9000 9000 9000 9000 9000 9000 9000
1
7500

2
7500

275*
3
9000

4
*This is a slab
7500

thickness used
for scheme
design. Specialist
5 contractors have
advised that a
250mm thick
7500

slab would be
proposed in a
competitive
6 situation.

All columns 400 x 400 u.n.o

Figure 17: PT band beams for a typical central London office building (long span)

A B C D E F G H I

225

2
550 x 2500 PT Band Beam (Typ)
550 x 2750 PT Band Beam

550 x 2750 PT Band Beam

550 x 1750 PT Band Beam

550 x 1750PT Band Beam

6
 20 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

Hospitals Table 4: Elemental costs for local hospital compared (2008 costs)

PT Flat Slab Composite

For the hospital configuration examined in Element
the study post-tensioning was the lowest cost £/m2 % £/m2 %

option. Substructure 68 3.6% 67 3.5%

The hospital buildings cost model study included a local hospital Frame & Upper Floors 121 6.5% 129 6.8%
and a district hospital. Both consisted of a number of wards, Roof finishes 93 5.0% 93 4.9%
identical to the structural arrangement shown in Figure 18. The
Stairs 8 0.4% 8 0.4%
local hospital had four wards plus entrance areas, while the district
hospital had wards spread over three storeys plus entrance areas External Cladding 155 8.3% 164 8.7%
and corridors. External Windows & Doors 22 1.2% 23 1.2%

The whole building costs for six structural options were assessed Internal Planning 92 4.9% 102 5.4%
for these types of hospital. The costs for two of these options Wall Finishes 20 1.1% 23 1.2%
for a local hospital, composite steel frame and PT flat slab, are
Floor Finishes 48 2.6% 48 2.5%
compared in Table 4. This shows that the PT flat slab would have
lower cost than a building using a composite steel frame. The Ceiling Finishes 28 1.5% 28 1.5%
saving comes not only from the frame cost but also the building is Fittings 210 11.2% 210 11.1%
lower and therefore the cladding cost is reduced.
Sanitary 23 1.2% 23 1.2%
All the options were designed to meet vibration criteria for a ward
Mechanical 250 13.3% 255 13.5%
with minimal additional materials.
Electrical 192 10.3% 196 10.4%
Full details of the study are available from Cost Model Study –
Lifts 54 2.9% 54 2.9%
Hospital Buildings [11].
BWIC 47 2.5% 47 2.5%
Contingency 107 5.7% 110 5.8%
Preliminaries 227 12.1% 203 10.7%
Overheads & profit 106 5.7% 107 5.7%
Total 1871 1890
Figure 18: PT flat slab for a single ward

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7800 7800 7800 7800 9000 6600
A
6600

B
9000

275

C
7800

D
7800

External columns 300 x 300

Internal columns 300 x 300
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 21

Schools Table 5: Elemental costs for school building compared (2008 costs)

PT Flat Slab Composite

For the school design examined in the study Element
post-tensioning was found to be the lowest cost £/m2 % £/m2 %

option. Substructure 61 4.2% 58 3.9%

The educational cost model study focused on a secondary Frame / Upper Floors 121 8.3% 122 8.2%
school on a redeveloped school site. The school was a mixture of Roof 83 5.7% 83 5.6%
two-storeys, three-storeys and some double height spaces. Six
Stairs 19 1.3% 19 1.2%
structural options were developed, including a composite steel
frame and a PT flat slab. Details for part of the PT option are shown External Cladding 219 15% 233 15.7%
in Figure 19. The remainder of the two- and three-storey areas in External Windows & Doors 22 1.5% 22 1.5%
the school are of a similar nature. For this study it was decided that
Internal Planning 78 5.4% 86 5.8%
roofs for all the options would be constructed in a similar way.
Wall Finishes 32 2.2% 31 2.1%
The programme prepared (by a contractor) showed that the PT
Floor Finishes 52 3.6% 52 3.5%
flat slab would give the shortest overall construction time; the
frame would be constructed in just eight weeks. Ceiling Finishes 27 1.9% 27 1.8%

The cost comparisons show that the PT flat slab would give Fittings 110 7.5% 110 7.4%
the lowest cost of all six options and a comparison against a Sanitary 11 0.8% 11 0.7%
composite steel frame is shown in Table 5.
Mechanical 155 10.6% 158 10.6%
Full details of the study are available from Cost Model Study – Electrical 131 9.0% 134 9.0%
School Buildings [12].
Lifts 6 0.4% 6 0.4%
BWIC 35 2.4% 35 2.4%
Contingency 87 6.0% 89 6.0%
Prelims, overheads
210 14.5% 213 14.4%
and profit
Total 1459 1489
Figure 19: PT flat slab for part of a secondary school

A B C D E F G H
7750 8075 8075 8075 8075 7750 5380

1
8250

250

2
8250

3
8250

All columns 400 x 400 u.n.o

8250

5
 22 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS

End of life
Demolition
There is a small additional risk associated with the demolition of a post-
tensioned structure. The demolition methods are similar to those used
for reinforced concrete (RC) structures, with some modifications as noted
below.

Prestressing tendons are made of extremely tough high-strength steel and

are therefore difficult to sever. In contrast, separating the steel and concrete
is slightly simpler than for RC structures because there is less steel.

A bonded slab should not require any significant changes of approach to

an RC slab. If percussion methods are used, the breaking up of the concrete
around the ducts will release the prestressing forces locally in the same
way as tension is released from reinforcement in an RC slab. Using cutting
methods will have a similar effect.

For unbonded slabs, the approach is often to prop the floor and then
release the tension in the tendons by either:
¢¢ Heating the wedges until the tendon slip occurs
¢¢ Breaking out the concrete behind the anchorage until detensioning
occurs
¢¢ De-tensioning the tendon, using jacks
¢¢ Cutting through the strands at high points, whilst protecting around
Demolition of PT bonded slab using conventional demolition
anchorages.
equipment. Courtesy of Freyssinet
It has been shown by testing and from experiences on-site that anchorages
and/or dry packing are not ejected from the slab edge at high velocity. This
steel strand is bonded via the grout and duct to the concrete, so that any
is due to the friction between strand and the sheath which dissipates.
cut through the tendon has a local effect only. At a bond length away the
More detailed guidance can be found in the PTA’s guidance note GN01, tensile strength is unaffected.
Post-Formed Holes Through Post-Tensioned Slabs [13].
A typical procedure for bonded tendons would be as follows:
Demolition of transfer structures should be treated with due consideration. 1 Mark the tendon positions.
The forces involved are significantly higher than for a single floor slab and
2 Using appropriate equipment for the type and size of project, demolish
the prestressing forces may have been increased as additional floors were
the concrete between tendons, taking care to avoid damage to the
constructed. Provided the demolition method takes account of these
tendons.
issues, the risks can be identified and managed.
3 Remove the concrete, leaving the tendons.
4 Cut the tendons to length for the new layout.
Alterations 5 Cast new concrete.
As with demolition, structural alterations are no more difficult than for other
Experience has shown there is no explosive release of energy when the
construction forms, and can be easier to adapt. This means that the benefits
concrete is broken out because the concrete is broken out in relatively
of existing post-tensioned floor construction can be used when altering
small areas. For major refurbishment projects new tendons and anchorages
existing buildings (e.g. redundant office space being reused for residential
can be installed to work in combination with the existing post-tensioning.
accommodation).
Many of the older PT slabs in the UK were constructed using unbonded
When it comes to minor alterations, PT slabs are often easier to work with
tendons, and the techniques for altering these are similar, but require
than other structural forms. They derive their tensile strength from high
slightly more planning and possibly disruption. This is because unbonded
strength steel tendons which are often spaced at well over 1m centres.
construction relies on the anchorages at either end to transmit forces
Depending on the specific circumstances, the concrete can generally be
between the slab and tendons so cutting the tendon releases the tension
cut out between the strands without the need for strengthening. This
throughout its length. Therefore, before breaking out any concrete, the slab
could potentially be an opening of 1m square, or perhaps even larger. An
must be propped throughout the length of the strand to be cut, and then
experienced structural engineer should always be employed to check the
de-tensioning of the strand should be carried out. The same procedure
effects of the proposed alterations.
detailed for a bonded system can then be adopted except that the severed
More substantial alterations can also be undertaken using tried and tested unbonded tendons should be restressed using new anchorages cast into
techniques. Procedures vary slightly depending on whether the PT slab the edge of the opening.
has bonded or unbonded tendons. Currently, bonded tendons are used
for the vast majority of new PT construction in the UK. In this system the
 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE FLOORS 23

Summary
¢¢ There are a number of slab types that can be used to suit individual
projects.
¢¢ As with all structural solutions, there are a number of considerations to
be aware of and, for PT, restraint of the slab should be considered at the
Post tensioned concrete slabs are a tried and tested form of construction in
early stage of a project.
use throughout the world. PT is popular within the UK with many projects
for designers to refer to. See www.concretecentre.com/casestudies ¢¢ Demolition and alterations of PT slabs should not be seen as being
more difficult than with any other type of design; they all require
¢¢ There are many benefits to be gained from using post-tensioned planning and detailed consideration. There is also plenty of experience
construction: of this type of work amongst UK sub-contractors.
nn Minimum floor thickness ¢¢ For more information on post-tensioning, the Post-Tensioning
nn Long spans Association (PTA) has guidance notes on sustainable construction in
nn Rapid speed of construction post-tensioning, procurement of post-tensioned slabs and concrete
nn Flexibility of layout stress limits for post-tensioned design available to download at
nn Flat soffit www.posttensioning.co.uk
nn Minimum use of materials ¢¢ Further information and guidance on the benefits of using concrete for
nn Cost-effective thermal mass and material efficiency are available from The Concrete
Centre at www.concretecentre.com/publications

At 240 Blackfriars Road, London,

an additional two floors were
achieved (without an increase
in the tower’s original overall
height) through the use of
slender, 270mm-deep, post-
tensioned concrete floor plates.
Architect: AHMM; Structural
engineer: AKT II.
© Alamy

References
To download or access many of these publications, visit www.concretecentre.
com/publications. Case studies on post-tensioning can be found at the
website of the Post-tensioning Association – www.posttensioning.co.uk

1. Technical Report no. 43: Post-tensioned Concrete Floors Design 8. BS EN1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. General
Handbook (second edition),The Concrete Society, 2005 Rules – structural fire design, British Standards Institution, 2004

2. Hospital Floor Vibration Study – comparison of possible floor structures 9. How to Design Concrete Structures using Eurocode 2, CCIP-06, The
with respect to NHS vibration criteria, Arup, 2004. Download from Concrete Centre, 2007
www.concretecentre.com
10. Cost Model Study - Commercial Buildings, CCIP-010, The Concrete
3. PE Jones, Site Airborne and Impact Sound Insulation Measurements Centre, 2007
Between Rooms in Student Accommodation at Colman House,
11. Cost Model Study - Hospital Buildings, CCIP-012, The Concrete Centre,
University of East Anglia, Norwich (Acoustic Test Report no. 04091),
2009
2004. Download from www.concretecentre.com
12. Cost Model Study - School Buildings, CCIP-011, The Concrete Centre,
4. Economic Concrete Frame Elements (Second Edition), CCIP-025, The
2008
Concrete Centre, 2009
13. GN01 Post-Formed Holes Through Post-Tensioned Slabs, Post-Tensioned
5. How to design reinforced concrete flat slabs using Finite Element
Association, Download from www.posttensioning.co.uk
Analysis, The Concrete Centre, 2006
14. Model Specification for the Design and Performance of Post-Tensioned
6. Practical Yield Line Design, The Concrete Centre, 2004
Concrete Floors in Building Structures, The Post-Tensioning Association,
7. BS EN1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. General 2017
Rules and rules for building, British Standards Institution, 2004
The Concrete Centre provides material, For more information and downloads, visit:
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Ref. TCC/03/33
ISBN 978-1-904818-59-5
First published 2008, updated 2017
© MPA The Concrete Centre 2017

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