Motivation theories are of two types:

 Content theories specifies those personality factors and human needs that trigger effort on the job.
 Process theories of motivation explains how behaviour is stimulated, directed, sustained or stopped.

Content Theories of Motivation

1- Maslow’s Hierarchy
The theory provides a good general explanation for human behaviour, and
managers find it to be intuitively appealing.

2- Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (Hygienes & Motivators)

Dissatisfiers: elements that employees

think of as being ‘outside’ their jobs
(causes low motivation).

Satisfiers: subjects associated

challenge, achievement, responsibility
and work meaningfulness with positive
job experiences (job content/intrinsic
factors).

Hygienes: are sources of extrinsic

motivation because they are part of the
job’s context.

control and availability of extrinsic

motivators is less subject to employee
control.

whereas the sources of intrinsic motivation in a job are determined by the employee himself.

Process Theories of Motivation

focus on decision making, perception and elements of the work environment, especially available rewards.

1- Equity Theory: Social Comparisons in the Work

employees gauge the fairness of their work outcomes in comparison to the work outcomes received by others who perform
similar or comparable jobs.

Benevolents are employees who are comfortable with an equity ratio that is chronically less than that of their comparison
others.

Equity Sensitives prefer outcomes that do not vary from the original formulation; they want rewards and the way they are
distributed to stay the same.

Entitleds are comfortable with an equity ratio that exceeds that of their comparison others.

2- Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is based on the idea that behaviour is always purposeful and goal directed.
Motivated employees want their work activities to help them achieve personally important goals.
 Components: Valence: is the employee’s preference for various outcomes.
Outcomes:
o First-level outcomes result from expending effort in some directed way.
o Second-level outcomes occur after first-level outcomes and are the direct result of achieving, or not
achieving, first-level outcomes.
o Employees assign valences to each type of outcome.
Probabilities in Expectancy Theory
o Instrumentality is the personal belief that first-level outcomes lead to second-level outcomes.
If rewards are distributed equitably for excellent performance, then employees experience rising
instrumentalities and increased job satisfaction.
o Ability must be sufficient to achieve and sustain a given level of performance.
o performance is the product of motivation and ability.
o The individual’s need for achievement influences effort, instrumentality and expectancy.

Organisational Factors and Motivation

Locus of control affects the motivational process.
o employee with external locus of control, he may see no instrumentality between performance and second-
level outcomes (instrumentality is zero, and line of sight is obscured). (Externaliser)
o the individual with an internal locus of control believes in a strong connection between his behaviour and
valued outcomes. (Internaliser)
Behaviour Modification (BMod)

 BMod targets for study the learned connection between behaviour and its consequences
 BMod assumes that employees exhibit work behaviour that produces satisfying outcomes and avoid work
behaviour that produces dissatisfaction.
 Both positive and negative reinforcement strengthen behaviour.
 The major benefit of BMod is that it focuses on observable employee behaviour that can be measured and
used to improve motivation and performance.
 Positive Reinforcement Behaviour is strengthened by the occurrence of pleasant consequences.
 Negative Reinforcement Behaviour is strengthened by removal of an unpleasant consequence.
 Extinction Behaviour is weakened if a positive consequence does not follow.
 Punishment Behaviour is weakened if an unpleasant consequence occurs after the behaviour.

Behavioural Shaping and Employees

 Shaping gradually alters an employee’s behaviour until it reaches a desired target.

 Managers use shaping when they help employees learn new skills.

How Partial Reinforcement Schedules Influence Employee Behaviour Table 3.4

 interval schedules When reinforcers occur based on elapsed time (either fixed or variable).
 ratio schedules When reinforcers occur after some number of behaviours(again, fixed or variable).

Rules of effective Punishment:

1. Make the punishment rapid and intense.

2. Ensure punishment is equitable across people and infractions.
3. Load the punishment with salient information.
4. After punishment, reaffirm the employee’s value to the organisation.
5. Do not follow punishment with non-contingent rewards.