“I WILL RAISE UP A PROPHET”: EXPECTATIONS OF AN ESCHATOLOGICAL

PROPHET IN SECOND TEMPLE JUDAISM

by

Daniel R. Streett

REL 654: The Messiah

Dr. John J. Collins

May 3, 2002
 1

Introduction

In the past, scholarly treatments of Jewish messianism have tended to be colored

by Christian notions of prophetic fulfillment. The Hebrew scriptures were read through

Christian eyes and the New Testament was read back into the Old. In recent years,

however, with increased attention to the diversity of Second Temple Judaism and the

discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a fuller and more well-rounded picture of Jewish

messianic expectations has developed. In this paper, I will explore one component of

messianic expectation in Second Temple Judaism: the anticipation of an eschatological

prophet, who would either be a Messiah, accompany the Messiah(s), or precede the

Messiah. I will trace the expectation of a prophet through the Hebrew Bible, the

Apocrypha, the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament. In doing so, I hope to

determine: 1) how this expectation was rooted in interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures,

2) whether the coming prophet was considered to be a Messiah, and 3) how common or

widespread this belief was in Second Temple Judaism.

The Eschatological Prophet in the Old Testament

Deuteronomy 18

Deut 18:15-19: The LORD your God will raise up for you a prophet like me from among
your own people; you shall heed such a prophet. This is what you requested of the LORD
your God at Horeb on the day of the assembly when you said: “If I hear the voice of the
LORD my God any more, or ever again see this great fire, I will die.” Then the LORD
replied to me: "They are right in what they have said. I will raise up for them a prophet
like you from among their own people; I will put my words in the mouth of the prophet,
 2

who shall speak to them everything that I command. Anyone who does not heed the
words that the prophet shall speak in my name, I myself will hold accountable.1

The obvious place to begin this study is with Deut 18:15-18, since it plays an

important role in later eschatological expectation, especially at Qumran and in the New

Testament. But what did Deut 18:15-18 mean in its original context? The immediate

context (Deut 17:14-18:22) is a collection of regulations for three offices in Israel: king

(17:14-20), priest (18:1-8), and prophet (18:9-22).2 The section dealing with the prophetic

office begins with a command not to be like the nations, which practice child sacrifice,

divination and sorcery (vv9-14). It emphasizes that foreign prophetic practices are

“abhorrent to the LORD,” and will bring about expulsion from the land. In contrast to the

Canaanite prophets, it is promised that the LORD “will raise up a prophet like [Moses].”

The distinguishing marks of the Mosaic prophet will be:3

1. His prophecies will have a divine origin.

2. His prophecies will be received by verbal revelation, not through

divination and sorcery.

3. The prophet will speak only in the name of Yahweh

4. The prophet will be an Israelite.

5. The prophet’s predictions will come true.

6. Judgment will result from disobedience of the prophet.

1
All Scripture quotations are taken from NRSV.
2
N. C. Habel, “Deuteronomy 18 – God's Chosen Prophet,” CTM 35 (1964) 576.
3
For comments on Deut 18 in its original context, see J. Blenkinsopp, A History of Prophecy in Israel
(Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1996); P. Miller, “Moses My Servant. The Deuteronomic
Portrait of Moses,” Int 41 (1987); Habel, “Deuteronomy 18”.
 3

Almost certainly, the passage refers to a line of prophets in the tradition of Moses

rather than one eschatological prophet.4 Whether this line of prophets was to be

continuous and unbroken or whether the LORD would raise up prophets only

occasionally – in times of need – is unclear.5 The Deuteronomist probably intended by

these guidelines first to reign in what he viewed as illegitimate prophetic activity and,

second, to legitimate Yahwistic prophecy by appeal to the authority of Moses. To be “like

Moses” is simply to be a true prophet of Yahweh; Moses is the paradigmatic prophet.

Deuteronomy 34:10

Deut 34:10-12: Never since has there arisen a prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the
LORD knew face to face. He was unequaled for all the signs and wonders that the LORD
sent him to perform in the land of Egypt, against Pharaoh and all his servants and his
entire land, and for all the mighty deeds and all the terrifying displays of power that
Moses performed in the sight of all Israel.

How then shall we account for Deut 34:10? There are three possibilities. First, it

may be a later addition intended to qualify 18:15-18 by noting that although Moses is a

paradigmatic prophet, Moses’ successors do not equal Moses in intimacy with Yahweh or

in authority. Perhaps some prophets were claiming that their prophecies were equal in

weight to the Sinai Law. Deut 34, then, counters that claim by portraying Moses as

special and foundational.6

Second, it could be an attempt to portray Joshua as Moses’ true successor and the

fulfillment of Deut 18’s prophecy. Deut 34:9 says that Joshua was “full of the spirit of

wisdom,” had the endorsement of Moses, and enjoyed the Israelites’ obedience as was

4
Blenkinsopp, 59; Miller, 249.
5
Miller, 249.
 4

commanded in 18:15. Throughout the book of Joshua, too, there is a systematic attempt

to portray Joshua as a prophet like Moses.7 34:10 would then be saying that not since

Joshua has a prophet like Moses arisen in Israel.

A third interpretive option is to take Deut 34 as an effort to eschatologize Deut

18:15-18. Deut 34 would then be pointing out that Deut 18’s promise of a prophet like

Moses had not yet been fulfilled. Its author, then, may have expected fulfillment in the

form of an eschatological or messianic prophet.

Isaiah 40-66

Another OT source of expectation for an eschatological prophet is Isaiah 40-66.

Second Isaiah consists of a series of prophetic speeches that depict the speaker in Mosaic

terms. The prophet has been commissioned, he claims, to lead Israel out of Babylon, the

place of captivity, just as Moses led Israel from slavery in Egypt (ch. 40). This second

exodus will also involve a procession through the wilderness. Like Moses, the prophet

faces the stubborn opposition and even the rejection of the people. Like Moses, the

prophet is called the servant of God, who speaks the words of Yahweh.

One of the main tasks of the prophet is to herald the coming of the messiah –

Cyrus – the ruler whom the Lord has anointed and empowered to subdue the nations and

return Israel to Zion (ch. 45). Moreover, the prophet may be called a “messiah” in his

own right, since he too has been anointed by God (ch. 61) to proclaim to good news of

Israel’s deliverance.

6
Blenkinsopp, 190. Many scholars point to the ways that Jeremiah, through his account of his calling and
numerous intertextual allusions to Deut, portrays himself as a “prophet like Moses” (Blenkinsopp, 160; H.
M. Teeple, The Mosaic Eschatological Prophet [Philadelphia: Society of Biblical Literature, 1957] 10).
7
Hable, 578. Note also Sib. Or. 5:256-9, which predicts an exalted man who comes down from heaven and
makes the sun stand still – clearly an allusion to Joshua’s feat. This could, however, be a Christian
interpolation.
 5

Despite all the similarities to Moses, it is important to note that Second Isaiah

never appeals directly to the promise of Deut 18. The likenesses between the two result

more from the theme of the second exodus than from a conscious intention to model the

prophet after Moses or to indicate fulfillment of Deut 18:15-18.8 Furthermore, the second

exodus and the rise of the messiah in Second Isaiah are not eschatological in the sense of

occurring at the end of the age or marking the end of history. Nevertheless, the prophetic

herald of Isaiah would serve later generations as a model of the eschatological prophet,

and the idea of a second exodus from exile would prove to be a powerful image to fuel

eschatological expectations.

Malachi 3-4

There is one more prophetic figure in the OT who would have a place in later

messianism: Elijah. Elijah was expected to return to earth, it seems, because he had never

died but had ascended into heaven (2 Kings 2). This notion appears most prominently in

Malachi who, borrowing from Second Isaiah, speaks of a “messenger of the covenant”

who goes before the Lord and prepares the “way of the Lord” (3:1). He will bring

judgment with him and cause Judah to render fitting offerings to Yahweh (3:2f). Later, in

4:5, this messenger is identified as “the prophet Elijah,” sent by God “before the great

and terrible day of the Lord.” When he comes, says 4:6, he will “turn the hearts of the

parents to their children and the hearts of children to their parents,” thus preventing

God’s judgment.

8
Teeple, 58.
 6

It is interesting to note that no mention of the Deuteronomic promise of a

“prophet like Moses” appears in this verse.9 Also, Elijah’s role is not to reveal God’s will

or teach God’s precepts but to bring repentance and judgment. Furthermore, the events

envisioned are not eschatological in the sense of being final or taking place at an “end

time.” Rather, the day of the Lord here is marked by judgment and vindication of the

righteous, but not the arrival of a Messiah, the resurrection of the dead, or the “end of

history.”10 Indeed, the second exodus theme emphasized in Second Isaiah is absent here.

As I will show below, however, Malachi’s prophecy played a prominent role in later

messianic expectation.

The Eschatological Prophet in the Apocrypha

Two Apocryphal writings, The Wisdom of Ben Sira and 1 Maccabees, contain

possible indications of the expectation of a an eschatological prophet. I will explore each

of them in turn and see if they can shine any light on the question.

The Wisdom of Ben Sira

The third major division of Ben Sira, which spans 44:1-50:24, contains memorials

in honor of famous heroes of old. 48:1-9 praises Elijah for his “wondrous deeds,” which

included raising the dead, healing, exercising power over the elements and, finally, being

taken up in a “whirlwind of fire.” 48:10, then expresses the expectation that Elijah will

return “at the appointed time . . . to calm the wrath of God before it breaks out in fury, to

turn the hearts of parents to their children, and to restore the tribes of Jacob.” Ben Sira’s

9
Though see J. Roberts, “The Old Testament's Contribution to Messianic Expectations,” in J. H.
Charlesworth, The Messiah: Developments in Earliest Judaism and Christianity (Minneapolis: Fortress,
1992) 39-51, who sees some conceptual dependence on Deut 18.
 7

expectation, as indicated by the formula in v10 (“it is written”), is based upon scripture,

in this case, Mal 4:5-6. Ben Sira, though, has eschatologized the promise of Malachi by

adding one more deed for Elijah – “to restore the tribes of Jacob.”11 This language clearly

carries connotations of a restorationist eschatology, one which looks for a second exodus

and a renewed covenant. It seems, then, that Ben Sira has here integrated Malachi’s

promise into a broader eschatological schema of restoration.

1 Maccabees

1 Maccabees mentions a coming prophet in two passages. First, in 4:46:

1 Macc 4:44-46: They deliberated what to do about the altar of burnt offering, which had
been profaned. And they thought it best to tear it down, so that it would not be a lasting
shame to them that the Gentiles had defiled it. So they tore down the altar, and stored the
stones in a convenient place on the temple hill until a prophet should come to tell what to
do with them.

Ch. 4 describes Judas Maccabeus’ victories in battle against the Seleucid

commanders, Gorgias and Lysias. After defeating Lysias, Judas takes his army to Mt.

Zion to cleanse and dedicate the sanctuary of the temple, which had become desolate in

the wake of Antiochus IV’s attack on Jerusalem (vv36ff). The priests whom Judas

appoints to restore the sanctuary decide to tear down the altar of burnt offering, which

had been defiled by the Gentiles (vv42ff). And so, the passage says, they store the stones

in a “convenient place . . . until a prophet should come to tell what to do with them.” The

prophet is not named, and is not identified as the prophet like Moses, or as Elijah, or even

as an eschatological figure.12

10
J. Fitzmyer, “More About Elijah Coming First,” JBL 104 (1985) 295; Teeple, 4.
11
See J. Collins, The Scepter and the Star: The Messiahs of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Ancient
Literature (New York: Doubleday, 1995) 116; Teeple, 106.
12
S. Mowinckel, He That Cometh (Oxford: Blackwell, 1959) 302, detects a reference to Moses and Deut
18, probably because the prophet’s function in 1 Macc 4 is to give a legal ruling on a purity issue about
 8

Second, a prophet is mentioned in 1 Macc 14:41:

1 Macc 14: 41: The Jews and their priests have resolved that Simon should be their leader
and high priest forever, until a trustworthy prophet should arise.

Ch. 14 of 1 Maccabees summarizes Simon’s achievements and describes his

position as king and high priest. He would occupy these posts for life (eivj to.n aivwn/ a), or

until a trustworthy prophet (i.e. not a false prophet) came.13 Here, again, the prophet to

come is not explicitly identified as Moses or Elijah14 or portrayed as an eschatological

figure.

There are three reasons, though, to think that the prophet mentioned in 1 Macc

4:46 and 14:41 is an eschatological figure, perhaps the “prophet like Moses.” First, from

1 Macc 9:27 it is evident that the author, along with many others in Second Temple

Judaism, believes that prophecy in Israel had ceased.15 The rise of a prophet, then, would

signal the coming of the messianic age.16 Second, in 4:46, the prophet is primarily

expected to rule on the law, very much in line with the job of the Mosaic prophet. Third,

1 Macc 14:41 speaks of the prophet “arising” (avni,sthmi)17 – the same word used of the

which Torah is silent. In later Rabbinic tradition, the interpretation of difficult issues of Torah was reserved
to Elijah when he returned; thus, the frequent refrain, “it must be left until Elijah comes.” Cf. Teeple, 3.
13
A. Laato, A Star Is Rising: The Historical Development of the Old Testament Royal Ideology and the
Rise of the Jewish Messianic Expectations. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997) 276, thinks that by depicting the
Maccabean dynasty as preliminary and temporary the author has ‘de-messianized’ it.
14
Indeed, no reference is made here to the prophet’s return, which is a common theme when Elijah is
discussed.
15
Laato, 386; R. Horsley and J. Hanson, Bandits, Prophets, and Messiahs: Popular Movements in the Time
of Jesus (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988) 146; but see Josephus, Jewish War 1.68-69, who refers to
Hyrcanus as a prophet. The Qumran community, with its realized eschatology, is also a notable exception.
4Q375 prescribes tests to discern true and false prophets, which seems to indicate at the least that there
were persons claiming to be prophets.
16
Teeple, 3, 111.
17
Probably mwq in the Hebrew Vorlage.
 9

Mosaic prophet in Deut 18:15, 18. 1 Maccabees, then, serves as a witness to the

anticipation in Second Temple Judaism of an eschatological prophet.

The Eschatological Prophet at Qumran

Apart from the New Testament, no body of Second Temple literature discusses

the expectation of the eschatological prophet more than the Dead Sea Scrolls. Four texts

– the Damascus Document (CD), the Community Rule (1QS), 4QTestimonia (4Q175),

and 4Q521 – give us a glimpse into the eschatological expectations of both the sect and

the Judaism of the Second Temple period.

The Damascus Document (CD)

CD 6:7-11: “. . . And the staff is the interpreter of the law, of whom Isaiah said: “He
produces a tool for his labour.” And the nobles of the people are those who have arrived
to dig the well with the staves that the sceptre decreed, to walk in them throughout the
whole age of wickedness, and without which they will not obtain it, until there arises he
who teaches justice at the end of days . . .”18

CD 7:18-20: “. . . And the star is the Interpreter of the law, who will come to Damascus,
as is written: “A star moves out of Jacob, and a sceptre arises out of Israel.”

Both of these passages speak of “the interpreter of the law” who teaches the

precepts of the community – a description very much befitting a Mosaic prophet. Most

scholars are agreed that the Interpreter of the law is the Teacher of Righteousness, the

founder of the Qumran community who was regarded as the authoritative interpreter of

Torah.19

18
All citations from the Dead Sea Scrolls are taken from F. Garcia Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls
Translated: The Qumran Texts in English (2nd ed, Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill, 1996).
19
See Collins, Scepter, 113, who detects a possible allusion to Elijah in 1 Kings 19:15. Elijah, like the
Interpreter, “comes to Damascus.” Laato, 308, identifies the Interpreter of the Law as the priestly Messiah.
He points to 4Q541 and 4Q542, both of which attribute a teaching role to the priestly Messiah. Collins,
114, agrees, pointing out that in 4QFlorilegium 6-11 the priestly Messiah teaches “Jacob” the Law.
 10

But was the Teacher of Righteousness thought to be the eschatological prophet

like Moses? At first glance, CD 6:11 would indicate not, since it speaks of a separate

figure, one who will “arise at end of days” to teach justice/righteousness. Indeed, this

figure’s rise marks the end of the Law Interpreter’s role.20 The end-time teacher would

then be the eschatological Mosaic prophet.21 Some attempt to avoid this conclusion by

proposing that the community expected the Teacher of Righteousness to return (raised

from the dead, note the “arising” language of CD 6:11) as the Mosaic prophet-teacher,22

but if such were the case, one could expect a more explicit equation of the two figures.23

There is no denying, on the other hand, that the Scrolls use Mosaic language to describe

the Teacher. He led the community into the wilderness to await a new exodus (1QS 8:14)

and renewed the covenant with God (1QS 8:8-10). He taught the community the law

(1QS 8:11-12). His words are from the mouth of God (1QpHab 2:2-3).24 Perhaps some in

the community did identify the Teacher of Righteousness as the eschatological Mosaic

prophet, but his death proved that notion incorrect.25 In any case, the Damascus

20
Collins, Scepter, 113.
21
Ibid.
22
Teeple, 54.
23
So Collins, Scepter, 113; J. Collins, “Teacher and Messiah? The One Who Will Teach Righteousness at
the End of Days,” in The Community of the Renewed Covenant, eds. E. Ulrich, J. VanderKam (Notre
Dame: Univ of Notre Dame, 1994) 193-210. See also J. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls and Christian
Origins. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000) 83.
24
Collins, Scepter, 112, 154; Teeple, 52.
25
For a detailed discussion of the question, see J. Collins, “A Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61:1-3 and
its Actualization in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in The Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical
Intertextuality in Honor of James A. Sanders, eds. C. A. Evans and S. Talmon (Leiden; New York: Brill,
1997) 225-40.
 11

Document indicates that the community did expect an end-time teacher of righteousness,

probably as a fulfillment of Deut 18.

The Community Rule (1QS)

1QS 9:9-11: “. . . They should not depart from any counsel of the law in order to walk in
complete stubbornness of their heart, but instead shall be ruled by the first directives
which the men of the Community began to be taught until the prophet comes, and the
Messiahs of Aaron and Israel.”

A veritable crux of scholarly debate, this verse seems to identify three

eschatological figures – a prophet, a Messiah of Aaron, and a Messiah of Israel. The

Messiah of Aaron is the priestly Messiah; the Messiah of Israel is the Davidic kingly

Messiah. Notably, the expected prophet is not called a Messiah.26 His arrival, however, is

assumed to be generally contemporaneous with that of the priestly and kingly Messiahs,27

since the passage states that the law of the community will not cease until all three have

come. Thus, the law of the community is temporary, to be superseded by the prophet’s

final authoritative ruling. This is an expectation much like that of 1 Macc 4:46, where a

temporary halakhic ruling is said to suffice “until a prophet should come.”

Most likely 1QS 9:11 draws its concept of the coming prophet from Deut 18

rather than from notions of Elijah redivivus.28 As we have seen above, Elijah’s task was

to prepare the way of the Lord by preaching repentance and bringing judgment, while the

prophet like Moses would teach the law and rule on matters of purity. Further evidence of

dependence on Deut 18 is 1QS’s use – in imitation of Deut 18:15 – of the anarthrous

26
Though, note F. Dexinger, “Reflections on the Relationship between Qumran and Samaritan
Messianology,” in Qumran-Messianism, ed. J. Charlesworth, H. Lichtenberger, G. Oegema (Tübingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1998) 89, who appeals to 4Q521 (treated below) to claim that the prophet of 1QS 9:11 is a
Messiah.
27
In other words, he is not portrayed as a Elijah-like forerunner (Fitzmyer, Dead Sea Scrolls, 83).
28
Ibid.
 12

noun aybn to refer to the coming prophet, when we would expect the articular form in

order to refer to a definite figure.29 Finally, as we will discuss below, other evidence from

Qumran indicates that the community read Deut 18 as an eschatological promise.

4QTestimonia (4Q175)

4QTestimonia is a collection of five biblical texts in the following order: Deut

5:28-29, Deut 18:18-19,30 Num 24:15-17, Deut 33:8-11, and Joshua 6:26, which is

combined with an interpretation from the Psalms of Joshua (preserved in 4Q379). J.

Allegro, who first published the text in 1956,31 attached the title “Testimonia” to the

piece, thinking it was a collection of proof-texts for use in apologetics or theological

disputation, and especially debate about the Messiah. Scholars had theorized that early

Christians and Jews had assembled such collections, but they had no extant examples

until 4Q175.

There is still debate on whether these verses are meant as messianic prooftexts.

Indeed, Allegro himself opined that the theme tying the verses together is not so much

messianism as eschatology, especially eschatological judgment.32 J. Lübbe33 agrees and

proposes that the common feature of the five quotations is God’s judgment on those who

disobey his words. Deut 5:28-29 & 18:18-19 warn of judgment on “anyone who does not

heed the words that the prophet shall speak in my name”; Num 24:15-17 speaks of the

29
Teeple, 56.
30
Scholars are generally agreed that the first two citations are taken together from a reworked Bible,
perhaps one which served as a Vorlage for the Samaritan Pentateuch where Deut 5:29 and 18:18-19 appear
together in the Samaritan recension of Exodus 20:21 (Dexinger, 93; Collins, Scepter, 130).
31
J. Allegro, “Further Messianic References in Qumran Literature,” JBL 75 (1956) 174-87.
32
Ibid., 187.
 13

judgment which God brought on Moab and Seth; Deut 33:8-11 recounts the judgment

after the golden calf incident and the promise to crush the enemies of the Levites; Josh

6:26 and the quote from the Psalms of Joshua curse the man who tries to rebuild Jericho,

calling him a “man of Belial.” Clearly judgment is a prominent theme, though one might

rightly question whether it is the main theme. Surely, the author(s) of 4Q175 could have

selected more fitting texts if God’s judgment on the wicked was indeed their central

point.34

Thus, the case for a messianic reading of 4Q175 is still strong. The ensemble of

eschatological figures who appear in 4Q175 matches very well with those mentioned in

1QS 9 – the prophet, priest, and king. The mysterious “man of Belial” mentioned in the

last quoted text is probably the Messiah’s archenemy, patterned after John Hyrcanus, who

rebuilt Jericho and claimed the titles of prophet, priest, and king.35 One thing is sure:

4Q175 demonstrates conclusively that the Qumran community saw the eschatological

prophet who would accompany the priestly and royal Messiahs as a fulfillment of Deut

18:15-18.

Determining the identity of the prophet is difficult. He could be seen as 1) a

Messiah,36 2) a forerunner to the Messiah, or 3) at minimum, simply an eschatological

33
“A Reinterpretation of 4Q Testimonia,” RevQ 12 (1986) 187-97.
34
G. Brooke, Exegesis at Qumran: 4QFlorilegium in Its Jewish Context (JSOTSup v29; Sheffield: JSOT,
1985) 314.
35
J. Collins, “‘He Shall Not Judge by What His Eyes See’: Messianic Authority in the Dead Sea Scrolls,”
Dead Sea Discoveries 2 (1995) 150.
36
M. Abegg, “The Messiah at Qumran: Are We Still Seeing Double?” Dead Sea Discoveries 2 (1995) 133;
Dexinger, 93; F. Oegema, The Anointed and His People: Messianic Expectations from Maccabees to Bar
Kochba (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998) 93.
 14

figure who accompanies the Messiah (as the prophet of 1QS 9:11 seems to be). The next

text I will examine may contain helpful clues.

4Q521 – The Messianic Apocalypse

Dubbed a “messianic apocalypse” by its publisher E. Puech, 4Q521 is a

fragmentary text that, in the best estimate of scholars, provided “a continuous description

of activity during the messianic era.”37 The text begins: “for the heavens and the earth

will listen to his Messiah” (2.II.1), thereby immediately identifying the subject as an

anointed figure, perhaps a Messiah, a point that is crucial, because the rest of the text

describes activities more appropriate to a prophetic figure.

Anointed prophets, of course, were not unheard of. In 1 Kings 19:16 God

commands Elijah to anoint Elisha. 11QMelchizedek (11Q13) 2:18-19 speaks of a

“messenger . . . anointed of the spirit” and a “messenger of good who announces

salvation” – both obvious allusions to the anointed prophet-messenger (rfbm) of

Isaiah.38 This prophet-messenger serves as a forerunner to the judgment and salvation

brought by Melchizedek. The War Scroll (1QM) 11:7-8 describes the prophets as

“anointed ones, seers of decrees.” Finally, CD 2:12-13 tells of “the anointed ones . . .

seers of truth” who taught Israel “through his [God’s] holy spirit.”39

The description of 4Q521’s anointed prophet is patterned after two Biblical

characters, already alluded to above: Elijah and the Prophet-Messenger of Isaiah. Like

37
M. Wise, M. Abegg and E. Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (San Fransisco: Harper,
1996) 421.
38
J. Collins, “The Works of the Messiah,” Dead Sea Discoveries 1 (1994) 101; Abegg, “Messiah at
Qumran,” 144.
39
These references taken from Collins, Scepter, 117.
 15

Elijah, the prophet will have power over the heavens (2.II.1), heal the wounded and raise

the dead.40 He will turn “the fathers towards the sons” (2.III.2), an explicit allusion to

Mal 4:6.41 And, like the prophet-messenger of Isaiah, the prophet of 4Q521 is anointed

and will free the prisoners, give sight to the blind (2.II.8), proclaim good news (2.II.12)

and lead the people in a return from exile (2.II.13). Interestingly, there is no appeal to

Deut 18:15 or use of Moses imagery in 4Q521, though we know from 4Q377 2.II.5 that

Moses was considered an anointed servant of God.42

The question, then, seems to be: granted that 4Q521 describes an eschatological

prophet as a messiah in the sense that he is anointed, does 4Q521 require us to take the

eschatological prophet as a Messiah, on par with the priestly and royal Messiahs

explicitly named in CD and 1QS? I do not believe so. While the prophet of 4Q521 is

clearly an eschatological agent of God who ushers in the messianic age through his

miracles and liberating acts, he still fits most comfortably into the eschatological

framework as a forerunner to the Levitical and Davidic Messiahs.

Summary

The Qumran community’s expectation of an eschatological prophet is best

described as working with three models: 1) The prophet like Moses, seen as the

fulfillment of Deut 18, whose eschatological function is primarily to teach Torah and give

final rulings on legal matters; 2) Elijah redivivus (or reditus), a fulfillment of Mal 3-4,

who preaches repentance, brings judgment, turns fathers to their sons, and prepares the

40
Collins, “‘He Shall Not Judge,’”163.
41
Collins, Scepter, 120.
42
Abegg, “The Messiah at Qumran,” 140.
 16

way of the Lord; 3) The anointed prophet-messenger of Second Isaiah, who heralds the

good news of God’s imminent restoration, heals the people, brings liberty to the captives,

and leads the nation through the wilderness in a second exodus. This tripartite typology

and its permutations can account for each of the texts at Qumran and preserves the

distinction, made clear in 1QS, between the eschatological prophet and the Messiah(s).43

Prophetic Movements in Later Second Temple Judaism

By all indications, Qumran was not alone in its anticipation of an eschatological

prophet. Not only do the Apocryphal texts mention such a hope, but Josephus describes

numerous popular movements in the first century CE that seem to be based upon

prophetic expectations.

First, in Antiquities 18.85-8, Josephus tells of a Samaritan individual who led a

multitude of people to Mount Gerizim, where he claimed were hidden the sacred vessels

of Moses. Pilate, hearing of the plan, smelled a revolt and killed both the Samaritan and

many of his followers.

Second in Antiquities 20.97-100, Josephus recounts the story of Theudas, whom

he describes as a magician or sorcerer.44 While Fadus was procurator of Judah (ca. 45

C.E.), Theudas, claiming to be a prophet, persuaded a multitude to gather their

43
Some caveats should be offered here. 1) I am not claiming that the Qumran community’s eschatology
never developed and changed. 2) I am not claiming that the community was entirely consistent in its
eschatology. 3) I am not claiming that these three types (Moses, Elijah, Isaiah) remained separate or distinct
– clearly, they were merged to some extent. 4) Finally, I am certainly not claiming that the community did
not attribute prophetic aspects to both the priestly and royal Messiahs. Indeed, 11Qpsa 27:2-3,11 portrays
David as a prophet, so it should not be surprising if many facets of the royal Messiah’s ministry could be
characterized as prophetic (G. Brooke, “Parabiblical Prophetic Narratives,” in P. W. Flint and J. C.
VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls After Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment (Leiden; Boston: Brill,
1998) 271-301.
44
Cf. Acts 5:36.
 17

belongings and follow him into the desert, to the Jordan River, where he would divide the

river and allow the people to pass through. Fadus, though, sent his soldiers, killed many

of Theudas’ followers and finally beheaded Theudas.

Third, in Antiquities 20.167-68 and Jewish War 2.258-60, Josephus describes a

group of sicarii45 who, claiming divine inspiration and promising liberation to the

masses, “persuaded a multitude to follow them into the wilderness, and pretended that

they would exhibit manifest wonders and signs . . . performed by the providence of God.”

This attempt too failed when Felix’s soldiers caught up to them, “brought them back and

punished them.”

Fourth, in Antiquities 20.169-72 and Jewish War 2.261-62, describes an Egyptian

man who came to Jerusalem, claiming to be a prophet. He led a multitude of “common

people” to the Mount of Olives and promised that at his command the walls of Jerusalem

would fall down and they would enter the city. Again, Felix sent his soldiers, killing 400

of them. The Egyptian, however, escaped, never to be heard from again. Interestingly, in

Acts 21:38, the apostle Paul is asked whether he is the Egyptian who led his followers

into the desert.

Finally, there is Jonathan the weaver (Jewish War 7.437-42), who also led people

into the desert and promised signs, but was captured by Catullus.

Several common strands run throughout these accounts. Almost every one of the

leaders 1) claimed to be a prophet, 2) led his followers into the wilderness, 3) promised

signs and miracles, 4) appealed to the common people – the masses, 5) sought political

45
See M. Hengel, The Zealots: Investigations into the Jewish Freedom Movement in the Period from Herod
I until 70 A.D. (trans. David Smith; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1989) for a history of insurrectionist
movements in the first century.
 18

deliverance. These common themes reflect a fairly broad-based popular expectation of an

eschatological prophet who would, like Moses or Joshua, lead the people in a new exodus

and conquest and perform miraculous signs.46 It is reasonable to assume, then, that the

prophetic aspirants saw themselves fulfilling the prophecies of Deuteronomy, Malachi,

and Isaiah.47

The Eschatological Prophet in the New Testament

Nowhere is Messianic interpretation of the Old Testament more fully developed

than in the New Testament. Its authors mined the Old Testament, seeking out every

possible reference to the coming Christ. It is not surprising then, that they make abundant

use of texts which speak of a coming prophet.

John the Baptist is the first to be seen as an eschatological prophet (Mark 1:2-4).

His prophetic garb, wilderness lifestyle, ministry at the Jordan river, and preaching of

judgment and repentance all mark him out as Elijah redivivus in the eyes of the crowds

and, according to Matt 11:14,17:12 and parallels, in the estimation of Jesus.48 Luke’s

account of John’s birth is full of Elijah-imagery (1:15-17), as is the Benedictus (esp.

1:76).

Jesus, too, seems to have been regarded by the masses as “a prophet, like one of

the prophets of old” (Mark 6:15 and pars.). Many thought that he was Elijah redivivus,

(Mark 6:15) and Luke’s Jesus draws explicit parallels between his ministry and that of

Elijah (Luke 4:25ff).

46
Horsley, 168ff.
47
Collins, Scepter, 197.
 19

Likewise, the Gospel writers also employ the prophet-figure of Second Isaiah as

an interpretive lens through which to view Jesus’ ministry. When John the Baptist has

doubts about Jesus’ identity, Jesus sends back the message that the “blind receive their

sight, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the

poor have the good news brought to them” (Matt 11:2-5/Luke 7:22) – probably an

indication that Q was familiar with the tradition about the anointed prophet contained in

4Q521. Indeed, in Luke 4, Jesus defines his ministry with reference to Isaiah 61. Recent

scholarship has turned up a wealth of evidence that the Gospel writers made abundant use

of second exodus imagery in composing their stories.49

Finally, Jesus’ ministry is also portrayed as the fulfillment of Deut 18’s promise

of an eschatological prophet. At the transfiguration, Jesus goes up to the mountain, where

his clothes begin to shine, a cloud hovers over him, and Moses and Elijah appear with

him to discuss his upcoming “exodus” (e;xodon). The voice from heaven repeats the

command of Deut 18:15 – “listen to him.” The Moses imagery is impossible to miss.50

Like the expected prophet, Jesus teaches with authority (Mark 1:27), placing his

interpretation of the law on par with Moses. Matthew and John both present a highly

developed Moses typology, from Jesus’s escaping the slaughter of the innocents, to his

teaching from a mountain and his feeding of the multitudes in the wilderness, they often

stress how Jesus’ ministry is superior to Moses’ (see, e.g. John 1:17). John claims that

Moses “wrote about” Jesus (1:45, 5:46) and has the Samaritan woman proclaim Jesus to

48
For a comparison of John the Baptist and Elijah see J. Taylor, The Immerser: John the Baptist within
Second Temple Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997).
49
See, e.g., R. Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus and Mark (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997).
50
J. Marcus, The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark
(Edinburgh: T & T. Clark, 1993).
 20

be the awaited Messiah who will teach all things (4:25).51 Acts, too, picks up on this

theme. Peter’s speech in Acts 3 cites the promise of Deut 18, as does Stephen’s speech in

Acts 7. The Epistle to the Hebrews also goes to great lengths to compare and contrast

Jesus with Moses (3:2ff, 9:16ff).

One final fascinating instance which illustrates the place of the promised

eschatological prophet in the NT’s eschatology is Revelation 11, which describes two

witness-prophets, called the “two olive trees” and the “two lampstands” – most likely a

reference to Zechariah’s “sons of oil” (4:12-14).52 Like Elijah (Mal 4:1) they judge their

foes with fire and have “the authority to shut the sky, so that no rain may fall” (cf. 1

Kings 17). Like Moses, they turn the water to blood and bring “every kind of plague.”

This portrait of the two prophets is fascinating because it demonstrates the flexibility the

NT authors felt in applying the prophet typologies of the OT. They did not feel

constrained to equate John the Baptist with Elijah, or Jesus with Moses. They felt free to

draw on and apply the characterizations of the OT to numerous figures.

Conclusion

From this survey, it should be evident that while the expectation of an

eschatological prophet may not have been universal in Second Temple Judaism, it was

widespread and found expression both in the literature of the period and in the political

movements of the day. The prophetic expectation was founded on three OT types: the

Mosaic prophet of Deut 18, Elijah redivivus of Mal 3 and 4, and the anointed messenger

of Isaiah 40-66. Each of these figures was closely tied – in contemporary interpretation –

51
See Dexinger, “Reflections”.
 21

to the messianic age, whether as an actual messianic figure or as a forerunner of the

Messiah. At Qumran, it appears that the eschatological prophet was distinguished from

the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel. In the New Testament, however, Jesus came to be

identified as the priestly messiah, the royal messiah, and the eschatological prophet.

If anything, this study highlights the diversity within Second Temple Judaism,

especially with regard to Messianic and eschatological expectations. The various views

defy easy categorization and testify to the fertile and imaginative theological environment

of the time.

52
Teeple, 44; Collins, “He Shall Not Judge,” 163.
 22

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abegg, Martin. "The Messiah at Qumran: Are We Still Seeing Double?" Dead Sea
Discoveries 2 (1995): 125-45.

Allegro, John M. "Further Messianic References in Qumran Literature." Journal of

Biblical Literature 75 (1956): 174-87.

Allison, Dale C. The New Moses: A Matthean Typology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1993.

Blenkinsopp, Joseph. A History of Prophecy in Israel. Rev. and enl. ed. Louisville, Ky.:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.

Boismard, M. E. Moses or Jesus : An Essay in Johannine Christology. 1st North

American ed. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Bowley, James E. "Moses in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Living in the Shadow of God's
Anointed." In The Bible at Qumran, ed. Peter W Flint and T. H. Kim, 159-81.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001.

Brooke, George J. Exegesis at Qumran: 4QFlorilegium in Its Jewish Context. Journal for
the Study of the Old Testament. Supplement Series, 29. Sheffield: JSOT, 1985.

________. “Parabiblical Prophetic Narratives.” In P. W. Flint and J. C. VanderKam, eds.

The Dead Sea Scrolls After Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment.Leiden;
Boston: Brill, 1998. Pp. 271-301.

Charlesworth, James H. The Messiah: Developments in Earliest Judaism and

Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992.

________. "From Messianology to Christology. Problems and Prospects." In The

Messiah, ed. James H. Charlesworth, 3-35. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.

Charlesworth, James H., Hermann Lichtenberger, Gerbern S. Oegema, eds. Qumran-

Messianism: Studies on the Messianic Expectations in the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998.

Collins, John J. “A Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61:1-3 and its Actualization in the
Dead Sea Scrolls.” In The Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical
Intertextuality in Honor of James A. Sanders, eds. C. A. Evans and S. Talmon.
Leiden; New York: Brill, 1997. Pp. 225-40.

________. "Teacher and Messiah? The One Who Will Teach Righteousness at the End of
Days." In The Community of the Renewed Covenant, ed. E. Ulrich, J. VanderKam,
193-210. Notre Dame: Univ of Notre Dame, 1994.
 23

________. "The Works of the Messiah." Dead Sea Discoveries 1 (1994): 98-112.

________. The Scepter and the Star: The Messiahs of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Other
Ancient Literature. 1st ed. The Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York:
Doubleday, 1995.

________. "'He Shall Not Judge by What His Eyes See': Messianic Authority in the Dead
Sea Scrolls." Dead Sea Discoveries 2 (1995): 145-64.

Dexinger, Ferdinand. "Reflections on the Relationship between Qumran and Samaritan

Messianology." In Qumran-Messianism, ed. James H Charlesworth, H.
Lichtenberger, G. Oegema, 83-99. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998.

Evans, Craig A. Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies. Leiden; New
York: E.J. Brill, 1995.

Evans, Craig A., and Peter W. Flint. Eschatology, Messianism, and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
W.B. Eerdmans, 1997.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Dead Sea Scrolls and Christian Origins. Studies in the Dead
Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.

________. Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament. London: G.

Chapman, 1971.

________. "More About Elijah Coming First." Journal of Biblical Literature 104 (1985):
295-6.

Flint, Peter W. and James C. VanderKam. The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years : A
Comprehensive Assessment. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 1998.

Flint, Peter W., and Tae Hun Kim. The Bible at Qumran : Text, Shape, and
Interpretation. Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001.

Garcia Martinez, Florentino. The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated : The Qumran Texts in
English. 2nd ed. Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill, 1996.

Gray, Rebecca. Prophetic Figures in Late Second Temple Jewish Palestine : The
Evidence from Josephus. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Hable, N. C. "Deuteronomy 18 – God's Chosen Prophet." Concordia Theological

Monthly 35 (1964): 575-82.
 24

Hengel, Martin. The Zealots: Investigations into the Jewish Freedom Movement in the
Period from Herod I until 70 A.D. Trans. David Smith. Edinburgh: T&T Clark,
1989.

Holladay, W. L. "Jeremiah and Moses: Further Observations." Journal of Biblical

Literature 85 (1966): 17-27.

Horsley, Richard A., and John S. Hanson. Bandits, Prophets, and Messiahs: Popular
Movements in the Time of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.

Laato, Antti. A Star Is Rising: The Historical Development of the Old Testament Royal
Ideology and the Rise of the Jewish Messianic Expectations. University of South
Florida International Studies in Formative Christianity and Judaism, v. 5. Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1997.

Lübbe, J. "A Reinterpretation of 4QTestimonia." Revue de Qumran 12 (1986): 187-97.

Marcus, Joel. The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the
Gospel of Mark. Edinburgh: T & T. Clark, 1993.

Meeks, Wayne A. The Prophet-King. Moses Traditions and the Johannine Christology.
Supplements to Novum Testamentum, V. 14. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1967.

Miller, Patrick D. "Moses My Servant. The Deuteronomic Portrait of Moses."

Interpretation 41 (1987): 245-55.

Mowinckel, Sigmund. He That Cometh. Oxford: Blackwell, 1959.

Oegema, Gerbern S. The Anointed and His People: Messianic Expectations from
Maccabees to Bar Kochba. Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha.
Supplement Series; 27. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998.

Pate, C. Marvin. Communities of the Last Days : The Dead Sea Scrolls, the New
Testament & the Story of Israel. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000.

Roberts, J. J. M. "The Old Testament's Contribution to Messianic Expectations." In The

Messiah. Developments in Earliest Judaism and Christianity, ed. James H.
Charlesworth, 39-51. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.

Robinson, John A. T. Twelve New Testament Studies Studies in Biblical Theology, No.
34. Naperville, Ill.,: A.R.Allenson, 1962.

Strugnell, John. "Moses-Pseudepigrapha at Qumran. 4Q375, 4Q376, and Similar Works."

In Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman,
221-56. Sheffield: JSOT, 1990.
 25

Taylor, Joan. The Immerser: John the Baptist within Second Temple Judaism. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.

Teeple, Howard Merle. The Mosaic Eschatological Prophet. Philadelphia: Society of

Biblical Literature, 1957.

Ulrich, Eugene Charles, and James C. VanderKam. The Community of the Renewed
Covenant: The Notre Dame Symposium on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Christianity and
Judaism in Antiquity; V.10. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press,
1994.

Watts, Rikki. Isaiah’s New Exodus and Mark. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997.

Wise, Michael Owen. Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet
Qumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects. Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences ; V. 722. New York: New York Academy of Sciences,
1994.

________., M. Abegg and E. Cook. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. San
Fransisco: Harper, 1996.

Woude, A. S. van der, Florentino Garcia Martinez, A. Hilhorst, and C. J. Labuschagne.

The Scriptures and the Scrolls : Studies in Honour of A.S. Van Der Woude on the
Occasion of His 65th Birthday. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, V. 49.
Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill, 1992.