Developing oral skills

Need And Significance

Oral communication is perhaps one of the most essential skills to master because of its applicability
to most academic and professional fields. In fact, employers often rank communication skills as the
number one quality they search for in potential candidates.

It is important to consider the setting of oral communication, whether it takes place one-on-one or
among a group. These settings have some similarities as well as some differences in terms of the
skills necessary to convey one's thoughts and ideas in a meaningful way. For example, in a job
interview, employers are more impressed by candidates who respond in extended sentences rather
than just "yes" or "no" answers. In a group setting, pitch and volume are key characteristics of oral
communication.

Furthermore, non-verbal communication can be just as important as oral communication. Good eye
contact, excellent posture, and active listening cues are a few non-verbal communication skills that
reinforce oral communication. Fortunately, both oral and non-verbal communication skills can be
greatly improved over time with more experience.

Many academic programs from grade school through college deem oral communication so vital that
they are including standards for this in their education. The hope is that students will enter the
workforce and society with these crucial skills.
NEED
This is the skill that you will use most in oral communication. Wood (2009) lists
three principles that explain oral communication and how they affect us. The
fourth, concerning speech quality, is obtained from Camp & Satterwhite (2002).

(a) Interpretation of Symbols Create Meaning

Symbols, like words, which are used in communication do not have

meanings on their own. Their meanings are derived from people. This
means that you have to look into people to uncover the meaning. Every
word has a dictionary meaning but when used by a person in an
expression, you have to look into the person and the context in which the
word is used to get the actual meaning. For example, „go out‰ is literally a
command or directive. You say these words when you want someone to
physically move from the inside of a building to the outside. However, if a
man says to a woman, „LetÊs go out.‰ he is not necessarily asking her to go
outside. He might actually be asking her to go on a date.
Also the meanings attached to words change from time to time. Words
which used to have a positive or neutral connotation may now have a
negative connotation, and vice-versa. The word „gay‰ used to mean
„merry‰. Nowadays, the same word may be used to refer to people who
are homosexuals.
(b) There Are Rules in Communication
Verbal communication has its own set of unspoken but widely understood
rules. „Communication rules are shared understandings of what
communication means and what kinds of communication are and are not
appropriate in various situations‰ (Wood, 2009).
These rules are not formalised or intentionally formed but are unconsciously
developed as we interact with family, friends and people at work. There are
two sets of rules that guide communication:

(i) Regulative Rules

These unwritten rules tell you when, where, how and with whom
you can have a conversation. An example is turn-taking when talking
with someone. You know that you should not interrupt the person
speaking but you also need to look out for signals that will tell you
when to enter into a conversation and when to end it.
Regulative rules also define when, where, and with whom you can
communicate in a particular way. For example, traditionally, in Asian
homes, the elders speak first while the youngsters listen without
interruption or contradiction (Figure 2.4).
At work, junior officers are expected not to interrupt superior officers
when they speak. However, superior officers can interrupt their junior
officer any time. Employees are also expected to show respect and
interest when their employers speak to them.

(ii) Constitutive Rules

These rules „define what communication means by showing us the
meaning behind certain kinds of symbols used in communication.‰ For
example, head bowing in Asia is a symbol of respect (Figure 2.5),
kissing and hugging denotes love and affection while yawning and
shouting during a conversation denotes rudeness.
Another example of a constitutive rule is to clap after a speaker has
given a talk even though we may have found the talk absolutely boring.

(c) Punctuation Affects Meaning

Punctuation in communication affects meaning. The full stop, for instance,
marks the end of one sentence or idea and the beginning of another.
Similarly, punctuation can signal the beginning or the end of a particular
interaction.
For example, when a professor enters the lecture hall, his entry marks the
beginning of the lecture. When he switches off the overhead projector, takes
off his reading glasses and says „ThatÊs all for today‰, it signals the end of
the lecture. Tension is created when people disagree on punctuation.
(d) Voice Attributes
To be an effective speaker, you need to pay attention to the following voice
attributes as they affect the quality of your speech.

(i) Volume
Your voice must be heard clearly for effective oral communication.
You need to have good breath control in order to speak with sufficient
volume. If you speak too softly, the audience will not be able to hear
and understand what you are saying.

(ii) Pitch
You should speak with a pleasing pitch that is neither too high nor too
low. Your voice will be shrill if it is pitched too high, and deep if it is
pitched too low. Speakers need to learn to vary the pitch of their
voices when they speak so as to get the right intonation.

(iii) Intonation
Intonation is the rhythm, or the rise and fall of your voice when you
speak. For example, the intonation rises at the end of the utterance
when you ask a question. The intonation remains level at the end of
the utterance when you make a statement. Subtle nuances in meaning
can arise when you vary the pitch.
(iv) Tone
The tone of your voice reflects your emotions and attitude. A cheerful
and pleasant tone is usually appreciated by your listeners (Figure 2.6).
Telephone operators and frontline people who man phones need to
develop a polite, cheerful and pleasant tone. The tone that you use
must also be suitable for the words and the message that you intend
to convey.

(v) Tempo

Tempo refers to the speed at which you speak. Do not speak too fast
or too slowly. If you speak too fast, your listeners will not be able to
catch what you are saying. However, if you speak too slowly, your
listeners may get bored and their attention may wander. Worse still,
you may end up making them sleepy. A recommended speaking rate
is 125 words per minute.

(vi) Enunciation
This refers to the clarity or distinctiveness with which you articulate
each part of a word. Clear enunciation of words will help your listener
to better understand your message.
Many speakers do not enunciate the end sounds of words, for
example, dropping the /g/ sound in „walking‰ to sound like
„walkin‰. When they speak fast, they run the sounds of a group of
words together and drop some sounds, e.g., „Whadijado?‰ for „What
did you do

(vii) Pronunciation
Pronunciation refers to the reproduction of the sound of individual
letters or group of letters that make up a word. It also includes
speaking with the correct stress and emphasis.
significance
Possessing good oral speaking skills will make you a more effective

communicator as you will be able to influence and persuade people. This is

beneficial for you at a personal level as well as socially and professionally.

Building Friendships
Socially, good oral communication skills enable you to effectively share
information, thoughts, feelings, needs and intentions. You can create close
relationships and bond with family, friends and people at work (see Figure 2.7).
A good listener is almost always appreciated. If you are a good listener, you also
tend to win friends as most people regard someone who listens to their problems,
fears, joys, and successes as a true friend.

: Oral communication skills help to foster friendships

The learning process often requires you to have an inquiring mind. Good

oral communication skills will help you acquire knowledge more effectively,

especially when you are able to ask questions, express opinions and ideas, and

summarise information.
Nature of Oral Communication

Oral communication does not require much planning. It requires appropriate Para-linguistic features
like tone, pitch, register, facial expressions, gestures and body language. Effective oral
communication depends on purpose of the message.
For oral communication to be effective, it should be clear, relevant, tactful in phraseology and tone,
concise, and informative. Presentations or conversations that bear these hallmarks can be an
invaluable tool in ensuring business health and growth. Unclear, inaccurate, or inconsiderate business
communication, on the other hand, can waste valuable time, alienate employees or customers, and
destroy goodwill toward management or the overall business.
Scope of oral communication
Scope means the possibility of any particular subject in a particular field.
It can be understood by dividing in two parts:

ØInternal (within the organization)

Ø External (outside the organization)

Scope within the organization
}The types of oral communication commonly used within an organization include staff meetings,
personal discussions, presentations, telephone discourse, and informal conversation.

Scope outside the organization

}Oral communication with those outside of the organization might take the form of face-to-face
meetings, telephone calls, speeches, teleconferences, or videoconferences.
Construction of argumetns and Idea
Argumentation is not just what your instructors do. We all use argumentation on a daily basis, and
you probably already have some skill at crafting an argument. The more you improve your skills in
this area, the better you will be at thinking critically, reasoning, making choices, and weighing
evidence.

Making a claim
What is an argument? In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a “claim”
or “thesis statement,” backed up with evidence that supports the idea. In the majority of college
papers, you will need to make some sort of claim and use evidence to support it, and your ability to
do this well will separate your papers from those of students who see assignments as mere
accumulations of fact and detail. In other words, gone are the happy days of being given a “topic”
about which you can write anything. It is time to stake out a position and prove why it is a good
position for a thinking person to hold. See our handout on thesis statements.

Claims can be as simple as “Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged,”
with evidence such as, “In this experiment, protons and electrons acted in such and such a way.”
Claims can also be as complex as “The end of the South African system of apartheid was inevitable,”
using reasoning and evidence such as, “Every successful revolution in the modern era has come
about after the government in power has given and then removed small concessions to the uprising
group.” In either case, the rest of your paper will detail the reasoning and evidence that have led you
to believe that your position is best.

When beginning to write a paper, ask yourself, “What is my point?” For example, the point of this
handout is to help you become a better writer, and we are arguing that an important step in the
process of writing effective arguments is understanding the concept of argumentation. If your papers
do not have a main point, they cannot be arguing for anything. Asking yourself what your point is can
help you avoid a mere “information dump.” Consider this: your instructors probably know a lot more
than you do about your subject matter. Why, then, would you want to provide them with material they
already know? Instructors are usually looking for two things:

Proof that you understand the material

A demonstration of your ability to use or apply the material in ways that go beyond what you have
read or heard.
This second part can be done in many ways: you can critique the material, apply it to something else,
or even just explain it in a different way. In order to succeed at this second step, though, you must
have a particular point to argue.
Arguments in academic writing are usually complex and take time to develop. Your argument will
need to be more than a simple or obvious statement such as “Frank Lloyd Wright was a great
architect.” Such a statement might capture your initial impressions of Wright as you have studied him
in class; however, you need to look deeper and express specifically what caused that “greatness.”
Your instructor will probably expect something more complicated, such as “Frank Lloyd Wright’s
architecture combines elements of European modernism, Asian aesthetic form, and locally found
materials to create a unique new style,” or “There are many strong similarities between Wright’s
building designs and those of his mother, which suggests that he may have borrowed some of her
ideas.” To develop your argument, you would then define your terms and prove your claim with
evidence from Wright’s drawings and buildings and those of the other architects you mentioned.

Evidence
Do not stop with having a point. You have to back up your point with evidence. The strength of your
evidence, and your use of it, can make or break your argument. See our handout on evidence. You
already have the natural inclination for this type of thinking, if not in an academic setting. Think
about how you talked your parents into letting you borrow the family car. Did you present them with
lots of instances of your past trustworthiness? Did you make them feel guilty because your friends’
parents all let them drive? Did you whine until they just wanted you to shut up? Did you look up
statistics on teen driving and use them to show how you didn’t fit the dangerous-driver profile? These
are all types of argumentation, and they exist in academia in similar forms.
Every field has slightly different requirements for acceptable evidence, so familiarize yourself with
some arguments from within that field instead of just applying whatever evidence you like best. Pay
attention to your textbooks and your instructor’s lectures. What types of argument and evidence are
they using? The type of evidence that sways an English instructor may not work to convince a
sociology instructor. Find out what counts as proof that something is true in that field. Is it statistics, a
logical development of points, something from the object being discussed (art work, text, culture, or
atom), the way something works, or some combination of more than one of these things?

Be consistent with your evidence. Unlike negotiating for the use of your parents’ car, a college paper
is not the place for an all-out blitz of every type of argument. You can often use more than one type
of evidence within a paper, but make sure that within each section you are providing the reader with
evidence appropriate to each claim. So, if you start a paragraph or section with a statement like
“Putting the student seating area closer to the basketball court will raise player performance,” do not
follow with your evidence on how much more money the university could raise by letting more
students go to games for free. Information about how fan support raises player morale, which then
results in better play, would be a better follow-up. Your next section could offer clear reasons why
undergraduates have as much or more right to attend an undergraduate event as wealthy alumni—but
this information would not go in the same section as the fan support stuff. You cannot convince a
confused person, so keep things tidy and ordered.
Counterargument
One way to strengthen your argument and show that you have a deep understanding of the issue you
are discussing is to anticipate and address counterarguments or objections. By considering what
someone who disagrees with your position might have to say about your argument, you show that
you have thought things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have
for not accepting your argument. Recall our discussion of student seating in the Dean Dome. To make
the most effective argument possible, you should consider not only what students would say about
seating but also what alumni who have paid a lot to get good seats might say.

You can generate counterarguments by asking yourself how someone who disagrees with you might
respond to each of the points you’ve made or your position as a whole. If you can’t immediately
imagine another position, here are some strategies to try:

Do some research. It may seem to you that no one could possibly disagree with the position you are
arguing, but someone probably has. For example, some people argue that the American Civil War
never ended. If you are making an argument concerning, for example, the outcomes of the Civil War,
you might wish to see what some of these people have to say.
Talk with a friend or with your teacher. Another person may be able to imagine counterarguments
that haven’t occurred to you.
Consider your conclusion or claim and the premises of your argument and imagine someone who
denies each of them. For example, if you argued, “Cats make the best pets. This is because they are
clean and independent,” you might imagine someone saying, “Cats do not make the best pets. They
are dirty and needy.”
Once you have thought up some counterarguments, consider how you will respond to them—will you
concede that your opponent has a point but explain why your audience should nonetheless accept
your argument? Will you reject the counterargument and explain why it is mistaken? Either way, you
will want to leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing arguments.

When you are summarizing opposing arguments, be charitable. Present each argument fairly and
objectively, rather than trying to make it look foolish. You want to show that you have considered the
many sides of the issue. If you simply attack or caricature your opponent (also referred to as
presenting a “straw man”), you suggest that your argument is only capable of defeating an extremely
weak adversary, which may undermine your argument rather than enhance it.

It is usually better to consider one or two serious counterarguments in some depth, rather than to give
a long but superficial list of many different counterarguments and replies.
Be sure that your reply is consistent with your original argument. If considering a counterargument
changes your position, you will need to go back and revise your original argument accordingly.

Audience
Audience is a very important consideration in argument. Take a look at our handout on audience. A
lifetime of dealing with your family members has helped you figure out which arguments work best
to persuade each of them. Maybe whining works with one parent, but the other will only accept cold,
hard statistics. Your kid brother may listen only to the sound of money in his palm. It’s usually wise
to think of your audience in an academic setting as someone who is perfectly smart but who doesn’t
necessarily agree with you. You are not just expressing your opinion in an argument (“It’s true
because I said so”), and in most cases your audience will know something about the subject at hand
—so you will need sturdy proof. At the same time, do not think of your audience as capable of
reading your mind. You have to come out and state both your claim and your evidence clearly. Do not
assume that because the instructor knows the material, he or she understands what part of it you are
using, what you think about it, and why you have taken the position you’ve chosen.

Critical reading
Critical reading is a big part of understanding argument. Although some of the material you read will
be very persuasive, do not fall under the spell of the printed word as authority. Very few of your
instructors think of the texts they assign as the last word on the subject. Remember that the author of
every text has an agenda, something that he or she wants you to believe. This is OK—everything is
written from someone’s perspective—but it’s a good thing to be aware of. For more information on
objectivity and bias and on reading sources carefully, read our handouts on evaluating print sources
and reading to write.

Take notes either in the margins of your source (if you are using a photocopy or your own book) or
on a separate sheet as you read. Put away that highlighter! Simply highlighting a text is good for
memorizing the main ideas in that text—it does not encourage critical reading. Part of your goal as a
reader should be to put the author’s ideas in your own words. Then you can stop thinking of these
ideas as facts and start thinking of them as arguments.

When you read, ask yourself questions like “What is the author trying to prove?” and “What is the
author assuming I will agree with?” Do you agree with the author? Does the author adequately
defend her argument? What kind of proof does she use? Is there something she leaves out that you
would put in? Does putting it in hurt her argument? As you get used to reading critically, you will
start to see the sometimes hidden agendas of other writers, and you can use this skill to improve your
own ability to craft effective arguments.
Oral Expression

Oral expression is the ability to convey wants, needs, thoughts, and

ideas meaningfully

using appropriate syntactic, pragmatic,

semantic, and phonological language structures.

Oral expression should NOT be confused with reading aloud or reading

fluently.

14
Examples of Oral Expression in the Classroom

Students are asked to…

– share stories or retell and answer questions over stories read to them
to demonstrate comprehension

– predict or make inferences

– express their opinions

– tell what the story is about (main idea) in sequence

(beginning, middle, end)

– Summarize what they’ve read

– Question as they read
 – Clarify as they read

– Revisit predictions as they read

Oral Language: Importance to Learning

• Oral language provides the foundation for literacy development which leads
to success in reading and writing.

• Both comprehension and expression are essential to academic achievement

in all content areas.
• Communication skills are critical for overall success

Body Language
Picking Up and Understanding Nonverbal Signals

Lauren sighed. She'd just received an email from her

boss, Gus, saying that the product proposal she'd been
working on wasn't going to be signed off after all.
It didn't make any sense. A week ago she'd been in a meeting with Gus and he'd
seemed really positive about it all. Sure, he hadn't made much eye contact, and he
kept looking out of the window at something. But she'd just put that down to him
being busy. And, he'd saidthat "the project will probably get the go-ahead."
If Lauren had known a little bit more about body language, she'd have realized that
Gus wastrying to tell her that he wasn't "sold" on her idea. He just wasn't using
words.
Click here to view a transcript of this video.
In this article, we'll define what is meant by body language, and how you can read
and interpret it to understand people better and communicate with them more
effectively.

What Is Body Language?

Put simply, body language is the unspoken element of communication that we use to
reveal our true feelings and emotions. Our gestures, facial expressions and posture,
for instance.

When we are able to "read" these signs, we can use it to our advantage. For example,
it can help us to understand the complete message of what someone is trying to say
to us, and to enhance our awareness of people's reactions to what we say and do.
We can also use it to adjust our own body language so that we appear more positive,
engaging and approachable.

How to Read Negative Body Language

Being aware of negative body language in others can allow you to pick up on
unspoken issues or bad feelings. So, in this section, we'll highlight some negative
nonverbal signals that you should look out for.

Difficult Conversations and Defensiveness

Difficult or tense conversations are an uncomfortable fact of life at work. Perhaps
you've had to deal with a difficult customer , or needed to talk to someone about
his or her poor performance . Or maybe you've negotiated a major contract.
Ideally, these situations would be resolved calmly. But, often they are complicated by
feelings of nervousness, stress, defensiveness , or even anger . And, though we
may try to hide them, these emotions often show through in our body language.
For example, if someone is exhibiting one or more of the following behaviors, he will
likely be disengaged, disinterested or unhappy (see figure 1):

 Arms folded in front of the body.

 Minimal or tense facial expression.
 Body turned away from you.
 Eyes downcast, maintaining little contact.
Figure 1.
Being aware of these signs can help you to adjust what you say and how you say it,
so you can make him feel more at ease and receptive to your viewpoint (see figure
2).

Figure 2.
Avoiding Unengaged Audiences
When you need to deliver a presentation, or to collaborate in a group, you want the
people around you to be 100 percent engaged.
Here are some "telltale" signs that people may be bored or disinterested in what
you're saying (see figures 3-6):

 Sitting slumped, with heads downcast.

 Gazing at something else, or into space.
 Fidgeting, picking at clothes, or fiddling with pens and phones.
 Writing or doodling.

Figure 3. Figure 4.

Figure 5. Figure 6.

When you notice that someone is disengaged , you're in a better position to do

something about it. For example, you can re-engage her by asking her a direct
question, or by inviting her to contribute an idea of her own.
How to Project Positive Body Language
When you use positive body language, it can add strength to the verbal messages
or ideas that you want to convey, and help you to avoid sending mixed or confusing
signals.
In this section, we'll describe some basic postures that you can adopt to project self-
confidence and openness.

Making a Confident First Impression

These tips can help you to adjust your body language so that you make a great first
impression :
 Have an open posture. Be relaxed, but don't slouch! Sit or stand upright and
place your hands by your sides (see figure 7). Avoid standing with your hands on
your hips, as this will make you appear larger, which can communicate aggression
or a desire to dominate (see figure 8).
 Use a firm handshake. But don't get carried away! You don't want it to become
awkward or, worse, painful for the other person. If it does, you'll likely come across
as rude or aggressive.
 Maintain good eye contact. Try to hold the other person's gaze for a few
seconds at a time. This will show her that you're sincere and engaged. But, avoid
turning it into a staring match! (See figure 9.)
 Avoid touching your face. There's a common perception that people who
touch their faces while answering questions are being dishonest (see figure 10). While this isn't
always true, it's best to avoid fiddling with your hair or touching your mouth or nose, particularly if your aim is to come across as trustworthy.
Figure 7. Figure 8.

Figure 9. Figure 10.

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Public Speaking
Positive body language can also help you to engage people, to mask presentation
nerves , and to project confidence when you speak in public. Here are a few tips
that can help you to do this:
 Have a positive posture. Sit or stand upright, with your shoulders back and
your arms unfolded and at your sides or in front of you (see figure 11). Don't be
tempted to put your hands in your pockets, or to slouch, as this will make you look
disinterested.
 Keep your head up. Your head should be upright and level (see figure 12).
Leaning too far forward or backward can make you look aggressive or arrogant.
 Practice and perfect your posture. You'd practice your presentation
beforehand, so why not practice your body language, too? Stand in a relaxed
manner, with your weight evenly distributed. Keep one foot slightly in front of the
other – this will help you to maintain your posture (see figure 13).
 Use open hand gestures. Spread your hands apart, in front of you, with your palms facing slightly toward your
audience. This indicates a willingness to communicate and to share ideas (see figure 14). Keep your upper arms close to your body. Take care to
avoid overexpression, or people may pay more attention to your hands than to what you're saying.
Figure 11. Figure 12.

Figure 13. Figure 14.

Tip:
If you notice that your audience's concentration is starting to slip, try to
lean slightlyforward while you speak. This suggests that you are taking them into
your confidence and will help you to regain their attention.

Interviews, Negotiations and Reflection

Body language can also help you to stay calm in situations where emotions have the
potential to run high – a negotiation , for example, or a performance review . Use
the following tips to defuse tension and demonstrate openness:
 Use mirroring. If you can, subtly mirror the body language of the person you're
talking to. This will make him feel more at ease, and can build rapport . But don't
copy everygesture that he makes, as this will likely make him feel uncomfortable,
or that you're not taking him seriously.
 Relax your body. It can be difficult to keep emotions at bay, particularly in
nerve-wracking situations such as an interview or appraisal. But you can maintain
the appearance of calm by keeping your hands still, and by avoiding fidgeting with
your hair or touching your face.
 Look interested. As we suggested above, touching your face or mouth can
signal dishonesty. But, it can also demonstrate that you're thinking. So, if you are
asked a complex question, it's OK to briefly touch your cheek or stroke your chin.
This will show the other person that you're reflecting on your answer before you
respond (see figure 15).
Figure 15.

Note:
While the tips covered in this article are a good general guide for intepreting body
language, it's important to remember that they won't necessarily apply to everyone.
This is particularly the case if someone has a different cultural background from
you, for instance.
Avoid making generalized assumptions. If you're getting mixed signals, check that
your interpretation of the person's body language is correct by asking him questions
and getting to know him better. After all, the ability to interpret body language is a
complementary skill, not a substitute for listening to and understanding people.
Key Points
Body language refers to the nonverbal signals that you use to communicate your
feelings and intentions. It includes your posture, your facial expressions, and your
hand gestures.

The ability to understand and to interpret body language can help you to pick up on
unspoken issues, problems or negative feelings that other people might have. You can
also use it in a positive way to add strength to your verbal messages.

Negative body language includes:

 Folded arms.
 Tense facial expression.
 Body turned away from you.
 Poor eye contact.
Positive body language includes:
 Open body position (arms unfolded).
 Upright posture.
 Relaxed and open facial expression.
 Arms hanging relaxed by the sides.
 Regular eye contact.
Clarity of Thoughts
A Definition of Clarity

"Getting things straight" is a difficult communication task; yet people

must communicate clearly with each other in order to receive information
to accomplish the mundane tasks of life and to experience the depths of
dialogue with another person.

Fortunately, absolute clarity is unnecessary; effective communication is

accomplished when the amount of clarity or accuracy achieved is
sufficient for handling each situation adequately. According to
information theorists, the purpose of communication is to reduce
uncertainty. Total accuracy in communication would lead to an absence
of uncertainty. However, uncertainty can

never be totally eliminated. Accurate or clear communication, then, is

designed to reduce uncertainty in a given situation to a point where
necessary understanding can occur.
Just like any other young recently graduated boy, I had big dreams in my
eyes when i went for my first job interview yesterday. After a general
introduction, the interviewer asked me where i saw myself after 5 years
and what was my dream. I always thought I have everything planned and
would become famous one day, but when he asked me that question I
was left speechless. Should I say want to be famous? FAMOUS. Who
doesn't want to be famous? But do I know how I really know how I want
to go about it??? I just said I want to be a solution provider to my
customers. He laughed and said my answer was something that

35
Interview Tips sites suggest. I too smiled but deep within I was in
turmoil of my own.

We all often dream big things for ourselves in our formative years and
more often than not find ourselves in a rut away from our dreams. Lack
of clarity is the biggest culprit which hinders us from becoming what we
want to. We always have a vague idea instead of having a full fledged
plan. Therefore we don't know how to go about fulfilling that dream. We
don't set our goals, instead we set statements like "I want to be famous",
"I want to be rich" etc. Goals are more specific and they specify the path
to our dreams. Setting short-term goals and achieving them keeps us on
track and keeps us aware of our objectives.

Clarity in Our Thoughts results in Clearer Goals

Once we know what we want to achieve and have thought about how we
wish to achive it, its time for us to make goals. This is a necessary step if
you are serious about achieving success and give it some good time and
thought. Don't be too optimistic nor be too pessimistic about your plan. I
would advise you to write down your goals on paper and in checklist
form. Put cross or tick in front of them after regular intervals of time and
never mark partially achieved goal.

Tackling Mistakes
Mistakes are pass and parcel of life, no one was, is and will be perfect.
We are often scared of making mistakes, in fact which hinders our
ability to take risks and thus, also the possibility of achieving greater
heights. And in our quest to avoid mistakes we end up doing nothing. So
don't be afraid to make mistakes, keep learning from them. When we
start our journey in our professional life, we all start as an amateur and
keep gaining experience from the baby steps we take. Like babies,
sometimes we fall, but unlike childhood days, there is no one to hold us.
We need to pick ourselves up and learn to keep walking, at the same
time use our experience when time of taking big strides comes.

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Making Oral Speech

Communication Skills: Making Oral Presentations As with most

personal skills, oral communication cannot be taught. Instructors can
only point the way. So as always, practice is essential, both to improve
your skills generally and also to make the best of each individual
presentation you make. The material of your presentation should be
concise, to the point and tell an interesting story. In addition to the
obvious things like content and visual aids, the following are just as
important as the audience will be subconsciously taking them in: Your
voice - how you say it is as important as what you say. Body Language
- a subject in its own right and something about which much has been
written and said. In essence, your body movements express what your
attitudes and thoughts really are. Appearance - first impressions
influence the audience's attitudes to you. Dress appropriately for the
occasion. Preparation After you pick a topic and advisor, prepare the
structure of the talk carefully and logically (in consultation with the
topic advisor), just as you would for a written report. What are: The
objectives of the talk? The main points you want to make? 1. Make a
list of these two things as your starting point. 2. Write out the
presentation in rough, just like a first draft of a written report. 3. Review
the draft. You will find things that are irrelevant or superfluous - delete
them. 4. Check the story is consistent and flows smoothly. If there are
things you cannot easily express, possibly because of doubt about your
understanding, it is better to leave them unsaid. 5. Never read from a
script. It is also unwise to have the talk written out in detail as a prompt
sheet - chances are you will not locate the thing you want to say amongst
all the other text. You should know most of what you want to say - if you
don't, then you should not be giving the talk! So prepare cue cards which
have key words and phrases (and possibly sketches) on them. Don't
forget to number the cards in case you drop them. 6. Remember to mark
on your cards the visual aids that go with them so that the right slide is
shown at the right time. 7. Rehearse your presentation - to yourself at
first and then in front of some colleagues and topic advisor. The initial

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rehearsal should consider how the words and the sequence of visual aids
go together. How will you make effective use of your visual aids?
Making the presentation Someone will introduce you and therefore there
will not be a need for you to re-introduce yourself. Good presentations
then follow this formula: Tell the audience what you are going to tell
them, Then tell them, At the end tell them what you have told them.
Keep to the time allowed. If you can, keep it short. It's better to under-
run than over-run. As a rule of thumb, allow 2 minutes for each general
Powerpoint slide you use, but longer for any that you want to use for
developing specific points. However, the audience will get bored with
something on the screen for more than 5 minutes, especially if you are
not actively talking about it. So switch the display off, or replace the
slide with some form of 'wallpaper' such as the Plant Sciences
Department logo. Stick to the plan for the presentation, don't be tempted
to digress - you will eat up time and could end up in a dead-end with no
escape! At the end of your presentation ask if there are any questions. If
questions are slow in coming, you can start things off by asking a
question of the audience - so have one prepared. Leave time for
discussion - 5 minutes is sufficient to allow clarification of points. The
session chairman may extend this if the questioning becomes interesting.
Delivery Speak clearly. Don't shout or whisper - judge the acoustics of
the room. Don't rush, or talk deliberately slowly. Be natural - although
not conversational. Deliberately pause at key points - this has the effect
of emphasizing the importance of a particular point you are making.
Avoid jokes - always disastrous unless you are a natural expert. To
make the presentation interesting, change your delivery, but not too
obviously, eg: o speed o pitch Use your hands to emphasize points but
don't indulge in too much hand waving. People can, over time, develop
irritating habits. Ask colleagues occasionally what they think of your
style. Look at the audience as much as possible, but don't fix on an
individual - it can be intimidating. Pitch your presentation towards the
back of the audience, especially in larger rooms. Don't face the display
screen behind you and talk to it. Other annoying habits include: o
Standing in a position where you obscure the screen. In fact, positively

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check for anyone in the audience who may be disadvantaged and try to
accommodate them. o Muttering over a transparency on the OHP
projector plate and not realizing that you are blocking the projection of
the image. o Avoid moving about too much. Pacing up and down can
unnerve the audience, although some animation is desirable. Keep an
eye on the audience's body language. Know when to stop and also when
to cut out a piece of the presentation. Visual Aids Visual aids
significantly improve the interest of a presentation. However, they must
be relevant to what you want to say. A careless design or use of a slide
can simply et in the way of the presentation. What you use depends on
the type of talk you are giving. Here are some possibilities: Overhead
projection transparencies (OHPs) 35mm slides Computer projection
(Powerpoint, applications such as Excel, etc.) Video and film Real
objects - either handled from the speaker's bench or passed around
Flipchart or blackboard - possibly used as a 'scratch-pad' to expand on a
point Keep it simple, though - a complex set of hardware can result in
confusion for speaker and audience. Make sure you know in advance
how to operate equipment and also when you want particular displays to
appear. Edit your slides as carefully as your talk - if a slide is
superfluous then leave it out. If you need to use a slide twice, duplicate
it. Slides should contain the minimum information necessary. To do
otherwise risks making the slide unreadable or will divert your
audience's attention so that they spend time reading the slide rather than
listening to you. Try to limit words per slide to a maximum of 10. Use a
reasonable size font and a typeface which will enlarge well. Typically
use a minimum 18pt Times Roman and preferably larger. Use color on
your slides but avoid orange and yellow which do not show up very well
when projected. For text only, white or yellow on blue is pleasant to look
at and easy to read. Books on presentation techniques often have quite
detailed advice on the design of slides. If possible consult an expert such
as the Audio Visual Center. Room lighting should be considered. Too
much light near the screen will make it difficult to see the detail. On the
other hand, a completely darkened room can send the audience to sleep.

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Try to avoid having to keep switching lights on and off, but if you do
have to do this, know where the light switches are and how to use them.

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