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Article history: A steady increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane concentrations in recent decades
Received 15 November 2016 has sparked interest among researchers around the globe to find quick solutions to this problem. One
Received in revised form viable option is a utilization of CO2 with methane to produce syngas via catalytic reforming. In this paper,
25 May 2017
a comprehensive review has been conducted on the role and performance of Ni-based catalysts in the
Accepted 28 May 2017
Available online 29 May 2017
CO2 reforming of methane (sometimes called dry reforming of methane, DRM). Coke-resistance is the
key ingredient in good catalyst formulation; it is, therefore, paramount in a choice of catalyst supports,
promoters, and reaction conditions. Catalyst supports that have a strong metal-support interaction
Keywords:
Catalyst development
created during the catalyst preparation exhibit highest stability, high thermal resistance and high coke
Methane dry reforming resistance. In addition, the outlook of the Ni-based catalysts has been proposed to provide researchers
CO2 utilization with critical information related to the future direction of Ni-based catalysts in industrial settings.
Greenhouse gases Among others, it has been a great interest among researchers to synthesize catalyst supports from
Catalysis cellulosic materials (plant-based materials). The unique properties of the cellulose which are a well-
Coke-resistant catalysts defined structure and superior mechanical strength could enhance the catalytic activity in the DRM
reaction.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
2. Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3. Reaction thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4. Ni-based catalysts for DRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.1. Catalyst support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.2. Promoter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.3. Bimetallic catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.4. Novel catalytic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.5. Recently developed catalysts for CO2 reforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5. Other technologies of CO2 reforming of methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.1. Steam-CO2 dual reforming of methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2. Tri-reforming of methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6. Kinetics and mechanistics of DRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1. Influence of process variables on reaction rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.2. General applicable kinetic models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bawadi_abdullah@utp.edu.my (B. Abdullah).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.176
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185 171
8. Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
1. Introduction hydrogen yield compared to the other two methods (Palma et al.,
2016). Approximately 75% of hydrogen produced is derived from
Over the past decade, there has been an increase in energy SRM process (Fan et al., 2016). The differences between these
consumption, mainly due to a rapid growth in human population techniques are based on the oxidant used, the kinetics and ener-
(Li, 2005). This growing demand for energy has shifted the energy getics of the reaction, and the ratio of the syngas produced (H2/CO).
scenario over the years by industrialization (Tanksale et al., 2010). The details of the main reactions for reforming processes are
Moreover, energy demand is expected to keep increasing in the summarized as followings:
future despite the current low oil price. At present, the dependence
on fossil fuels which consist of oil, natural gas, and coal to meet SRM: CH4 þ H2 O/CO þ 3H2 DH298K ¼ þ228 kJ=mol
energy demand have created environmental issues by the genera- (1)
tion of anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Methane and CO2 are the
most abundant greenhouse gases and are the main contributors to POM: CH4 þ 1=2O2 /CO þ 2H2 DH298K ¼ 22:6 kJ=mol
the recent climate-change issues (Noor et al., 2013). Even though
(2)
the concentration of methane in the atmosphere is lower compared
to CO2 (Talyan et al., 2007), surprisingly it has caused about 20% of
the overall global warming (Wuebbles and Hayhoe, 2002). Tradi- DRM: CH4 þ CO2 /2CO þ 2H2 DH298K ¼ þ247 kJ=mol
tionally, methane is produced from two sources; first, it comes from (3)
natural sources such as termites, grasslands, wildfires, lakes and
From Rxn. (1), SRM reaction produces a higher H2/CO ratio
wetlands and second, from human activities such as coal mining,
which is 3:1 (Gangadharan et al., 2012) compared to the ratio
landfills, oil and gas processing and agricultural activities (Yusuf
required for F-T synthesis which is 2:1 (Oyama et al., 2012). SRM
et al., 2012). According to the U.S. Environmental Protection
requires intensive energy input due to the endothermic nature and
Agency (EPA) (Agency, 2011), the production of methane from
caused it is very expensive (Nieva et al., 2014). In addition, a higher
landfill contributes to about one-third of all emitted methane in the
H2O/CH4 ratio is required to attain a higher yield of H2 which makes
US alone in which, landfill gas consists of 40e45% of methane and
SRM process energetically unfavorable and accelerates catalysts
55e60% of CO2 by volume (Raco et al., 2010). Apart from that,
deactivation (Carvalho et al., 2009). Moreover, SRM faces corrosion
methane is also a major component of natural gas but most natural
issues and requires a desulphurization unit (Djinovi c et al., 2012). In
gas reservoirs are located far from industrial areas and often pro-
the case of POM, this process is suitable for the production of
duced offshore, and thus, the limitation in technology and cost for
heavier hydrocarbons and naphtha (Larimi and Alavi, 2012). Typi-
transporting this valuable natural gas from offshore to potential
cally, the POM process has very short residence time, high con-
market has led to the flaring of a large volume of natural gas
version rates and high selectivity (Ruckenstein and Hang Hu, 1999).
globally (Lunsford, 2000). These actions resulted in the wastage of
However, the exothermic nature of the reaction causes the induc-
an important hydrocarbon source and contributed to global
tion of hot spots on the catalyst and makes the operation difficult to
warming by releasing a greenhouse gas to the atmosphere (Elvidge
control (Asencios and Assaf, 2013). Besides, POM requires a cryo-
et al., 2009). Due to the pressure of fighting against the global
genic unit to separate oxygen from the air (Djinovi c et al., 2012).
climate change and ensuring the continuous energy sources, car-
Of all other technologies, DRM is the most promising one as it
bon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) was introduced around the
utilizes two abundant greenhouse gases (CO2 and methane) to
world with the objective to minimize the carbon dioxide emissions
produce syngas that is important for industries, and at the same
(Yang and Wang, 2015). Moreover, to reduce the substantial de-
time can reduce the net emission of greenhouse gases to the
pendency on crude oil and its undesirable influence on the atmo-
environment (Selvarajah et al., 2016). In addition, the DRM process
sphere, renewable energy is needed immediately for substituting
is also cheaper than other methods since it eliminates the
petroleum-based resources (Fayaz et al., 2016).
complicated gas separation of end products (San-Jose -Alonso et al.,
In order to reduce the amount of methane and CO2 in the at-
2009). DRM produces a H2/CO ratio of unity that can be used for the
mosphere, extensive research has been conducted to find effective
synthesis of oxygenated chemicals (Wurzel et al., 2000) and higher
ways to convert methane and CO2 into other valuable products. The
hydrocarbons for F-T synthesis (Nieva et al., 2014). Moreover, DRM
most common option is the conversion of CO2 and methane to
can be extended to biogas (CO2, CO and CH4) as a feedstock to
syngas owing to a low cost and relatively established technology
produce clean and environmentally friendly fuels (Xu et al., 2009).
(Bahari et al., 2016). It is an important process to transform the
Besides that, syngas from DRM is considered as solar or nuclear
hydrocarbons, usually in the chemical industries for the production
energy storage (Fraenkel et al., 1986). Table 1 shows the comparison
of syngas (Alirezaei et al., 2016). Syngas is considered a building
between three processes in the CO2 reforming of methane.
block that can be used as reactants for other applications such as
The use of catalysts in DRM reaction is important to maximize
Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) oil, methanol, and other valuable liquid fuels
the production of syngas as it helps to alter and enhance the rate of
and chemicals (Pen~ a et al., 1996). Reforming is the most common
reaction without being used up in the process. Catalyst works by
method used in industries to produce syngas, via one of the three
providing an alternative mechanism that lowers the activation
reforming processes, via steam reforming of methane (SRM), partial
energy resulted in less energy required to reach the transition state.
oxidation of methane (POM) and dry reforming methane (DRM)
Even though DRM requires high temperature to operate due to its
(Asencios and Assaf, 2013). SRM is the conventional technology for
endothermic nature, the presence of catalysts could lower the
production of hydrogen from hydrocarbon fuels due to the highest
temperature of the reaction significantly.
172 B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185
Table 1
Comparison between the methods in DRM reaction.
Type of Reaction Steam Reforming of Methane (SRM) Partial Oxidation of Methane (POM) Dry Reforming of Methane (DRM)
Advantages 1 High efficiency 2 High conversion of reactants 1 A technology that utilized two most
3 High selectivity of syngas abundant greenhouse gasses which are
4 Short residence time the CO2 and CH4
2 A clean and environmentally friendly
fuel that is formed
Disadvantages 1 Requires high energy and very costly. 1 Induction of hot spots on catalyst 1 Carbon formation and sintering of
2 Requires high CO2/CH4 ratio for greater yield of syngas cause might occur due to the exothermic catalyst
the SRM reaction energetically unfavorable and lead to nature of reaction
catalyst deactivation. 2 Costly technology because it requires
3 Complex system cryogenic unit to separate oxygen
4 Sensitive to natural gas qualities from the air
H2/CO ratio H2/CO ratio ¼ 3:1 H2/CO ratio ¼ 2:1 H2/CO ratio ¼ 1:1
Commercial Plant Topsoe Package Hydrogen Plants at Air Liquide, Belgium; NIL NIL
Plants in USA
Operating Temperature: 700 C to 1,000 C Temperature: 950 C to 1100 C Temperature: 650 C to 850 C
Temperature, Pressure: 3e25 bar pressure Pressure: 100 bar pressure Pressure: 1 bar
Pressure and Ratio: CH4/H2O ¼ 1:1 Ratio: CH4/O2 ¼ 2:1 Ratio: CH4/CO2 ¼ 1:1
Ratio
Table 2
Reactions in dry (CO2) reforming of methane.
(c)
Fig. 2. Comparison of experimentally determined (symbols) and numerically predicted (lines) concentrations as a function of temperature for catalytic dry reforming of methane
with co-feed H2: (a) CH4 and CO2; (b) H2O, CO, H2, inlet gas composition of 1.6 vol.% CH4, 2.1 vol.% CO2, 1.8 vol.% H2 in N2; 1 bar; Tinlet ¼ 373 K; total flow rate of 4 slpm; dashed
lines ¼ equilibrium composition at given temperature. (c) Computed surface coverage of adsorbed species as function of the temperature for methane dry reforming with H2 co-
feed: inlet gas composition of 1.6 vol.% CH4, 2.1 vol.% CO2, 1.8 vol.% H2 in N2; 1 bar; total flow rate 4 slpm. Reproduced with permission from Delgado et al. Copyright 2015 Elsevier.
174 B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185
maximum water concentration at 400 C (673 K) (cf. Fig. 2b). The only up to 870 C at 1 atm and CO2/CH4 feed ratio of unity.
water was used up together with unconverted methane by the On the other hand, Fig. 3 shows the H2/CO ratios produced from
steam reforming reaction when the temperature increased the DRM reaction at different temperatures with the pressure of
(Delgado et al., 2015). 1 atm. Based on Fig. 3a, with increasing temperature, the ratio of
A high coverage with hydrogen and CO at low and medium H2/CO increases due to the endothermic nature of the DRM reaction
temperatures is represented by the computed surface coverage (Hassani Rad et al., 2016). H2/CO molar ratio gets closer to unity at
respectively (cf. Fig. 2c). Maximum carbon formation occurs at re- higher temperatures, typically above 800 C. For instance, a H2/CO
action temperatures between 100 and 300 C (373 and 573 K), and ratio of 1:1 that can be useful for F-T synthesis can be obtained at
this carbon formation is mainly formed by the reaction between temperatures above 850 C for CO2/CH4 feed ratio being unity.
CO(s) and H(s). The total coverage with adsorbed species is rather Fig. 3b represents the influence of CO2/CH4 feed ratios at 1 atm
low at higher temperatures (Delgado et al., 2015). Moreover, when to the product yields and H2/CO molar ratio in the end product.
CO2/CH4 feed ratio is higher than unity, carbon is normally formed. Based on the study by Hassani Rad et al. (2016), the CO2 increased,
Less H2 available for hydrogenation reactions in Rxns (5 and 6), and the CH4 decreased with the increasing of feed ratios. Moreover,
resulted in a decrease in carbon formation. Based on the thermo- with increasing CH4 concentration in the feed, the H2/CO ratio
dynamics calculations, temperatures higher than 900 C are approached unity while the product yield reduced proportionally
required for CO2/CH4 feed ratio of unity to obtain a syngas mixture (Hassani Rad et al., 2016). However, the required H2/CO ratio is not
ratio of 1:1 with a small amount of carbon (Nikoo and Amin, 2011). fixed as it depends on industrial needs.
This outcome is in agreement with a study conducted by Wang Fig. 4a portrays the conversion of CH4 and CO2, the main product
et al. (1996) which suggests that carbon deposition is possible distributions, and the H2/CO ratio at different system pressures
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3. (a) Effect of temperature on feed conversion, products yield and H2/CO molar ratio in product over NAC-I nanocatalyst. (b) Effect of CH4/CO2 ratio in feed on feed conversion,
products yield and H2/CO molar ratio in product over NAC-I nanocatalyst; Reproduced with permission from Hassani Rad et al. Copyright 2016 Elsevier.
B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185 175
4.2. Promoter
optimum amount of promoter is different according to the type of the main steps to synthesize the catalyst support. Pretreatment
promoters, which have different ability to modify the catalyst includes the use of a physical technique such as size reduction and
structure. Daza et al. (2010) studied the performance of modified ultrasonic, chemical process, physico-chemical techniques such as
Ni/Mg-Al (mixed oxides, MO) by different Ce weight percentage liquid hot water, biological methods and some combination of
(X ¼ 0, 1, 3, 5, and 10 wt%). They found that promoter weight those techniques in order to fractionate the lignocellulose from its
percentage is an important criterion to avoid coke deposition. For component. (Bensah and Mensah, 2013). The pretreatment step
example, the catalyst (Ni/Mg-Al) modified by 3 wt% of Ce showed helps to increase the surface area (Lee et al., 2008) and porosity
higher CH4 (99%) and CO2 (95%) conversion without any decrease in (Harmsen et al., 2010; Lee and Jeffrles, 2011) that will lead to the
stability up to 100 h of reforming reaction (CH4/CO2/He:10/10/80). increasing of hydrolysis rate. Cellulose and hemicelluloses are
Filamentous type carbon deposition was present in the catalyst converted into monomeric sugars in hydrolysis step through the
promoted by 1 wt% Ce, but it was absent in the catalyst promoted addition of cellulase such as acids and enzymes (Bensah and
with 3wt% Ce. Mensah, 2013). The enzymatic hydrolysis gives more advantages
compared to acids hydrolysis. Enzymatic hydrolysis required low
4.3. Bimetallic catalysts energy consumption due to the mild process requirement produces
high sugar yields, and no unwanted wastes. Pretreatment is costly
Based on a study by Zhang et al. (2008), supported bimetallic among various techniques. However, the result of hydrolyzing
catalysts demonstrate high activity and stable DRM reaction per- lignocellulose without pretreatment is far less favorable as there is
formances. In an experiment to test the stability, bimetallic Ni-Co only 20% of native biomass is hydrolyzed (Mosier et al., 2005).
catalyst supported on Al2O3eMgO, which was prepared by co- Ni-based catalysts have been commercially used as the metal
precipitation method, demonstrated little deactivation after precursor in DRM, yet improvement on the metal is needed to
2000 h on stream (Zhang et al., 2007). One of the key factors enhance the performance of the catalyst. Nowadays, nanoparticles
responsible for the excellent catalytic performance of this bime- have received increasing interest among researchers as they have
tallic catalyst is the preparation method. The high calcination promising physical and chemical properties and high potential in
temperature used during the preparation of the catalyst formed technological applications (Du et al., 2004). A study reported that
strong interactions between metal and support which then caused NiCoB catalyst with average particle size of 10 nm and prepared by
the catalyst to convert into stable spinel-like framework structures. chemical reduction showed higher catalytic activity than Raney
In general, the formation of carbon is efficiently hindered by the nickel in the hydrogenation in benzene. It is advisable to develop
formation of Ni-Co alloy during the catalyst reduction compared to nano-sized nickel metal precursor for the DRM reaction in order to
the single Ni sites. Different catalyst synthesis methods also influ- improve the catalytic activity and increase the conversion of the
ence the reaction performance. For example, the co-precipitation reactants and yield of the products.
method can produce smaller metal particle sizes as compared to Preparation method greatly influences the physico-chemical
wet impregnation method. properties and performance of a catalyst (Jeong et al., 2013).
Impregnation and co-precipitation are the most widely used, con-
4.4. Novel catalytic material ventional methods of catalyst preparation. Another less common
method for catalyst preparation is sol-gel. The sol-gel method
Other than developing the Ni-based catalyst with some modi- produces a fine size distribution, decreases the deactivation rate,
fying agents during the catalyst preparation, incorporating the Ni imparts high thermal resistance against agglomeration and pro-
particles within the mesoporous support could also increase the duces a product with high purity as compared to the conventional
conversion of reactants and yield of products by avoiding the sin- methods (Gonçalves et al., 2006; Gonzalez et al., 1997). Recently, a
tering of metal particles and strengthening the metal-support new method, non-thermal glow discharge plasma was developed
interaction (Xu et al., 2011). This is due to the high specific sur- to improve the metal-support interaction, give the higher distri-
face area of mesoporous materials that can improve the dispersion bution of Ni particles and enhance the activity and stability of the
of Ni particles onto the supported catalyst (Zhang et al., 2015). catalyst (Rahemi et al., 2013). However, plasma treatment is rela-
Moreover, the strong metal-support interaction stabilizes the Ni tively expensive compared with other simple preparation methods
particles which are incorporated into the mesoporous matrix. (Usman et al., 2015). Thus, the combination of novel catalytic ma-
Multiple contact areas created between the Ni-particle and support terial and method would enhance the activity and stability of the
could enhance the thermal stability and assist cooperativity be- catalyst in DRM reaction.
tween the metal and support (Gnanamani et al., 2011). As examples
reported in the literature, development of Ni-based catalysts 4.5. Recently developed catalysts for CO2 reforming
incorporated into mesoporous supports such as MCM-41, SBA-16,
TUD-1, meso-Al2O3 and meso-ZrO2 have demonstrated high cata- The progress on developing catalysts for DRM reaction has been
lytic activity and high resistance to carbon formation in DRM concentrated on finding a new formulation of catalyst that can give
(Zhang et al., 2015). higher activity and higher stability towards coke formation, sin-
Catalyst supports also can be synthesized from plants in order to tering, the formation of inactive chemical species and metal
improve the performance of the catalyst for DRM. In recent years, oxidation (Takanabe et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2008). Modifying the
polymers from trees have been an area of interest for researchers to active sites of catalysts by adding some catalyst supports and pro-
speed up the chemical reactions. Catalysts mounted on widely moters during catalyst preparation could enhance the catalytic
available cellulose could provide efficiently; low cost means to performance thereby resulting in higher conversion and selectivity.
produce fine chemicals. Cellulose is biodegradable but possesses a Several recently developed catalysts for DRM are considered in
unique property as it provides a well-defined structure, high crys- Table 3.
talline order, a controlled surface chemistry, and high mechanical Table 3 shows a summary of nine Ni-based catalysts recently
strength which apparently extends to catalysis. For example, applied to the DRM reaction. The catalysts differ in terms of the
Guilminot et al. (2007) the use of cellulose acetate-based carbon types of supports and promoters, and preparation method. Reac-
aerogels as promising catalyst support for proton exchange mem- tion temperatures range from 600 to 800 C, space velocities from
brane (PEM) fuel cell electrodes. Pretreatment and hydrolysis are 8000 to 60,000 mL/g.h. Feed ratio of CH4/CO2 is 1 in all cases. Ni/
178 B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185
Table 3
Recently developed catalysts for the DRM reaction.
Catalyst Preparation method GHSV (mL/g CH4/CO2 feed T Conv. CH4 Conv. CO2 H2/CO Coke formation Refs.
h) ratio ( C) (%) (%) ratio (wt%)
15%Ni/ZrO2 Combined co-precipitation and reflux 24,000 1 700 >85 >88 z1 NA (Zhang et al., 2015)
digestion
10%Ni/CeO2 Impregnation 13,400 1 760 67.05 e 80 e 90 0.85 NA (Yu et al., 2015)
82.82 e0.90
5%Ni/ZrO2eC Impregnation NA 1 600 24 34 0.55 14 (Mustu et al., 2015)
e0.60
Ni/Mg(Al)O Co-precipitation 8000 1 800 95 98 z0.93 NA (Li et al., 2015a)
10%Ni-7%CeO2/ Impregnation 12,000 1 700 z45 z89 NA NA (Khajenoori et al.,
MgO 2015)
2.33%Ni-4.66%Co/ Wet impregnation 60,000 1 700 z56 z63 z0.84 NA (Estephane et al.,
ZSM5 2015)
1.2%Ni-1.8%Co/ Ethylene Glycol NA 1 750 78 84 z0.84 0.24 (Djinovi c et al.,
CeZr 2015)
15%NiCeMgAl Co-precipitation 48,000 1.04 800 z98 z82.5 z0.79 NA (Bao et al., 2015)
3%(CoNi)/SiC- Deposition precipitation NA 1 750 66 75 0.77 0.4 (Aw et al., 2015)
CeZrO2
5.2. Tri-reforming of methane CO þ H2 O /CO2 þ H2 DH298 41 kJmol1 ; (9)
Recently, tri-reforming of methane (TRM) also has received The highly exothermic complete oxidation (10) can also take
attention due to its ability to convert the CO2 and methane into place that increases energy efficiency:
syngas with desired ratio of H2/CO ratio for methanol and F-T
synthesis. TRM combines the three basic technologies in methane CH4 þ 2O2 /CO2 þ 2H2 O DH298 þ 206 kJmol1 ;
reforming process in a single reactor which are methane steam
(10)
reforming (6), methane partial oxidation (7), CO2 reforming of
methane (8) and also water-gas shift reaction (9): CO2 is utilized in the methane dry reforming reaction during the
B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185 179
tri-reforming reaction (Rxn. 8). In addition, typical flue gas from the Ni-MgO catalyst in the TRM reaction. They found out that Ni/MgO
combustion process of power plants which has the average improved the conversion of CO2 due to more interfaces between Ni
composition of CO2 3e16%. O2 2e13%, H2O 6e8% and N2 75e76% and MgO resulting from the formation of NiO/MgO solid solution
can be used as a CO2 source for TRM (Minutillo and Perna, 2009). and the strong interaction of CO2 with MgO.
The addition to these effluents CH4, H2O and air resulted in a re-
action mixture which proceed with adequate rate in a temperature
range of 700e900 C with the presence of suitable catalyst (Pino
et al., 2011). The TRM process is more energy efficient compared 6. Kinetics and mechanistics of DRM
to the SRM or DRM and also can be applied for transformation of
low quality, CO2-rich natural gas into syngas (Halmann and Kinetic studies are performed to find a suitable reaction rate
Steinfeld, 2006). model, be it empirical or based on a theoretical reaction mecha-
Coke formation can occur during the reforming process of nism, which gives a best-fit with the corresponding experimental
methane, usually during methane cracking (11), the Boudouard data and potentially is used to describe the rate of reaction and
reaction (12) and reduction of CO to carbon (13). Hence, TRM can define the chemical process (Wang and Lua, 2014). The under-
help to reduce the coke formation problem. standing of this matter can further optimize the catalyst’s design
and chemical systems (reactor design) which can further improve
the overall development of DRM with more cost effective tech-
CH4 /C þ 2H2 DH298 þ 75 kJmol1 ; (11)
nology (Hoang et al., 2005). Steam reforming has received by far the
largest amount of attention from a mechanistic point of view.
However, since there is a revival of interest in dry reforming over
2CO 4C þ CO2 DH298 172 kJmol1 ; (12)
the past decades, a series of catalysts have been studied for DRM
resulting in a number of mechanistic steps for DRM published in
the literature.
CO þ H2 4C þ H2 O DH298 131 kJmol1 ; (13)
Aldana et al. (2013) investigated the DRM reaction mechanism
over the Ni-based catalyst. Based on Fig. 9, H2 was discovered to
Appropriate catalysts are required in the TRM reaction in order
dissociate on Ni0 sites while carbon dioxide was activated on the
to convert CO2 in the presence of H2O and O2. Usually, Ni-based
ceriae zirconia support to produce carbonates that could be hy-
catalysts is used due to its good activity and selectivity in the
drogenated into formate and further into methoxy species. This
reforming reaction. However, it tends to deactivate due to coke
mechanism includes weak basic sites of the support for the
formation during the reaction. Thus, the development of catalyst is
adsorption of carbon dioxide and involves a stable metal-support
needed to enhance the performance of the catalyst by the use of
interface. It can be explained as the much better activity of these
supports with low concentration of Lewis sites and also supports
catalysts as compared to Niesilica on which both carbon dioxide
that can build the strong metal-support interaction.
and hydrogen are activated on Ni0 particles. Pan et al. (2014)
Pino et al. (2011) had studied the effect of Ni-CeO2 catalyst in the
findings also support this mechanism.
TRM reaction. The experiments were carried out with a feed con-
Akamaru et al. (2014) conducted a DFT analysis of the DRM over
tains molar ratio (H2O þ CO2 þO2)/CH4 of 1.02. Fig. 8 indicates the
Ru nanoparticle supported on TiO2 (101). Fig. 10 shows the potential
influence of CO2/H2O molar ratio at constant O2 content. They
energy diagram. The adsorbed carbon dioxide on each site can
discovered that the conversion of CH4 is stable about 93% with the
transform into carbon monoxide through different reaction paths
increasing of the CO2/H2O molar ratio. In addition, the conversion
with nearly the same potential energy barriers.
of CO2 is increasing at high ratio of CO2/H2O ratio which is from 67%
to 86%. Moreover, the H2/CO ratio in the product decreases from 2.8
to 1.3.
Song and Pan (2004) also had investigated the performance of
Fig. 8. Effect of CO2/H2O molar ratio on the performance of the NieCeO2 catalyst in the
tri-reforming of CH4 carried out at 800 C with a feed containing (H2O þ CO2 þO2)/CH4 Fig. 9. Reaction mechanism proposed on NieCZ solegel sample for: (a) carbon dioxide
ratio of 1.02 at constant O2 content (O2/CH4 ¼ 0.1). DHr represents the heat of reaction. methanation and (b) carbon monoxide formation. Reproduced with permission from
Reproduced with permission from Song and Pan. Copyright 2011 Elsevier. Aldana et al. Copyright 2013 Elsevier.
180 B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185
Table 4
EA values over several Ni-based catalysts for DRM reaction.
Catalyst Reactor type Preparation method Total flow rate Cat. amount Cat. particle ECH4 (kJ/ ECO2 (kJ/ Refs.
(mL/min) (mg) size (mm) mol) mol)
reported in the literature where high EA values were obtained even Mechanism
though low mass flow rates (i.e. low GHSV) were utilized, which is Adsorption K1
CH4 þ MðasÞ MðasÞ CH3 þ H2
!
in contrast to the expected low EA values due to mass transfer effect.
Surface reaction k2
Kim et al. (2007) explored the usage of CO2-photoacoustic signal NiðasÞ CH4 !NiðasÞ C þ 2H2
(PAS) to kinetically analyze the DRM reaction of Ni catalyst sup- Adsorption K3
CO2 þ La2 O3
! La2 O2 CO3
ported on Al2O3 and TiO2. This may be the reason for the utilization Surface reaction k4
La2 O2 CO3 þ NiðasÞ C!La2 O3 þ 2CO þ NiðasÞ
of low mass flow rates as this method generates heat periodically Rate of reaction RCH4 ¼ K K1 k2 K3 k4 PCH4 PCO2
1 k2 K3 PCH4 PCO2 þK1 k2 PCH4 þK3 k4 PCO2
because the photoacoustic signal is created when a material ab-
sorbs a modulated laser beam. It is important to note the features of
kinetic curves which function as the fingerprints for reaction the La2O3 support or the La2O2CO3 species is responsible for the CO
mechanism. These features include the inflection point, a short formation by acting as an efficient source of oxygen (Tsipouriari and
induction period or breakpoints (Kim et al., 2007). From all the Verykios, 1999). However, the CO2 dissociation rate on the crys-
findings, no specific GHSV can be concluded to eliminate the effect talline Ni was very low. This suggests that the carbon that collected
of mass transfer limitation. This suggests that preliminary studies on the metal surface was mostly derived from methane (Tsipouriari
are critical in the development of the intrinsic kinetic models. and Verykios, 2001). From these findings, Verykios (2003) pro-
posed the following mechanism for DRM in the production of
6.2. General applicable kinetic models syngas mixture (CO and H2) using Ni/La2O3. Initially, methane was
adsorbed onto the surface of the active metal sites of the Ni catalyst,
Three types of models are typically used for DRM reaction: the followed by carbon deposition and hydrogen formation from the
power law model, Eley Rideal (ER) model and Langmuir adsorbed methane cracking. Then, after the reversible methane
Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) model. Of all the models, adsorption achieves steady state, the carbon deposited on the
many researchers have used power law models to study the reac- active metal site could react with La2O2CO3 species. Thus, the ac-
tion mechanism for DRM, perhaps because of their simplicity in tivity of the catalyst is not affected by the methane cracking as the
application and parameter estimation. It is useful for initial guess catalyst is highly stable. The reaction rate was also determined
estimates to solve more complex models which require a larger based on the proposed mechanism, and the kinetic model was
amount of data. Power-law models support the kinetic rate for DRM shown to fit well with the kinetic data obtained from experimental
reaction in the form of: data. The steps of the proposed mechanism, as well as the rate of
reaction, are presented in Table 6.
n
r ¼ k½PCH4 m PCO2 (14) K1 and K3 are the equilibrium constants for methane adsorption
and the reaction between CO2 and La2O3, as a function of temper-
However, Power laws models have a limitation in explaining the ature. k2 and k4 are rate constants, as a function of temperature and
various reaction mechanistic steps that take place on the catalyst their respective activation energies.
surface over different mechanistic schemes and a wider range of A different kinetic model for DRM reaction was proposed by
partial pressure data. Therefore, more rigorous models are used. Quiroga and Luna (2007) with an assumption that the adsorption
Based on the ER model, a kinetic model was developed over Ni/ and decomposition of methane are followed by non-dissociative
CeO2-ZrO2 catalyst by Akpan et al. (2007). They assumed that the CO2 adsorption on the catalyst support active site. The RDS in this
rate-determining step (RDS) is the dissociative adsorption of mechanism is the surface reaction between the adsorbed species.
methane. Their proposed model was validated by fitting the data The steps of the proposed mechanism, as well as the rate of re-
obtained from the experiment. The steps of the proposed mecha- actions, are considered in Table 7.
nism, as well as the rate of reaction, are considered in Table 5, Based on the two proposed reaction mechanisms for DRM, the
where * and Ox denote the unoccupied active sites and lattice O2 on similarity between the two is that methane adsorption on the
their support surface, respectively. metal surface (including Pt (Topalidis et al., 2007), Ni (Xu et al.,
Verykios (2003) conducted a study on Ni/La2O3 catalyst for DRM 1999) or Rh (Múnera et al., 2007)) occurred before the methane
reaction using various methods to explain the reaction mechanism cracking, carbon deposition and hydrogen formation. In the
based on the findings from the previous literature. In the literature, mechanism proposed by Verykios (2003), cracking of methane is
it has been reported that XRD and FTIR detect the formation of the RDS of the reaction, while Quiroga and Luna (2007) suggest that
relatively stable La2O2CO3 species from CO2 and the La2O3 support the adsorption and methane cracking steps are in steady state.
(Zhang and Verykios, 1996). Another study has indicated that either
Table 7
Table 5 Reaction mechanism of DRM proposed by Quiroga & Luna (2007).
Reaction mechanism of DRM proposed by Akpan et al. (2007).
Mechanism
Mechanism
Adsorption KCH4
Adsorption CH4þ2*4CH3(*)þH(*) CH4 þ MðasÞ !
MðasÞ CH3 þ H2
CH3(*)þ*4CH2(*)þH(*) Adsorption KCo2
CO2 þ SupðasÞ !
CO2 SupðasÞ
CH2(*)þ*4CH(*)þH(*)
CH(*)þ*4C(*)þH(*) Surface k1
MðasÞ CH3 þ CO2 SupðasÞ !2COðgÞ þ 2H2ðgÞ þ MðasÞ þ SupðasÞ
C(*)þOx4CO þ Ox-1þ* reactiona
Surface reaction
Rate of P 0:5 P 2
Surface reaction CO2þOx-14Ox þ CO P P
k1 KCH4 KCO2 CH40:5CO2 H2 b CO2
reactionb P
Surface reaction 4H(*)42H2þ4* RCH4 ¼ H2
H2þOx4Ox-1þH2O 1þ
PCH4
þPCO2 KCO2
P 0:5 KCH4
H2
Rate of reaction 222800
2:11017 e RT
N2 N2
NA KCp ND
rA ¼ 1 5
B a
Sup(as) ¼ active site of catalyst support.
b
1þ34:3ND2 Kref ¼ reference constant.
182 B. Abdullah et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 162 (2017) 170e185
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