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Ground Freezing — A Viable and Versatile Construction Technique

Conference Paper · July 2006

DOI: 10.1061/40836(210)29

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 Ground Freezing – A Viable and Versatile Construction Technique
Paul C. Schmall1 and Bernd Braun2

Moretrench, 100 Stickle Avenue, Rockaway, NJ 07866; PH 973-627-2100; FAX

1

973-627-3950; email: pschmall@mtac.com

Geotechnical Consultant and Chairman ISGF, 620 Dover Ct., Coppell, TX 75019;
2

PH 972-342-8092; email: Texaskraut@verizon.net

ABSTRACT

Effective in all soil and ground conditions, artificial ground freezing has proven many
times to be a viable and versatile construction alternative for both open excavation
support and groundwater control. The technique is cost-effective where complete
groundwater cut-off and in-built ground support are required, where the work is deep,
occurs in difficult ground conditions, or where access restrictions limit the use of
other displacement-type ground improvement techniques. Ground stabilization at
great depths also lends itself well to the use of ground freezing.

The technique also works well in ground conditions and situations that are sensitive
to vibration or settlement with minor ground losses associated with conventional
support methods. In some cases, the protection afforded to adjacent buildings by a
monolithic, impermeable structural wall is a significant factor favoring the use of
ground freezing.

Liquid nitrogen ground freezing has been used successfully for emergency situations
in disturbed, displaced, and loose ground conditions, where detailed soil delineation
cannot practically be performed.

This paper demonstrates the viability and versatility of ground freezing for
construction purposes through the presentation of various case histories. In addition,
given that the current interest in artificial ground freezing is becoming increasingly
focused on environmental remediation, this important - and growing - application is
discussed in more detail and illustrated with case histories.

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INTRODUCTION

Ground freezing can be accomplished in the full range of soils, from clays to cobbles
and boulders, and in pervious or fissured rock. Frozen walls can be formed around
underground structures or obstructions. Unlike other groundwater cut-off or
excavation support methods, a frozen wall is easily connected to the underlying
bedrock and can conform to adjoining subsurface installations, if necessary, to
provide a composite cut-off structure.

The basic principle behind ground freezing is the use of refrigeration to convert in situ
pore water into ice through the circulation of chilled calcium chloride brine, or, in
some circumstances, the evaporation of liquid nitrogen. Freezing is accomplished
through small-diameter, closed-end pipes placed in pre-drilled holes. The ground
remains undisturbed, eliminating the difficulties associated with displacement
techniques. To create a frozen earth cofferdam, or frozen soil mass, the closed-end
freeze pipes are inserted into drilled holes in a pattern consistent with the shape of the
area to be stabilized and the required thickness of the wall or mass. A frozen shaft
may require freeze pipes hundreds of meters deep. As the brine moves through the
pipes, heat is extracted from the soil causing the ground to freeze. The brine is
returned to the refrigeration plant through an insulated header and, after re-cooling, is
re-circulated within the closed system. The ice acts as a bonding agent, fusing
together particles of soil or rock to increase the strength of the mass and render it
impervious. Once the structure is completed, refrigeration is discontinued, pipes are
either sealed or removed, and the ground returns to its normal state.

CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS

For construction purposes, the typical application of ground freezing involves the
creation of a peripheral frozen structure to provide excavation support and
groundwater control for construction of a deep shaft or large excavation. However,
this versatile technique has also been used successfully for the stabilization of
massive volumes of soil, the stabilization of sensitive ground for planned excavation,
and in response to emergency disturbed ground situations.

Shafts

Ground freezing has been used to allow shafts to be sunk in water-bearing ground to
considerable depths. The technique is ideally suited for mixed ground conditions
varying from highly permeable sands and gravels to clay and fissured rock, and
difficult ground conditions commonly encountered at the soil/rock interface where the
geology is generally the most challenging and where displacement or improvement of
the ground by other techniques is impractical.

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City Water Tunnel # 3, Shafts 27B through 31B, New York, NY: By the time it is
completed in 2020, City Water Tunnel No. 3 will span more than 60 miles, and
represents the largest capital construction project in New York City’s history. Tunnel
No. 3 is being completed in four distinct stages. Stage 1, now activated, and Stage 2,
currently under construction, are devoted to improving the distribution capability and
will not increase the water supply.

The tunnel alignment lies deep below ground in the ancient metamorphic granitic
rocks underlying the city. However, many of the vertical access shafts on the tunnel
line pass through glacial deposits and water-saturated sands above bedrock. In most
cases the shafts, some in excess of 10.5 m (35 ft.) excavated diameter, must be
located within confined spaces available in congested city blocks. As such, the city
of New York places a high priority on the measures necessary to protect adjacent
structures from damage during shaft excavation and construction. At a number of
access shaft locations, this protection has been provided by artificial ground freezing
systems. Recently, shafts 27B through 31B have been completed using this
technology.

Excessive groundwater movement presented a challenge. At one of the shaft sites

groundwater was measured approximately 10 ft. (3 m) below sea level, due to a major
withdrawal of several thousand gpm (L/min) of groundwater several blocks away.
Groundwater velocities at the shaft were greater than the allowable groundwater
velocities that permit proper freeze formation in a timely manner. Ground
temperatures measured within the freeze pipes themselves indicated the presence of an
upstream “entrance” and a downstream “exit” window due to the movement of
groundwater through the shaft. Piezometers throughout the site confirmed that the
groundwater within the shaft was still in direct communication with the outside
groundwater regime. The ground freezing contractor performed a program of
permeation grouting to successfully reduce the high velocity groundwater flow to
acceptable levels so that closure of the shaft could be achieved (Figure 1).

Figure1. Exploratory permeation grout holes were advanced alongside the frozen
ground concurrent with the freeze formation.

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The success of freezing at this location, particularly in light of the moving
groundwater situation, was due to an accurate diagnosis of moving groundwater and
timely reaction to mitigate the possible delays.

Cote Blanche, LA: In southern Louisiana, the deep mines that exploit the salt domes
there are overlain by the loose, wet silts and sands of the Mississippi Delta. For
vertical shaft construction, ground freezing is the preferred method of ground support.
Absolute water tightness has to be established otherwise any seepage will dissolve
salt, increasing the leakage path and ultimately flooding the mine, which has occurred
in the past.

At Cote Blanche, ground freezing was used to sink a new, 4.8 m (16 ft) I.D.
production shaft into salt at 140 m (455 ft) below the surface. Subsurface soils
consisted of sands and gravels saturated with brackish water to a depth of 105 m (350
ft) over a 21 m (70 ft) thick stratum of sandy clay. Variable sands were present from
126 m (420 ft) to top of salt. Here, the groundwater was naturally salt-saturated, with
a freezing point of -21°C (-6°F).

A frozen wall 3.6 m (11.8 ft) thick was required to resist soil and groundwater
pressures at the salt contact zone. To achieve this, 35 freeze pipes and monitors were
installed to a depth of 152 m (500 ft) on a 10 m (33 ft) diameter circular pattern. In
order to freeze the salt-saturated sand, it was necessary to maintain brine coolant
temperatures of -40°C (-40°F) until the permanent concrete lining had been
constructed to a depth of 168 m (550 ft), 29 m (95 ft) into solid salt.

Mass Freezing

Circumstances under which massive volumes of soil need to be stabilized to facilitate

excavation within the frozen, stabilized ground include projects where a broad
spectrum of subsurface conditions exists, water control is paramount, and minimal
intrusion or disturbance to the subsurface stratigraphy is required. Ground freezing
meets all of these requirements.

Central Artery/Tunnel, Boston, MA: Jacking of three, massive tunnels just beneath
the seven, active Amtrak lines serving Boston’s South Station and the financial
district is acknowledged as the most demanding component of the overall Central
Artery/Tunnel Project (Rogers and Taylor 2003). The jacked tunnel method was
selected to allow full rail service to the station during tunnel construction.

The soil profile through which tunneling would take place included 6.1 m (20 ft) of
historic fill containing building debris, granite seawalls, piles, wharf structures, and
abandoned brick structures. The fill was underlain by soft, organic material and a
marine deposit of Boston Blue Clay. Groundwater was encountered approximately 3
m (10 ft) below ground surface.

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Preliminary stabilization concepts included dewatering, grouting the fill stratum and
organics, and soil nailing the marine clay. However, just 2 m (6.5 ft) of cover
between the box and the rail tracks raised concerns over the potential for
unacceptable heave generated by grouting. With removal of the numerous
obstructions within the fill, settlement was also a consideration. Ground freezing was
therefore selected to stabilize the excavation face. The ground freezing program was
designed to provide multiple geotechnical functions including groundwater cut-off,
encapsulation of the fill debris, and improvement in the strength of the organics and
marine clay along the tunnel alignment.

Accurate spacing and freeze pipe location was critical to the success of the
stabilization program. Freeze pipe installation was accomplished from the rail tracks
using sonic drilling techniques which could readily penetrate many of the subsurface
obstructions. Finite element modeling was performed to determine the transient heat
flow from the ground to the freeze pipes in order to evaluate freeze pipe disposition,
freeze formation period, and freeze plant capacity.

Chilled brine was circulated through the freeze pipe system for three to four months
prior to tunnel jacking. A remotely monitored computerized instrumentation system
ensured frozen ground conditions prior to the start of tunneling. The ground freezing
program provided a stable and predictable, completely unsupported, 24.4 m wide by
12.2 m high (80 ft by 40 ft) vertical face. The tunnel was jacked in place without
incident, or without disruption to rail service (Figure 2), and the use of ground
freezing was estimated to have resulted in a $4M saving (Angelo 1999). Ground
freezing was utilized for all three tunnel jacks.

Figure 2. Ground freezing stabilized the excavation face, allowing the tunnels to be
jacked in place without incident or disruption to rail service.

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Sensitive or Disturbed Ground

Because the freeze propagates slowly through the ground thermally, disturbed or
highly sensitive ground can be stabilized without exacerbating prevailing conditions.
On smaller projects where the ground is maintained in a frozen state for a relatively
short period of time, liquid nitrogen is often used as the freezing agent, allowing the
freeze to form in days rather than weeks and thus off-setting the higher unit cost.

Huntington Hospital, New York, NY: Removal of two, abandoned 76,000-L (20,000
gal) oil tanks at Huntington Hospital presented a number of difficulties. The tanks
were buried 4.6 m (15 ft) below the surface, immediately in front of one of the
hospital’s building walls and close to operating room facilities. Furthermore, a 9,500L
(2,500 gal) diesel underground storage tank was in the immediate vicinity of the tanks
to be removed. Prevailing soil conditions consisted of moist sands, with the natural
water table well below the bottom of the proposed excavation.

Given the proximity of the highly sensitive operating rooms, vibrating or driving steel
sheet piling or H-beams was not permitted and, if conventional drilled-in soldier
beams and lagging were to be used, there was a potential for ground loss. Ground
freezing to a depth of 6 m (20 ft) provided the structural support needed during
excavation and tank removal. Liquid Nitrogen was selected as the freezing agent
because the excavation needed only to be open for a few days.

The frozen wall was constructed with closely spaced freeze pipes in the form of an
arch surrounding approximately two thirds of the excavation zone, leaving one
portion open. This was sloped back during excavation for ease of tank removal. To
increase the strength of the frozen wall, water was added to the sands by sprinkler
hoses during the initial freezing period. The system was installed with a minimum
amount of disturbance. The freeze was formed as planned in less than four days, and
the tanks were successfully removed in one day.

Newtown Creek WWTP, Brooklyn, NY: A new 1.5-m (5-ft) diameter transmission
line was to be installed using microtunneling techniques. The access shaft to launch
the tunneling operation was located in an extremely congested area of the plant,
adjacent to active tanks, and was supported by tight steel sheeting on all four sides.
The invert of the 1.5-m (5-ft) diameter ‘eye’ through which the microtunneling
machine would be launched was 6.0 m (20 ft) below groundwater level.

During excavation of the shaft, a split was uncovered in the sheeting below the tunnel
eye to be cut. Due to the high groundwater table outside of the sheets, approximately
15 to 20 m3 (20 to 26 yd3) of the native silty sands and organic silts blew into the
excavation, displacing the ground behind the eye and replacing it with loose,
sloughed-in material. Ground freezing was selected as the most cost-effective and
practical approach to stabilizing the soils, providing assured results more or less
independent of the soil type and consistency.

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Since cutting the eye and installing a sacrificial concrete plug in preparation for future
tunneling was a one day operation, liquid nitrogen was selected as the freezing agent.
The freeze pipes were installed vertically from ground surface to 1.2 m (4 ft) below
the tunnel invert on an irregular pattern due to a myriad of subsurface obstructions.
Freezing was accomplished in three days; the eye was cut and the liner installed
against a vertical free-standing frozen face in one day without incident.

Horizontal Freezes

Where there is a requirement that normal surface activities be maintained during the
stabilization process, or where vertical access to the target freeze zone is difficult or
impossible, ground freezing can be accomplished through horizontal freeze pipes.

Syracuse WWTP, Onondaga Lake Outfall, Syracuse, NY: The alignment of a new
37-m (120-ft) long, 3.2-m (10.5-ft) diameter tunnel passed just 2 m (6.5 ft) below the
base of high-speed railroad tracks, through cinders, miscellaneous embankment fill
and natural compressible soils. Since a requirement of the tunneling work beneath the
tracks was that speeds of 55 mph for up to 90 trains daily must be maintained, any
method of supporting the tracks during tunneling needed to provide a high degree of
predictability, reliability, and safety. A comprehensive field test program verified the
effectiveness of freezing the soil and the technique was therefore selected as being not
only the most appropriate solution for the mixed ground and sensitive rail situation,
but also the most cost-effective.

Horizontal freeze pipes were installed to provide 360° frozen support, a minimum of
1 m (3 ft) thick, prior to and during tunnel excavation. The cinder fill material above
the water table was saturated through specially slotted casings immediately before
freezing to ensure adequate frozen strength. No adjustments in elevation were
necessary during the entire freezing and mining operation, and the tunnel was
completed without any disruption to railroad operations.

Garden State Parkway, Clifton, NJ: Loose subsurface conditions had mired a jacked
pipe tunnel boring machine 7.6 m (25 ft) below the embankment of the Garden State
Parkway. The majority of the tunnel alignment was through medium dense
overburden. Rock was anticipated to rise up to the tunnel invert over the last 10 to 12
m (30 to 40 ft). The tunnel had been mined to within 10.6 m (35 ft) of the receiving
pit when soil conditions abruptly changed from medium dense material to very loose
embankment fill, with the rock surface within the invert. The tunneling contractor
could not control the running ground once the TBM slowed down on the rock below,
resulting in development of a sinkhole alongside the shoulder of the highway
embankment. The critical concern was immediate stabilization of the running
embankment soils to avoid damage to the Parkway. Ground freezing, which could be
accomplished quickly regardless of the soil material, and without the need for detailed
soils delineation, was the only viable solution in the timeframe.

7
In light of the urgency, liquid nitrogen was used to form a frozen canopy over the face
of the TBM and the balance of the alignment. Horizontal drilling techniques were
used to install freeze pipes on a fan array and create the canopy. Since the TBM’s
jacking forces were already severely limited, care was taken to keep the freeze away
from the machine itself to avoid frost adhesion. Holes were therefore surveyed after
they were installed. The freeze pipe array was installed in just four days. The natural
moisture content of the soil above the water table was sufficient to form the freeze,
which was completed in less than two days. Mining of the tunnel continued
immediately thereafter.

ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

Effective groundwater control is the key to the solution of most environmental clean-
up operations below the water table. With ground freezing, a problem area, including
radioactive contaminants, can be isolated from the surrounding hydrological regime
by a virtually impermeable, continuous cut-off wall. There is no change in the
groundwater regime outside the confined area. Frozen cut-off walls may be installed
with negligible disturbance to the soils and minimal or no production of solid waste
that requires disposal. Contaminated groundwater and moving groundwater plumes
can, in most cases, be immobilized by ground freezing. Frozen walls have also been
designed to direct contaminated groundwater movement towards a system of
extraction wells or away from undesired discharge into natural waterways. The
absence of an impermeable layer below a contaminated zone does not prevent
encapsulation by freezing. By means of inclined freeze pipes a closed, frozen "bath
tub" can be formed within permeable soils. Ground freezing is non-invasive; because
there is no long-term impact of significance, ground freezing can provide interim
containment to protect the environment until effective permanent restoration plans
can be implemented.

Weeks Island, LA: More than two billion gallons of crude oil had been stored in an
abandoned salt mine cavern 175 m (575 ft) below the surface at the Department of
Energy’s Strategic Petroleum Reserve for more than 20 years. During routine
inspection, a 10 m (33 ft) diameter surface sinkhole was discovered above the cavern,
indicating erosion to the protective salt dome approximately 61 m (200 ft) below the
surface. This was attributed to leakage of the overlying fresh water aquifer through
mine-induced fractures in the salt. Additional investigations indicated that the
ongoing leakage flow of 12 L/min (3.0 gpm) was the source of the problem,
displacing approximately 3.0 m3 (4.0 yd3) of material per day.

Concern about preservation of both the environment and the oil reserve led to
decommissioning of the site. Halting further deterioration was essential during the
three year period required to pump out the oil and close the site. Ground freezing was
selected since it was well suited to the highly disturbed ground conditions, variable
geology, complex groundwater chemistry, and sinkhole access limitations.

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A cylinder of frozen soil, created by three rows of freeze pipes seated into the salt,
prevented further groundwater inflow into the sinkhole area and provide emergency
structural support to the surrounding soils in the event of further significant ground
subsidence. After a freezing time of 10 months, a frozen plug had formed over the
entire sinkhole area adding to the safety of the project. Decommissioning of the site
was completed without any further incidents.

Former Gas Plant, Paterson, NJ: Contamination of the Passaic River in Paterson,
NJ, had been traced to a long demolished gas plant. Tar and hydrocarbons in the
ground were percolating through the alluvial soils and seeping into the river 120 m
(400 ft) away. Soil borings confirmed that the plume was fed directly from a former
36-m (90-ft) diameter tar pit and a 35-m (119-ft) diameter gas holder, both brick-lined
and sitting more or less on top of the bedrock, which varied from 5.5 m to 8 m (18 ft
to 26 ft) below grade.

Clean-up operations entailed physical removal of the contaminated soils within the
circular footprints and haulage to a licensed disposal site. To guarantee the stability of
the excavations and prevent ingress of groundwater, freeze pipes were installed three
feet outside the brick lining to form a frozen wall with a minimum thickness of 1.8 m
(6 ft), tying 2.5 m (8 ft) into sound bedrock, which was fissured for the first few feet
(1 to 2 m). The frozen walls provided the structural support and were impermeable
during the entire clean-up process.

G.R.OW.S Landfill, PA: In order to expand operations, the owner of a solid waste
landfill facility planned to install additional subsurface leachate collection piping and
a new pumping station. However, sensitive groundwater conditions and permitting
restrictions prohibited dewatering for the installation work. Ground freezing, in
combination with a 305-m (1000-ft) long slurry trench to install the buried piping,
offered a viable method of managing the highly permeable subsurface materials.

Once the leachate pipes were installed in the slurry trench and locked in place, a line
of freeze pipes was drilled 1.5 m (5 ft) into the underlying impervious clay layer 19.2
m (63 ft) below the surface to enclose the proposed subsurface pumping station.
Calcium chloride brine circulating through the freeze pipes formed a frozen ellipse,
approximately 12 x 6 m (40 x 20 ft) in plan, in just 12 days. The target soils were then
excavated and the pump station cast in place, with the frozen earth cofferdam serving
as the backform (Figure 3). Once pump station construction was complete and the
refrigeration units removed, the earth was allowed to thaw naturally.

9
 Figure 3. Excavation within the frozen ellipse for subsurface pump station
construction.

CONCLUSION

Although often considered a niche application, the versatility of ground freezing,

underscored by the several case histories discussed, makes this technology of growing
importance for excavation support and groundwater control in both civil and mining
construction as well as in the environmental remediation market. Wherever complete
groundwater cutoff and groundwater control are required for deep excavation or in
difficult subsurface conditions, ground freezing offers a viable alternative to
conventional excavation support or ground improvement techniques.

REFERENCES

Angelo, W.J. (1999). Crucial Link Nears Completion With The Aid Of Soil Freezing.
Engineering News Record, December 13, 1999.

Rogers, C.R. & Taylor, S. (2003). The Big Dig’s Big Dig. Civil Engineering,
September, 2003, pp 40-49

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