Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pressure Vessel
Design and Analysis
M. B. BICKELL M.sc.
Contract Manager, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd.
c. RUIZ DR.ING
Senior Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield
Macmillan Education
© M. B. Bickell and C. Ruiz 1967
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1967
Introduction ix
Notation xi
1 Design Procedure and Establishment of the Design Requirements 1
Introduction. 1 Functional Requirements. 1.1 Size and Shape. 1.2 Fluid
Contained. 1.3 Method of Support. 1.4 Location of Attachments and Pene-
trations. 2 Operational Requirements and Limitations. 2.1 Maintained Load-
ing. 2.2 Transient Conditions. 2.3 Severity of Duty. 3 Principal Design
Codes. 3.1 Safety Devices. 3.2 Pressure Testing.
2 Selection of Materials 19
Introduction. 1 Steel. 1.1 Carbon Steel. 1.2 Low Alloy Steels. 1.3 High
Alloy Steels. 1.4 Clad Steels. 2 Non-ferrous Metals. 2.1 Aluminium and
Aluminium Alloys. 2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys. 2.3 Nickel and Nickel
Alloys.
3 Preliminary Layout 48
Introduction. 1 Establishment of the Design Conditions. 2 Nominal Design
Stress. 3 Basic Shell Thickness. 3.1 Cylinders and Spheres under Internal
Pressure. 3.2 Cylinders and Spheres under External Pressure. 4 Dimensioning
of Local Components. 4.1 Heads. 4.2 Reinforcement of Openings. 4.3 Special
Components (Flanges, Tube Plates, Supports). 5 Manufacture. 5.1 Manu-
facturing Tolerances. 5.2 Welding Processes and Inspection Techniques.
5.3 Design of Welded Joints. 5.4 Butt Welding of Plates of Unequal Thickness.
5.5 Head to Shell Connections. 5.6 Welded Nozzles. 5.7 Welded Attach-
ments. 6 Stress Relieving.
4 Elastic Stress Analysis: General Method 83
Introduction. 1 Stresses, Strains and Displacements. 2 Assumptions of Thin
Shell Theory. 3 Membrane and Bending Behaviour of Shells. 4 The Use of
Matrices. 5 Axi-symmetric Loading. 5.1 Co-axial Shells Joined in Series.
5.2 Co-axial Shells which Intersect in a Common Circle. 6 Lateral Loading.
6.1 Co-axial Shells Joined in Series. 6.2 Co-axial Shells which Intersect in a
Common Circle. 7 General Loading.
5 Cylindrical Shells 116
Introduction. 1 Thick Cylinders. 1.1 Finite Difference Methods for Axi-
symmetric Loading. 2 The Basic Equations for Thin Cylindrical Shells.
3 Axi-symmetric Loading. 3.1 Membrane Solutions. 3.2 Edge bending Solu-
tions and the Flexibility Matrix. 3.3 Unrestrained Solutions. 3.4 Cylinders of
Variable Thickness. 4 Lateral Loading. 4.1 Membrane Solutions. 4.2 Edge
bending Solutions and the Flexibility Matrix. 4.3 Unrestrained Solutions and
Applications. 5 General Loading.
v
vi CONTENTS
A Area
a. Linear thermal expansion coefficient
A Flexibility matrix
B Stiffness matrix
p Flexibility characteristic
D Flexural rigidity, diameter
d Diameter
D* Equivalent flexural rigidity of perforated plate
(j Deflection
D Generalized displacement matrix
E Modulus of elasticity
E* Equivalent modulus of elasticity of perforated plates
.
E Strain vector
E Strain rate vector
e Strain
eF L ogant
. h mtc stram
. at rupture = 1oge 100100
_ RA
e Significant strain
8 Strain rate
E.S.R. Equivalent stress range
F Force
F Generalized force
h Shell thickness, height of nozzle reinforcement
J Joint efficiency factor
I Moment of inertia
I Identity matrix
K 1 , K, Effective and theoretical stress concentration factors
KF Flexibility factor of pipe bend
kl> k 2 , Flexibility factors of pipe subjected to in-plane and out-of-plane
k3 bending moments and torque
L, I Length
A. Pipe factor
xi
xii NOTATION
Subindices
1, 2, 3 Applied to stress or strain refer to the principal components
x, y, z, ¢, (J Applied to stress, force, deflection or rotation refer to the
components in the relevant directions
o, i Applied to radius or pressure to respective magnitudes at the outside
or inside surfaces of a shell
e, p, c Refer to elastic, plastic or creep components of stress, etc.
1 Design Procedure and Establishment of
the Design Requirements
1·0 INTRODUCTION
Also, design rules, based on experience, are given. It is essential for these
rules to be incorporated in the design.
The proposed design, obtained following this procedure, is finally altered
until the most economical and reliable product is obtained. During this stage
those limitations imposed by the design itself on the mode of operation of
the plant are determined.
Functional
Requirements -
Operational Operational
Requirements 1- - Establishment of
the Design Conditions
r-- Limitations
~ Selection of Materials
Design
Codes
Determination of the
Preliminary Layout
Fulfilment of
Stress
Design
Analysis
Requirements
I Final Design
Pressure vessels are usually spherical or cylindrical, with domed ends. The
latter are generally preferred, since they present simpler manufacturing
problems and better use can be made of the available space. Boiler drums,
heat exchangers, chemical reactors, etc., are generally cylindrical. Spherical
vessels have the advantage of requiring thinner walls for a given pressure and
diameter than the equivalent cylinder. They are therefore used for large gas
or liquid containers, gas-cooled nuclear reactors, containment buildings for
nuclear plant, etc.
DESIGN PROCEDURE 5
Containment vessels for liquids at very low pressure are sometimes in the
form of lobed spheroids or in the shape of a drop. This has the advantage of
providing the best possible stress distribution when the tank is full. Ovoid
vessels have also been used for some special applications.
Elongated Holes
and Radial Keys
Brackets or lugs are widely used for all types of vessels. An even distribu-
tion of the load carried by each bracket is achieved by providing adjustable
packers, shims or adjustable hangers. Provision for thermal expansion and
pressure inflation is made by using radial keys and keyways, elongated bolt
holes or swivelling hangers (see Fig. 1·5). Bronze surfaces, lubricated with a
DESIGN PROCEDURE 7
-
..
'•,
'
FIG. 1·9 Cylindrical tank directly supported on foundation
A method of support that has found wide application for large spherical
vessels is the use of a cylindrical skirt, as shown in Fig. 1·6. The skirt should
be sufficiently flexible to allow for the differential expansion between vessel
DESIGN PROCEDURE 9
The requirements that are imposed on the design of the pressure vessel by
t~e mode of operation specified for the overall plant, are divided in two
groups. The first group includes those requirements resulting from the
operation at a maintained loading, either under maximum or normal condi-
tions. The second group includes the transient conditions that exist during
starting up and shutting down or, in general, during a change in loading.
Most of the operational requirements are fundamental to the overall plant
design. As a result, they are accepted without any modification in the design
of the pressure equipment. Other requirements are sometimes expressed only
as desirable from the standpoint of economical operation; for instance, it is
often interesting to achieve short starting-up periods in power stations. In
DESIGN PROCEDURE 11
this case, the maximum rate of change of temperature from cold to full load
is determined by the thermal stresses induced in boiler drums, pipes, etc. It is
then the responsibility of the pressure vessel designer to establish the limita-
tions imposed by his design on the overall mode of operation.
weighed against the economic loss that would result if such a failure occurred.
Following the above philosophy, it is advisable, before going any further,
to classify the vessels according to the severity of their duty, since this affects
both the possibility of a failure and its gravity.
The possibility of failure depends directly on the severity of the duty for
which the vessel was designed. Vessels containing corrosive fluids at high
pressure and high or very low temperature, with a high density of openings
and bolted flanged closures, require more careful design than simple low
pressure containers. While some of the preventive measures incorporated in
the various design rules may be left out for the latter, they all will have to be
considered for the former.
The gravity of a failure is influenced by the energy released. Large vessels,
under high pressures, are obviously more dangerous than smaller vessels at
lower pressures. The fluid contained also determines the gravity; steam or gas
present a higher risk than non-volatile liquids. In addition, their toxicity
must be considered. The proximity of operating personnel is of great import-
ance, especially when the contents are toxic or at high temperature. Other
risks are the possibility of fire, damage to nearby equipment, cost of replacing
the vessel, necessity to shut down the plant while effecting the necessary
repairs, etc.
These considerations lead to a classification of the vessels ranging from
nuclear reactor vessels at one end of the scale to underground water tanks
at the other. The designer will use his discretion as to the position of his
particular design in the scale.
The legal standing of various National Codes is shown in Table 1·1. It will
be appreciated that in most countries the National Codes have the force of
law and strict adherence to their rules is required. Even in those countries,
such as Britain, where the National Codes have no legal standing, their use
may be specified by the customers or the local authorities. Since very few
Codes are sufficiently complete, it is customary for additional requirements to
be specified from such generally accepted Codes as, say, the A.S.M.E.
The A.S.M.E. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is the best known and the
most widely used of the Codes listed in Table 1·1. This is due to the wealth
of experience on which it is based, to its completeness and to its breadth of
application. The AD-Merkbliitter are also based on considerable experi-
mental work, mainly on laboratory scale, and they achieve a substantial
economy of material. Unfortunately, they are not as complete and detailed
14 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
TABLE 1·1
PRINCIPAL NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CODES
Legal
Country Code Title Scope Writing Body Force
Legal
Country Code Title Scope Writing Body Force
B-Boilers
U.F.P.V.-Unfired pressure vessels
16 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
as the A.S.M.E., and their rules are more complicated to apply. Of the British
Codes, B.S. 1500: 1958, Pt. I is clear, concise, has good breadth of applica-
tion and is also based on sound experience. Most European countries are at
present revising their National Codes, to bring them into line with the recom-
mendations of the International Standards Organization. Following this
trend, a revised edition of the B.S. 1500 using higher design stresses, B.S. 1515,
has been prepared.
The Design Codes previously quoted are typical of those currently avail-
able. Others, such as the Swedish and French Codes, have the same qualities
to a greater or lesser extent, but are not so widely used.
Of the various piping Codes, the ASA-B31 is the most widely known and
accepted. It is, in fact, the basis of the National Codes such as B.S. 3351.
It is not possible, nor indeed advisable, to repeat here what the various
Codes specify, since they are all readily available and their direct study is
far more profitable. However, some fundamental rules of typical Codes will
be discussed in the following chapters as a guide for the designer who is not
familiar with them. They may affect the establishment of the design require-
ments mainly in their specifications for safety devices and for pressure testing.
2·0 INTRODUCTION
I turepresent-day
N practice, some vessels are required to operate at a tempera-
as high as 600 oc while others will be designed to work at -200 oc.
The design pressure may, in some cases, be as high as 20,000 lb/in 2 • Some
vessels will be designed to contain non-corrosive fluids, others will have to
withstand the corrosive effect of acids or alkalis. The type of service-i.e. life,
steady or cyclic loading, etc.,-may also vary considerably. For each set of
operating conditions, the pressure vessel material will be required to have
certain properties. For example, operation at very low temperatures requires
the use of notch-tough materials, while at high temperatures creep strength
is essential.
Apart from the mechanical properties and the corrosion resistance of the
material, considerations referring to the fabrication problems involved, the
commercial availability and the cost must obviously be included in the pro-
cess of selecting the most suitable and economical material for a given
purpose. The following information is usually required:
(1) Yield stress and U.T.S. at room temperature and at the design tem-
perature.
(2) Elongation and reduction of area, at fracture. When the bursting
strength has to be evaluated, a true stress/logarithmic strain curve for the
material is required. This is seldom if ever readily available and it is then
necessary to obtain this information from the material supplier.
(3) Notch toughness. Some of the tests proposed for the evaluation of the
notch toughness are reviewed in Chapter 13. Broadly speaking, their results
can only be considered to give a qualitative indication of the relative merits
of one material compared to another one. Charpy V transition curves deter-
mined in accordance with the energy and fracture appearance criteria are the
most widely accepted although, more often than not, the only available
information will be in the form of a specified minimum impact value at a
given temperature (see, for example, B.S. 1510: 1958). In general, only a
transition curve provides adequate information.
19
20 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
2·1 STEEL
Steel is by far the most versatile and most widely used material of construction
in the pressure vessel industry. Basically an alloy of iron and carbon it can
be classified, depending on the proportion and importance of other alloying
elements, into carbon, low alloy and high alloy steel. A fourth category
includes low alloy or carbon steel clad with a relatively thin layer of high
alloy steel or other material.
The principal element in steel is iron, in two allotropic forms, one of which
has a body-centred cubic lattice and is known as ferrite. The other form has
a face-centred cubic lattice and is known as austenite. The carbon content in
pressure vessel steels is usually maintained below 0·3%.
In Britain, the majority of the steels used in the construction of boilers,
vessels, and piping systems is specified in accordance with a variety of
standards, some of the most generally used being the following:
B.S. 14 Marine boilers
B.S. 15 Mild steel for structural purposes (non-pressurized parts,
lugs, attachments, etc.)
B.S. 1501-6 Steels for chemical and petroleum industries
B.S. 1510 Low temperature requirements for notch-tough steels
B
22 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
TABLE 2·1
PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL
(Based on Ref. 6)
21 27·9-29·9 0·29
200 27·0--28·6 0·29 12·3 2·64
300 26·0--27·6 0·30 12·9 4·32
400 24·1-26·1 0·30 13·6 6·16
500 17·5-24·0 0·30 14·2 8·16
600 13·0--19·9 0·31 14·6 10·17
* Note. The lower values correspond to low carbon steel. The higher values correspond
to high-carbon and low-alloy steels.
TABLE 2·2
ROOM TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFIED CHARPY V
TESTS OF SEVERAL STANDARD CARBON STEELS
(From B.S. 1501-1506: 1958 and B.S. 1510: 1958)
1501-101 283 c
113 A-D 26-32
7
1501-151 A 24-28 12
B 285 B-C 26-30 13-5
c 28-32 15
Low temperature LT 0 15ft lb at 0 oc
LT 15 15ft lb at -15 oc
1501-159 C1 28-33·5 15
C2 28-33·5 16
1501-161 A 210 A 24-28 12
B 210B 26-30 13·5
c 212 A 28-32 15
Low temperature LT 30 15ft lb at -30 oc
LT 50 20ft lb at -50 oc
1506-111 306 28-33 15
Low temperature LT 0 15ft lb at 0 oc
LT 15 15ft lb at -15 oc
1506-162 216 45-55 22
Note. Type 1501-161 LT50 replaced by 1501-224 (see B.S. 1501: 1964).
Type 101 is a mild, tank quality, steel, used for structural purposes, light
service tanks, supports, brackets in relatively thin sections. The maximum
thickness of pressurized tanks constructed with this steel is limited to i in.
It has poor impact properties and should not be used at temperatures below
0 oc. The maximum service temperature should be limited to about 250 °C.
Type 151 is a boiler quality mild steel, used for light and medium duty at
temperatures as high as 400 °C. For a particular steel, manufactured to this
specification, it is advisable to obtain the relevant information on the mechani-
cal properties at elevated temperature from the manufacturer.* It can be used
in stress relieved vessels, at temperatures above -50 oc when the shell
thickness does not exceed -!in. For larger thicknesses, below 2 in, the use of
the special impact tested grades LT 0 or LT 15 is recommended. With the
* Note: The latest edition of B.S. 1501: 1964 (Plates) contains information on specified
values of the mechanical properties of various types of steel at elevated temperature.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS 25
TABLE 2·3
0·2% PROOF STRESS OF B.S. 1501-159 STEEL
Type 161 is a silicon killed, boiler quality mild steel used for high duty
vessels. It is the most homogeneous and free from segregations of all four
types and can be used in low temperature vessels down to about -60 oc,
in thickness below ! in in stress relieved vessels. For thicknesses of 2 in,
grade LT 30 can be used at -50 oc in stress relieved vessels. The carbon con-
tent is less than 0·25%, the maximum aluminium addition is limited to 8 oz
per ton.
Of the carbon steels for bolting, types 111 and 162 are the most common.
Type 111 is a low carbon steel used for light duty bolting, while type 162 is a
high tensile steel with a maximum carbon content of 0·6%, available in two
conditions, normalized (condition R) and quenched and tempered (condition
TX). Only type 111 should be used at low temperatures, down to -20 °C.
Low carbon-high manganese steels may have up to 0·23% carbon and
1·2-1·7% manganese. Their U.T.S. may be as high as 41 tonjin 2 with a yield
stress of up to 19 tonjin 2 • B.S. 1501 and 03/221 covers such steels in the form
of plates, sections and forgings. An equivalent American specification is
A.S.M.E.-SA 212B. Typical properties for a commercially available steel of
this type are shown in Table 2·4 (Ref. 7).
Mainly in order to meet the requirements of the nuclear power industry,
a number of carbon-manganese steels with a high notch toughness have been
developed and are commercially available. Their carbon content is usually
below 0·15%, with about 1-2% manganese. In general, they are silicon killed
26 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
TABLE 2·4
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON-MANGANESE STEEL TO
B.S. 1503/221
Temperature CC)
20 200 250 300 350
* Note. Yield point at room temperature. The Charpy V 50% crystallinity transition
temperature is about 30 oc, the steel would not be suitable for operation below 0 oc.
Equivalent steel, in thin (tin) plate form, however, could still be used at sub-zero tempera-
ture in the stress relieved condition.
and grain refined with aluminium. These steels are excellent for the site
fabrication of large pressure vessels designed to operate below 350 oc. Their
creep properties are poor, and vary considerably with the steelmaking process
and the addition, in small quantities, of other alloying elements. Thus, the
stress to cause 0·2% creep strain in 200,000 h varies from 3·5 tonjin 2 for
aluminium grain refined steel with an aluminium addition of 2 lb/ton, to
7·0 tonjin 2 for silicon killed steel with 4-8 ozjton of aluminium (Ref. 8).
A Charpy V 50% crystallinity transition temperature of the order of -75 oc
may be achieved with grain refined steels, a higher transition temperature cor-
responding to the silicon killed steels without the addition of aluminium.
Typical mechanical properties are shown in Table 2·5 (Ref. 8). The reduction
of area at fracture for both steels is about 70%.
TABLE 2·5
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NOTCH-TOUGH
CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS
In the low alloy steels that will be considered now, the carbon content is
usually of the order of 0·15%, the manganese content is about 1·0% and the
28 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
silicon content varies around 0·3%. Higher carbon steels with a carbon
content of 0·4% are used for bolting. The phosphorus and sulphur contents
are always kept below 0·05%. Special properties are conferred on these steels
by the presence of either one or several other alloying elements, the most
common being chromium, nickel and molybdenum in amounts below 10%.
In general, chromium and molybdenum improve the mechanical properties,
especially at high temperatures, and the corrosion resistance and nickel
increases the notch toughness at very low temperatures.
The elastic constants and coefficients of thermal expansion of low alloy
steels are shown in Table 2·1. The coefficients of thermal expansion of
chromium-molybdenum steels with a chromium content above 3% are
approximately 5% lower than those shown in Table 2·1.
TABLE 2·6
ROOM TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFIED CHARPY V
TEsTs oF SEVERAL Low ALLOY STEELS
(Extracted from relevant British and American specifications)
Table 2·6 lists some representative types of standard low alloy steels as
specified by B.S. 1501 (plates, forgings and sections), B.S. 1503 (forgings),
B.S. 1504 (castings) and B.S. 1506 (bolting material), the equivalent American
specifications, the room temperature U.T.S. and yield stress, and the required
low temperature impact test. Equivalent steels are also specified by the various
British Standards for pipes and tubes. Typical creep properties are listed in
Table 2·7.
TABLE 2·7
TYPICAL CREEP STRENGTH OF SoME Low ALLOY STEELS
(Refs. 10, 11) Stress to rupture in 10,000 h (ton/in 2 )
1Cr-!Mo 25 15 7
2!Cr-1Mo 16 8 4
3Cr-!Mo 14 6
The first example of a low alloy steel, with high creep resistance in the
range 450-500 oc, is the!% molybdenum steel which was originally developed
for high temperature steam plants, where it has found wide application. This
steel has also been used in petroleum cracking furnaces, at temperatures
between 500 and 550 °C. However, as a result of reported failures, in this
country and in America, it is now being replaced for high temperature service
by chromium-molybdenum steels, with chromium contents of !--5% and
molybdenum contents of !--1%.
Steels with!, 1, 2-!-, 3 and 5% chromium are commercially available, and
are covered by B.S.I. specifications. These steels have better corrosion resist-
ance than ordinary mild steel and they are used for high temperature service,
under mildly corrosive conditions. They are of special interest in coal hydro-
genation processes and in the synthesis of anhydrous ammonia. These pro-
cesses involve pressures of the order of 10,000 lb/in 2 and temperatures as
high as 500 oc. For this type of service, high tensile, creep resistant steels are
essential. In addition, the material must have good hydrogen resistance: it is
known that hydrogen attacks the steel, causing embrittlement and cracking.
The severity of the attack, for a given steel, depends on the temperature, the
pressure and the exposure time. At 10,000 lb/in 2 , mild steel is rapidly attacked
at a temperature of about 200 °C. The addition of carbide-forming alloying
elements, and especially of chromium, increases the resistance of the steel to
hydrogen attack.
As in the case of carbon steel, the mechanical properties of the chromium-
molybdenum steels depend to a large extent on the steelmaking process, the
B*
30 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
;:;-..
--
~
·==
' - 20
...,
[lJ
~
0~--~~--~----~----~----~--~
Temperature ("C)
FIG. 2·1 Short time tensile properties of lCr-!Mo Steel
(based on Refs. 10, 11).
Figure 2·1 shows the variation of U.T.S., proof stress and reduction of area
at fracture for a lCr-tMo steel, in the annealed condition and in the nor-
malized condition. The former heat treatment gives the best overall pro-
perties. Average creep properties are shown in Table 2·7. This steel is used
for pressure vessels, steam and superheater tubes and piping systems designed
to operate at temperatures below 500 oc.
The U.T.S., proof stress and reduction of area at fracture for a 2!Cr-1Mo
SELECTION OF MATERIALS 31
steel are shown in Fig. 2·2, while the creep properties are included in Table
2·7. This type of steel has been used at a temperature of 590 °C. Similar
information is contained in Figs. 2·3 and 2·4 and Table 2·7 for the types
3Cr-!Mo and 5Cr-!Mo, of better corrosion resistance than the steels pre-
viously quoted. None of these steels is suitable for operation at sub-zero
temperatures.
40
--- ~----
--
t'---. Normalised and
f'-.....
4/'4 -
f---- at 20°C tempered
30
Annealed r---.::- ~~T.S. ~,
"'·
N
;;-.
.!:;
~
-...::
~ 20
'-
I '
~ o· 1% Proof stress\
ti -r'---
10
80
I I I. .-
<:!
Normalised and tempered~/ ~
-.:"
/
"-
70
~
..,; Annealed
"'
ct;
60 /
~
...--- /
;:"
.s
.......
c:
~ 30
'-
!:!
~
~
20:
10
...
~
~
~
80
70
---- l..---""'
..,.,.,
...
"l:i
1:1::;
60
~
50
20 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature tC)
FIG. 2·3 Short-time tensile properties of quenched and tempered 3Cr-!Mo
steel (based on Ref. 10).
The creep strength of this material is inferior to that of the equivalent, low
carbon 1Cr-Mo steel. The maximum service temperature suggested is 500 °C.
For temperatures above 450 oc, the use of 1Cr-Mo-V bolts becomes
SELECTION OF MATERIALS 33
40
..........
--
.=;
30
- r---~
"'
~
~ 20 ~
-
'-
~
~
(I) o·os% Proof stress
10
r---- r---
0
80
1--
/
v
50
20 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature (°C)
FIG. 2·4 Short-time tensile properties of 5Cr-!Mo steel in the annealed
condition (based on Ref. 11).
for the fabrication of pressure vessels for low temperature service. The LT 100
grade may be used at temperatures above -100 oc. A 9% nickel steel, for
similar service, is used in the U.S.A. at temperatures above -190 oc; some
successful experiments having been reported with liquid-gas tanks made of
this steel and not stress relieved. References 12, 13 and 14 may be consulted
for detailed information.
Several types of low alloy steel of high yield-point U.T.S. ratio, high notch
toughness and good creep resistance are now available as plates and forgings.
34 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
These steels are readily weldable, even under site conditions. Although they
are more expensive than ordinary carbon steel, their improved properties
permit the use of higher design stresses and result in a considerable saving in
material. In Britain, high tensile low alloy steels of this type have been
developed by Colvilles, Consett, English Steel Corporation, United Steels, etc.
One of the most representative steels ofthis class is manufactured by Colvilles,
under the trade name of 'Ducol W 30'. The notch ductility of this steel is
comparable to that of mild steel. The U.T.S. and 0·2% proof stress at room
temperature, are respectively approximately equal to 35 and 25 tonfin 2 with
a reduction of area at fracture of about 60% (Ref. 9). At elevated tempera-
tures, the minimum 0·2% proof stress is:
350 °C-19 ton/in 2 ; 400 °C-17 ton/in 2 ; 450 °C-16 ton/in 2 •
Mackenzie (9) recommends a maximum service temperature of 450 °C. This
steel has in fact a slightly lower creep strength than the low alloy steels of
Table 2·7, being more ductile.
In the U.S.A., the general trend is to use high tensile steels of the SA 212 B
(high tensile carbon steel), SA 302 B (high tensile carbon manganese) and
special steels such as a Cr-Ni-Mo low alloy steel known as HY-80. Other
steels with a high yield stress, good ductility and readily weldable are con-
tinually being developed. Wessel and Hays (15), for instance, report the
results of investigations into the notch toughness of five steels with a yield
stress in the range 36-54 tonfin 2 , suitable for the fabrication and welding of
thick (4 in) vessels. The more conventional SA 212 Band SA 302 B steels are
used for the construction of thick-walled pressure vessels for the nuclear
industry in the quenched and tempered condition, in order to meet the speci-
fied notch toughness and U.T.S. requirements. In this process, the whole
vessel has to be uniformly heated to a temperature of about 900 oc, quenched
in water and subsequently tempered at about 700 oc. The overall size of the
vessel is therefore restricted to the maximum capacity of the furnaces and
quenching rigs available in the works. In spite of the practical difficulties
involved, especially for large vessels, the advantages of using quenched and
tempered steel are considerable. The yield stress and the U.T.S. are con-
siderably higher than for the untreated steel, thus allowing a significant
reduction in the required thickness. Moreover this is achieved without any
loss in ductility. As an example by quenching and tempering a steel similar
to Ducol W 30, the U.T.S. and 0·2% proof stress at room temperature are
increased respectively to 38 ton/in 2 and 30 ton/in 2 • At elevated temperatures,
the minimum 0·2% proof stress is
350 °C-26 ton/in 2 ; 400 °C-25 tonfin 2 ; 450 °C-24 tonfin 2 •
The creep strength is slightly improved and the transition temperature
SELECTION OF MATERIALS 35
High alloy steels are used in the power industries, and in nuclear and chemical
installations, when it is necessary to have a corrosion resistant material and
whenever contamination to the fluid by dissolved corrosion products or by
the material itself has to be avoided. This is the case in the manufacture of
high purity chemicals and in water-cooled reactors, where small amounts of
dissolved iron or corrosion products in the water increase its radiolytic
decomposition and lead to accelerated corrosion. In the power industry the
main requirement is that of corrosion resistance and creep strength at very
high temperatures.
High alloy steels are of two types: straight chromium steels, with chromium
contents ranging from 13 to 17% and chromium-nickel austenitic steels, with
chromium contents between 18 and 25% and nickel contents between 8 and
20%. The carbon content varies from 0·04 to 0·25% for the different steels.
The fundamental element is still iron in its two allotropic forms. Under
average conditions, ferrite exists only at low temperatures, austenite and
ferrite are present above 700 oc and austenite (with carbon in solid solution)
exists above 910 octo 850 oc, for low carbon steels, depending on the carbon
content. The addition of chromium has the effect of stabilizing the ferrite.
A ferritic, straight chromium steel is covered by B.S. 1501-6 type 713 and is
equivalent to the American steel A.S.T.M. type 240. Its maximum carbon
content is 0·08% for plates, 0·21% for forgings, 0·20% for castings and
0·15% for bolting. Only the varieties with a carbon content higher than 0·1%
are hardenable by heat treatment. Austenitic steels have both chromium and
nickel as alloying elements. The combined effect of these two elements being
to slow down the allotropic transformations, nickel having the effect of
stabilizing the austenite. When the nickel content is below 7%, austenite is
present in the steel at room temperature, in a metastable form. The structure
becomes ferritic under cold work. Above 14% nickel, the austenitic structure
is stable at room temperature. The most common austenitic steel, with 18%
36 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
chromium, 8% nickel and 0·08% or 0·03% carbon (B.S. 1501 type 801 or
A.S.T.M. type 304), is austenitic at room temperature.
Apart from the effects on the steel structure, chromium increases the
corrosion resistance due to the formation of a very thin and tenacious film,
firmly adhered to the surface of the metal. This film resists attack by most
chemical reagents. Nickel improves the corrosion resistance, increasing the
range of fluids that can be handled by these steels with a chromium content
below 22%.
When austenitic steels are held at temperatures above 250 oc for a suffi-
ciently long time, there is a tendency for chromium carbide to precipitate at
the austenite grain boundaries. This phenomenon is especially marked in
the regions adjacent to the welds, at temperatures in the range 500-850 °C.
In these regions, the precipitation of chromium carbide causes a reduction
of the effective chromium content and a weakening in the corrosion resistance
of the steel. When the fluid is sufficiently corrosive, intergranular corrosion
known as weld decay takes place. Weld decay may be prevented by a post-
weld heat treatment, consisting of heating up the whole unit to about 1050 oc
followed by a rapid cooling. This, however, may prove to be just sufficient
to delay the precipitation of chromium carbides. A better method is the
addition of niobium or titanium to the steel. These two elements have a
strong affinity for carbon and their carbides tend to form in preference to
chromium carbide. Steels with a titanium content higher than four times
the carbon content, or with a niobium content higher than ten times the
carbon contents, are known as stabilized. Weld decay can also be prevented
by the use of steels with a very low carbon content, as low as 0·03% being
required for complete safety.
The ductility of stainless steels and their resistance to corrosion can be
reduced by the formation of the sigma phase, which is hard and brittle and
exists in addition to the normal phases ferrite, austenite and carbide. The
factors influencing the formation of the sigma phase are the presence of
ferrite, prior cold working and the chemical composition of the steel. The
sigma phase forms fairly slowly at temperatures in the range 550-900 °C.
The choice of a chemical composition which will have a stable austenitic
structure is therefore essential to maintain the original ductility.
The notch toughness of straight chromium steels is poor. Austenitic
chromium-nickel steels on the other hand have excellent notch toughness,
and may be used for very low temperature service, down to -190 °C. The
elastic constants and thermal expansion coefficients of straight chromium
and austenitic steels are shown in Table 2·8. The specific weight is 0·29lb/in 3 ,
specific heat 0·12 Chu/lbrc (from 0 to 100 oq and the thermal conductivity
may be taken to be 108 Chu/ft 2 /hrCfin at 100 oc and 116 at 500 oc for aus-
tenitic steels.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS 37
TABLE 2·8
ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENTS
OF STAINLESS STEELS
(Based on Ref. 6)
Note. * refers to stainless steel (Cr < 25% and Ni< 20 %).
** refers to straight chromium steel.
TABLE 2·9
ROOM TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SEVERAL STANDARD
STAINLESS STEELS
Note. Types 801, 821, 845, suitable for low temperature service. Additional
requirement (B.S. 1510: 1958), 15 lb ft Charpy V impact at -190 oc.
38 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Table 2·9 lists the stainless steels covered by B.S. 1501 (plates, sections
and bars). Similar specifications exist for forgings, castings, bars for bolting,
tubes and pipes (see B.S. 1501-6, 1507-8, 3605).
The U.T.S. and yield stress at elevated temperatures of some stainless
steels are shown in Fig. 2·5. The minimum Charpy V impact value of the
austenitic steels is well over 40 lb ft at - 200 oc. The best creep properties
correspond to the 18Cr-10Ni-2tMo steel, stabilized with titanium. For this
steel, the stress to produce 10- 7 in/in/hr strain rate at 600 °Cis about 7ton/in 2 ,
while at 700 oc it drops to 2·5 ton/in 2 (Ref. 10). The corresponding stresses
to produce rupture after 10,000 hr are 13 and 5 ton/in 2 • The creep properties
of unstabilized 18Cr-8Ni steel are only slightly better than those of low alloy
steels (see Table 2·7).
~~=---------~----~----~----~----~----~
OL-----L-----~----~-----L-----L----~----~
20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature (°C)
FIG. 2·5 Short-time tensile properties of high alloy steels (based on Refs. 1,
2, 7, 17).
Curves 1 & 2, U.T.S. and 0·1% proof stress of 13Cr steel
3& 4, , 18Cr-8Ni steel
5& 6, , 18Cr-10Ni-2tMo Steel
7& 8, , 18Cr-8Ni low carbon steel
Austenitic steels are used for pressure parts and as linings whenever it is
necessary to use materials with high corrosion resistance, creep strength,
notch toughness and when contamination of the contained fluid is not per-
missible. In general, the austenitic stabilized steel types 18Cr-8Ni-low
carbon or stabilized-are used in welded construction for relatively low
temperature service and 18Cr-10Ni-Mo are used for their high creep strength
in the power industry.
Other types of stainless steel, with higher chromium and nickel contents
have been used for highly corrosive conditions. In the petroleum industry,
18Cr-8Ni steels are usually specified as having good corrosive resistance up
SELECTION OF MATERIALS 39
to about 800 oc. Above this temperature, up to about 1100 oc, 25Cr-12Ni
or 25Cr-20Ni steel are generally selected (see Ref. 1). In addition, several
types of austenitic Cr-Ni-Mo steels, with vanadium and other alloying ele-
ments have been developed for high temperature service due to their good sta-
bility, corrosion resistance and creep strength (see, for example, Refs. 11, 17).
Straight chromium steels are used in chemical plant, usually for non-
pressurized components.
The satisfactory service of high alloy steel structures can only be achieved
when the correct manufacturing procedure is followed. Questions such as
weld preparations, pre-weld and post-weld heat treatment, have a direct
bearing on the corrosion resistance and on the resistance to embrittlement
during operation. A high alloy vessel designed without the advice of a
competent metallurgist and manufactured by an inexperienced team is more
likely to fail in service than a mild steel vessel designed and built under
similar circumstances. It is also true to say that high alloy vessels are mainly
built for very severe duty, under operating conditions that could not be
achieved before the development of these materials. Such vessels can only be
designed and built on the basis of theoretical considerations and laboratory
experiments. The designer must then be aware of the risk involved in extra-
polating this limited knowledge, as revealed by the numerous reported
failures of superheater tubes and other steam plant components (Refs. 18,
19, 20, 21).
TABLE 2·10
PROPERTIES OF SEVERAL STANDARD ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
B.S. 1477-{Plate)
TABLE 2·11
PROPERTIES OF SOME COPPER ALLOYS IN THE ANNEALED CONDITION
Brass
Admiralty 70Cu-29Zn-1Sn 22 18·45 16
Naval 62Cu-3 7Zn-1 Sn 25 18·45 15
Aluminium 76Cu-22Zn-2Al 24 18·45 16
Muntz
Metal 60Cu-40Zn 24 18-45 15
High-tensile 55 to 63 Cu-rest Zn 38
and other elements to
(Pb, Sn, Mn, AI, 45
Ni, Fe)
Aluminium
Bronze
5%Al 95Cu-5Al 20 8 18 17·5
8%Al 92Cu-8Al 23 9 18 17·5
10%Al 82·5Cu-10Al 40 16 18·5 17·5
5Ni-2·5Fe (5)*
Copper-
Nickels
20% Ni 80Cu-20Ni 20 6 16·2 26
30%Ni 70Cu-30Ni 23 9 16·2 26
(6·5)*
TABLE 2·12
PROPERTIES OF NICKEL, MONEL 400, INCONEL AND INCONEL X
(Refs. 1, 5, 26)
Nickel 30 8
Monel400 31 15·8 11 7·7
lnconel 38 33·5 15·5 10 6·5 1·5 0·8
Inconel X 72 55 41 23 8 1·5
Note. Large variations in properties are obtained depending on the heat treatment and
condition of the alloy.
In Britain, B.S. 3072-6 cover a range of nickel and nickel alloys, the most
generally used being nickel-copper, nickel-chromium-molybdenum-iron.
These alloys are better known by their trade names as Monel, Inconel,
Hastelloys, etc. (Refs. 25, 26).
Monel is an alloy of nickel and copper, of better mechanical properties
than pure nickel (see Table 2·12). Its corrosion resistance is not much inferior
to that of the pure metal, and it is used in contact with hydrofluoric acid, salt
solutions and salt-water heat exchangers. It is not resistant to oxidizing acids.
A general survey of the applications of Monel can be seen in Ref. 26.
Inconel is a nickel alloy containing chromium and iron, of better corrosion
resistance in oxidizing media than pure nickel and Monel. It is used in the
chemical industry under a variety of service conditions and also in furnace
equipment and power plants, due to its good creep and thermal shock resist-
ance. In the same group, Inconel X, Inconel X550 and Inconel W have
improved creep strength (see Refs. I and 25).
46 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Other nickel alloys that find some application are creep or thermal shock
resistant. Most of them are manufactured under trade names, such as
Nimonic, Refracoloy, etc. Detailed information can be obtained from the
manufacturers.
In spite of the advantages to be gained by the use of these alloys, their price
restricts their application to a few, very special cases. In general they are
replaced by stainless steels except for service at temperature above 600 oc
and for handling corrosive fluids.
REFERENCES
3·0 INTRODUCTION
All Design Codes, especially those listed in Chapter 1, specify values of the
temperature and of the pressure (which may be different from those existing
under service) as the basis for the design. Since pressurized systems have to
be protected with safety devices-safety valves or bursting discs-it is custom-
ary to take a design pressure equal to the valve setting pressure or the bursting
pressure of the discs plus a small margin to cover for possible fluctuations.
A general rule is to have a design pressure equal to the maximum operating
pressure plus 10%. Vessels subject to vacuum and not provided with vacuum
break valves are designed to 14·7lb/in2 or 1 atm gauge. The hydrostatic head
must be taken into account when calculating the design pressure.
The design temperature is generally taken as equal to the actual metal
temperature. This is estimated to be the same as that of the fluid contained
for unfired pressure vessels and 20-50 oc higher for fired vessels or those
heated by flue gas. The A.N.C.C. Code (see Chapter 1, Table 1·1) specifies
a design temperature equal to the maximum fluid temperature when there is
no heat transfer from vessel to fluid and 20-100 oc higher, depending on the
type of fluid, when there is heat transfer.
Most Codes list the loadings to be considered when designing a vessel, but
none gives any clear indication as to how to take them into account. The only
load to be considered for the determination of the preliminary layout is, in
fact, the design pressure acting in a uniformly distributed way, at the design
temperature. Piping systems are different in that the restricted thermal
expansion has to be considered, although the overall thickness of the pre-
liminary layout is still given by pressure considerations only. The calculation
of this expansion, resulting from the movements of the piping itself, is trivial
(see, for instance, Ref. 1). Detailed tables of thermal expansion coefficients
may be found in the A.S.A.-B 31 Code or in B.S. 3351.
-
(Jl
TABLE 3·1 contd. N
..!:l ..!:l ~
II> ~
II> ~
~ ~
~
..,;:.,
~
;:... ~ IS IS ~
Code 1:: s ~ .;: .;: Criteria for the Determination of Permissible Stresses
-~
1::
c ..Sl ::::::
~ ... ... .::; .::;
~
c ..:; ~ II> II> ~ ~
1: -::;
-~
-=: IS E "'C "'C
c
...;j
..:: ..::
a a ~ a~ a~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Holland I I I t x yield stress at design temperature
Italy I I I I I t x U.T.S. for vessels with longitudinal lap joints to lx U.T.S
A.N.C.C. for seamless or butt welded vessels
Nuova I ..; ..; ..; ..; (1/1·5) x yield point for unfired vessels
Proposta (1/1·6) x yield point for vessels exposed to gas above 600 oc
New Zealand ..; ..; ..; ..; See British Codes
Sweden I ..; ..; I ..; (1/1·5) x yield stress for cylindrical shell. Formulae for flat
plates, cones, spherically dished plate covers and openings are
developed with safety factors of 1·1
Switzerland I ..; ..; l x ultimate tensile stress
'"d
Britain Similar to A.S.M.E. and ASA-B.31 ::c
..; ..; ..; t!l
B.S. 1500: 1949 til
..; ..; til
B.S. 1500: 1958
~
B.S. 1500: 1965 I I ::c
B.S. 1113: 1958 ..; ..; t!l
B.S. 806: 1954 ..; I ..; <
..; ..; t!l
B.S. 3351: 1961 I til
..; ..; ..; til
B.S. 1515: 1965 The lower of t!l
0·67 x yield stress (0·2% proof stress). t""
0·37 x ultimate tensile stress at room temperature. t;
0·67 x average stress to rupture at 100,000 hr. t!l
til
1·0x average stress to give 1% creep strain in 100,000 hr. 0
B.S. 3915: 1965 I ..; Same as B.S. 1515
-z
~
l;l:j
(")
n:l
t""'
-a::
TABLE 3·1 contd.
z-
>
l;l:j
Ul
w
VI
""'"
~"'
., ::::6- .,
~"' -.::
;:>.. :::::6- :::::6-
Code =: Criteria for the Determination of Permissible Stresses
-~"' :::::6- -.:: .§
<::> ~ .:=E
=: -.:: ~ .!:; .!:;
<::> ..:..... -.:: E
.."'
;: -==
i: [:! <::>
..;: ..;:E
--.::"'
u '"-l ~ -.:: -.:: ~
a a~ a~
-~"'
A.S.A. I I I I I I I I I I Power piping: as per A.S.M.E. VIII.
B31·8 Oil: as per A.S.M.E. VIII (creep range) and the lower of,
t x ultimate tensile stress.
0·85 x yield stress (0·2% proof stress).
Gas and air: 0·6...()·72 x yield stress.
Gas trans.: 0·72 x yield stress (0·2% proof stress).
A.S.M.E. I I I I I I I General primary membrane stress: t x yield stress or t x ulti- '"lj
Pt. III mate tensile stress. ::a
m
(Nuclear) Higher stress limits established for stresses necessary to satisfy
continuity of structure (at structural discontinuities or due to
"'"'c::
thermal loading). Maximum stress, subjected to fatigue ::a
m
analysis = 2 x yield stress or = ultimate tensile stress.
<
m
• Note. Slight differences in safety factors on creep data are specified for boilers (Section I) and unfired pressure vessels (Section VIII) "'"'m
t"'
I:)
m
0
-"'z
PRELIMINARY LAYOUT 55
Pmin = 0·365EGY
or
Umin = 0·1825EG)
3·4·1 Heads
The design of domed ends, ellipsoidal or torispherical, is usually covered by
Design Codes using formulae of the type
PD
t=-m
4S
--
o·5 D
- - - - A D Merkblatt B9
----BWRA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d/jl5T
FIG. 3·2 Comparison between nozzle compensation in accordance with
A.D.-Merkblatter B9 ( V=l·O) and B.W.R.A. (S.C.F. = 2·5).
comparison with the equal area method (Fig. 3·3) shows that substantial
economy of material is achieved. These conclusions, obtained for protruding
nozzles, remain valid in most other cases.
The reinforcement of multiple openings is usually undertaken following the
equal area method. When no compensation is claimed from nozzles, the shell
thickness is increased, in at least the ratio
f
f-d y
0•8
~
T
0'7
7
-...
.......
~
~
...
o·6
~~
~-
1::1 g o·s
'-@:
~
~ ...~ o·4
~
s:: s::
.!;! .!;!
o·J
~
~
~ ~
i
::: 0•2
dd
o·z
Bolt load, W
;--.,"""· f--------
...o
..
""
~
Gasket J
reaction, Ho
I
Hydros;~
load, HD
-Ha-HD y
Kt
O.D. or mean diameter 2
of gasket, G
where the factors A 1 , A 2 , A 3 are obtained from the diagrams and formulae
contained in the Code (A.S.M.E. Section VIII, UA-50 to 52) and are a
function of the geometrical configuration only. The total moment acting on
the flange is obtained as shown in Fig. 3·4. In this figure, the hydrostatic
load acting on the hub is, with B equal to the bore,
B2
HD = - x (internal pressure) x n.
4
The gasket reaction
G2
H 0 = W - - x (internal pressure) x n.
4
hT = hD+ha+gl,
2 4
In general, HT is assumed to act midway between H 0 and HD.
The minimum design bolt load, Wm 1 , is equal to the sum of the hydrostatic
load over the area bounded by the gasket diameter plus a minimum load to
maintain a contact pressure on the gasket. This contact pressure is expressed
as a multiple of the internal design pressure; from 0·5-6·5 times the design
pressure for soft rubber gaskets and for stainless steel gaskets respectively.
The minimum required bolting area is then
Aml = WmdSb
where Sb is the Code design stress for bolting material at the design tempera-
ture.
The required initial bolt Joad Wm 2 , necessary to ensure a tight joint, is
equal to the gasket seating area times a design pressure that varies from 0 for
soft rubber to 26,000 lb/in 2 for stainless steel gaskets. The corresponding
bolting area is then
Am2 = Wm2/Sa
where Sa is the Code design stress for bolting material at room temperature.
The required bolting area, Am, is then taken as the larger of Am 1 and Am2.
Finally, the actual bolting area, larger than Am, is fixed from considerations
of standard bolts available. The bolt load, W, is defined as
W -Actual
Am+
- --- area
- x S a• un der ttg
. htenmg
. cond'Itlons
.
2
w = wm1' under operating conditions.
PRELIMINARY LAYOUT 63
It will be appreciated that the actual load due to tightening up of the bolts
without internal pressure and the variations in this load due to pressurization,
creep thermal transients, etc., have not been considered in the definitions of W.
Finally, resulting stresses are checked to be within the limits
Longitudinal hub stress~ 1· 5 x code design stress
Radial flange stress ~ code design stress
Hoop flange stress ~code design stress
Longitudinal hub+
radial flange stresses ~ 2 x code design stress
Longitudinal hub+
hoop flange stresses ~ 2 x code design stress.
The main criticisms that have been made of the A.S.M.E. method are that
the flanged connection is assumed to behave elastically and that the bolt load
is purely fictitious. More rational methods have been proposed by various
authors and have been incorporated in several Design Codes (Refs. 9, 10,
11). All these methods are based on more sophisticated analysis than the
A.S.M.E. but they all suffer from the same disadvantage, namely that being
semi-empirical their scope is limited to the area covered by experimental
information. Also, it is important to note that the rules contained in a given
Code, gasket factors, bolt loads, etc., are not interchangeable with those
contained in a different method.
Some practical considerations for the design of bolted-flanged connections
are given in Chapter 16.
Tube plates are mainly used in tubular heat-exchangers, boilers and con-
densers. In the past, their design has generally been in accordance with the
T.E.M.A. Code rules, applicable only in the most conventional cases due to
the many simplifying assumptions involved in their derivation. A more
elaborate and successful treatment has been developed by Miller (12) and
forms the basis of the B.S. 1500 design method. Except in very conventional
designs, it is advantageous to apply the general method detailed in Chapter 16,
even at the stage of preliminary layout.
In piping design, it is customary to have the same nominal thickness for
the bends as for the straight runs. When short radius bends are used, their
thickness is sometimes increased in order to keep the stress level under the
Code design stress in spite of the higher internal pressure (see Chapter 16).
Lobster-back bends can be assumed to behave in a similar way to smooth
bends, with additional discontinuity stresses at the junction of the various
segments. No account is usually taken of these stresses at this stage. In the
same way mitre bends are usually designed in accordance with the engineer's
experience rather than by following given criteria.
Some Codes give non-mandatory rules, usually of a very general nature,
64 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
for the design of supports and other shell attachments. In general the designer
is entirely free to select the method of support and satisfy himself that the
existing stresses are within permissible limits. Typical designs are shown in
Chapter 1. As a guidance for the preparation of a preliminary layout, the
rules given in A.S.M.E. Section VIII, Appendix G, may be followed.
3·5 MANUFACTURE
argon and consumable electrodes has been in general use for non-ferrous
materials, especially aluminium. A recent development has been the use of
C02 instead of argon, and Si-Mn killed steel wire for the welding of steel.
This process, known as Mig, has been used for the automatic welding of
branch connections in boiler drums (Ref. 17). It has the obvious advantages
that very little descaling of the weld deposit is required and that the joint is
always visible to the welder (Ref. 18). The Tig process, using argon and a
tungsten non-consumable electrode, has found application in the tube
industry for longitudinal seams in small bore thin-walled tubes. It is unlikely
that it will find as wide application as the techniques previously mentioned.
The non-destructive testing of welded joints has to be taken into account
by the designer, since he must design welds that are amenable to one or more
of the following methods of examination.
At present, the techniques used are radiographic inspection, ultrasonic
examination, magnetic crack detection and dye penetrant testing. It is outside
68 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
the scope of this book to describe in detail any of these techniques, and the
reader is referred to the current edition of the Welding Handbook (19) or to
(20).
Radiography has been until very recently the only technique generally
recognized by the Codes and inspecting authorities for the detection of
structural discontinuities in the interior of welds. X-ray machines ranging
from 200,000 volt to 2-MeV, gamma-ray sources of cobalt 60 and linear
accelerators or betatrons are used for the examination of butt welds in plates
up to 10 in thick. As seen in § 3·3·1, it is common practice to give credit in
terms of increased joint efficiency factor when the vessels are subjected to
radiographic control. In some cases, radiographic examination of all pressure-
containing welds may be specified. Nozzle attachments, supports, etc., will
then have to be of the inserted butt-welded type, as shown in Figs. 3·4 and 3·5.
(a) (h)
FIG. 3·6 Typical welded nozzles (ultrasonic inspection).
dye penetrant testing for the detection of surface defects. The inspection of
the vessels of ever increasing thickness demanded by industry has only been
possible by using machines-betatrons or linear accelerators-of corre-
spondingly higher cost, more difficult installation and whose use increased
the radiation hazards to the inspection personnel. Welds not amenable to
radiographic examination, when accepted by the Codes, involved the use of
lower joint efficiency factors. This situation has led to the rapid development
of the ultrasonic inspection technique. This method has the advantages of
being economical; it does not involve any radiation hazard; the equipment is
portable and safe to use. Like radiography, the interpretation of results can
only be made by experienced personnel. When ultrasonic inspection is
possible, welded nozzles of the type shown in Fig. 3·6 can be subjected to a
rigorous examination. The economic advantages of this type over the one
shown in Fig. 3·5 are obvious. Ultrasonic examination may also be used in
conjunction with radiography, replacing the 100% radiographic inspection.
Thus, longitudinal seams in boiler drums are sometimes examined by auto-
matic scanning ultrasonic equipment and any indication of possible defects
investigated by radiography.
a Type (a)
'r--Y
'Ll)i
Welded from one
Qtl-- ~'
side
~R
g~~ Type (b)
Welded from both
sides
(a} (b)
v.
n
2 Single with backing strip
.~;1,
*
Backing strip
may be removed
after welding
3 Double v
a
'r-1
)~, Type (a)
~~
g
~~· N
Ordinary
9
(a} (b)
~~ :~t-~:
Type (c)
Unequal, Symmetrical
Type {d)
~. Unequal, Asymmetrical
(c) (d)
h ]__!) _;;
_
~~
Welded from
both sides
t tl3t
e-ll!-
5 Single U, with backing strip
- s
~
See Type 2 for may be removed
vertical welds after welding
6 Double U
a
'\:"1
~~·
Type (a)
Equal
~· 7
~
Y Joints
Type (b)
Unequal
¥. ,,
a
8 Partial Double Y
,
'r-i
a
~
~(-d·: ;i·f
~@E· a•
t
~
T
s
72 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Downhand Position
Angle 45° 30° 20°
Root gap g ! in (min) -a\ in (min) -A- in (min)
PRELl MINAR Y LAYOUT 73
The root gap is increased when the first layer is deposited in two runs
and, for thicker plates and angles of 30-20°, in order to allow for a 30°
inclination of the electrode. For the vertical positions the minimum root gap
should be slightly larger and a: = 45° should be preferred. For the horizontal-
vertical position, an asymmetric preparation with a: = 45°, P1 = 10-15°,
g~i in may be used.
Copper backing has been used for both the metal-arc and the submerged-
arc processes. The I.I.W. recommends that great care be exercised when
using this type of backing in conjunction with normal penetration electrode
for submerged-arc welding, or poor penetration may result.
This type of joint, in thicknesses up to I! in, may be welded by the sub-
merged-arc process using a bed of flux as the backing. Adequate control of
the penetration is difficult.
20°
~·radius
,,; .
fmin B /IIIII
80°
systems are shown in Fig. 3·8. Dimensional Standards, such as B.S. 1640 and
ASA-B16, specify various joint preparations for end fittings such as valves,
bends, reducers, flanges etc. The ASA-B31 Code may also be consulted.
Joint preparations for austenitic steel have been studied by Truman eta!. (23).
PRELIMINARY LAYOUT 75
(7) Arc Welding of Thick Plate. Steel plates of 3-6 in thickness are used for
the manufacture of vessels for the nuclear, chemical and power industries.
The weld shown in Fig. 3·9 (Ref. 24) achieves ease and economy of prepara-
tion together with a saving in the amount of weld metal. Welding may be
Weld beads
FIG. 3·9 Weld preparation for thick sections (Ref. 24).
70° 30°
I
~~ ~
fi'±o·ooJ
r
i
~~ fi o·oos~ 1- t
±
1 11 t•
TB"F
Weld Preparation for Argonarc Welding of Pipes
60°
~~w 8 16
18
~'J r
i ...5'!.+.1.'!
64 - 6~
L"+I'.-
8 -16
1- t
Weld Preparation for Tig Fused Root, Metal-Arc Remainder
FIG. 3·10 Special weld preparations for circumferential joints in pipes
(based on Refs. 23, 25).
76 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
'·I 'i~l;--
~~--o·oJO·
cut edge only is required. The separa-
tion between the edges at the joint
varies from 1i in for 3 in plates to 1-f«-
in for 12 in plates.
Joint preparations for non-ferrous
materials are very similar to those
reviewed for steel. Some typical pre-
parations for nickel alloys are shown
in Fig. 3·11 (Ref. 26). For further
details concerning the weld prepara-
tions for these alloys and other non-
ferrous metals, the reader is referred to
the current edition of the Welding
Handbook (19).
Flo. 3·11 Butt welds for nickel alloys. Clad vessels are being used more
and more frequently by the chemical
and nuclear industries. The Welding Handbook and Ref. 17 should be con-
sulted for the design problems associated with this type of construction, i.e.
cladding techniques, types of welded joints and joints between austenitic and
ferritic steels or, in general, dissimilar materials.
then have a cylindrical skirt and the minimum length be of the order of three
times the head thickness or I! in, whichever is smaller.
·VI~· !
4 4
I
I
I
' I \
\
\ I\ i \
\
\
\
~/ \ ' ' ...
(a) '
(b) (c)
r; la 3t or f'
Thermal stress relieving of the welded seams is specified for most vessels and
piping systems and has to be taken into account when preparing the
PRELIMINARY LAYOUT 79
t, + !2 = ] ·]5 X fmi11
t 1 , t2 > ftmin or f
Flo. 3-15 Typical part penetration and fillet welds in branches (after
A.S.M.E. Section VIII).
80 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
FIG. 3·16 Weld preparation for nozzle attachment by automatic C02 process.
REFERENCES
4·0 INTRODUCTION
T Cylindrical
basic shape of most pressure vessels is either cylindrical or spherical.
HE
vessels are closed at each end with a head that may be a
hemisphere, a part sphere, a part sphere with a toroidal knuckle, an ellipsoid,
a flat plate, etc. Vessels of both basic shapes have penetrations, usually
circular cylinders, that are often thickened local to the opening to diminish
the stress raising effect of the hole in the vessel. Figure 4·1 shows a cross-
sectional view of part of a vessel with a conical reducing section.
The stress system in the shells comprising a vessel vary from shape to
shape, and where one shell intersects another a disturbance is caused in the
stress distribution. Since the material of the vessel is continuous, the effect
of the intersection spreads throughout the vessel and where more than two
shapes are involved the interactions between shells are all affected by one
another. In some cases the disturbances die away rapidly with distance from
the intersection, and then the effects at each change of shape may be con-
sidered separately. To calculate the stresses in a vessel such as that shown
in Fig. 4·1, it is therefore necessary to understand the behaviour of each type
of shell and to develop a technique for calculating the interactions between
them. The study of stress systems in individual shells is deferred until the
subsequent chapters. In this chapter it is assumed that the behaviour of each
type of shell is known, and a method is developed for calculating the inter-
actions between a series of shells joined end to end.
Vessels are frequently supported by cylindrical or conical skirts which may
penetrate the basic shell to provide support for internals, as illustrated in
Fig. 1·6. Again a technique for calculating the stress disturbances is developed
for a group of shells which have a common intersection.
Both of these methods are described in §§ 4·5 and 4·6. Section 4·1 sum-
marizes the fundamental equations of elasticity and § 4·2 describes the
approximations made to make the search for solutions easier. The type of
problem encountered is described in greater detail in § 4·3, and § 4·4 con-
tains a summary of the rules for the operations on matrices which are
introduced as a shorthand for writing simultaneous equations.
83
84 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The stress unn is said to be a normal stress and uns• unt are shear stresses. It is
necessary to consider the stresses associated with three mutually perpendicular
directions in order to characterize the state of stress at P. From equilibrium
considerations it can be shown that upq = uqp for all directions p and q, so
the state of stress at P is determined by the six quantities
X
FIG. 4·2 Stress at a point.
bouring points which are displaced toP' and Q' as shown in Fig. 4·3. The
quantities u*, v*, w* are the displacements of Q and if products of the incre-
mental lengths are ignored, Taylor's theorem gives
w* = w+ ow dx+ ow dy+ ow dz
OX ay az
D
86 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
a(ds) = ds})"(~~)(~~)
where the summation over p and q includes all combinations of x, y, z.
Q' (x+dx+u;
y+ dy+ ":
z+ dz+ w*)
p• (x+u,yu,Z+w)
p
(x,y,z)
Flo. 4·3 Displacement of two points.
Eezz = u,,-V(O'xx+u,,)+EtXT
(4·3)
Eeyz = (l+v)uy,
E Bxz = (1 +v) O'xz
Eexy = (l+v)uxy
In these formulae E is Young's modulus, v Poisson's ratio and a the coefficient
of linear expansion. These equations are only true if the material is isotropic,
so directional properties introduced by forming processes are not catered for
in the subsequent development of the theory. A further limitation is implicit
in Eqn. 4·1, which was set up assuming that the equilibrium conditions can
be formulated using the undeflected co-ordinates of the point. If large
deflections occur this is no longer true, and the revised equations will include
products of deflections and derivatives of stress, and will thus become non-
linear.
From an inspection of Eqns. 4·1-4· 3, it can be seen that three equations
for the three deflections can be derived by expressing the stresses in terms of
the displacements and substituting these expressions in the body force
equations. All problems in the determination of elastic stresses in an iso-
tropic material, with a linear stress strain law, consist of solving these
equations with appropriate boundary conditions. Because this is extremely
difficult in most cases the problem is simplified by making the assumptions
described in the following section.
Most pressure vessels are built from shells which have an axis of symmetry,
and it is shapes of this type which will be investigated.
Consider a plane curve which is not closed, i.e. a straight line, an arc of a
circle or ellipse, etc. When such a curve is rotated about an axis an axi-
symmetric surface is generated. At a general point on such a surface there
are two principal radii of curvature whose inverses are the principal curva-
tures at the point. The product of these two numbers is called the Gaussian
curvature, and its sign conveys useful information which can be easily
visualized. If the Gaussian curvature is everywhere positive the generating
curve is convex outwards with respect to the axis, and if it is everywhere
negative the curve is concave outwards. Surfaces of positive Gaussian curva-
ture are cylinders, cones, spheres, ellipsoids, etc.
An axi-symmetric shell is defined as the structure whose boundaries are
two axi-symmetric surfaces with a common axis. Clearly the two generating
88 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
curves must not intersect, and the ends of the shell wall will generally be
formed by the revolution of straight lines joining the ends of the two curves.
Examples of shells with negative Gaussian curvature are the inner half of
toroids and hyperboloids of one sheet used in cooling tower construction.
Generally speaking shells of this type are encountered more frequently in
civil engineering, where they figure in roof construction. A further difference
between the use of shells in civil engineering and in pressure vessels is that
the shells are often incomplete in the former case. In this book we are con-
cerned primarily with shells which have no boundary parallel to the axis of
symmetry.
Usually pressure vessel shells are composed of two surfaces of the same
type, but this is not always the case; for example, taper hub flanges incor-
porate shells whose inner boundary is cylindrical and whose outer boundary
is· conical. If the two surfaces of the shell are of the same type they will
generally have a common normal and the mid-surface of the shell bisects its
own normal with respect to the inner and outer boundaries of the shell.
The thickness of the shell is the distance between the two boundary
surfaces measured along the normal to the mid-surface. For those shells
which do not have a normal common to both boundary surfaces the choice
of the mid-surface is somewhat arbitrary; formally the definition is-the mid-
surface is the surface which bisects its own normal with respect to the inner
and outer boundaries of the shell.
With the definitions given above the assumptions of thin shell theory will
now be stated:
(a) Plane sections normal to the mid-surface of the shell in the unloaded
state remain plane after the application of the load.
(b) Stresses normal to the mid-surface of the shell are negligible in com-
parison with those acting in the plane of the mid-surface.
(c) The stress induced strain normal to the mid-surface can be ignored.
It must not be forgotten that there are additional assumptions made in
§ 4·1. The most restrictive of these earlier assumptions is likely to be that
referring to the magnitude of the displacements, but it is necessary to use the
modified equations only when the shell is very thin. All of the assumptions
are reasonably true if the shell is thin, by which it is meant that the ratio of
the thickness to the smaller of the radii of curvature must be small in com-
parison with unity. Novozhilov (1) considers shells to be thin if the ratio is
less than 210 whilst Fliigge (2) and Timoshenko (3) both use -ftr. If the choice
lies between using thin shell theory or none at all it is probable that the
theory will be used in spite of the possible inaccuracies. It is often the case
that a vessel is composed of a thick shell attached to a thin one, and under
these conditions the highest stresses usually occur in the thin component at
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 89
the intersection of the two shells, where the thin shell theory can be expected
to give the least inaccurate results. Certain types of loading will invalidate
the assumptions even for thin shells. This is the case where the applied loading
varies rapidly with distance either on the surface or on an exposed edge
(unless in the latter case the variation is linear with distance from the mid-
surface). The effect of this breakdown in the validity of the assumptions is
that the stresses within the region of application of the load cannot be pre-
dicted by thin shell theory. Farther away the theory will give reasonable
results, since by St. Venant's principle the loading can be replaced by a
statically equivalent system compatible with the assumptions.
In a shell for which the assumptions of § 4·2 are valid, the stresses and
deflections can be calculated by supposing that the shell is replaced by its
mid-surface (which has stiffness but no thickness) which has acting upon it
certain resultant forces and which undergoes certain deflections. It is possible
to set up differential equations for these forces and displacements by means
of the relationships between them and the equilibrium conditions for an
element of the mid-surface. This process will be described in the following
chapters. It will be found that some shells can carry certain loads solely by
means of forces acting in the plane of the mid-surface, in the way in which a
soap bubble is supported by 'surface tension'. In these cases there are no
bending moments or shear forces and the state of stress is referred to as the
membrane solution.
The sphere of uniform thickness subjected to constant internal pressure P
is one such case. From conditions of symmetry the stress is the same in all
directions and by considering the equilibrium of one-half of the sphere,
a = P Rj2h where R and h are the radius and thickness of the sphere. The
mid-surface strain is the same in all directions and the radial deflection is the
radius times the strain and equals PR 2 (1-v)j2Eh.
Consider the part sphere shown in Fig. 4·4(a), under the action of internal
pressure and a tangential force at the edge of magnitude PR/2 per inch of
circumference. These are precisely the loads which the part sphere would
experience if the sphere were complete, so the deflection of the edge normal
to the axis is
PR 2 sin cf>(l-v)/2Eh
and the rotation of the meridional tangent to the shell at the edge is x = 0. If
the sphere is supported by distributed axial forces per inch of circumference,
90 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
as shown in Fig. 4·4(b), bending stresses will be induced (unless 4> = n/2).
It is convenient to obtain the state shown in Fig. 4·4(b), by adding to the
membrane solution the effect of the force shown in Fig. 4·4(c). Such a force
will produce an edge deflection and tangent rotation proportional to the force,
so we can write the deflections under the system of Fig. 4·4(b) as
<>* = PR 2 sin cf>(l-v) -aPR cos 4>
2Eh 2
-bPR cos cf>
x* = 2
In these equations a and b are two stiffnesses of the part sphere and can be
found in terms of R, h and 4> (see Chapter 6). This state of stress is known as
the free or unrestrained state because the edge loads are sufficient to hold the
shell in equilibrium, but they do not place any restraint on the movement of
the edge radial to the axis, nor on the tangent rotation.
Closed cylindrical shells subjected to internal pressure also have a membrane
solution when the equilibrating edge loads act parallel to the axis. These
loads have a magnitude Pr/2 per inch of circumference and produce axial
stresses Prf2t where r is the radius and t the thickness. By considering the
equilibrium of one-half of the cylinder the circumferential stress is Pr/t, so
the radial deflection is
h
FIG. 4·5 Cylindrical vessel with part spherical caps.
Even when ¢ = n/2 the displacements of the sphere are different from those
of the cylinder so these solutions do not represent the total state of stress.
The violation of the conditions of continuity of displacement indicates that
M M H
Sz
H
-s,
H M
-s1 -x,
)
FIG. 4·6 Interaction forces, moments and displacements at the junction of a
cylindrical and part spherical shells.
When these equations have been solved the effects of the edge restraints can
be combined with the unrestrained values to give the total solution.
Equations 4·5 and 4·6 are quite general and can refer to shells of arbitrary
shape, provided that the stiffnesses and unrestrained displacements are
calculated correctly; for example, the intersection could be that between the
cone and cylinder of the vessel shown in Fig. 4·1. For some shells the un-
restrained solution will simply be the membrane solution, and for others it
may be necessary to add the effect of an edge force.
Under certain types of loading a membrane state of stress cannot exist
in cylinders and spheres, for example when there are temperature variations
through the wall thickness. Also, for some types of shell such as toroids,
membrane stresses can be calculated from the equilibrium conditions, but
may not be an accurate representation of the true state of stress, because
change of curvature takes place upon the application of load. This indicates
that the bending moments and shear forces cannot be neglected when con-
sidering the equilibrium conditions. Caution should therefore be exercised
when applying the formulae for membrane stress in a general shell of revolu-
tion (see, for instance, Ref. 4).
In the above example the loading was axi-symmetric and as a result the
treatment was relatively simple. In the following chapters it will be seen that
the stress analysis for a general case is carried out using a Fourier technique
for dealing with the circumferential variations. In this analysis stresses and
deflections are composed of series of terms such as
an cos nlJ + bn sin nlJ
where the coefficients am bn are functions of the other variable describing
position on the shell. The cases n = 0, n = 1 respectively describe the axi-
symmetric and lateral loading cases. These have the special feature that the
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 93
stresses at the edges of the shell have resultants which balance externally
applied loads parallel and normal to the axis; all other values of n correspond
to stress distributions which are self equilibrating when taken around the
circumference of the shell. The axi-symmetric and lateral loading cases repre-
sent a large proportion of the problems with which the designer is faced and
they receive more attention in the subsequent chapters than the higher
harmonics. One important class of loading which cannot be entirely covered
by these two cases is that brought about by local attachments such as pads
and gussets, and these effects can only be tackled using the higher harmonics
or the influence line technique (Ref. 5).
The interaction effects between a series of shells are calculated using the
principles applied in the above example; namely, conditions of equilibrium
and continuity of displacement must be satisfied at each intersection. For
vessels involving three or more shells the number of symbols to be handled
becomes large and matrix algebra is used as a convenient shorthand; no
advanced theorems are used and sufficient information is given in the follow-
ing section to equip the reader for the subsequent usage.
From an inspection of Eqns. 4·5, 4·6 it can be seen that the rotations are
present in equations of the same form as those containing the deflections.
This suggests that we define a generalized or matrix .displacement
D= [~]
The bracket groups the two displacements which are referred to as the
elements of D and are always written in the same relative position. Adopting
the rule that the sum of two matrices is the matrix whose elements are the
sum of elements in corresponding positions, the final displacement of the
cylinder is
1 1= [£>1]
D +D*
X1 xi
+ [£5i] =[£51 +£>i]
X1 +xi
Two matrices are said to be equal if their elements in corresponding positions
are equal, so the two Eqns. 4·6 can be replaced by the single matrix equation
(4·8)
F= [!]
The matrices D and F each have two rows and one column of elements and
are sometimes referred to as column vectors. To complete the analogy with
the scalar (i.e. non-matrix) relationship, displacement = flexibility x force, it
is necessary to define a matrix flexibility A. This must include a, b, c as
elements if it is to convey all the required information and is defined by
These matrices have two rows and two columns and are referred to as
2 x 2 square matrices. If the elements of the rows of A2 are multiplied by the
corresponding elements in the column ofF and summed in pairs, the product
A 2 F is obtained:
Note that the product has two rows and one column and therefore has the
same form as D 2 . The four scalar Eqns. 4·5 can now be replaced with two
matrix equations
(4·9)
A= [ac b]·
d '
B= [e JJ
g h
and define the product to be
AB = [(ae+bg) (af+bh)J
(ce+dg) (cf+dh)
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 95
Observe that it is not always true that AB = BA, so strict attention must be
paid to sequence of multiplication when working with matrices. A special
case arises if e = h = l,J = g = 0, and B is then written as I and is known
as the identity matrix; it has the property that AI= lA = A, IF = F,
ID = D. Suppose B has the property that AB = I and write B = A- 1 • The
reader can check that
A-1 = [ -
ad-ed be -ad:bc]
ad-be ad-be
and that AA- 1 = A- 1 A = I. Note that the inverse matrix exists only if
ad-be =I= 0. In structural problems this condition is always satisfied by the
flexibility matrix. The solution of Eqn. 4·10 can now be written as
F = [A1 +Azr 1 [Di-Di]
All of the matrices so far discussed have had two rows and two columns
(2 x 2) or two rows and one column (2 x 1). In Chapter 9 the flexibility of
piping systems is studied and matrices of higher order are used. There are
in general three forces and deflections and three moments and rotations
acting at any position in the pipe, so the force, displacement and flexibility
matrices are written
Fx (jx all a12 a13 a14a1s a16
Fz (jz a31 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Mx Xx a41 • • • • • • • • • · • • · • • • •
My Xy as1 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Mz Xz a61 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Again the scalar equations relating displacement and force can be replaced
by a matrix equation, and this time the one equation D = AF replaces six
scalar equations.
A further matrix operation required in the piping analysis is transposition
which changes rows into columns; thus if A' is the transpose of A it is the
matrix [ai;]. Note that if A' = A, aii = aii for all values of i and j, so the
matrix is symmetrical about its leading diagonal. Flexibility matrices which
are multiplied by unit forces always have this property, since by Maxwell's
theorem the deflection at position i produced by unit force at position j is
equal to the deflection at position j produced by unit force at position i.
96 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Uii = [ T1 ~Ti ~]
where I, 0 are the 3 x 3 identity and null matrices, and T;. Ti are 3 x 3
matrices involving the co-ordinates of two points of the pipe. Partitioned
matrices can be treated as though the sub-matrices were elements, provided
all the operations are compatible, e.g.
=[ I
T;-Tk I
o] = v.k '
For further reading consult Ferrar (6) or Aitken (7).
In the example in§ 4·3 the cylinder was assumed to be so long that the effects
at each end could be considered separately. In many cases this assumption
~
Sv2
.....__,
M1
x,
FIG. 4·7 Edge displacements and forces in a general shell.
will be unacceptable and the edge conditions at each end must be considered
simultaneously.
Consider Fig. 4·7 which illustrates the edge displacements
D·1 = [Jj]·
Xi '
bVJ·
for a general shell. The loading system consists of thermal effects, distributed
loads and the edge forces illustrated. Suppose that the distributed loads
produce an axial resultant 2n V! and that unrestrained displacements D!,
Di, Jvi are produced when the shell is supported by an axial force only
98 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
J = rAA21 A
A12A
22 A13J rFF12J +rDiJ
23
rJv2- Jv1 A31 A32 A33 l-'2 Jv!D!
1 11
D2 (4•12)
If the edge displacements are known quantities the forces can be found from
the stiffness equation which is the inverse of Eqn. 4·12
[D1 12 1
D2 ]=[AA21 A
A22 ] [FF2 ]+[D:]
(4·14)
D2
11
Jv -Jv =A
2 31 F1+A32 F2+Jv!
1 (4·15)
Since the axial load is statically determinate the axial displacement cannot be
arbitrarily imposed and is always given by Eqn. 4·15. The remaining displace-
ments can be externally applied and the forces are given by the inverse of
Eqn. 4·14:
As for the open ended shell, this equation can be inverted to give
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 99
[F1] [B B
V = B B
2
11
31
13 ]
33
[D1-Di
i5v 2 -i5v 1 -i5vi
] (4·18)
(a)
General Representation
~----------------~--------------------r~
L-------------------~------------------~/1
(b)
'Forces and Movements at a Point in a Junction
F2,n-1 +Tn,n-1F1,n+[ O.
Zn, n-1 Sln 'l'n
,~. J
Y1,n = T"F"+[
Zn Sln 'l'n
V,. } ~ ,~. J (4·22)
v2,n-1 + v1,n = v,.
,
D1,n = Tn,n-1 D2,n-1 + [z: ' n-10sin tPn] =
=(I + T'n,n-1 -T')D
n n
-[(z:-z:,0n-1)sint/Jn]• (4·23)
Tn,n-1 = [-zn,n-1
1 cos,t..
'f'n
~]; T_[ 1 tPn OJ·
11 - 1 '
- Z 11 COS
Zn, n-1 Zn
and z~.n- 1 , z: have been ignored in comparison with Zn,n- 1 and Z11 • Since
/ 1 and JN+ 1 are edges and not true intersections, all internal forces and dis-
placements with suffices 0 or N + 1 must be ignored and z 1,0 = zN + 1,N = 0.
There are 9 N + 3 scalar equations in 4·22 and 4·23 so it is possible to solve
for all the unknowns. The number to be solved simultaneously can be reduced
by making appropriate substitutions between the formulae. If forces are
known and deflections are required, e.g. if flexibilities or unrestrained dis-
placements for the composite shell are required, it is best to eliminate the
unknown forces by using Eqn. 4·13. The smallest number of equations to be
solved simultaneously is obtained by working in terms of the forces, eliminat-
ing deflections by using Eqn. 4·14. From Eqn. 4·11 and the second row of
Eqn. 4·22:
(4·24)
The internal axial forces can therefore be calculated for known values of the
102 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
applied loading and their effect can be included in the unrestrained displace-
ments Di,"' Dt"' (ivtn· Substitution of the values for D1 ,n, D2 ,m from Eqn.
4·14 into the first pair of equations in 4·23 leads to a set of equations con-
taining unknown forces only; the forces F 2 ,n can be eliminated by using the
first row of Eqn. 4·22. The following set of equations for the forces F l,n is
obtained:
0 ..................... .
(4·25)
In these equations
There are 2(N -1) scalar equations contained in 4·25 and because of the
form of the matrix they can be solved by successive inversion of2 x 2 matrices.
The method is to obtain F 1 , 2 in terms ofF 1 , 3 and a known quantity, and by
substitution into the next equation to continue the process until the last
equation is reached. This equation then gives the value ofF l,N which can be
back substituted in the previous equation to give the value of F l,N _ 1 • This
process can be continued until all the F 1 ,n have been calculated, after which
all the other quantities can be evaluated by substituting the forces into the
earlier equations.
If shell n is so long that conditions at one end do not affect the stresses at
the other end
An,n+l = An+l,n = 0
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 103
and the set of simultaneous equations 4·25 splits into two independent sets.
If shell N is closed, Eqn. 4·17 must be used in place of Eqn. 4·14 and the above
equations modified accordingly, similar modifications being required if
shell 1 is closed.
Consider now the intersection at In for the case where there are no external
loads applied at this location. The forces can be resolved into components,
per unit length of circumference, tangential and normal to the shell as shown
in Fig. 4·9. The behaviour of the shells under these loads is calculated on the
assumption that the meridional stress distribution in each shell is of the form
q
N
= ---
t
12z
3 M +--
t
[
1 1
1 -v t
-I t/2
-t/2
12z
Eet.Tdz+-
3
t
t/2
f Eet.Tzdz-Eet.T
-t/2
]
(4.26)
In this expression z is the distance from the mid-surface of the point at which
the stress is evaluated, and the temperature terms produce a non-linear stress
distribution which has no resultant force or moment. The assumed stress
distribution for each shell is shown in Fig. 4·10(a). The correct junction
equilibrium condition is that the stress distribution across shell n is zero
stress for that part of the surface not in contact with n-1, and equal stress
with that in n- 1 over the common interface. This condition is not satisfied,
but provided the flexibilities are not significantly affected by this incon-
sistency the derived forces and stresses in the thinner shell will be reasonably
accurate. The stresses in the thicker shell will be the same as those in the
thinner one and to the assumed distribution must be added the self-equili-
brating system shown in Fig. 4·10(b). By St. Venant's principle this self-
equilibrating system produces no stress at points far from the edge (in this
context a few thicknesses) and any inaccuracies in the flexibilities will be due
to deformation of the cross-section through the thickness. This deformation
cannot be calculated by thin shell theory. If external loads are applied at In
104 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
the stress distributions will depend upon the manner in which the loads are
applied.
For some shells it is difficult to obtain an analytical solution for the shapes
which comprise the shell, and the actual shape can be approximated by a
series of shells for which the solution is known. In these circumstances the
calculation of the stress is best divided into two steps. First, the temperature
terms in Eqn. 4·26 should be calculated for the true thickness and then the
forces acting on the true mid-surface should be calculated from the equili-
brium condition on the edge of shell nor n-1 (each will give the same result
a
C1
(a)
Assumed Distribution
[II M,£~Shellp
Shell n
FIG. 4·11 Two shells from a group with a common intersection.
The unknown quantities are the three forces and three displacements at
the junction end of each shell, i.e. 6 N unknowns. To determine these there
are 3 N flexibility or stiffness equations and the following conditions of
equilibrium and continuity of displacement:
LFn = 0
LVn = 0
(4·27)
D,. = D 1
ov.. = t5v 1
It is best to work in terms of the stiffnesses, so let
In this equation F!*, V!* are obtained from the knowledge of conditions at
the far end. If the junction edge of shell n is edge 2
106 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
[ F**]
n _ [Bn21 ] D
Vn** - B~1 [ 1,n
-D*
l,n]
If the junction edge is edge 1 the values of B"' etc., are most easily calculated
by temporarily re-orientating the shell so that the edge is edge 2, and using the
preceding formulae. If this is done, the signs of the elements in the last two
rows and columns of Bn and the last two rows and last column of [B~ 1 B; t1'
must be changed to allow for the fact that Mn, Vn, Xn• ovn are in the opposite
sense to M 2 ,n, V2 ,n, X2 ,m ov 2 ,n. Care must be taken to ensure that axial
deflections are all calculated relative to the same base.
The following equation can be derived from Eqns. 4·27 and 4·28:
(4·29)
Thus D 1 and ov 1 , and hence all the unknowns, can be obtained by solving
the three simultaneous equations 4·29.
If the axial loads are statically determinate for some shells but not for
others, Eqn. 4·28 will be replaced by Eqn. 4·30 for all shells for which the
axial load is known:
(4·30)
In this equation D! includes the effect of the known axial force and en, F!*
are obtained from Eqn. 4·16. The standard terms in Eqn. 4·29 must be
replaced by
If the axial load is statically determinate for all shells the axial force
condition in Eqn. 4·27 is automatically satisfied and the axial displacement
condition is no longer imposed. The remaining conditions lead to
{~en }n = ~{ enn:-F:*}
1 (4·31)
Figure 4·12 shows the edge deflections and forces per radian when the loading
is not symmetrical about the axis of the shell. The lateral loading case occurs
when
This system is called lateral loading because the integral of the edge loads
around the circumference, in the direction () = 0 has the value
s= n(H- 0)
Similarly the integral of the moment of the edge forces about the line() = n/2
has the value
G = -n(r V+M)
Consider Fig. 4·14, which shows the edge forces per radian acting at the
two edges of the shell. The systems
Fi=[~J Ri=[r~bJ
are respectively self-equilibrating and produced by the resultant forces.
The total loading system consists of thermal effects, distributed loads and
the edge forces illustrated.
Suppose that the distributed loads produce a resultant shear force and
bending moinent-Ri at edge 1, and that unrestrained displacements fii,
fi!, fi! are produced when the shell is supported at edge 1 by forces 0!,
r 1Vi only. The condition of lateral equilibrium for the shell is that the sum
t(~-~) cos e
L=[ -~ ~]
As in the axi-symmetric case only one of the resultant edge loads may be
specified. The relationships between displacements and forces take the form
This equation is analogous to Eqn 4·12 and there are equations similar to
4·13-4·21 which contain fi1o D2, D3 , in place of D 1, D 2, i5v 2 - <5v 1 and F\,
F 2, R 2 in place ofF 1, F 2, V2 • These equations will not be written down here
but reference will later be made to the corresponding flexibilities A, B, C.
[ X1,n
~1,n] = T~.n- 1 [~2,n-1]+[si~
X2,n-1
c/Jn]z:,n- 1 =
fn,n-1 = [ 1
-zn, n-1 cos"'
'Yn
r2,n-1
0] ; =[ 1 0]
fn
-zn cos o/n
,t,. rl,n-1
r1,n rn
Zn,n-1 Zn
z:,n- 1 = f
0
af'dz; z: = f
0
aTdz
Because / 1 and IN+t are edges and not true intersections, internal forces
and displacements with suffices 0 or N + 1 must be ignored and z 1,0 =
ZN+l,N = 0.
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 111
It is now possible to solve simultaneously for all the unknowns, but the
number of simultaneous equations to be solved can be reduced by making
appropriate substitutions between the above formulae. The smallest number
to be solved simultaneously is again obtained by working in terms of the
forces.
From Eqn. 4·33 and the second row of Eqn. 4·35
n n-1
fi
.n.l,n = '\' -
L- LnkRk- '\'
L- LnkRlk *-*
k=l k=1
(4·37)
where
Lnk = L!k+Tk,k-1-Tk
Thus the internal resultant forces can be calculated when the externally
applied resultants and the distributed loads are known, and their effects can
be included in the unrestrained deflections. Elimination of the deflections and
the unknown forces at edge 2 of each shell leads to the following set of
equations for the forces F\,n:
Azz -Az3 o ................................. o Ftz
(4·38)
In these equations
A- n,n-1 = fln,n-111.21
Tn-l.A-
' n,n =
fl
,nn-1
A-n-111\
22 .ln,n-1
+Tn ·A-n,n+l =
1\.11'
Tn
A12
''fn+l,n
112 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
0
f*2, n = f n Fn + [ z n sin A.
'Yn
JV. - [
n
0
z n, n-1 sin A.
'f'n
Jv
1, n
Equation 4·38 is analogous to Eqn. 4·25 for the axi-symmetric case and can
be solved in the same manner. The reader will notice that the number of
equations to be solved and the size of the sub-matrices are exactly the same
for both types of loading. All the remarks made in§ 4·5·1 after the derivation
of Eqn. 4·25 have a direct analogue in the 1atera1loading case.
(4·39)
(4·40)
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS: GENERAL METHOD 113
where 'F:*, :R!* are determined from a knowledge of conditions at the far
- -. ]
end of the shell. The unrestrained displacements o!, i! are the movements of
l
the junction end of shell n relative to the far end. If the junction edge is
edge 2 of shell n the matrices Bn, etc., are
Dl,n-Dl,n
-(Dl~~ lnXl,n)
Xt,n
Equations 4·39 and 4·40 lead to the following equation for the displacements
at the junction,
(4·41)
o
Thus fi 1, 1 , .X 1 and hence all the unknowns can be calculated by solving
the four simultaneous equations 4·41.
If the resultant shear force and bending moment are statically determinate
for shell n, Eqn. 4·40 will be replaced by Eqn. 4·42:
(4·42)
If the resultant loads are not statically determinate for all shells, Eqn. 4·41
en
must still be used with B" replaced by and null matrices, etc., in the manner
described in§ 4·5·2.
If the resultant shear force and bending moment are known for all shells,
the second row of Eqn. 4· 39 is automatically satisfied and the conditions on
on, xn are no longer necessary for the determination of the stresses. The
remaining conditions lead to
(4·43)
Suppose the loads and deflections shown in Fig. 4·12 for the general shell
are of the form
114 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
where
Dj = [ui (Jvi (ji xJ; Fj = [Ui Jj Hi MJ
The analysis for the series of shells and the intersecting shells can be
repeated for the general case. Because the overall equilibrium conditions are
satisfied by Eqns. 4·11 and 4·33 the unknowns in the equations which corre-
spond to Eqns. 4·25 and 4·38 are the vectors of all four forces at edge 1 of
each shell and the sub-matrices all have four rows and columns. Similarly,
the unknowns in the equation corresponding to Eqns. 4·29 and 4·41 are the
four deflections at the junction.
REFERENCES
5·0 INTRODUCTION
T Lovetheory ofFliigge
HE
(1),
cylindrical shells has been studied by many authors including
(2), Novozhilov (3) and Biezeno and Gramme! (4).
In this chapter attention has been concentrated upon the derivation of the
flexibility matrices and unrestrained displacements required for the type of
analysis described in Chapter 4; the reader should consult one of the above
references for a more detailed study of the basic theory.
§ 5·1 is a very brief resume of the properties of thick cylindrical shells as
derived from the equations of classical elasticity, and includes two well-known
solutions with which the thin shell results may be compared. § 5·1·1 describes
a numerical method of calculating the stresses in a thick shell under more
complicated loading conditions.
In the sections dealing with thin shell theory, approximations have been
made wherever possible and the limitations on the generality of the solutions
have been stated. In most cases the accuracy is sufficient for engineering
calculations even when these conditions are not strictly fulfilled. An interest-
ing example of the simplicity that can be obtained without significant loss
of accuracy is contained in § 5·4·2, where it is found that the influence
coefficients for lateral edge bending are identical to those for axi-symmetric
loading.
Throughout the chapter it has been assumed that variations in the thick-
ness, Young's modulus and the coefficient of expansion are negligible unless
otherwise stated.
(5·1)
u,, = E
(1+v)(1-2v)
ow av
[ (1- v) -+v-+-
or ox
au)
v ( w+- -(1+v)tXT
r (j(}
J
Uxx = E
(1+v)(1-2v)
[vow +(1-v) ov +'dw+ ou)-(1 +v)tX
or ox T\ (j(}
r]
= E [vow +vav +(1-v) ( w+ ou)-(1+v)tXTJ
or ox r
Uee
(1+v)(1-2v) ()(} (5·2)
Uxe
E [au 1 ilv]
= 2(1+v) OX+~ o(}
X
uxr
E
= 2(1+v)
[avor+ ow]
ox
u,e = 2(1+v)
E [auor+;1 (aw()(} -u)]
The general solution of these equations
by substitution of the expressions for
stress from Eqn. 5·2 into 5·1 leads to
very complicated equations, and only a
limited number of algebraic solutions are
available.
Note that if v is a constant (v 0 say)
and the temperature and body forces
FIG. 5·1 Co-ordinate system for
are zero, all the stresses are zero pro- cylinder.
vided u = w = 0. This solution is
merely a rigid body movement of the cylinder parallel to the x-axis. Similarly
if w = ~cos(}, u = -~sin(}, v = 0 where ~ is a constant, the stresses are
again zero and the deflections are those due to a rigid body movement ~
parallel to the (} = 0 axis. Finally if the cylinder is rotated through an
E
118 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
angle x in the plane containing the () = 0 and the x-axes no stresses are
produced and the deflections are
w= - xx cos (}; u = xx sin (}; v = r x cos (}
When the applied loading is symmetrical about the axis of the cylinder
none of the stresses or deflections vary with (} and u = 0. Under these
circumstances two equations can be derived for the deflection v, w by
eliminating the stresses from Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2:
2(1-v) [ r 2 (;2w ow J
o2 w
- 2 +r--w +(1-2v)r 2 - 2 +r 2 -
or or
o2 v
ox orox
o
= 2(1 +v)r 2 -(tx T)-2(1 +v)(1-2 v)-•
r2 F
(5.3)
or E
r-
or ox
aw) o
a (r - +2(1-v)r 2 - 2 v2 +(1-2v)r-a ( r-
ox or or
av)
= 2(1+v)r 20 (txT) -2(1+v)(1-2v)r2 Fx
ox E
Filon (5) and Bezant (6) have solved these equations with zero body force
and temperature rise for a number of boundary conditions. Further sim-
plification may be achieved by supposing the shear stress to be zero and the
direct stresses to be independent of x. It is then found that when there are
no body forces
dv
A
dx
w Br + Cr
_ 1 1+v1
+ -- - fr ret T dr
(5·4)
1-v r r;
u 1-3v
B -(1-2 v)+-- tx Tm;
E 2-2v
1+v
c r2 u
-
0
-(1 +v)+--tx Tm
E 2-2v
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 119
urr = u(1-r;)+~[(1-~)Tm
r2 1-v
_ _!_
r 2 2 r 2 ,,
f' rTdr]
r
~a
u ( 1+ r ~2 ) + _
1 v
r )T
( 1+1
r 2 r
2
____!!!+ 21 f'
,,
rTdr-T J (5·5)
Ea
u+-[Tm-T]
1-v
This system is only possible if the axial stress distribution at the ends of
the cylinder is applied according to Eqn. 5·5 and if the ends are free to move
as given by Eqn. 5·4. In actual applications this is very rarely the case and
bending occurs. The bending is produced by a self-equilibrating system of
forces applied at the ends because the overall equilibrium conditions are
satisfied by the stresses in Eqn. 5·5. By St. Venant's principle the bending
decreases with distance from the ends and Eqns. 5·4 and 5·5 hold at locations
sufficiently far from the edge.
To calculate the amount of bending it is necessary to solve Eqn. 5·3 for the
case when the stresses vary with axial position. This is examined in the next
section.
Equations 5·1 and 5·2 have a simple solution corresponding to the 'engineers'
frof2"
bending theory of beams when a moment G is produced by axial stresses
uxx = Gr cos 0/I, where I= ,, 0 r 3 cos 2 Odrd() is the second moment of
the cross-sectional area about the line () = ± n/2. It can be verified by direct
substitution that the complete solution of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 for this case is
Gr cos()
u = __£_{x 2 -vr 2 ) sin()·
2EI ' I
It can be seen that the cross-section of the cylinder becomes oval at each
axial position in addition to the overall movement. There is no simple
solution corresponding to the 'engineers' solution for a lateral shear force,
because the ovality is different at different axial positions and this causes
additional bending and shear stresses.
as shown in Fig. 5·2. The method consists of replacing the differential equa-
tions of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 by linear expressions relating the values of the
function at different nodes. In the axi-symmetric case all the functions can
be expressed in terms of the deflections v and w, so the unknown quantities
are the values of v, w at each node; i.e. there are 2MN unknowns.
We may use Eqn. 5·3 as a combination of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 to provide
two simultaneous equations for each node not on a boundary, employing
the following values for the function f = u pq• v or w, and its derivatives at
f = fm,n
of - fm+1,n-fm-1,n. of = fm,n+1-fm,n-1
ox - 2k ' or 2h
0 2f - fm+t,n-2f,,n+fm-t,n. 0 2f - fm,n+t-2f,,n+f,,n-1 (5·7)
ox 2 - k2 ' or 2 - h2
of =fm,2-fm, 1 of =fm,N-fm,N-1
or h or h
and on the boundaries x = 0, I,
of _f2,n-f1,n. of =fM,n-fM-l,n
ax- k ' ax k
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 121
For each boundary point we may either write the finite difference form of
Eqn. 5·3, introducing the values of the boundary deflections if these are
known, or write the finite difference form of Eqn. 5·1 introducing the known
boundary stresses. For example, suppose the boundary stresses are known
and consider the equation for the node (m,N), m ::F l,M. From Eqn. 5·1
and the above formulae,
(5·8)
"
method outlined in the previous paragraphs can also
be used for components with irregular boundaries, but
for both methods the treatment of the boundary con-
ditions becomes more complicated. James (8) has FIG. 5.2 Finite differ-
applied Hoyle's method to determine the stresses in an ence mesh for thick
autoclave with a non-uniform temperature distribution. cylinders.
Bijlaard and Dohrmann (9) have proposed a method of calculating stresses
in thick cylinders with irregular boundaries based upon a refinement of thin
cylinder theory. This method also uses a finite difference technique.
122 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The solution of Eqns. 5·1 and 5·2 is long and involved except for simple
conditions, so progress is made by utilizing the thin shell assumptions.
The equations governing the shell behaviour are obtained by writing the
equilibrium conditions between the resultants of the stresses acting on the
shell element, and by establishing relationships between these resultants and
the deflections of the mid-surface. There are three force but only two moment
equilibrium equations, because the condition of torsional equilibrium about
an axis normal to the mid-surface is satisfied as u,8 = u8,.
The equilibrium conditions can be obtained by drawing a diagram of the
shell element with the forces and moments acting on it, or they can be
derived from Eqn. 5·1. Adopting the latter method and writing r = r + z,
where -tf2~z~tj2, three force equilibrium equations are obtained by
integrating Eqn. 5·1 with respect to z. The moment equilibrium equations are
obtained by multiplying the last two rows of Eqn. 5·1 by z and integrating
as before. The shell equilibrium equations are therefore
a +-a N x
r- Nxx = -rpx
ax ae 8
a a
r - Nxo +-;:;- Noo +Noz = -r Po
ax o()
a a
r - Nxz +- Noz -Noo = -r Pz (5·9)
ax ae
a a ·
r - Mxx+- M x-rNxz = 0
ax ae 8
a a
r-Mx8 +-M88 -rN6 , =0
ax ae
In these equations small applied moment terms have been neglected and the
stress resultants illustrated in Fig. 5· 3 are
Nxx = f
t/2 ( z)
1+- Uxxdz
r
Noo = f
t/2
Uoodz
f
-t/2
f 1+-z) ux dz
-112
t/2
t/2 (
Nxo = 8 Nox = Uxodz
f
-t/2 r -t/2
f 1+-z) Uxzdz
t/2
t/2 (
Nxz = Noz = Uozdz
-t/2 r -t/2
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 123
Mxx = f t/2 ( z)
1+- ZUxxdz; M 00 = f t/2
za 00 dz
-t/2 r -t/2
Mxo = f t/2 (
1+-z) zux dz; 0 (5·10)
-t/2 r
Px = [(1+:)uxz]
r
+f'' 112
-t/2
2
-t/2
(1+:_)Fxdz
r
(a) (b)
The stress resultants acting on the shell cross-section whose normal is parallel
to the axis all have a factor (I +zfr) in the integrand, because they act on
the arc of a circle whereas the remaining resultants act on a straight generator.
The contribution from the term zfr is small and can usually be neglected.
In accordance with the assumption of § 4·2, the deflections at any point
can be written as
u = u+zx0
v = v+zxx (5·11)
W=W
124 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
where u, v, w are the mid-surface deflections and x8 , Xx are the tangent rota-
tions. From a geometric consideration of the movement of a shell element
the rotations may be expressed in terms of the mid-surface deflections as
Xe = -~ [:~ -u J Xx = - : : (5·12)
If Uzz = u, is ignored in comparison with the other direct stresses, and the
deflections from Eqn. 5·11 are substituted in Eqn. 5·2, expressions are
obtained for the stresses in terms of the mid-surface displacements. Some of
the terms in these expressions contain the factor (1 + zfr) - l which cancels
the factor (l+z/r) wherever it appears in Eqn. 5·10, but some terms are
left with these factors uncancelled. If the uncancelled factors are retained the
formulae for the force stress resultants obtained from Eqn. 5·10 contain
terms ·sueh as 12 t2r 02xw2 m
· a dd"1t1on
· to t he m1"d-sur1ace
"' . s·1m1"Iar1y, t he
strams.
0
moment stress resultants contain terms r x (mid-surface strains), as well as
02
r 2 0 xw2 , etc. T he Importance
· of t hese a dd"1t1ona
. 1 terms 1s
. not 1mme
. d"1ate1y
apparent because the relative magnitudes of the mid-surface strains and the
second derivatives of w are unknown. However, they will be unimportant in
the force resultants provided r 2 : x~' etc., are of the order (12r/t) x (mid-
2
surface strains) or smaller. If r 2 : 2x~ etc., are of the order (rft) x (mid-
surface strains) or larger, the additional terms in the expression for the
moments may be neglected. Hence the stress resultants can be written in the
form given in Eqn. 5·14 provided z/r is ignored in comparison with 1 in
the temperature terms and
o2 w
r2-
ox 2
o2 w (5·13)
afP
o2 w
r--
oxo()
The approximation in the temperature terms has very little significance even
for strongly non-linear distributions.
Nxx = -E-2 -t [ r ov
1-v r
-+v (w+-
ox
iaelu)J -N
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 125
(5·14)
D(1-v) aw 2
-
r2 axae
r--
In these equations
D =
Et3
· N =
ft/2 E IX T
- - dz; M =
ft/2 E IX Tz dz
12(1-v2 )' -t/ 2 1-v - 112 1-v
It is not possible to obtain expressions from Eqn. 5·2 for the radial shearing
forces in terms of the mid-surface deflections, because the assumed form of
the deflections leads to
E ZXe
C1ez=-- - -
1 +v r+z
These values are incompatible with the general boundary conditions, and if
they are substituted into Eqn. 5·10 the derived shear forces are incompatible
with the equilibrium equations. This inconsistency is a direct result of the
assumptions, and can be ignored if the above equations for CTxz' a6z are
regarded as a statement that the radial shear stresses are of order (tfr) x
(direct stresses).
Under some loading conditions the second derivatives of the radial dis-
placement are smaller than the values in Eq. 5·13 and the extra terms in the
moments may become important.
The complete expressions in terms of the mid-surface displacements are
2w au av]
r2 r d8 x2w + v a
D [ 2 2
Mxx = - a()2- v8()- r ax
(5·15)
E*
126 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
When Eqn. 5·14 is used the stresses are given in terms of the stress resultants
as
Nxx 12zM
U;:cx = -+-3 xx+u
t t
= -t +12zM
Nee
- ee+u
t3
(5·16)
where u = E rx [1
1-v t
f''2_,
12
Tdz+ 1~z
t
ft/2_,
12
Tzdz- r]
The radial shear stresses and radial stress are rarely required, but if needed
they may be taken as
U;:cz = -1 [ Uxz+Uxz
+ z [ U;:cz;-U;:cz
_] +- + 3
_] +- [N- - xz ( +
Uxz:+Uxz:
_ )] [ 1 -4-z 2]
2
2 t 2 t t
+-z [ aBZ-Uoz:
2
-1 [ Uez:+Uoz
+ _] + -] +-3 [Noz + -)] [ 1 -4z
- - ( Uoz:+Uez -
2
] (5·17)
2 t 2 t t
When the applied loads are symmetrical about the axis of the cylinder, none
of the functions are dependent upon () and the tangential displacement u is
zero.
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 127
(5·18)
d
- Mxx-Nxz = 0
dx
The relationships between the stress resultants and the mid-surface deflections
J
given in Eqn. 5·14 become
Nxx -E- - dv
t [ r-+vw -N
1-v2 r dx
Nxx = V2+X
r (5·20)
Nee = rpz
where V2 is a constant of integration and
l
X = J Pxdx
X
128 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The constant V2 is the resultant axial force per radian applied at edge 2
of the shell, as shown for a general shell in Fig. 4·7.
When the bending moments are neglected and the temperature is zero, the
displacements can be calculated from the first two rows of Eqn. 5·19. Setting
the axial displacement at x = 0 equal to zero
v = -
Et r Et
p , . +1-
V2-x- -vrx
Et
I"' Xdx
0
_ v V2 + r 2 p,. _ v r X
w (5·21)
Et Et Et
Xx = _!_
Et
[r !!.._ p,.+v Px]
dx
To test the accuracy of the membrane solution it is necessary to substitute
these values for the deflections into Eqn. 5·15 and examine the order of magni-
tude of the terms which have been neglected in the derivation of the solution.
Consider first the end load V2 which is associated with d2 ~ = 0 and
dx
dv V2
dx = Etr · These deflections imply moments
k
Mxx= --2 V2; (5·20 1)
1-v
Since the axial moment is constant, the deflections do not imply the exist-
ence of a shear force and consequently the stress resultants given in Eqn. 5·20
are an exact solution of Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19 provided that the moment is
applied throughout the cylinder.
If there is no moment applied at the ends it is necessary to add the effects
kV2
of end moments - -2 to the solution in Eqns. 5·20 and 5·21; this requires
1 -v
results derived in the next section but we can anticipate that the effects will
be very small because k ~ 1. The maximum stress due to the hoop moment is
2 ( 1 ~ v2) ~; which is approximately 0·17 tfr times the direct axial stress and
may be ignored.
If the radial pressure is due to a combination of constant inflation and
hydraulic loading it is linear with x andpz = p 1 +(p2 -p 1)xfl. If the cylinder
is closed, the effects of an end load V 2 must be added to the following values:
N"'"' = 0
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 129
Nee = r P:
v
vrx [
= --- Pt+
Et
(p 2 -p 1)
-
2
x]
l
(5·22)
w
2
r Pt- P2
Xx =-
Et
- -l -
The moments and shear force implied by these deflections are
v k r2 P:
--2
1-v
---2
1 k r 2 P: (5·221 )
1-v
u i6 = Pr
t
[ 1- _!_] [1+ 2r(1-v
2r
t
2)
J; u :0 = Pr
t
[ 1- _!_] [1- 2r(1-v
2r
t
2)
J
The inside surface stress is not altered significantly but an improvement is
effected in the accuracy of the outside surface stress. For rft = 5 the above
ratios are both equal to 0·99 when v = 0· 3. Taking the extreme case of
rft = 2, the ratios are 0·94 and 1·78 for the first thin cylinder approximation
and 0·91, 0·96 for the second. If the radial stress is taken from Eqn. 5·15,
the boundary values are correct for all ratios rjt and the deviation from the
thick cylinder values in the interior of the shell is very small. The correction
to the outside hoop stress is not very important as it is lower than the inside
surface value, but for thick shells it is worthwhile to use the pressure from
Eqn. 5·10 in Eqn. 5·22 because the mid-surface displacement is too large if
p 1 , p 2 are set equal toP, as a res.ult of the overestimate of the average hoop
stress.
These results show very good agreement with thick shell theory but the
same degree of accuracy will not be achieved under more general forms of
loading; in the case of constant internal pressure the shear force is zero, so
the assumption that plane sections remain plane has not been needed.
rw(l+~)dz~wl
When the shell is suspended under the action of its own weight from x = 0,
the surface loads are Pz = 0,
p.~q~
-t/2
v qx(l-~)
Et 2
(5·23)
w _vqr(l-x)
Et
vqr
Xx =
Et
Following the same procedure as before
k
Mxx = - -2 qr(l-x)
1-v
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 131
f (l+~)zwdz=kqr
t/2
Ox=
-t/2
r 4 d w +4P4 w = 0
4
(5·24)
d x4
where
132 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
1\
\
\
\
\
v
J;3=e-r>xjr cos r~X
I~
I \~ h -r>xfr . ~
"'
~ 4 =e sm 7
I \
v \
- -
~
f'--
'
0
~
-o·10 1 2 3 4 5
~X
T
Flo. 5·4a
\\
\
1\'\J; -.4
\
o·s
\ 1\
\ \\
o·J \ \'
0
\ ~
\ .......... I-"
=--
-O·J /
~ .,~h+f.
1 ~ 2 3 4 5
J3x
r
FIG. 5·4b
Fro. 5·4 Cylinder edge bending functions.
w h h h !4
Xx PU2-!1) PC!1 +/2) PC!3+/4) PC!4-/3)
r r r r
(5·25)
134 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Values of p, P2 , P3 are given in Table 5·1 and/3 , /4 are plotted in Fig. 5·4.
Values of / 1 (x),f2 (x) are given by
- w]
2
Et[
Nos=-
r w+ -1-v
-2
vk r 2 ddx 2
The moments are given by Eqn. 5·15 and the radial shear force can be calculated from
Eqn. 5·18.
TABLE 5·1
FLEXIDILITY CHARACTERISTIC
rft p p2 p3 rft p p2 p3
} }
-rMxx = M1 at x = 0 rMxx = M2
at x = l
w ~1 w ~2
Xx = X1 Xx X2
From these conditions and Eqn. 5·24, it is possible to write, in the notation
of§ 4·5
[D1]=[J11 J12]
c1
=JC; [FF21] = [ -K21
K11 K12]
-K22
c1 =KC
D2 J21 J22 c2 c2
c3 c3
c4 c4
where
[Jil Ji2] = [1 0 ] [ fli !2i !3i !4i ]
0 P/r (/2;-/li) -(fli+f2i) (f3;+.f4i) (f4i-!3i)
136 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
rM 1
1 2pzv
=- (5·26)
4 rz Hz
2P 3D
where
.A. 1 = (sinhycoshy-sinycosy)-r; .A. 2 = (cosysinhy-sinycoshy)-r
p. 1 = (sinh2 y+sin 2 y)-r; p. 2 = 2sinysinhy-r
v1 = (sinhycoshy+sinycosy)-r; v2 = (cosysinhy+sinycoshy)-r
-r = (sinh 2 y-sin 2 y)- 1
Values of these functions are given in Table 5·2. When the edge forces are
known, the values of the constants given by Eqn. 5·26 can be used in Eqn.
5·25 to obtain the stress and deflection distribution throughout the cylinder.
From this table it can be seen that A- 1 , p. 1 , Vc-+1 and .A.2 , p. 2 , v2 -+0 as y increases.
Thus as y increases cl, c2~o. c3~---;.- [rHl + PMl]; c4~- r ~ 1 and the
2P D 2p D
stress resultants and deflection near x=O tend to the values
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 137
[:J
r2 r
w 2P2 D (!3-/4)
2P3Df3
r 1
X,. 2p2D (!3 + j4) PD !3
= (5·27)
1 2Pf4
N;xz --(/3-/4)
r r2
1 1
--!4 --(!3+/4)
M"'"' p r
Et
r[
v-vt =v- Nxz+-
H 1] ; Nxx=O;
r
Etw
Nee=--;
r
Mee = vM""'
TABLE 5·2
LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
The elements of the flexibility matrix associated with the bending forces
can be found by evaluating JK- 1 and using Eqn. 5·25 for the axial deflection.
The remaining terms are associated with the axial force V2 and are obtained
140 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
from the membrane solution in Eqn. 5·2l. The complete flexibility matrix is
the matrix of coefficients in the following equation:
v
Et
rp.l v2
Xt 0
2P D 2 PD
r2A.2
(5·28)
2P 3D
v2
X2 0
PD
v v l
0 0
Et Et rEt
The coefficients of V2 in Eqn. 5·28 do not include the small correction needed
to provide a moment free end, and if this were included it would be necessary
to add the effects ofM 1 = - M 2 = ~ r V2 • The deflections produced by these
1-v
moments are of order t/r times those already included and may be neglected.
The rotations lead to elements in place of the zeros, but they are usually
negligible in comparison with other effects. If the correction is included the
remaining elements should be modified by using the different exponents of
decay and oscillation, m 1 and m 2 , as this introduces terms of the same order
of magnitude as the end moment correction.
P1-P2
Xz* l
P1 + Pzl
c5vi -V----
2 r
l
As an example of the method of Chapter 4, suppose the cylinder in Fig.
5·5 is semi-infinite and built-in at the foundation. The unrestrained displace-
ments at x = 0 are
-(2-v)+-+vq
Pr vW l+q*l r
D*-
1- r2 r
vq+q*
_
Et
[
H,
]
~ _ 4P D
[
r: ,:-,-
3 2
2 (2-v)+---;:--+vql+q
2P D] [Pr vW 1*] ;t
M1 _ _f!__ 2PD vq+q*
r
These edge forces can be used in Eqn. 5·27 to find the stress distribution
due to the bending near the base, which must be added to the membrane
values given in Eqns. 5·21, 5·22 and 5·23. Incorporated in this solution are
the edge forces imposed when a long, closed, pressurized cylinder is built-in
at one end. The edge forces dueto this effect are
H _ (2-v)Pr 2 •
1 - - 2P '
From the membrane solution and Eqn. 5·27 the stress distribution is
The maximum stress occurs in the axial direction at the edge and is approxi-
mately 2·05 Prft.
The surface loads considered so far both produce stresses and deflections
which are well approximated by the membrane solution. In general this will
not be the case and Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19 must be solved as a complete system.
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 143
From these equations the stresses and deflections have the following values
due to distributed loads and temperature variations,
Nxx X
Etw
Nee -+vX-N(l-v)
r
d2 w
Mxx - D -2 -M
dx
d2 w
Mee -vD-2 -M
dx
d 3 w dM
Nxz = -D dx3- dx
dv 1-v2
r - = - vw + - - r(X + N)
dx Et
The equation to be satisfied by the radial deflection is
These equations have a very simple solution akin to the membrane results
when the temperature is constant through the thickness and varies linearly
with x, i.e. when
mx
T= T1 +-
r
Nx:x- O·
-t - '
Nee Ea.m 6Mee 6M""
-=-pf4; T=vy
-1
This formula can often be used to obtain a quick estimate of the thermal
stress at the top of a cylindrical support skirt; see § 6·3·3.
Consider now the more general temperature distribution
which is obtained in a thin-walled cylinder when the ends are held at Tl> T 2
and there is heat transfer between the cylinder wall and the surrounding
media. From the definitions in § 5·2 N(l-v) = tEa.T, M = 0 and therefore
Z = ra.T.
The particular solution of Eqn. 5·31 thus leads to
dv
r dx = ra.T[l+v(l-p)]; w = pra.T
Xx = -pa.m;
(5·33)
Nee= -(1-p)tEa.T
2
N,.z = -pD(;) a.m
where
4fJ4 +p,4 dx r r r
This is not an unrestrained solution because at the ends rN""' rM,.,. have
the non-zero values
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 145
Hi
M!
(5·34)
H!
M~
Thus the stress distribution near the fixed end is obtained by adding to the
solution of Eqn. 5· 33 the effects ofF 1 +F* from Eqn. 5·27 where
The edge forces and moments associated with these solutions are
M!
(5·36)
H!
Mi
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 147
Because the series of shells are all cylinders of the same radius and thickness,
the sub-matrices in Eqn. 4·25 have the simple form
A n,n-1 = An-1
21 ; An,n = A"-1 22 + A"11;
F 11 = 0; X,.= D!,,.- 1 -DT,,.
This method is particularly suitable when there are regions where the rates
of change of load variation are small, since then only a few sub-cylinders are
required.
W=
II r =
II
(a)
(b)
Note that variations in Young's modulus and the coefficient of expansion can
be easily incorporated in this method. The boundary conditions can be
specified in a number of ways; suppose that the forces are specified as
= H
M1
1
1 at x = 0
rNxz =
rMxx=M2
H2l
atx=l
rNxx = V2+V! rN:xx = V2
The boundary conditions required for the solution for radial deflection and
moment are then
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 149
1 [
-1 0 0 0
J v._,~ [ 2h~,' J
-H -H
r,~ [ 0 0;
J A,~ [ I 0; Y,~ ~,'; 2h
Hence the equations that must be solved simultaneously for the nodal values
of the radial displacement and moment are
ro A0 - r0 0 ....................... 0
I r1 I 0 ....................... 0
0 .................... 0 I
0 .................... 0
(5·39)
The nodal values of the remaining variables follow easily from the finite
difference forms of Eqns. 5·18 and 5·19. This procedure can be used to find
influence coefficients, unrestrained displacements and stress distributions
under known loading conditions.
If the thickness is an analytically known function of x, an alternative to
the foregoing methods is to attempt a direct solution for Eqn. 5·37. Fliigge (2)
and Timoshenko (10) include the solution when the thickness is a linear
function of x.
Cylinders with a linearly varying thickness symmetrical about the mid-
surface are rarely used in pressure vessels, so the solution will not be given
here. If required, the analysis is very similar to that for shells with a constant
thickness, but the/; are now
F
150 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(5·40)
where
lt 1 4 12(1-v2 )1 2 t 2-t 1
~=x+t2-tl; P = (t2-t1) 2 ; t=t 1+-z-x
The prime denotes differentiation of the Kelvin functions with respect to
their argument. Reference II contains comprehensive tables of these func-
tions and their derivatives.
(5·42)
1-vdw
Mox = Mxo = D -r- dx
-
0 (5·43)
The tangential shear force from the bending solutions is not referred to in the
formulation of the flexibility matrix and Afxe = 0 for membrane solutions,
so the difference between Nxe and Nxe .rr has no further significance. If the
radial deflection is such that Eqn. 5·13 is true, Afxofr = 0 (; lvxz). so the
effective radial shear is equal to Nxz to the same order of accuracy as the rest
of the analysis.
152 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
= ~1[..,.~"2+U2-r-+A+~ - J
- l-x 1f E>dx
I
i7 (5·45)
-1 [- -]
U2+E>
r
where 02, v2 are constants of integration and
I I
I I
X = r ftxdx; e= r (.Pe-fi.:)dx
N = Gcos&
"" -rrr2
FIG. 5·7 Resultant shear force and bending moment applied to end of
cylinder.
When the moments and shear forces are ignored, the deflections can be
calculated from the first three rows of Eqn. 5·42.
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 153
- (- -) f[(- xe]ax+ A
XX
Xx-;v) -xx-
- 2(1+v)N- (5·46)
w = u+w + Et
_ (- v) f f
1
u+w = - - - 1-x]
V 2 + U2--
r
_ v 2+v02
Xx-- = --
r Et r
A -A x 0 2 (l-x) 3 V2x 2 (5·47)
1 2 6Etr 3 2Etr 2
2 (l-x) 2x
- 2 -
_ A U V
X -
x - 2
-
2Etr 3
+Etr 2
The values of A 1 and A 2 must be determined from a knowledge of the position
of the shell in space. For example, if w = i5 1 , Xx = i 1 at x = 0,
~ 021 3 - 021 2
A1 = <>1 +--; A2 = X1 +--3
6Etr3 2Etr
When the deflections from Eqn. 5·47 are substituted in Eqn. 5·15 it is found
that the implied moments and shear forces are
2-v
k- -2
2
1-v
[- -
V2+ U2 -- 1-x]
r
Mee = k~
1-v
[v2+ 02 l-x]
r
v -
k - U2
1+v
154 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
~ =
r
(zx- xz)!..
2 EI EI
+ Gx
Now y is the deflection parallel to (} = -n and from Eqn. 5·48 it has the
value which would be obtained by treating the cylinder as a beam, supple-
mented by a deflection which varies with tangential position. Similarly the
rotation vfr of the (} = 0 diameter is equal to the beam bending value. The
membrane theory therefore represents an improved beam bending theory
which gives the distortion experienced by the cross-section when the loads
are applied in the manner described in Eqn. 5·45. If this distortion is pre-
vented by the provision of a stiff ring or head, extra bending will be induced
in the cylinder but the magnitude of this effect cannot be obtained from the
membrane theory.
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 155
l-x
-2rq-
u+w r2q-
-
Et
[1 r
(l-x)2]
+v---
r2 (5·49)
r
156 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The deflection at the ends of the () = n/2 diameter is less than the beam
bending value because Eqn. 5·50 includes the effects of shear and hoop
stresses, which are neglected in the beam bending theory. The rotation of the
end plane is slightly higher than the beam bending value because of the
presence of the hoop stresses.
If the horizontal cylinder contains a fluid with weight y per unit volume,
the surface loads are Px =Po = 0, Pz = q*(l +cos fJ) where q* = ry. These
surface loads are composed of an axi-symmetric effect and a lateral loading
which can be evaluated separately.
The lateralloading systemfix = p0 = 0, Pz = q* also represents an approxi-
mate form for wind loading. From these loads X= 0, 0= -rq*(l-x) and
so Eqns. 5·45 and 5·46 lead to
Noo rq*
* (l-x) 2
Nxx = -rq 2T
l-x
Nxo = -rq* -r-
r 2q* [ v(l-x)]
u+w = Et 1 + 2r 2 (5·51)
v rq* 1-x
Xx-~ --(2+v)-
Et r
- r2q* [(l-x)4 (l-x)2]
w = Al A2x+ Et 24r4 - r2
y = - EI
nrq* [{l 2x 2 lx 3 x 4 2 + v 2 2} r 2cos 2 () { 2 v(l- x) 2}]
4 - 6+ 24-2 x r + 2 r + 2
[l
nrq* 2x lx 2 x 3
- - - ----+-+vxr 2
]
(5·52)
r EI 2 2 6
established the effects of edge loads Nxx• Nxe• with Nxz and Mxx zero, so here
we are concerned with the behaviour when Nxz• Mxx are not zero. These
loads are analogous to those considered for the axi-symmetric case in § 5·3·2
and we may expect a solution of the same type to be applicable to the lateral
case.
Equation 5·42 is based on the supposition that r2 ~:~ = 0 Gw} so the
following argument also makes use of this assumption. The expressions for
the twisting moments give the correct order of magnitude but not necessarily
the correct values, but from the fourth equilibrium condition in Eqn. 5·43,
Mxe appears in the same equation as r:x Mxx· Hence Mxe is negligible in this
equation and therefore
(5·53)
Substitution of this value for Nee into the second equilibrium equation leads
to the following value for Nxe• which can be used in conjunction with the
first equilibrium condition and Eqn. 5·53 to give Nxx· Hence
(5·54)
These two conditions are precisely those which show that the applied loads
are self-equilibrating and that only two arbitrary forces may be specified
at each end of the cylinder.
From Eqn. 5.531 and 5·54, Nxx is negligible in comparison with Ne 8 so the
hoop and axial strains are given by
dv u+w
-=-v--
dx r
F*
158 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The third row of Eqn. 5·42 has not been used yet, so it can be expected to lead
to the order of magnitude of il. From this equation, the above expression for
v and Eqn. 5·53 it can be shown that il = 0 Gw) which is negligible in com-
parison with w. When this result is used in the expression given for Jil66 it
follows from Eqns. 5·531 and 5·42 that the radial deflection must satisfy the
equation
(5·55)
where
This is the same equation as Eqn. 5·24 which governs the axi-symmetric edge
bending of the shell. It has a solution with the property that r 2 ~~ = 0 (~ w}
so the assumption made in the derivation of Eqns. 5·53-5·55 is justified.
The expressions for filoz and Mxo are not exact, but since they are certainly
no larger than Mxxfr, Mxx.J(tfr) respectively, they are unimportant and need
not be calculated. All the remaining quantities are accurate in the sense that
they differ from an exact solution by terms of order tfr. The axial stress
resultant is very small but it is of interest because of the equilibrium condi-
tion. The axial displacement is of order w.j(tfr) and is therefore negligible
in comparison with rxx which is of order w.j(rft).
The quantities of interest are therefore
- _ -Mxx. _ Etw
Nxx---, Noo=-;
r r
(5·56)
dv v -dw
x --=
r dx = -vw; ii+w = w; rx
-
dx
The boundary conditions can be specified either in terms of filxx and filxo or
in terms of filxz> Mxx; but the formulae for the other quantities in Eqn. 5·56
have exactly the same form in was the corresponding quantities have in w
for the axi-symmetric case so if filxz> Mxx are specified at the edges, all the
results derived for the axi-symmetric condition can be applied directly to the
lateral edge bending solution.
The flexibility matrix has six rows and columns for lateral loading and the
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 159
last two columns are obtained from the membrane solution in Eqn. 5·47.
Using the notation of§ 4·6
where
hs1 = A.2-A.t +J.ltY; b61 = J.l2-J.ll
r2A.1
2p3D
rJ.lt
2P 2D
r2A.2
2P 3D
rJ.l2
2fJ2D
v1
Etr
v
Etr l r~·
rJ.lt vt rJ.l2 v2 2+v
0 Mt
2P2D PD 2P 2D PD Etr
r2A.2 rJ.l2 r2A.1 rJ.lt v
~'1
0 H2
02
2fJ3D 2P 2D 2P 3D 2P 2D Etr
(5·57)
rJ.l2 v2 rJ.lt Vt 2+v
:03 0 M2
2P2D PD 2P 2D PD Etr
r2 2 13 12
r b r b r b - 02
2E;'' J
2P3D bst 2p2D 52 2fJ 3D 53 2p 2D 54 3Etr 3
12
r b 1 b r b 1 b rV2
2P2D 61 PD 62 2P2D 63 PD 64 2Etr 3 Etr 3
Once the edge loads have been determined from the boundary conditions,
the stress distribution due to the edge bending forces can be calculated from
Eqn. 5·56 using Eqns. 5·25 and 5·26, or 5·27 if the shell is semi-infinite.
Self-weight supported at x = 0,
-2(2+v)/
q
0
Et (5·58)
~-(4+v) 12
4r 2 2
13
- 3r2+(4+v)1
R!=
[ul-*] = [
rVi
-r
-r2 Nxx
~]
1V:x6
0
= 2 rq1
l
X=
[]
If the shell is supported at x = l the forces at x = 0 are zero and the effects
R2 must be added to Eqn. 5·58; from Eqn. 4·33,
R2 = [ V2 ] = Lii! = [ 2 ] rql
rV2 -l
Wind loading supported at x = 0,
v 12
r2+-
2
-(2+v)1
[
fii
fi~ J= 0
q*
Et
(5·59)
fij
~-12
8r2
13
--+21
6r 2
-*1 =
R [1]
112 rq *l
As an example of the method of§ 4·6, consider the semi-infinite shell shown
in Fig. 5·7 and suppose that the end x = 0 is built in to a rigid structure.
The boundary conditions are
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 161
Hence
So
- -
2+v
2P
-v
r
J
[
_(2+v)r -~
2p2 2P
where
From Eqns. 5·45 and 5·27 the most significant stresses are
Nxx G1 s1 X
t
(5·60)
From the last two rows of the flexibility matrix in Eqn. 5·57
Comparing this formula with Eqn. 5·48 it can be seen that the x = I deflec-
tions due to the moment are the same as the membrane values. However, the
deflection due to the shear force is increased by an amount which is quite
significant even for long cylinders; the additional deflection is less than an
increase of 10% only if the cylinder is longer than about nine times the
162 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
radius. This extra term is in fact the displacement sometimes called the shear
deflection of the beam.
If the end x = I is held circular by a stiff ring which also keeps the generators
normal to the end plane, extra bending will be induced. In this case the
1[SJ
boundary conditions are
o<1 = X_1 = 0; D- 1 = D- 2 = 0; R- 2 = ~ G
j
F2 = -A.2f A23R2
-2+v
-- -v
r 2/3
(2+v)r ~
r
[~]
2/3 2 2/3
21
0
·-·-
X
Figure 5·8 illustrates a horizontal cylindrical vessel provided with two stiff
rings at the intersections of the barrel with the hemispherical heads. We will
now calculate the stresses due to the combined effects of self-weight and
hydraulic loading. The rings will be assumed to be so stiff that they maintain
both the barrel and the head circular and unchanged in radius. If the rings
are in the form of aT-section as illustrated, the web has very little stiffness
against rotation out of its plane, but for other forms of ring this may not
apply. Consequently two cases will be examined; one in which the generators
are prevented from rotating relative to the plane of the ring and one in which
this movement is permitted. From these assumptions it follows that both the
Shell 1
--·-·-·-·-·
head and the barrel receive the necessary shear support in the form Nx 6 =
Nx 6 sin () at the mid-surface. In the general case the rings will tend to rotate
and there will be an overall extension of the barrel due to the mean uniform
pressure, so it is further assumed that the rings are free to move axially at
the support and that no restriction is placed upon their rotation. It is also
assumed that the supports are entirely rigid and that there is no vertical
movement at the base of the rings. It follows from symmetry that there is no
rotation of the x = 0 plane and also that the generators remain normal to
this plane. Finally the barrel is assumed to be sufficiently long for local
bending effects to be independent of one another.
The first step in the analysis is to determine the overall resultants from
equilibrium considerations. Figure 5·9 shows one-half of the vessel with both
the overall resultants and the local bending forces. The overall shear force at
164 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
N"'"'
N"'e
Nee =
(5·62)
Nxx =
Nxe
Nee =
2wr
1+v+-
t
wr) r1
2(2+v) ( 1+t 2
51 4 21 2 ) ( wr) (1- v) 12
- ( 12r4+2 r 1+-
t + 2r2
[(21 3 +
3
41) (1+ wr)-
r
(1-v)1]!
3r t r r
l
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 165
fiiz = r 2(1+~r)+v
-2(1+v)(1+~ ~r) ~
The unrestrained deflections are shown in Fig. 5·10. In this figure a value has
been ascribed to x~ 1 - v~ dr to illustrate the general case, but for the particular
loading system under consideration this rotation is zero. The position of the
·--·---· -·--·
shell in space is determined from the conditions that till = 821 = 0; rigid
body movements from the position shown in Fig. 5·10 to satisfy these condi-
tions can take place without inducing any stress. Now the generators remain
normal to the plane x = 0 during these movements and there is no inter-
ference from the ring disturbance, so we can conclude immediately that
Hu = Mll = o.
The final deflections of the tank are shown in Fig. 5·11.
The determination of the bending forces at x = I depends upon the
boundary conditions assumed. Dealing first with the built-in condition, the
unrestrained movements in both the barrel and the head are completely
prevented by the bending forces. Hence
- T-1j)*21)cyl; F12
F21 = -(Azz
- =-(All T-1-*
D12)sph
The flexibility matrix for the cylinder can be taken from Eqn. 5·57, and in
§ 6·4·2 it is shown that the flexibility matrix for a hemisphere can be taken
from Table 6·2. Thus,
166 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
H21 =
r
_ 4[3 3D [{2 + (2+v) ~} ( 1 +
2 f3 r t
ror)-(1-v)] rEt2q
M21 = _2f3;D [{2+2(2/v) ~} ( 1+ ~r)-( 1 -v)] ~~
H12 -4[3
--
3D [{ 2(1+v)} (
r2
2+ - -
3[3
ror)
t
1+v]
1 +- +v+-
3[3
2
-r q
Et
M12 = 2f3 2-
-
r 3[3
ror)
- - ( 1 +-
4(l+v)}
D [{2 +
t 3[3
2
+v+ 2(1+v)J -r q
Et
These forces are not self-equilibrating and the ring must be capable of
carrying loads H21 +H 12 , M21 +M12 without undergoing appreciable
deformation. The stresses due to the loads can be calculated by using Eqn.
5·27forthecylinder,withH1 = -H21 ;M1 = -M21 andj3 (l-x);fil-x).
For the sphere the corresponding equation is Eqn. 6·74.
If the boundary conditions at the ring do not prevent rotation of the
generators we must formulate compatibility of displacement and equilibrium
of force conditions at the junction. Both shells must remain circular at the
ring, they must have a common generator rotation and the moments must
be self-equilibrating. Hence
r2 _ r -
2[33D H21- 2f32D M21
r2 _ r _
2/33 D H 12 + 2/32 D (- M 2t)
r [- _ ] 2 _
2[32D H21 +H12 -[3D M21 [-* <*] [ *
ov21
x21--r-- ~*]
i5v12
X12----;:-
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 167
The same set of equations can be established by using the general formulae
in Eqn. 4· 38. Some re-arrangement is necessary to bring the equations into
the above form as the variables appearing in Eqn. 4· 38 are H w M 12 and H
where H is the total force acting on the shell from the ring. The solution of
these equations is
5
10 7 IJ I I
4 [=
30
50
J I I
f7 7 I J
100
200( 17 I
7 T(
/ /
3
/
2
7 IT
I 1/
1/ I I
I
I I I
J
~
I 10 100 1,000
at
qr
- _ 4P 3
H21- - - -
r2
D[{2 +---+
2+v l
2P r
l+v
- -
3P
}(t +-wr) -(3-4v)
--+-
t
l+v]r
- --
6P 4
2q
Et
- _ M21-
-M12- - _ -2P
--
2
D[{2+---+-- wr) ----+--
2+v l 2(1+v)}(t +- (1-2v) l+v]r--q 2
r P r 3P t 2 3P Et
The force acting on the ring is the same as in the built-in case and the moment
is equal to the mean of the two built-in values. The highest stresses occur at
the ring in the built-in condition, and when the cylinder is short the highest
stresses occur in the head. However, it is necessary to add the effects of a
uniform pressure q* to allow for the mean hydraulic pressure, and when this
has been done for both head and cylinder it is found that the cylinder stresses
are higher for practicable values of the parameters. The difference between
168 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
the built-in and rotationally free solutions is small for small values of lfr,
but the built-in stresses increase more rapidly as lfr increases. The membrane
stress in the centre of the shell is given in Eqn. 5·62 and has a higher value
than the bending stresses when lfr is larger than about 3. Figure 5·12 shows
curves giving either the highest bending stress at x = I or the membrane
stress at x = 0, whichever is the higher, for the built-in case. The effects of
the pressure q* have been included and the value of ro has been taken as llr·
The lower part of the curves show the bending stress only at x = l, (} = 0
and in addition there are membrane stresses equal to ( ~r ± 1) ': acting at
x = l. The bending stress due to uniform pressure is 3·1 ror rq and the
t t
surface stresses at x = l must be combined according to the following table
in which a '+' indicates tensile stress.
Pressure Weight Pressure Weight
Membrane Membrane Bending Bending
8 ~ 0 { Outside surface +
Ins1de surface + + +
(} Inside surface + + +
-n
- Outside surface + + +
The deflections can be calculated from Eqn. 5·621 and the flexibility matrix.
We know that u2 = i5 2 = i 1 = v1 = 0 so the fifth element in Eqn. 5·621
is -i51> and u1 can easily be calculated by adding this value to the first
x
element. In the built-in case 2 = v2 fr so these rotations are given by the last
element in Eqn. 5·621• Note that the rotation can be in either direction depend-
x
ing upon the value of lfr. In the rotationally free case 2 is still given by the
x
last element of Eqn. 5·621 but v2 fr must be calculated from the 2 - v2 fr row
of the flexibility and unrestrained displacement matrices.
If the surface loads vary rapidly with x the membrane solution is unlikely
to be very accurate and it is necessary to solve Eqns. 5·42 and 5·43 as a com-
plete system.
One method is to obtain membrane solutions for the case when the varia-
tion of surface load or temperature term is linear with x, and then to apply
the method of sub-division described in § 5·3·3. It is usually difficult to
obtain an exact particular solution and judgments must be made of the
relative importance of various terms. For example, in the relatively simple
case when T = T cos (} and T is constant we find that the direct stresses are
zero if the deflections have the form
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 169
a
(5·63)
These lead to non-zero values for the radial shear forces and therefore the
force equilibrium equations are not satisfied. This does not usually matter
because the radial shear forces are very small in comparison with those
required to maintain typical boundary conditions. If the deflections in
Eqn. 5·63 are accepted and the moments are ignored, the unrestrained
deflections are
ra.T
0
ra.T
f~: J
0 (5·64)
J2a. T
2r
Ia. 'f
r
If the shell is semi-infinite and maintained circular at x = 0, then
i\ .Ail fiT
H1 Ea.T
rt p
6M1 3 -
2 = y'[3 (1- v2)] Ea. T = 1·82 Ea. T
rt
These values of the shear force and bending moment are of order rft times
those neglected in the derivation of Eqn. 5·64, so the approximation is
justified for this boundary condition. If the cylinder is short and is built-in
at both ends the boundary conditions are
fil = fi2 = fiJ = 0
170 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
From the flexibility matrix in Eqn. 5·57 and the unrestrained deflection in
Eqn. 5·64
Nxx
-ErxT
where An and B" are constants of integration which can be found from the
boundary conditions and
I P:x,ndx; I (Po,n-Pz,n)dx
l l
Xn = r en = r
X X
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 171
" "
1 [ nC +n 2 D X-+ {n-2+
w = w (p)--
Et " "r
x 2 v} A- {n- 2x2 -2n(1+v)+v} B -
2r2 " 6r2 n r
X]
where C,., D,. are two further constants of integration and
I
I
E~r I [X,.+~ I
I I
I
I
w,.(p) = -nu,.(p)+!.._[r Pz
Et ·
,.-vX,.-~r E>,.dx+N,.(1-v)J
X
(5·66)
where
172 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
REFERENCES
6·0 INTRODUCTION
A nominal
thin spherical shell is a very effective pressure container because the
stress is the same in all directions. Furthermore, it need be only
half as thick as a cylinder of the same diameter. Unfortunately a spherical
shell is rather ineffective when subjected to loads normal to the surface and
high bending stresses are induced by this type of load. For the usual forms of
surface loading, the bending behaviour of spherical shells is only significant
near a boundary, so the analysis follows the procedure used in Chapter 5 for
cylindrical shells.
Membrane solutions in which the shell is assumed to have zero bending
stiffness are easily established from the equations of equilibrium. The dis-
placements due to the membrane stresses can be calculated and the accuracy
of the solution checked by using these displacements in the expressions for
the radial shear forces.
Edge bending solutions are more complicated than those for cylindrical
shells for two reasons. First, the expressions for the stress resultants in terms
of the displacements are more involved because the shell has no straight
generators. Second, the coefficients in the governing equations are found to be
variable and very large for some regions of the shell. The formation of
the governing equations is due to Reissner (1). The general solution of the
governing equations is possible but does not lead to a practicable computation,
so various asymptotic solutions have been proposed.
The asymptotic method depends upon a change in the dependent and
independent variable to eliminate the variable coefficients. This cannot be
completely successful but if the substitutions are useful the coefficients will
be almost constant. Methods of asymptotic integration have been proposed
by many authors including Havers (2), Geckeler (3), Hetenyi (4), Reissner
(5) and Langer (6). Some of these lead to solutions which are only valid for a
limited region of the shell, whilst others can be used throughout. The solutions
of restricted range are less involved and easier to use in numerical calcu-
ations, but evaluation of the generally applicable asymptotic solutions is
practicable. Jacobsen (7) has suggested that the variable coefficients can be
174
SPHERICAL SHELLS 175
approximated to their values at the edge of the shell when computing edge
bending effects, and Leckie and Penny (8) recommend that a slightly modified
version of this method be used to deal with the higher harmonics in a
Fourier analysis.
Once the membrane and edge bending solutions have been established the
flexibility matrix and unrestrained displacements can be calculated by apply-
ing the techniques used in Chapter 5. The interactions between a spherical
shell and other shells of revolution can then be obtained by following the
methods of Chapter 4. A number of cases are studied in §§ 6·3·3 and 6·3·4,
including the intersection of a sphere with a cylindrical support and the
junction of an incomplete sphere with a cylindrical nozzle.
Throughout the chapter it is assumed that variations in the thickness,
elastic properties and the coefficient of expansion are all negligible. If varia-
tions do occur they can be treated by using the methods of§§ 4·5-4·7.
The position of a general point P within a sphere with internal and external
radii r;, ro is determined by the spherical polar co-ordinates R, cp, (),shown in
Fig. 6·1.
At P the stress system is upq (p, q = R, cp, ()) and the deflections are u, v, w,
parallel to the co-ordinate axes.
176 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
[ (1-v)R ow v (a
) ( 1 au )
0R+v ocf>+w +v w+sincf>oO+vcotcf> -(1+v)RocT
J
E 1
C1 - -X
""'- (l+v)(l-2v) R
The deflections associated with rigid body movements of the edge cf> = c/>1>
R = r 1 are
SPHERICAL SHELLS 177
v = 0
f (6·4)
R
w = AR+:2+G~:) ;2 R 2 TdR
.,
where A, B are constants of integration. For a closed sphere subjected to
178 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
an internal pressure P but not restrained against axial movement the values
of the constants are
u 2 (1-2v)
- a.T.m•·
E 3 -
A = (1-2v) -+- 1-v
r!:rl f
ro
Tm = R 2 TdR
rl
Ea.
uRR = u 1-R3 +l-v
2
r, (6·5)
f
R
surface radius, this difference makes it possible to retain the terms (1 +zfa)
without increasing the complexity of the formulae. The equilibrium equa-
(a)
(b)
tions of the shell element are therefore obtained by integration with respect
to z:
:¢ [N<I><I>sin ¢]+ :(J [N</> 8] -Nee cos¢+N<f>zsin¢ = -a sin¢ P<t>
and
t/2 (6·7)
Pk = [ukz(l+~)I:, 2 +J(t+~)Fkdz; k = ~. 9, z
-t/2
Here t is the thickness and the applied loading terms in the moment equa-
tions have been neglected because they are usually small.
The stress resultants are shown in Fig. 6·2.
In accordance with the assumption of § 4·2 the deflections at any point
of the shell can be written as
u u+zx8
v = v+zxt/> (6·8)
w w
The terms u, v, w are the mid-surface deflections and x8 , X<1> are tangent rota-
tions. From a geometric consideration of the movement of a shell element the
rotations may be expressed in terms of the mid-surface displacements
Xo
= -1
-
a sin~ ae -usin~J
[aw
(6·9)
X<1> = - ~ [ : ; - vJ
If uRR is ignored in comparison with the other stresses and the deflections
from Eqn. 6·8 are substituted in Eqn. 6·2 expressions are obtained for the
stresses in terms of the mid-surface deflections. Substitution of these ex-
J
pressions in Eqn. 6·7 leads to the following equations:
= Et [av v au
Nt/>t/> a(1-v2) a~+sin~a9+vvcot~+(1+v)w -N
Et [ a v 1 au
Noo = a (1 -v 2) v a~+ sin~ a~ +vcot~+(1+v)w -N
J
Et [au 1 av]
Nt/>o = 2a(l+v) a~ -ucot~+ sin~ ae
D [axt/> v axo] (6·10)
Mt/>t/> = ~ a~ +vcot~Xq.+sin~ ae -M
Moe=- D [ v-+cot~xq,+--
axq, 1 --axe] -M
a a~ sin~ ae
D(1-v) [ 1 axq, axe
Mq,s = 2a sin~ M+ a~ -xocot~
J
SPHERICAL SHELLS 181
In these equations
f
t/2 t/2
D
Et 3
= 12{1-v2); N EaT(1+=) dz
1-v a
~ f -1-v
EaT
dz
-t/2 -t/2
t/2
M = ft/2 EaT(1+_:)zdz
1-v a
~ f EaT zdz
1-v
-t/2 -t/2
When the applied loads are symmetrical about the axis none of the functions
are dependent upon 8 and the tangential displacement u is zero. Under these
circumstances the equilibrium equations become
d~ [Nt/>t/>sin</J]-NeeCos<fJ+Nt/>zsin<P = -asin</Jpt/>
d~ [Nt/>zsin <PJ -Nee sin <P-Nt/>t/> sin <P = -a sin <P Pz (6·11)
The relations between the stress resultants and the mid-surface deflections
are now
M 8e = ~ [v ~~+cot<Pxt/>J-M
The solution of Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12 will be studied in the following sections.
G
182 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Vz cot cp1
(a) (b)
FIG. 6·3 Axial load per radian.
<I> = a2 f<P
4>2
(pzcoscp-pq,sincp)sincpdcp
The constant V2 is the resultant axial force applied at edge 2 of the shell
where cp = cp 2 as shown in Fig. 6·3.
When the bending moments are neglected, the deflections can be calculated
from the first two rows of Eqn. 6·12. Using the deflections, the rotations can
be obtained from Eqn. 6·9. It is found that
dv dJ . dov a
dcp +w = coscp dcp -smcp dcp = -·
Et
[Nt/><1>-vNee+N(l-v)J
vcotcp+w =
o = -
a
[N66 -vN</></>+N(1-v)]
sincp Et
where o= w sin cp + v cos cp, ov = w cos cp- v sin cp are the deflections normal
SPHERICAL SHELLS 183
and parallel to the axis of the shell. Integrating these equations and putting the
axial displacement at l/J 1 equal to zero,
~v
1-cosl/J
where p =
l+cosl/J'
the values of the terms used in establishing the membrane solution and those
which were neglected. Now from the last rows of Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12
d2 d
4P 4 Nq,z = dt/J 2 (Etxq,)+cotfjJ dlEtxq,)-(cot 2 </J+v)(Etxq,)-
Using in this equation the value for Xq, from Eqn. 6·15
Considering the surface loads, it can be seen from Eqns. 6·13 and 6·161 that
Nq,z is of order (L 2 - v)Nee/4P 4 and, provided that cot fjJ is not very large nor
that the surface loads vary rapidly with </J, the approximation is accurate
because of the small term 1/4fi4. A number of common loadings will now
be considered.
For the case of a constant internal pressure P, Pz = P, Pq, = 0 and if the
sphere is closed
V2 =-! Pa 2 sin 2 </J 2 ; <I> = -! Pa 2 (sin 2 fjJ- sin 2 </J 2 )
Hence from Eqns. 6·13 and 6·14 or 6·15
Pa
= Nee = -2
Pa 2 sinfjJ(1-v)
2Et (6·17)
Xq, = 0
Pa 2
bv = 2 Et (cos fjJ -cos </J 1) (1- v)
- aq(2+v)sinc/J
Et
From Eqn. 6·16 or 6·161 it is found that these deflections imply the existence
of a shear force
This force is of order 1/4P4 times the other terms involved in the equili-
brium equations, so the approximation is no greater than that already
existing in the theory. If ¢ 2 = 0 the solution must be examined to see whether
the stresses or deflections become infinite. Now as cfJ~O
This expression for c5v shows that the pole of a hemisphere drops by 1·9 a2q/Et
when loaded with its own weight and supported in a membrane manner. If
cfJ 1 = n the stresses and deflections given by Eqn. 6·18 become infinite at cfJ 1 ;
this condition implies a point support for which it is known that the mem-
brane solution is invalid.
The stresses due to hydraulic pressure can also be calculated from Eqn. 6·13
or 6·15 and checked for accuracy by Eqn. 6·16. If the pressure is zero at c/1 2
the surface loads are Prz = q*(cos c/1 2 - cos cfJ); Pq, = 0 where q* = ay and y
186 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
is the weight per unit volume of the contained fluid. Assuming the shell to
be supported at ¢ 1 by membrane loads
a2q*
V2 = 0; <I> = - 6-(cos¢ 2 -cos¢) 2 (2cos¢+cos¢ 2)
=
2
6 [(cos cjJ~:cjJcos ¢) (2 cos cjJ +cos ¢ 2)- 6 (cos ¢ 2- cos cjJ)
- aq* J
_ a2 q* sin cjJ [(cos ¢ 2 -cos ¢) 2 x
6Et sin cjJ
x (2 cos cjJ +cos ¢ 2) (1 + v)- 6 (cos ¢ 2 -cos cjJ)J (6·19)
aq*
--sin cjJ
Et
azq* [
Dv 6Et 2 (2 -v) (cos 2 ¢ 1 -cos 2 cjJ )- 3 (1- v) cos ¢ 2 (cos ¢ 1 -cos cjJ) +
sin ¢ 1) 3- cos 2 ¢ 2 (P 1) ]
+ 2 loge ( sin cjJ - 2 cos ¢ 2loge p
The value of the shear force implied by the deflections is
aq*
N.pz = - 4 p4 (1+v) sin cjJ
In the region of cjJ = ¢ 2 this is large in comparison with the applied load
and the other forces. The values of N.p.p. N 88 given by Eqn. 6·19 are therefore
a poor approximation to the actual stress resultants. This is not very important
because this is a region of low pressures and the forces and deflections will
not differ significantly from those given in Eqn. 6·19. Further away from the
edge the shearing force is small in comparison with the other terms and the
solution is valid.
As in the case of cylindrical shells, the usefulness of the membrane solution
is limited because it is usually impossible to satisfy the boundary deflection
conditions. To supplement the membrane solution the effects of edge bending
loads are required.
One such solution was found in § 6·3·1; namely, the membrane solution
for a resultant axial load.
To complete the homogeneous solution it is necessary to calculate the
effects of edge forces N.Pz• M,p,p· When the surface loads are zero, the first
two rows of Eqn. 6·11 give for the direct forces
N ,p,p = N .Pz cot c/J
(6·20)
= dN,pz
dc/J
In§ 6·3·1 the rotation X,p was found in terms of the direct forces, the mem-
brane values of which were substituted to find whether N,pz was zero or
negligible. To find the rotation in terms of N,pz• the values of the direct forces
are substituted from Eqn. 6·20 into the same expression, Eqn. 6·14
d 2 N,pz dN,pz 2 2
-EtX,p = dc/J 2 +cotc/J ~-(cot c/J-v)N,pz = (L +v)N,pz
Equation 6·16, for N,pz in terms of X,p. was derived from the last rows of
Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12. This equation always holds so the following pair of
equations govern the behaviour of the shell under the action of edge loads:
(L 2 +v)N,pz -Etx,p
(6·21)
(L 2 -v)(Etx,p) = 4P4 N,pz
The rotation can be eliminated from these equations, and when v2 is ignored
in comparison with 4P\ it is found that
(L4 +4P 4 )N,pz = 0 (6·22)
The solution of this equation is
N,pz = Cd1 +Cd2+Cd3+C4j4
where the Ci are constants of integration to be determined from the boundary
conditions, and the Jj are independent functions of c/J. Consider the second-
order equation
(6·23)
and suppose that / 1 + i/2 and / 3 - i/4 are the two independent solutions.
Both real and imaginary parts of this equation must be satisfied, so
L 2f1 = -2P 2f2; L 2f3 = 2P 2!4
(6·24)
L 2/ 2 = 2P 2 / 1; L 2/ 4 = - 2p2 /3
It is easily shown from these equations that the functions / 1 , ••. , / 4 are the
four solutions of Eqn. 6·22.
188 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The solution of Eqn. 6·23 will be studied later, and for the present the
functions jj are assumed to be known. From Eqns. 6·12, 6·20, 6·21 and 6·24
the complete system of stress resultants is
Nq,q, f1cotc/J / 2 cotc/J 3 cot c/J / 4 cotc/J c1
Neo Pf! Pf{ Pf3 pJ; c2
Nq,z !1 !2 !3 !4 c3 (6·25)
ag2 ag1 ag4 ag3
Mq,q, c4
2p 2p 2P 2p
aG 2 aG 1 aG4 aG 3
Moo
2p 2p 2P 2p
where
. vcotc/J . cotc/J
gj =fj+-p-fi; G1 =vf1 + p j j
Nq,q,-Noo =
sin cfJ
-~ [N"'z]
dc/J sin cfJ
so the complete system of deflections is
[ o] = _!_ [h 1Pa sin c/J h2Pa sin c/J h3 Pa sin c/J h4Pa sin c/J] c1
Xq, Et 2P 2!2 - 2P 2!1 - 2P 2!4 P2!3 C2 (6·26)
c3
c4
When there are two edges, the boundary conditions are those appropriate
SPHERICAL SHELLS 189
to the forces shown in Fig. 4·7, and for the radial force and bending moment
these are
() = ()1 () ()2
-x. = -x. =
}
X1 at cjJ = c/J 1 X2 at cjJ = c/J 2
aNq,,. = H1 -aNq,,. = H, )
- a sin cjJ M q,q, = M1 a sin cjJ M q,q, M2
From Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26 it is possible to write in the notation of § 4·5
ll-!,;
Here the sub-matrices are al12 x 2 and the suffixj refers to edge 1 or edge 2,
!,
f1j f4j
Et
c~r'[::J ~ [c,] a
;[cu] =
2PM1
a 2 sin cp 1
H2
a
2PM2
a 2 sin cp 2
(6·27)
The relevant parts of the flexibility matrix are found by evaluating JK - 1
and using Eqn. 6·26, whilst the remaining elements are obtained from these
G*
190 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
results and the membrane solution for an axial load. The axial force per
radian at each edge can be resolved into membrane components per radian
V2 /sin rPt> V2 /sin ¢ 2 and radial forces H! = - V2 cot ¢ 1, H~ = V2 cot ¢ 2
as shown in Fig. 6· 3 The displacements due to the membrane components
are obtained from Eqn. 6·15, and those due to the radial forces are found from
the influence coefficients appropriate to H 1 , H 2 • The flexibility matrix is
therefore the matrix of the coefficients in Table 6·1. The stresses and deflec-
tions under known loading conditions can be calculated from Eqns. 6·25,
6·26 using the values of the constants given by Eqn. 6·27. The stress resultants
due to the axial load are the sum of the membrane values in Eqn. 6·13 and
the values obtained from Eqns. 6·25, 6·26 with Cj calculated from Eqn. 6·27
using H 1 = Hi, H 2 = H!, M 1 = M 2 = 0.
The Form of the Governing Functions All the required quantities are now
known in terms of the function jj and their derivatives and these functions
are the real and imaginary parts of the solution of Eqn. 6·23. Rewriting
this equation in full and using Pr/J as the independent variable
(6·28)
The exact solutions of this equation are hypergeometric series which con-
verge slowly and which have not been tabulated, so solutions are sought by
asymptotic or numerical methods. Adopting the former procedure, it can
be anticipated from the values of the coefficients in Eqn. 6·28 that the first
and second derivatives off have the same order of magnitude as f provided
(cot r/J)/P is a small number.
First Approximation Suppose (cot ¢ )/ p is so small that all terms containing
it can be ignored, then the equation becomes
f"-2if= 0
which has the solution
f= A1 e-<1+i)P<P+A2e(1+i)P<P
Now both gi and hi involve a term (cot l/J)//3 which may be neglected and
then
f{ = 01 = h1 = 2eP<if>,-if>) cosf3(!/J 1-l/J)
!2 = 02 = h2 = 2eP<if>,-if>) sin f3(!/J 1 -l/J)
(6·30)
!3 = 03 = h3 = 2e-P<if>,-if>>cosf3(!/J 1-l/J)
!~ = 04 = h4 = 2e-P<if>,-if>>sin /3(!/J 1-l/J)
With this form of the governing functions, it is easy to see that the matrices
[bu] 4 x 4, [cij] are very similar to the corresponding matrices for cylinders.
It is found that
2.A.l Jll 2A.2 J1.2
Jl.i vl -J1.2 v2
[bij]4x4 =
2A.2 -J1.2 2.A.l -Jl.l
J1.2 v2 -Jl.l vl
(6·31)
(2.A.l- Jl.l -1) (Jl.l-vl) (2A.2 +J1.2) CJ1.2-v2)
(1- Jl.l) (1-v 1) J1.2 -v2
[cii] = !- (2.A.l + Jl.l + 1) (2A.2 -J1.2)
(J1.1+v1) CJ1.2 +v2)
(1- Jl.l) -(1+v 1) J1.2 -v2
In this equation A.i, Jl.i, vi are the functions defined and tabulated in
§ 5·3·2 with lfr = l/1 1-¢ 2. Tables 5·1, 5·2 and Fig. 5·4 are directly applicable
when evaluating the preceding formulae. The flexibility matrix predicted by
this first approximation, often called the Gecke1er solution, is therefore
obtained by substituting the values of bii from Eqn. 6·31 into Table 6·1;
the stress and deflection distributions are given by Eqns. 6·25, 6·26 with the
constants of integration found by substituting the values of cii from Eqn. 6· 31
into Eqn. 6·27.
Now from a consideration of the work done in applying unit loads per
radian at the two edges, it can be shown that the flexibility matrix should be
symmetrical about its leading diagonal. This is not the case with the values
of bii given by Eqn. 6·31 because of the approximations made in obtaining
this solution, so an improved solution is sought.
sin
--:--;:- sin rP1 cot 2 rP1
bss
rPt) cot rP1 cot rfiz + b11 --:--;:-
'1'2 s1n '1'2
= b33 cot 2 rfiz- ( b31 + b13 s1n
H1 M1 Hz Mz Vz
X2 a 1 a a
1 b
2/J2Db.u PD sin ;1b42 2 p2Db43 PD sin ;2 44 2p2Db4s
-(1+v) -(1+v)
---+ 1+v (P1)
Etsin ;1 Etsin ;2 + 2Et log. P2 -
10
~
-
194 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Now 1/2P2 is small and so is {(cot 4J)/P} 2 provided the angle is not too small.
If both of these terms are neglected, the equation has the same form as
Eqn. 6·28 1 and leads to the solution
2PM 1
a 2 .Jsin
€/J 1 (6·33)
1
- H 2 .Jsin4Jz
4 (2A- 1 +JL1+1) CJL1+v 1) (2A-z-JLz) (JLz+vz)
a
2PMz
aZ.Jsin €/J 2
The preceding formulae simplify considerably for a semi-infinite shell, i.e.
one for which A-2 = Jlz = v2 = 0, and give
[:J
a 2 sin 4J a sin€/J
0 2P3D !3c 2P2 D sin 4J 1 Cf3c- f4c)
a 1
X~ - 2p2 D Cf3c + j4c) - PD sin 4J / 3c
= Jei~€/Jl)
sm€/J 1 2P
N~z -;;CJ3c-f4c) - a2 sin €/Jt f4c
l M~~ 1
--pf4c
1
-a sin €/Jt Cf3c+f4c) (6·34)
X1 * vl Vz
a J(sin
-p 2 2P 2 D
t/Jz)
sin tP1 - 2fi2 sin tPz)
aD[ Jlz cot tPz Jein tP1
PD sin tP1 PD.J(sin tP1 sin t/Jz)
tl:l
=
~
...
('1
>
t"'
c:n
tl:l
=
t"'
t"'
c:n
TABLE 6·2 contd.
• • • • l+v 1 (Pt)_(l+v)(cot¢J2 _
2Et og. P2 Et sin fJ2
sin fJ1)
+cot2 fJl sin fJ2
\0
.....:!
-
l
198 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
numerically if there are two edges and the shell is short. If the shell is semi-
infinite
Au=--
1
·:~i':1, {1+ (:-~"~(1-~,)} ~
1-'lu
r (6·35)
2P2 D PDsinc/J 1
100--------------------------------------~
10
m
OL---L---L---L---L---L---L---L---L---L-~
o m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ro ~ ~
rft
FIG. 6·4 Limits of applicability of second approximation.
1 ] [H1J:inc/J1J ( . )
6 36
_1 2PM 1
a 2 Jsin c/J 1
and then to use Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26 with values of the functions from
Eqn. 6·32.
In the following paragraphs, it is established that the complete second
SPHERICAL SHELLS 199
Here x = P<P--./2 and ker x, kei x, her x, bei x are the four Kelvin func-
tions. Reference 9 contains comprehensive tables of these functions and their
derivatives. The functions in Eqn. 6·37 may be used to evaluate all the quanti-
ties required for the calculation of the influence coefficients, and from these
the edge forces and complete stress distribution.
Solution Valid for all Values of the Co-latitude.
All the solutions obtained so far are restricted in application because they
require assumptions about the magnitude of the angle </J. Leckie (8, 10) has
applied a method of asymptotic integration developed by Langer (6) to find
J(
a solution valid for all values of </J. Leckie's results may be obtained by
writing Eqn. 6·28 in terms of the variable f si;</J).
The equation to be satisfied by this variable is
!1 (ker x )' J
(si! cp)
!2 (kei x)' J
(si! cp)
J
(6·38)
!3 = (ber x )' (si! ¢)
!4 -(beix)' J(si!¢)
upper bound referred to earlier, because it is now clear that the asymptotic
values must not be used if P(n-</J)../2~6 because the value of cot <Pis again
large in this region of the shell. When this situation arises, the shell must be
re-orientated when dealing with these regions so that pn.j2- 6 ~ P</J../2 ~ 0.
When the shell is a complete cap and there is no axial load present, the
constants C 1 and C2 must be zero because the functions / 1 and / 2 increase
without limit as <P decreases.
The boundary conditions to be satisfied at </J 1 are
D1 = J12 [~:} F1
2P 2 D b12 PD sin</1 1
where
b11 = (h31g31+h41g41)(f31g31+!41g41)-l
bl2 (h3d41-h4tf31)(f31931 +!41941)- 1
hzz Uf1 +JJ1)(f31g31 +!41g41)- 1
and these terms are obtained by evaluating the functions given in Eqn. 6·38
at <P = </J 1 • The stress and deflection distributions can be obtained from
Eqns 6·25 and 6·26 using
If the shell is semi-infinite with a hole at the top, the boundary conditions
at the top edge are
-aNq,:: = H 2
asin</JM.pq, = M 2
202 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The stresses must not increase indefinitely with cp and as her, bei and their
derivatives become larger with increasing cp, C3 = C4 = 0. The boundary
conditions thus lead to
-l a:;~~c/Jz
and the flexibility matrix becomes
Azz -
b33 2p~D b34l (6·41)
_a_b b44
2pz D 34 PD sin c/Jz
where b33 -(hu g12 + hzz gzzHfu g12 + fzz gzz)- 1
b34 (hufzz- hzzf12)(f12 g12 + fzz gzz)- 1
b44 -(Hz+fiz)(fu g12 +fzz gzz)- 1
and these terms are obtained by evaluating the functions given in Eqn. 6·38
l l [ l[ l
at cp = c/Jz. The stress and deflection distributions can be obtained from
Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26 with
[C = 0; [C = Cfugu+f22gzz)- 1 22
213Hz~2
3 1 12
-g f (6.42)
c4 Cz -gzz -!12 --='z-._..::.-
a smcpz
The displacements and stresses due to an axial force Vz applied at c/Jz
can be obtained from Table 6·1, using the values of bii from Eqns. 6·39 or 6·41.
Suppose that there is a small rigid plug, loaded by an axial force F, at the
apex of a semi-infinite shell. If the plug subtends an angle 2cpz at the centre
of the sphere, the boundary conditions at c/Jz are Dz = 0, Vz = F/2n. The
solution can be obtained by using the flexibility matrix in Eqns. 6·41 together
with the last column of Table 6·1 to give F z = -A 2~ A 23 Vz, but it is easier
to work directly from Eqn. 6·26 for these simple boundary conditions. The
deflections produced by the bending effects must exactly cancel those pro-
duced by the membrane action, so
_ 1 l+v F
cl = fuCf12h12+f22hzz) Psinc/Jz 2nasinc/Jz = klut
_1 l+v F
Cz = fzz Cfu hu + fzz h22) . cp z 2nasm
psm . cp
2
F
where =
2na sin cp 2
(1'
SPHERICAL SHELLS 203
Ex.
pzu
N#
Put
Nee
Put
N • .,
Ut
j
6M••
-;rt2
6Mee
ut 2
The terms on the right-hand side of this equation are very nearly functions
of Pc/J 2 and Pc/J alone, so the quantities on the left-hand side have approxi-
mately the same values at the position Pc/J for all thin spheres. The divergence
between the values for different spheres becomes larger as c/J increases, but
at these positions the bending is reduced and the membrane solution can be
used. Curves of the terms on the left-hand side are shown in Fig. 6·5 for a
plug with Pc/J 2 = 0·03213, i.e. with a </1 2 = ( 4~J~) t.
-o·o2o·o45 1 2 3 4 5
~4>/2
(b) Deflections
Flo. 6·5 Radial load on rigid plug.
SPHERICAL SHELLS 205
xi 0 A31 A32 0
8vi cos ¢ 2-cos ¢ 1
Pa 2 Pa 2
H! -2 sin ¢ 1 cos ¢ 1; Hi = 2 sin¢ 2cos¢ 2
·,·J~::] [
xt (2+v)sin¢ 1
8i -a sin ¢ 2 cos c/J 2
xi (2+v)sin¢ 2 lA31 (
{(l +v)(cosc/Jsm'f'
Hydraulic pressure supported at lower edge
xi
206 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The unrestrained stress distributions for all of these solutions are obtained
by adding the membrane stresses to those produced by the forces Hi, H"i.
The unrestrained deflections for an externally applied axial load are the
elements in the last column of the flexibility matrix in Table 6· I, and can be
combined with any of the preceding solutions as appropriate. For example,
if the frustum is hanging under its own weight from edge 2, it is necessary
to add to Eqn. 6·45 the effects of an axial force V2 = a2q(cos ¢ 2 -cos ¢ 1).
The intersection of a cylindrical shell with a part spherical head was
examined in§ 4·3 and Eqn. 4·7 was derived for the edge forces and moments.
If the equation is modified by multiplying all the forces by r, the flexibilities
for the cylinder can be obtained from Eqn. 5·28 as
1
{3D
If the edge angle ¢ 1 is not too small, the flexibilities of the sphere can be
obtained from Table 6·2 as
H Pr 2
4p
[ (1- v) .
(2-v)-~ +2Py'(siDc/J 1)cot¢1
SID '1'1
J + ,J.
1
1
SID
¢
1
These values for the edge force and moment have been used with the
membrane solutions to plot the curves shown in Fig. 6·6 for a cylinder with
rft = 50. For a hemispherical head, the stresses induced by bending are
quite small; but when ¢ 1 = 50° there is a region of high compressive hoop
stress accompanied by axial bending stresses which are over three times as
large as the membrane hoop stress in the cylinder. These high stresses are
primarily due to the horizontal force tPr cot c/Jt> and therefore increase as
¢ 1 decreases. Provision of a torispherical knuckle helps to reduce these
stresses, but if the knuckle radius is small the reduction is slight and the type
of stress distribution shown in Fig. 6·6 exists.
SPHERICAL SHELLS 207
Consider the section of a vessel shown in Fig. 6·7 and suppose that the
flexibility characteristic of the hemispherical head and shell is p1 , whilst
that for the cylindrical skirt is P2 • If P1 ( cp 0 - 3/P1 ).j2 ~ 6, all the bending
effects induced in the lower section of the head will have died out within the
range of applicability of the solution for spherical shells given in Eqn. 6·34;
also if P1 (tn- cp 0 ) ~ 6, there will be no gross interference between the bending
at the edges of the upper section of the head. If the first inequality on cp 0 is
not satisfied it is necessary to use the solution given in Eqn. 6·39, and if the
cr = Pr It
'fl= 900 - - -
X
N 68 jat
r-,
-\ / ...........
;'
..._
1.--/
J·O
'\
\
.......... ,.-- -- 0
r
0 I I
\
/ I I
\
\ / \I I
I'
-4·0
0 0"2 0"6 0•6 0 0•2
z._
r
second inequality is not satisfied the bending effects at the two intersections
must be considered simultaneously. Suppose now that n/2-6/P 1 ~cp 0 ~
6/P 1.j2+3/P1 and also that the length I of the skirt is such that P 2 1~3,
then the skirt can be considered semi-infinite. From an inspection of the
component shells numbered 1, 2, 3 as shown, it is apparent that the edges
for which the stiffness matrices are required are respectively; edge 2 for a
sphere with cp 2 = n-cp 0 , edge 2 for a cylinder and edge 1 for a sphere with
c/J1 = n-c/Jo·
208 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Shell 4
From Eqns. 4·21 and 4·31 the edge forces on component i are given by
Fi = Ci [D1-Di] (6·47)
Dl = <2: Ci)- L CiDf
1
SPHERICAL SHELLS 209
and externally applied loads (see Chapter 8). Caution should be exercised
when applying their recommendations to provide a pad on the sphere for
certain sizes of opening. For a penetration which needs this treatment, it is
usually necessary to apply the reinforcement by providing thicker plates and
not by attaching a pad held in position by plug and fillet welds. Also, it must
be remembered that the analysis presupposes adequate connection, between
nozzle and shell, to develop the loads required to maintain equilibrium and
continuity of displacement.
If the attachment is a part penetration weld as illustrated in Fig. 6·9, the
welds must be designed to take the loads per radian as illustrated. A slight
refinement of these values can be obtained by introducing a third sub-cylinder
between the two welds and ensuring compatibility between each weld and
the nozzle, but this is hardly justified because of the inherent inaccuracies
of the analysis. The calculations required to evaluate the edge forces and
moments are those contained in Eqn. 6·47, with two component shells in the
case of the flush nozzle and three for the protruding nozzle. When all shells
are semi-infinite, the values of the stiffness matrices are
cl =
[ 4PlD,
r2 2P!D'l
c2 =
r4PlD,
- - B 33
ar
2PlD,
- - B 34
a
j
2PiDt 2P~D2 B P2D2r
2p1D1 -- 34 - - B 4 4
j
r a a
rPlD,
~
-2~lD,
c3 =
-2~iDt 2PtDt
B44 = -(ht2U12+h22U22)(f12h12+f22h22)- 1
The three surface loads considered so far all produce stresses and deflec-
tions which are well approximated by the membrane solutions except where
edge bending occurs.
In general this will not be the case, and Eqns. 6·11 and 6·12 must be solved
as a complete system. From Eqns. 6·12, 6·13, 6·15, 6·16 and 6·19
SPHERICAL SHELLS 211
<I>
N.pz cot </J + .
asm 2
</J
a
dx"'
-D [ v-+cot</Jx.p
d</J
-M J
dpz dN
(L 2 +v)N.pz+Etx.p = -a(l+v)p.p-a--(1-v)-
d</J d</J
4P4
--
dM
a d</J
The shear force introduces terms of order (tfa) 2 into the membrane expres-
sions for the direct forces, and the bending stresses due to the non-zero
value of Etxq, are of order tfa times the direct stresses; this confirms the
accuracy of the membrane solution. By inspection, the solution for the
hydraulic pressure case, for which the surface loading term in the governing
equation is -aq* sin cjJ, is
aq*(l+v) . aq*sincjJ
4{34+1-v2smcjJ; Etxq, = -1+(1-v2)j4p4
..~,. ..~,. aq*(1+v)coscjJ 2
As 'I' --+ '1'2> N 4>4>--+ 4{34
this result confirms the conclusion reached in the discussion of the membrane
solution.
The governing equations for the shell behaviour under the action of a
temperature distribution are
dN
-(1-v)-
dc/J (6·49)
2 4{34 dM 4
(L -v)Etxq,-4{3 Nq,z = ----a- dcjJ
The solution of these equations when N and M are linear with cjJ is not
apparent; so it is not possible to follow exactly the techniques used for
cylinders, and to build up a solution for a general distribution from a series
of shells each with linear variations of N and M. However, a solution which
will serve the same purpose can be sought and a lead is given by the fact
that a general steady state temperature distribution in a sphere is a series
of terms of the type
where an, bn are obtained by carrying out the integrations through the thick-
ness contained in the definition of N, M.
Therefore the elements on the right-hand side of Eqn. 6·49 are respectively
(1- v) an Pn sin</>, - 4p bn Pn sin</>, where the dot denotes differentiation with
4
a
respect to cos </>.
Now the Legendre polynomial satisfies the equation
so
(1-v)an (6·50)
4P 4
= -abn
4P 4 bnfa+[1-v-n(n+1)] (1-v)an
An=
4P4 +[1 +v-n(n+1)] [1-v-n(n+ 1)] (6·51)
4P b" [1 +v- n (n+ 1)]/a -4P (1-v) an
4 4
Bn =
4P 4 + [1 +v-n(n+ 1)] [1-v-n (n+1)]
The complete system of stresses and deflections can be obtained by substitut-
ing the values of the shear force and rotation from Eqn. 6·50 into Eqn. 6·48.
In theory, the stresses and deflections can now be calculated for any
steady state distribution of temperature, but in practice an approximate
method, which is easier to apply, is more useful. When n = 1, Pn = cos</>,
Pn = 1 and after neglecting small terms the constants are given by
H
214 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(6"52)
the particular solution of the shell equations is obtained from Eqns. 6·48,
6·50 and 6·52
At the edges c/> 1 , c/> 2 of the shell, the shearing force and bending moment
have the non-zero values given by
=
2
a sine/> Mq,q, . 1 [ b0 +a (b(i-
-asmc/> 1 1-v
4p4 a 1) cosc/> 1 Mi
aNq,,. = . 2 [b
asmc/> 1-v
-1- - - a1
2J
a 4P4 H! }
4p 4 a ) cosc/>2J = M!
at c/> 2
t:r '"0
s:: ::r:
"' m
;. ~
(II
.....
(')
s:: >
t:S I""
d (I>
.....
'"I
"' ::r:
II) m
I""
s·
(II I""
(I>
asinc/>1 [ 1 0..
b*1 Et-(1-v) (b
a 0 + -;+a 1) cosc/> 1 J 0..
~
II)
1-v(b1 R
xi -B -;+a 1) sinc/> 1 Au A12l
rHtl s
(II
a sinc/> 2 1 M! a
II)
"'
£>*2 Et (1-v) [ (b
a 0 + -;+a 1 ) cosc/> 2 J +I A21A22 I I Hi (6·54) '"I
(II
1-v(b 1 )
-Et -;+a 1 sinc/>2 I I Mi
xi A31 A32
a(l-v)[ 1
t5vi -_-- a 0(cosc/> 2-cosc/> 1)+ ~+a(b J
1 ) (cos 2 c/> 2-cos 2 c/> 1)
1-.)
Vl
-
216 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
When the temperature is constant through the thickness and has the values
T 1 , T2 at c/J1, cP2•
T 1 cos c/J 2 - T2 cos c/J 1+(T2 - T 1 ) cos cjJ
T
cos cjJ 2 -cos cjJ 1
therefore
(1-v)(a 0 +a 1 coscjJ) = tEa.T
b0 = b 1 = 0
The particular and unrestrained solutions are identical and stress free if
a1 is small and the deflections are
b asincjJa.T
dT
Xq, = -a.- (6·55)
dcjJ
The criterion for deciding whether or not Eqn. 6·55 can be used must be
based on the stresses produced by edge restraints and the solution in Eqn.
6·53. If the edge restraints produce stresses r:r when Eqn. 6·55 is used, the
approximation is acceptable if
a 1 cos cjJ . Ea. dT
2t <r:r, I.e. 2(1-v) dcjJ <r:rtancjJ
When applying this criterion and Eqn. 6·55 it must be remembered that it
is only true for the special form ofT given above; if the values are being used
in a compatibility problem at cjJ = c/J 1 it is sufficient for T to have this form
within a region l/3(c/J-c/J 1) I :::::;3. For all other cases Eqns. 6·53 and 6·54 can
be used for a series of spherical frusta in an analysis of the type described
in§ 4·5·1.
The method of analysis described for thermal loading can be easily adapted
to cater for variations in the surface load terms in Eqn. 6-48. Alternatively,
a completely numerical approach such as the finite difference technique
described in Chapter 7 can be used for all forms of loading.
Equation 6·50 was obtained in the course of deriving the thermal solution
and leads directly to the exact solution for the edge bending problem. When
there are no surface loads or temperature terms an = bn = 0 and Eqn. 6·50
has a non-trivial solution if the two constants are not linearly dependent.
This is the case if
SPHERICAL SHELLS 217
(n2+n-1)2 = -4P4+v2
The second equation gives two independent complex values of n which lead
to two independent Legendre polynomials of complex order. The real and
imaginary parts of these polynomials are the four independent functions
which govern the edge bending of the shell.
When the component deflections have the form u = asin (), v = v cos (),
w = wcos () where a, v, ware functions of¢, the remaining deflections and
stress resultants have the form
D
- [diq,
-+v ( iq,cot¢+-.-
io )] -M
-
.M"'"' a d¢ sm¢
Moo D [ diq, io
~ v d¢ + iq, cot ¢+sin ¢ - M
J -
Mq,o D(1-v) [di8 _ ¢ Xq, J
2a d¢- Xo cot - sin¢
218 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The surface loads which generate these stresses and deflection have the form
Pz = p,.cosO; P.p = jj.pcosO; Pe =fie sinO; T = Tcos(}
From Eqn. 6·6 the forces must satisfy the equations
ddrp (N.pz sin rp) +Nez- N.p.p sin rp- Nee sin cjJ = -a sin rp p,. (6·57)
d~ (M.p.psinrp)+M.pe-Meecoscp-asincp N.pz = 0
d-. -- . -
drp (M.pesm rp)-Mee+M.peCOS cp-a sm cp Nez= 0
Nee= .1 3 r/J [ V2 sin r/J 2 + V2 (cos r/J 2 -cos r/J)+~+a '¥cos cfJ] +aflz (6·59)
asm
where
.p .p
<I>= a2 I (flecosrp-P.p)sinrpdrp; '¥=a I (pzsinrp+p.pcosrp-pe)sinrpdrp
.Pz .Pz
SPHERICAL SHELLS 219
1+ v [ . dl 1] 1 d -
-[N -v N~~]
_
X~= A2+ - 12+sincp- --
Et dcp Et dcp 99
The constants of integration, Al> A 2 introduce terms due to a rigid body
movement and
2N~9 + (N~~- lV99) cos cp
sin 2 cp
2N~coscp+N~~-Noo
= -~-~~~--
sin2 cp
The displacements due to a resultant shear force are found by substituting
the expressions in U2 from Eqn. 6·59 into Eqn. 6·60;
i~+-- =
ov (1+v)U 2
a sin cp Eta sin 2 c/J
(6·61)
0 (1+v) u2 [
= A 1 +acoscpA 2+ 4Et 2(1-coscpcoscp2)x
X
cotcp
~ + (1 +cos cp cos cp 2) loge p J
Sin
J
(6·62)
A1 +acoscjJA 2 -1+v
4-
.
V2 smcjJ [2cotcjJ
2 coscjJ ----=---T-log.p
Et sm'f'
A 2 -1-+-v V
4Eta
_ smc/J
2
.
2
[2-.--log
cot cjJ
sm cjJ •
p
J
If the deflections from Eqns. 6·61 and 6·62 are substituted in Eqn. 6·57,
the moments implied by these solutions are found to be
_ _ 1-v 2 [ _ • _ J 1
M~~ - M 66 = 4/3 4 V2 sm c/J 2 + U2 cos cPz sin 3 cjJ ( 6.63 )
When these values for the moments are substituted in the last two rows of
Eqn. 6·57 the two radial shear forces are found to be zero. This confirms the
accuracy of the membrane solution; in fact, when the moments in Eqn. 6·63
are included, the solutions for 0 2 , V2 contained in Eqns. 6·59, 6·61 and 6·63
are the exact solutions of the bending problem. The stresses due to the
moments are of order tfa times those due to the direct forces and may be
neglected. As cjJ tends to zero the forces increase without limit and in a
similar way to those due to the axi-symmetric axial load. This indicates that
additional bending takes place when the shearing force and bending moment
are applied as point loads.
Surface loads can be treated by following the procedure used for the
externally applied edge forces. For example, if the shell is subjected to a
surface load q per unit area parallel to 0 = 0 and is supported in a membrane
manner at c/J 1 ,
h = qcos¢; Pe = -q; A = qsin¢; U2 = V2 = o
From the definition of ij), '¥and Eqns. 6·59 and 6·6.0,
SPHERICAL SHELLS 221
(6·64)
_ bV
Xq,+--
a sin fjJ
If a horizontal spherical frustum contains a fluid with weight y per unit
volume, the surface loads are Pq, = Pe = 0; ftz = q* (sin r/J 1 +sin fjJ cos(})
where q* = ay. The stresses produced by the constant pressure q* sin f/J 1
can be calculated by using the formulae in § 6·3. The variable pressure
q* sin fjJ cos (}, which also represents a wind loading, produces stresses due
to the system of surface loads Pq, =fie = 0; ftz = q* sin r/J. If the shell is
supported in a membrane manner at r/J 1 , 0 2 = V2 = 0 and from Eqns. 6·59
and 6·60,
_ cosrp
Nq,q, '¥--
sin 3 fjJ
_ cosrp *.
Nee -'¥ ~+aq smf/J
sm
'¥
Nq,e = (6·65)
sin 3 cf>
a(l+v) 'Pcosrp a2 q* . 2 fjJ
u+5 . +--sm
Et sm 2 cf> Et
bv l+v '¥
- +--
Xq, a sin fjJ B sin 2 cf>
where
'¥ aq* [cos rp 2 - cos fjJ -Hcos 3 rp 2 -cos3 fjJ)]
The expressions for i>, iq, have not been included in Eqn. 6·64 or 6·65 because
they are cumbersome and are not often needed.
satisfy all rows of Eqns. 6·56 and 6·57, so results which make it possible to
specify Nq,z, Mq,q, at the edges will complete the homogeneous solutions.
When the surface loads are zero, it is possible to satisfy the first three rows
of Eqn. 6·57 by writing
(6·66)
Now Eqn. 6·60 relates the displacements to the direct forces, and substitution
from Eqn. 6·66 leads to
(6·661)
(6·67)
and if this value is substituted into Eqn. 6·56, the following expressions are
obtained for the moments.
SPHERICAL SHELLS 223
When these values are substituted into the last row of Eqn. 6·57 it is found
that
From Eqns. 6·67 and 6·671 the radial shear force must satisfy the following
equation
(6·68)
There is one further equation to be satisfied because the penultimate row
of Eqn. 6·57 has not been used. When the moments are substituted into this
equation, it is found that
N"'"' ~\ )
I I (11cot¢+ ~~¢ (12cot¢+ ~\ ) (13cot¢+ ~\ ) (14cot¢+ ~\¢) 1 r c1
~~¢ ~~¢ ~~
F1 F2 F3 F4
Nez I I 2/Jsincp 2Psin¢ 2Psin¢ 2/Jsin¢
a a a a '1:l
~
M"'"' I I 213 g2 -2pg1 -2pg4 2/3 g3 m
(/l
(/l
a a a - a - c::
~
Meo I I 2/3 G2 -2P G1 -2PG4 2/3 G3 m
<
m
(/l
-a(1-v) a(1-v) a(1-v) -a(1-v) J (/l
M"'e 3 m
I I 2/3 2sin¢ ! 2 2f3 2sin¢ / 1 . 2P 2sin¢ / 4 2f3 2sin¢ t"
t1
m
(/l
......
0
z
1',1.1
"'I
1:!:1
=
+i5 ...lid
(")
i5v >
t"'
r- + -
1',1.1
=
1:!:1
=
t"'
t"'
1',1.1
l:: asin~
f3a sin cf> 1i 1 f3a sincf>Ti 2 f3a sin cf> Ti 3 f3a sin cf> 1i4
The boundary conditions when edge forces H;, M; are applied as shown in
Fig. 4·14 are u+b = u1 +b 1
_ bv 1
- ( x +--
<P
Jv )
a sin <jJ Xt- a sm
. </J
1
at ..1..1
'I'
a R.pzelf =Ill
- a sin <jJ M .p.p M1
u+J u2 +b2
- +Jv _ Jv 2
- (X --) xz----,.,...::..,,...
.p a sin <jJ a sm<jJ 2
-a N.pzeff Hz
a sin <jJ M .p.p Mz
From Eqns. 6·69 and 6·70 it is possible to write in the notation of§ 4·6
C1 = JC;[~t] = ["Kt~K12 _ ] C1 = KC
Cz Fz -Kzt-K22 Cz
(I>
'1:1
The constants of integration are therefore ::r:
!!1
::a
(l
->
C1 I I R1 t"'
a (I>
::r:
!!1
2p.M1 t"'
C2 I t"'
(I>
2
a sincfo1 I; [cil]=
= [cij]
R2
c3 I -
a
2p.M2
c4 I I a 2sin cP2
(1-v)/21) ( (1-v)/41 ) ( (1-v)/31 ) , - 1
(!u 2P 2 sin 2 cP1 /31 +2p2sin2cfo1 /41-2p2sin2cfo1
(1-v)/12 ) (6.71)
(1-v)/22) ( ( (1-v)/42) (1-v)f,) I
. ( - !12 + 2P2 sin2cfo2 - - /32 -
( -/42 + 2P2 sin2 cP2
!22 2P 2sin 2 cP2 2P 2sin 2 cP 2
N
N
....:1
228 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The first four elements in the last two rows of the flexibility matrix are
obtained from Eqns. 6·70 and 6·71. From the first,
[l52~li1~li1] = [P•S:,<P, 2
:,] [auaua13a14] .c
x2-x1 o -Et a21a22a23a24
A33 ttl
=
t"'
t"'
tn
_ (1+v) cos¢ 2-cos¢ 1_+ a 2 sin¢ 1 5 (1+v) asin¢ 1 r
Et sin 2 ¢ 1 4f3 3D 15 +--o
Etasin 2 ¢ 1 4f3 3D 16
(1+v) 1 +-a- 5 1
Et a sin 2 ¢ 1 2f3 2D 25 2 f32D 526
• ,/..
a 2 sm'l' 2 5 (1+v) asin¢ 25
4 f33D 35 2
Eta sin ¢; 4/3 3 D 36
1+v 1 +_a_ 5 1
Et a sin 2 f/J 2 2/3 2 D 45 2f32D 546
2 2 2 1 + v[
Et 2(cos¢2- sin
14+v[ ¢ (P2)] + } (cot¢ 1 cot¢2)
4Eta 2cos¢2 sin ¢1- sin ¢2 +cos¢2loge (P2)] )
8i112 q; 1cos¢1)+(1+cos </J 2)loge ~ 1 .P1 +
( 2 (
a sm¢ 1_ asm¢ 1
+ 4 f33D b55 + 4 f33D 556
where
The solution of Eqn. 6·68 has been studied in § 6· 3·2 and the results of this
investigation are directly applicable in the present case. Thus when (cot f/1)/fJ
is a small number, the expressions for Nq,q,, N00 , Nq,z• Mq,q,, M00 , 8, Xq, given
in Eqns. 6·69 and 6·70 all have the same form as those in Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26
for the axi-symmetric condition. Also Nq,z efr• u+8, Xq, +8vf(a sin f/J) are
negligibly different from N<Pz• 8, i.q,, therefore the leading 4 x 4 sub-matrix in
Table 6·2 is also the flexibility matrix for lateral loading. The first four ele-
ments of the last two rows of the flexibility matrix can be calculated direct
from the leading 4 x 4 sub-matrix because
Finally, the last two columns are given by Eqn. 6·73 with the values of
[5ii] 4 x 4 implied in Table 6·2. When the edge forces are known, the stress
distribution can be obtained from Eqn. 6·69 using the functions in Eqn. 6·32
and the constants from Eqn. 6·33 with Hi, Mi replaced by Hi, Mi.
When the shell is semi-infinite, the deflections and stress resultants are
a 1
[!J
Xq, - 2{J2 D (f3c +f4c) {JD sm
· fjJ 1 f3c
= Jei~f/11)
smf/J 1 2{J
Nq,z - (f3c-f4c)
a -
a sm fjJ 1 f4c
2 ·
1 1
Mq,q, -pf4c - • fjJ (J3c +f4c)
asm 1
SPHERICAL SHELLS 231
l+v - a(l+v) N
u . 4J Mq,q,; i5v
Etsm Et q,z (6·74)
EtJ Nq,z
Nq,q, N:q,zCOt 4J; Roo Nq,o
a sin 4J' sin 4J
Mq,q, . D(l-v) _
Noz Moo v Mq,q,; Mq,o - Xq,
a sin 4J' a sin 4J
The range of angle for which these results are applied should be limited
to that for which the simplified Hetenyi solution is valid, because of the
presence of the terms (F; cot 4J )/p in the definition of};. If it is desired to
use the full range of the functions in Eqn. 6· 32, i.e. {Jn:.j2- 6 ~ fJ4J.j2 ~ 6,
the coefficients cii• aii must be evaluated from Eqns. 6·71, 6·72 et seq.
retaining terms of order (f cot 4J)/ fJ whilst neglecting those of order
/[(cot 4J)/fJ] 2 •
If 4J is sufficiently small for sin 4J = tan 4J = 4J, the functions in Eqn. 6·37
may be used in Eqns. 6·69-6·73. As in the axi-symmetric case the
functions given in Eqn. 6· 38 may be used for all angles in the range
fJn:../2- 6 ~ P4J../2 ~ o.
When the shell is semi-infinite the flexibility matrix for edge forces can
be calculated from Eqns. 6·69 and 6·70 by following the procedures used to
establish Eqns. 6·39-6·42.
Suppose that there is a rigid plug, loaded by a shear force Sand moment G,
at the pole of a semi-infinite shell.
If the plug subtends an angle 24J 2 at the centre of the sphere, the boundary
conditions at 4J 2 are D2 = 0, U2 = Sjn:, V2 = Gfn:a sin 4J 2 • Worki!}g
directly from Eqns. 6·70 and 6·71 and imposing the condition that the
deflections produced by bending must exactly cancel those produced by
the membrane action leads to
c2 =
(
~ 1i 22 )-1 (111
112 1i 12 +122 tl22
fJ . 4J
u2 tli12 )
. 2 '+'
2{32 sm ,/,.
sm 2 2
232 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
where
G S
u 1 = na 2 tsin 2 cp 2 ; CTz = nat
If the membrane solutions from Eqns. 6·59, 6·61 and 6·62 are added to the
bending solution from Eqn. 6·69, the total stress distribution due to each of
these loads can be expressed in terms of functions of fJcp alone multiplied
by appropriate powers of fl.
These calculations lead to equations analogous to Eqn. 6·43, and the
stresses are then known for all thin spheres with a plug size f3cp 2 •
Au] [Hi]
[::] ~ (1 + v){cos ..t,. _
'1'1
2 coscp 2 -COScp 1}
. 2 ../,.
Sill '1'1
~~ + [.A12 o (6·75)
a sin 2 cp 2
(1 +v)coscp 2
If the shell is supported from the upper edge, the forces at cp 1 are zero and
from Eqn. 4·33
SPHERICAL SHELLS 233
U2 ] [ 2(cos¢ 2 -cos¢ 1) ] 2
liz = [ = L:R.i = a q
a V2 sin¢ 2 -a(cos¢ 2 -cos¢ 1) 2
The unrestrained displacements for this type of support can be obtained
by adding the effects of these forces, given in Eqn. 6·73, to those in
Eqn. 6·75.
Consider the section of vessel shown in Fig. 6·7 and suppose that ¢ 0 has
a value for which the simplified Hetenyi solution is valid. Suppose also that
the bending effects at the intersection of the vessel and head are independent
of those at the support. From Eqn. 4·38 equilibrium and continuity of dis-
placement conditions at the junction of the barrel and head are satisfied if
(6·77)
From the discussion in § 6·4·2 the flexibility matrix for the sphere can be
obtained from Table 6·2; the flexibility matrix for the cylinder is given in
Eqn. 5·57.
The resultant loads applied by the barrel to the head are a shear S in the
direction fJ = 0 and a moment G producing membrane compression at
1'.)
w
-1:>-
Ht = -a2q* cotl cPt (cos cP2 -cos cPt- cos3 cP2 ~cos3 cPt)
"d
~
t!l
c:n
1
At = [ -acoscf>t
i\* a2q *
J (coscf>2-coscf>t cos 3 cP2;cos3cf>t) c:n
c:::
~
t!l
<
t!l
c:n
c:n
t!l
l""'
t:l
t!l
c:n
....
0
z
SPHERICAL SHELLS 235
() = 0. From the flexibility matrices for the cylinder and sphere, the un-
restrained deflections for S and G are
M99 = vM<Pt/>
The twisting moment is of order I IP times the bending moments. In these
equations, f 3 c, f 4 c are the functions plotted in Fig. 5·4 with xfl = !n-~.
When Sis zero, the largest bending stress occurs at~ = tn(2-I/P) and is
approximately ±0·3Gfna2 t. When G is zero the largest bending stress due to
. . I 0·45 S
S IS approximate y a--. + p nat
Consider now the intersection between the head and the skirt which is
assumed to be semi-infinite. The stiffnesses are the same as those for axi-
symmetric loading given in § 6·3·3 and from Eqns. 4·42 and 4·43 the edge
forces on component i are given by
'F.\
.ri "-'; [-*
= :;;=; -*]
Dl-Di
236 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The resultant shear force and bending moment are transmitted down the
skirt and, in the absence of surface loads, there are no membrane stresses
in the lower part of the head, so fii = 0. The resultant loads applied at the
top of the skirt are 02 , 2 = -S0 fn, rV2 , 2 = -G0 /n where S0 = S and
G0 = G-aS cos <Po are the resultant loads at the skirt intersection.
From the flexibility matrices for the cylinder and the upper part of the head
fii 1 [
=; ~)
0
E;0 rl [Sol
2
G 0
D~ 1 [
0
Et 1 ~;:2 4J0 a2~~~0 l [Sol
n -(1+v) -cot</J 0 G
Et 1 asin </J 0
2 2f3iD 1 sin</J 0 °
The unrestrained deflections for the upper part of the head are the sum of
the deflections produced by H~ = -(G0 cot </J 0 )/n a sin <Po and the membrane
values fi;m. The total system of bending forces which act on the edge of
the upper part of the head can be expressed in the form
[H3;~;] = C[fi!-n:mJ
3
The stress intensifications at the support are considerably higher than those
at the junction of the head and barrel. For example, when aft 1 = 50,
<Po = 50° and ttft 2 = 2, the maximum bending stresses induced at the support
by the moment are respectively 1·8u, 2·4u, 2·4u where u = G0 fnr 2 t 2 is the
membrane stress in the skirt. The bending stresses are tensile on the inner
surfaces at 0 = 0.
The step change in stress from 1·8u to 2·4u from the lower to the upper
part of the head cannot occur in practice, but no information on the actual
distribution can be obtained from a theory in which the junction geometry
is approximated to the intersection of two surfaces. The surface stresses at
the junction can be significantly higher than the values calculated unless
suitable fillet radii are provided. Peterson (12) gives values of stress concen-
tration factors at fillets in plates and his results may be used to find approxi-
mate peak stresses in shells by applying the factors to the meridional stresses.
The bending stresses due to the moment and shear force can be reduced
by providing a thicker skirt and increasing its diameter. The latter measure
reduces the value of cot </J 0 , which is the predominant term in the expression
for the unrestrained displacements. However, a thicker skirt produces higher
SPHERICAL SHELLS 237
The stresses due to a shear force and bending moment on a nozzle can be
calculated by using Eqn. 6·77 with appropriate stiffnesses and unrestrained
displacements. For the cylinders, the stiffness matrices are identical to those
used in § 6·3·3 for axi-symmetric loading. The stiffness matrix for the sphere
has the same form as the axi-symmetric matrix but contains Bii in place of
B;i where
The axi-symmetric and lateral loading systems considered so far are particular
terms in a general Fourier series with deflections of the form
u = u,sinnO; v = v,cosnO; w = w,cosnO
The analysis of a general loading system, such as that imposed when a sphere
is supported at discrete points, can be carried out by taking more terms in a
Fourier series, or by some numerical technique such as the influence line
method. The procedure for a Fourier analysis follows the stages adopted for
lateral loading and the stress resultants are of the form
cos nO cos nO
Npq " -.--n ;
' sm nv
Mpq" -.--n
' sin nu
238 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The trigonometric function associated with the stress resultants are the same
as those for lateral loading. Again a membrane solution can be sought by
supposing the radial shears to be zero or negligible. The solution of Eqn. 6·6
for the direct forces is then
f{n
where Am Bn are constants of integration and,
-2 f a {n-coscp } -n/ 2 • 2
sin cp Pzn+ Pq,n- Pen P sm cfJ dcp
1- COS cp)n/ 2
( = tann-cp
1 +cos cp 2
When n = 0, 1 these equations give the same values for the stress resultants
as Eqns. 6·13 and 6·59 respectively. The deflections can be expressed in terms
of the direct stress resultants by integrating the first three rows of Eqn. 6·1 0
and using the results in Eqn. 6·9
a sin cp
-nun+~ [Nee,n-VNq,q,,n]
1 d n(1+v) -n/ 2
- Et dcp [Nee,n-v Nq,q,,n]- lEtsincp[(Cn+In)(n-coscp)p
-(Dn+Jn)(n+cos cp) pn12 ]
In these equations Cn and Dn are two further constants of integration and
din 2Nq,e n-Nq,q, n-Nee n n dJn 2Nq,e,n+Nq,q,,n-Nee,n -n
d cp = . sin cp. , p ; dcp sin cp p
SPHERICAL SHELLS 239
If the values of the stress resultants due to the terms A"' Bn are substituted
into these formulae and constants of integration are absorbed in e"' Dn
2Anp -n(n-cos cf>)
(n 2-1) sin 2cf>
If these values are substituted into Eqn. 6·79, the moments can be obtained
from Eqn. 6·10
-M88,n
(6·80)
Me .. ,n = !__ n(n2-l)[e p-n/2 -D pnf2]
'I' 24a sin 2 cf> n n
When the moments are used in the last two rows of Eqn. 6·10 it is found
that N~z,n = N 8z,n = 0. This means that the terms containing Am Bn in
Eqn. 6·78, which were obtained by assuming that the radial shears could be
neglected, are in fact exact solutions of Eqns. 6·6 and 6·1 0. Similarly the terms
in Eqns. 6·79 and 6·80 containing e"' Dn are exact solutions of the bending
problem. The A"' Bn solution consists of a pure membrane behaviour of the
shell, as the bending moments are identically zero, whereas the en, Dn solu-
tion consists of inextensional bending behaviour because the direct forces
are identically zero.
Taking both solutions together, there are now four constants available to
satisfy the edge boundary conditions whereas eight are needed if the loads
U, V, H, M (Fig. 4·14) are specified at both edges of the shell. Neither of the
solutions obtained so far can be used to specify a radial shear force at the
boundary, and it can be anticipated that general bending of the shell will
produce extension in the shell. Consequently, we can expect that the extra
solutions we need will be strongly associated with N~z and M~~· and will
probably be of the highly damped edge effect type. This indicates that a
solution can be found by following the procedure used in § 6·4·2, where all
the stress resultants and deflections were found in terms of N 8z sin cf> and the
equation to be satisfied by this variable was obtained from the moment
equilibrium equation. When these calculations are carried out, it is found
that all the variables can be expressed in terms of four constants of integra-
tion, elm •.. , e4n• and four independent functions,ft,fz,/3,/4 where
Nez,nsincf> = C1nf1 +C2n/2+C3n/3+C4nf4
and / 1 + i/2 , / 3- i/4 are the independent solutions of
240 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
If (cot cp)f{J is small and n is not too large, the solution to this equation can
be approximated to the Hetenyi type given in Eqn. 6· 32 and used for both the
ctxi-symmetric and lateral loading cases. For this to be acceptable, n 2 ~ 1 +
2{J 2 sin 2 ¢, so if rft = 100 for example and !n~c/J~tn, n should not
exceed 3.
The solution of the governing equation is presented by Fliigge (13) and he
includes tables originally calculated by Havers (2). Leckie and Penny (8)
have applied Langer's method of asymptotic integration to this equation and
they also include the expressions for all the stress resultants in terms of
N 8 z sin¢.
When the shell has two edges, all eight constants of integration are required
and the flexibility matrix is obtained by eliminating the constants of integra-
tion between the expressions for edge forces and edge deflections. If the shell
has only one edge the two oscillatory solutions which produce stresses that
decrease with distance from the edge should be selected, together with
functions from the other solutions which remain finite at the pole. For
example, if the shell is a cap containing the pole ¢ = 0 the constants Am Cn
must be taken as zero; this leaves Bm Dn and two of the Cin to satisfy the edge
conditions.
REFERENCES
7·0 INTRODUCTION
Tto calculate
analysis in Chapters 5 and 6 is often sufficient to enable the designer
HE
the stresses in the basic shell of a pressure vessel, but in
many cases it must be supplemented by a knowledge of the behaviour of
cones, toroids, ellipsoids, etc. These shapes of shell are usually employed as
transition pieces or end closures and because they introduce a rapid change
of shape they are often highly stressed.
The procedure used for cylindrical and spherical shells is applicable to the
general shell of revolution, although it is often more difficult to obtain an
explicit solution because the radii of curvature are variable. The starting
point of the analysis is the set of equilibrium equations and stress-deflection
relations for thick shells which are quoted in§ 7·1. No closed form solutions
are given, but a numerical method of solution for axi-symmetric loading is
suggested. The basic equations for thin shells are derived from the thick shell
equations in§ 7·2 and the rest of the chapter is concerned with axi-symmetric
loading on thin shells.
Formal membrane solutions, obtained from the general equations by
neglecting the radial shearing force, are derived in§ 7·3·1, but it is found that
the accuracy of these solutions depends upon the rapidity with which the radii
of curvature change. The regions where membrane solutions may be used are
established in the sections dealing with the different shapes of shell.
The bending behaviour of a general shell of revolution has been studied
by many authors including Fliigge (1) and Timoshenko (2), who terminate
their examination after establishing two governing differential equations in
the radial shearing force and tangent rotation. These authors continue their
analysis by transforming these equations into co-ordinates appropriate to
shells of different shape. In §§ 7·3·2 and 7·3·3 it is shown that a single formal
solution is possible for a wide range of shells if appropriate changes in
variables are made. The range includes all shells commonly used in the
construction of pressure vessels, and when the relevant co-ordinates are
used the solution reduces in each case to that given by the authors cited above.
This unified theory can be carried even farther when dealing with shells
241
242 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
which are truncated sufficiently far from the poles, because the governing
functions in Eqn. 7·37 are then applicable for all shapes of shell. The flexi-
bility matrix in Table 7·1 is applicable under this condition and reveals
clearly the similarity in the behaviour of all shells of revolution loaded by
edge forces. The bending behaviour under surface loading can be determined
now that the general governing functions are available, but numerical
integration is necessary in most cases. Two alternative numerical methods
of analysis are given in § 7·3·4 and in some cases it is quicker to use one of
these instead of employing the closed form results.
is the angle between the axis and the normal to the mid-surface at P 0 , 9 is
the angle between the meridional plane containing P0 and a reference plane.
For some shells the surface is most easily defined by an equation of the type
Z = Z(r) giving the height of P0 above a reference plane in terms of the
cylindrical radius. When this is the case the co-latitude and the two principal
radii of curvature at P0 are given by
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 243
dZ
tanc/J
dr
1 d 2Z
-cos 3 cfJ- (7·1)
Rt d r2
1 sin cfJ
R2 r
The radii of curvature are illustrated in Fig. 7·2 where C 1P 0 is the radius of the
meridional plane and C 2 P0 is the second radius. A third co-ordinate is
C 1 P =R1 +z
C2 P = R 2+z
z
~---------------------1
FIG. 7·2 Principal radii of curvature for general shell of revolution.
required to specify the position of a general point P within the shell so let z
be the distance from P 0 toP along the normal through P 0 • It is assumed that
the normal to the mid-surface is also normal to the surface z = constant, so
the radii of curvature and the cylindrical radius at P are
R1 = R 1 +z; R 2 = R 2 +z; r = r+zsincfJ (7·2)
The elemental lengths along the chosen axes are R1dc/J, rdO, dz and from
Eqns. 7·1 and 7·2 and the known cylindrical radius
oR 1 or . or
oz = 1; oz = smc/J; ocfJ = R 1 cosc/J (7·3)
Love (3) and these are now written in the following form:
a a a
a4> [raq.<f>] + ao[R 1 O'q.o] + az[r R 1aq.,J +ra<t>,.- R 1cos t/>a99 +rR 1 F4> = 0
(7·4)
From the same source the strains can be calculated from the displacements
u, v, w parallel to 9, 4>, z and after substitution into the stress-strain equations
it is found that
(7·5)
cos¢] v oT Fz
+ { 2(1-v)+(1-2v)t-t 2} - - - = 2(1+v)oc-;--2(1+v)(1-2v)-
r R2 uz E ( 7 ·6)
+ 1+t-t
R2
ov] = 2(1+v)
oz R
oc oT _ 2 (l+v)(i- 2v) Fq,
o¢ E
1
When the shell is spherical R 1 = R 2 , f-l = 1 and Eqn. 7·6 reduces to Eqn. 6·3.
Similarly when R 1 d¢ = dx, 1/R 1 = 0, R 2 = r = constant and f-l = 0 the
shell is cylindrical and Eqn. 7·6 reduces to Eqn. 5·3. When the shell is conical
R 1 d¢ = ds, 1/R 1 = 0, (1/R 2 ) :; = 1/r, f-l = 0 and ¢ is constant. If these
values are substituted into Eqn. 7·6 and then¢ is set equal to zero, the equa-
tions obtained are merely a re-arrangement of the cylindrical form given in
Eqa 5~. _
For the general shell it is not possible to find solutions corresponding to
those for the cylinder and sphere given in Eqns. 5·4, 6·4 because the coeffi-
cients in Eqn. 7·6 are functions of both ¢ and z. However, it is quite feasible
to attempt a solution by finite difference methods using nodal points at the
intersection of the surfaces ¢ = constant, () = constant, z = constant.
Equation 7·6 holds only when the radii of curvature and their derivatives are
continuous, so caution should be exercised when setting up difference equa-
tions involving two shapes. Specification of the boundary conditions for the
difference equations can be a source of error, and this situation may be
worsened if there are discontinuities in the radii of curvature and their
derivatives.
246 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
a a .
a~ [rN</>z]+a() [RtN8z]-[R2N</>4>+R 1 N88]sm~ = -rR 1 pz (7·7)
a a
a~ [rM4>4>]+a() [R 1 M4>8]-R 1 cos~M88 -rR 1 N</>z = 0
u u+zxo
v v+z X.p (7·9)
w w
The terms u, v, w are the mid-surface deflections and Xq,, Xe are tangent
rotations. From a geometric consideration of the movement of a shell element,
the rotations are given in terms of the mid-surface deflection as
(a)
FIG. 7·3 Stress resultants on shell element.
X.p = - ; 1
[:; -v} Xe = --r1 [ow
af}
. un]
--u sm (7·10)
If azz is ignored in comparison with the other stresses and the deflections
from Eqn. 7·9 are substituted into Eqn. 7·5, expressions are obtained for the
stresses in terms of the mid-surface deflections. When z/R 1 , z/R 2 are ignored
in comparison with unity and these expressions are substituted into Eqn. 7·8,
the following values are obtained for the stress resultants:
_!!.!___
1-v2
[~ (ov +w)+~r (ou
R 1 oc/J iJfJ +wsinc/J+vcos¢)]-N
_E_ [~ ( 8 v +w)+! (au +wsin¢+vcos¢)]-N
1-v2 R 1 o¢ r ofJ
Et [__!:_ ou _ucot¢ +! ov]
2(1+v) R 1 oc/J R2 r ofJ (7·11)
In these equations
f:~~ f
t/2 t/2
EaTz dz
dz; M 1-v
-t/2 -t/2
When the applied loads are symmetrical about the axis, none of the functions
are dependent upon() and the tangential displacement u is zero. Under these
circumstances the equilibrium equations become
(7·12)
Et [Rv (dA:+w
--2
1-v
- v ) +-1 (wsmc/J+vcoscjJ)
d'f'
1 r
. J-N
(7·13)
v dxq, cot¢
Moo = D [ - --+--Xq, -M
J
R 1 dcp R2
The solution of Eqns. 7·12 and 7·13 is studied in the following sections.
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 249
t/>2
The constant V2 is the resultant axial force per radian applied at the edge of
the shell where ljJ = ljJ 2 • When the bending moments are neglected, the
deflections can be calculated from the first two rows of Eqn. 7·13. Working
in terms of the deflections normal and parallel to the axis
r
() = Et [N88 -vNq,q,+N(1-v)]
cot ljJ 1 d ()
Xq, = ~ [Nq,q,-vN88 +N(1-v)]- R 1 sinljJ dljJ (7·14)
"'
The deflections produced by an axial load V2 applied in a membrane
manner at l/J 2 can be found by substituting the stress resultants from Eqn.
7·13 1 into 7·14. Retaining the notation Jl = R 2 /R 1 these deflections are
(JJ.+v) v2
(j =
Et sin ljJ
The axial force therefore produces a rotation which implies the existence of
moments and shear forces which were neglected in the derivation of Eqns.
7·131 and 7·15. These forces and moments are negligible if p?, p(dJLfdc/>) are not
too large provided the co-latitude is not too small. The region of applicability
of the membrane solution is examined in subsequent sections.
When the normal pressure Pz = P = constant and pq, = 0, ~ = !P(r 2 - d)
where r2 is the cylindrical radius at the edge c/> 2 • If the shell is closed, or is
attached to another shell which contains the pressure, there is an applied
axial force V 2 = tPr~, so the stress resultants and deflections from Eqns.
7·13 1 and 7·14 are
PR 2
Nq,q,
2
Nee PR 2 ( 2 -JL)
2
PrR 2
J - (2-JL-V) (7·16)
2Et
Xq, PR
- 2 [ Jl dJL
2Et
--(3-JL)(1-JL)cot¢
de/>
J
Dv-Dv 1 = I
2~t "'' rR{1-(2-JL)v+cot¢{Jl ~; -(3-JL)(1-JL)cot¢}] de/>
"'
Again the rotation has a non-zero value and the membrane solution may be
used for only a limited range of co-latitude.
Jds JR dc/>
s "'
s = = 1 (7·17)
0 0
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 251
Adopting the notation of § 4·5 the forces per radian normal and parallel to
the axis are H and V2 as shown in Fig. 7·4. The stress resultants in the
curvilinear co-ordinate system are
Nee = H'
~ ~
H2 H2
, coscf>
M 88 = D [ vxl/1+-r- X"'
J
In these equations the prime denotes differentiation with respect to the arc
lengths. The values for N"'"'' NI/Jz have been calculated by resolving H, V2
parallel and normal to the shell and Nee was obtained from the first two rows
of Eqn. 7·12. Both of the force equilibrium equations are satisfied by the
stress resultants in Eqn. 7·18 because the axial force V2 is constant. The
252 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The second row of Eqn. 7·14 gives an expression for the tangent rotation Xq,
in terms of the stress resultants and D; the last row of Eqn. 7·12 gives the
radial shear in terms of the moments. Substitution of the values from Eqn.
7·18 into these two equations and use of Eqn. 7·3 leads to the following
conditions on H and Xq,:
cos¢ 1 (cos 2 ¢ cos cf> ( 1
v )
H + - - H - - - - - - H+-
11 Etxq,
= - - +Jlv) -V 2
r r2 R 1R 2 R2 r R2 (7.20)
" cos cp 1 (cos 2 cp
= -cos
v ) H cp V2
Xq,+--xq,- --2-+-- Xq,--- -- -
r r R 1R 2 DR 2 D r
These equations are analogous to Eqn. 6·21, which is the form taken by
Eqn. 7·20 when R 1 = R 2 = constant. A particular solution for Hand Xq, in
terms of V2 can be found by the method of variation of parameters once the
homogeneous solution in which V 2 = 0 is available. This process is described
later and for the moment we take V 2 = 0.
The first step in the search for a solution of the homogeneous equations is
to multiply the second equation by a constant C and add it to the first
equation. This leads to
( H+ C Xq, ) 11 cos cp
+-- ( ) 1 cos 2 cp (
H+CXq, - - -
C )
H+ Xq,-
2 -
r r
(7·21)
k2 = - ~t ( 1-1: 1;;i)
v2
Now tfR 1 is a small quantity which has been neglected in comparison with
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 253
When these values for k are substituted into the equations for C and the
terms of order t/R 1 are neglected, it is found that C = Dk, which is constant.
Hence Eqn. 7·21 can be written in the following form:
(H+Dkx.;)
, cos tjJ
+ - (H+Dkx.;)- - +- 2-
t/J)
(2i p 2 cos 2
(H+Dkx.;) = 0
r R r2
These values may be substituted into Eqn. 7·18, to give the remaining stress
resultants in terms of the constants of integration c1, ... , c4 and the
functions/!> ... ,/4 :
/ 1 cot tjJ / 2 cot tjJ / 3 cot tjJ / 4 cottjJ
N.;.; c1
R2 R2 R2 R2
Nee f{ !2 ~~ ~~ c2
!1 !2 !3 /4 c3 (7·25)
N.;z R2
R2 R2 R2
g2 gl g4 g3 c4
M.;.; -2p2 -2p2 2p2
2p2
G2 G1 G4 G3
Moo -2p2 -2p2
2p2 2p2
I*
254 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
In this equation
g}.
__ f·'+v cot cj> f·. G.J
, cot cj> f·
= v1·+--
J R2 J' J R2 J
The deflections can be found from Eqn. 7·19 and the normal deflection and
rotation have the values
(7·26)
where
h . = !~ _ v cot cj> f·
J J R2 J
These equations for the stress resultants and deflections have almost the
same form as Eqns. 6·25 and 6·26, and the formal algebra leading to the
flexibility matrix is very similar and will not be repeated here. In particular,
the matrices [bii] 4 x 4 , [cii] have the same formal definition but the values of
jj, gi, hi are those yet to be found from the solution of Eqn. 7·23. When the
edge forces are known, the constants are given by
s2 [ J']" [ J']'
f -
s
+s
s R2
[2i
f - - - p 2 s2 + 3s 2 cos2 2 cj> +!
4r
J[f J']-s = 0 (7·29)
This equation is now very like Bessel's equation and is the central equation
in the theory. It can be solved explicitly for the degenerate cases of the cone,
cylinder and flat plate. For the cylinder it leads to the same result as the
analysis in Chapter 4 and the flat plate and cone results are given in later
sections of this chapter.
0
til
ztil
:=
>
t"'
tl.>
II:
til
t"'
t"'
tl.>
N
Vl
Vl
256 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
where A and r are constants. The linearly independent solutions of Eqn. 7·30
are l.(AZ), K,(AZ) where I, K are known as modified Bessel functions of the
first and second kinds.
Equation 7·29 is identical in form to Eqn. 7·30 for a cylinder, because
rjJ = !n and R 2 is constant. Also
A = ±(1+i) .J~ 2 ; r =!
( =J
1112 AZ) 2 smh
-A
n Z
. (AZ); K 112 (AZ) = J-2 e -AZ
nAZ
(7·31)
so the solution ofEqn. 7·29 under these circumstances leads to the exponenti-
ally damped oscillating solutions found in Chapter 5.
For the general shell of revolution Eqn. 7·29 has the same form as Eqn.
7·30, but A and r are functions of rjJ instead of constants. It is possible to
change the independent variable in Eqn. 7·29 to Z = Z(s) in such a way that
the coefficient of Z 2(f.J(rfs)) becomes constant. If the dependent variable is
changed simultaneously to make the coefficient of the first derivative equal
to Z, the following governing equation is obtained.
d 2+
Z2 - YZ - . 2 Z 2 +it/! 2 cot 2 r / J1+ -Z+ -d- ( -
d Y- [ 2zp Z d IX)] y = 0
dZ 2 dZ 41X 2 IX dZ .JIX -
dZ 2.J
The variables in this equation are
Y = R:/4 Ji f = f Jsi:rjJ
f.JR2
s
ds
z (7·32)
0
t/1 =
f
1
.JR2 .JR2;
s
ds
IX
1
0
r
2 • [
=~~~ it/!
2 2 1 Z Z
cot r/J+41X 2 +2.J1XdZ .JIX dZ
d( diX)] =~!
. G=Go (7·33)
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 257
Z 2 d2 y z d y [2. 2 z2 2 G GJ -- 0 (7·34)
dZ 2 + dZ- 1 p + 't + - 0 y
If the radii of curvature are not changing too rapidly near <P = 0, the term
G- G0 is much smaller than the remaining coefficients. When this term is
neglected, Eqn. 7·34 is identical to 7·30 and therefore has the two independent
solutions
1, (xJi); K, (xJi)
where
x = Pr/JJ2; P = t'{3(1-v 2)} J~ 2 0·35)
From the properties of Bessel functions and the preceding formulae, the
values of the functions/1 , ••• ,J4 in Eqn. 7·24 are
J; = PJ2
R2
[J~ (ber,x)'+2-(l+Jl)r/Jcot</J
(sm</J) 4 x
.bJ
!4. = PJ2
R2
[_ J-"'-
(sin</J)
(b . )' 2-(l+Jl)r/Jcot</J f 4 ]
et,x + 4 x
where the dot denotes differentiation with respect to x.
The stress distribution in a general shell of revolution for which the limit
defined in Eqn. 7·33 exists, can be calculated by using the functions from
Eqn. 7·36 in Eqns. 7·25-7·28. When the shell is spherical R 1 = R 2 = R =
constant, s = R</J, r/1 = </J, ex = 1, • = 1, Jl = 1, and the above formulae
reduce to those given in Chapter 6.
For large values of x, the Kelvin functions may be replaced by their
asymptotic expansions which introduce sinusoidally damped, exponenti-
ally decaying functions. This result can be obtained directly from the
differential equations by supposing large Z to imply large <P and a value of ex
258 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
which is approximately unity. If terms containing cot¢ and drxfdz are ignored
the governing equation takes the form ofEqn. 7·30 with t = !, so the solution
under these circumstances is that given in Eqn. 7·31. Mter some manipula-
tion, it can be shown that it is possible to write the four solutions of Eqn.
7·29 as
1
RY\/sin ¢ e-(p,ofJ,-m[cos(P11/11- Pl/l)-sin(P11/11- Pl/1)]
1
R114.J . ¢ e-<P'"'' -m[cos (P11/11- Pl/1) +sin (P11/11- Pl/1)]
2 Sill
This equation is analogous to Eqn. 6·32 and when R 1, R 2 are constant the
only difference between the two sets of functions is a constant multiplier,
which can be incorporated in the constants of integration. The derivatives
of R 2 - 114, and (sin ¢)- 1' 2 both contain cot¢ as a multiplying factor and if
these terms are retained, a solution equivalent to the Hetenyi solution for
spherical shells is obtained.
By analogy with the solution for spheres, it is reasonable to neglect the
cot ¢ terms if the shell is such that all values of ¢ lie above the upper curve
in Fig. 6·4. When these terms are ignored hi = gi = f} and
p
f{ = : 2 U2-f1); !3 = R2 (!3+!4)
(7·371 )
n= p
- R2 U1 +!2); !4 =
p
-
R2
(!4-!3)
The values of the functions from Eqns 7·37 can now be substituted into
Eqn. 7·27 to give the expression (on p. 259) for the constants in terms of
the edge forces. In this equation A.l> JI1, etc., have the same form as the
expressions in Eqn. 5·26 with y = P11/1 1-P2 1/1 2 • The values listed in Table
5·2 and the curves plotted in Fig. 5·4 are directly applicable when
evaluating the preceding formulae. The flexibility matrix associated with
the edge forces H, M is found from Eqn. 7·28 using Eqn. 7·37 to find the
elements b ii defined in Table 6·1. This matrix is given in Table 7·1 (p. 260).
0
tt1
ztt1
~
>
t"'
til
::c
tt1
t"'
t"'
til
0
"fl
~
tt1
N
VI
1.0
~
TABLE 7·1
FLEXIBILITY MATRIX FOR GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION (10 cot <f>~/3)
H1 Mt Hz Mz
Ot ltRi,t sin tPt lltRz,t lzRz,tRz,zv'(sin tPt sin t/Jz) /lz(Rz,tRz,z)t Rz,t)tJsin tPt
2P~D zp:n 2<PtP2P 12 D 2PtPzD Rz,z sin t/Jz
Xt * ~ -pz(Rz,tRz,z)t(Rz,z)tJsin t/1 2 Vz
P 1 Dsin tPt 2PtPzD Rz,t sin tPt (PtPz)t D v'(sin tPt sin t/Jz)
The flexibility matrix is symmetrical about its leading diagonal and reduces
to the spherical form given in Table 6·2 when R 2 is constant. However, the
length characteristics have different numerical values from those in Table
6·1 unless the shell is spherical. When the shell is semi-infinite the 2 x 2
matrix associated with each edge is the same as that for a tangent sphere at
the edge, but the stress distribution is different because IN is different from
pcjJ.
We now return to Eqn. 7·20 with a view to finding a particular solution
that provides the stress distribution due to the externally applied axial force
V2 • If the various transformations of variables are applied to the right-hand
side of Eqn. 7·20 and terms of order t/R are neglected, the equation can be
reduced to the form of Eqn. 7·34 with a term on the right-hand side. Neglect-
ing the quantity G- G0 this can be written
d2 y 1 d y [ . 2 -r2] 2i p 2 Rif4 cos cjJ
(7·39)
dZ2 + Z dZ- 21 p + Z2 y = .J(Z sin cjJ) V2
Applying the method of variation of parameters, we know that the solutions
of the homogeneous equation are I,, K, so we try a solution of Eqn. 7·39
in the form
Y = Y1I,+y2K,
If we choose y 1 and y 2 so that
dy1 I+ dy2 K 0 (7·40)
dZ ' dZ '
the first and second derivatives of y are
dy di, dK,
dZ y 1 dZ+y 2 dZ
d 2y d 2I, d 2K, dYt di, dy 2 dK,
dZ 2 = y dZ 2 +Yz dZ 2 + dZ dZ+ dZ dZ
1
Substituting these values for y and its derivatives into Eqn. 7·39 leads to
the condition that
2i p 2 Ri' 4 cos cjJ
.J(ZsincjJ) V2
Equations 7·40 are now two equations for the first derivatives of y 1 and y 2
which have the solution
dy 1
dZ
2ip 2 Ri 14 coscjJ [ di,
.j(Zsinc/J) K, K, dz-I• dZ
1 dK,J-
2ip 2R 21 ' 4 cos..l.
.J(Zsinc/J)
.,.. I
•
[ K ___!-I
di
• dZ
dK•
-
• dZ
J- 1
262 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
where
Now that Hand X.p are known, the remaining stress resultants and deflec-
tions can be obtained from Eqns. 7·18 and 7·19. Employing the notation of
Eqns. 7·25 and 7·26 they are as shown on p. 263.
The values for the stress resultants and deflections in Eqns. 7·41 and 7·42
are a particular solution of the bending equations for which H = M.p.p = 0
at s = s2 • However, at edge 1 the functions rxi are not zero, so this solution
requires the application at edge 1 of
Hi -Hit
(7·43)
::c
trl
t""
t""
(/l
0
"rj
~
-2{3 2 cotcjJ 2 /3 2 cot cjJ - 2 /3 2 cot cjJ 2/3 2 cot cjJ trl
v,
N.pq,- R2 C(l I <
R2 !4 R2 ft 0
r R 2 f3 R 2 !2
t""
IX2
e
Nee -2{32!~ 2{32 !~ -2/32!~ 2/32!{ I >-l
V2 .....
0
Mq,q, = -R2g3 -R2g4 R2g1 R2g2 IX3 I (7·42) z
Mee -R2G3 -R2G4 R2Gt R2G2 IX4
1-.)
0'1
t..>
264 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
When these values are substituted in the moment equilibrium equation and
the expression for X<P in Eqn. 7·14, the governing equations become
cos <P , (cos 2 <P v ) Et X<P L cot <P
H
11
+--r
H- - - - - -
r2 R 1R 2
H+--
R2
=
R2
(7·45)
cos <P , (cos 2 <P v ) H M' <I>cot</J
X<P11 +-- X<P- --2-+-- X<P _ __ ----
r r R 1R 2 R2 D D R2 D
where
(7·48)
f ~:~Jcos <P ds
s
rx3 ;
2
[(<I>- M' R 2 tan <P )f3 -
S2
When these formulae are evaluated, the <I> term in L may be neglected because
it is of order t/R 2 times the term <I>fi which appears in all the formulae. The
remaining stress resultants and deflections can now be calculated from H
and X<P by using Eqns. 7·18 and 7·19 and adding the terms in Eqn. 7·44:
0
11:1
z
11:1
:=
>
t""
1:1)
11:1
=
t""
t""
1:1)
~
VI
266 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
0 = r N(l-v)
Et
-R 2 N'(1-v)
X~=
Et (7·49)
.,
c5v-ov 1 = JN(l-v)ds
Et
s
r r R2
The equations relating Q,+ 1 , Q~+l to Qm Q~ have the same form with Pm
Q,, P~ replaced by Qm Pm Q~ and X replaced by Y. Hence it is possible to
calculate values for Pm P~, Qm Q~ for all values of n if the starting values at
s 2 are known. Four sets of starting values are arbitrarily chosen, e.g.
[A 1 0 0 0], [0 A 2 0 0], [0 0 A 3 0], [0 0 0 A4 ].
If [1 0 0 0] produces at node n values [P, 1 Q, 1 P~ 1 Q~ 1 ] and [0 1 0 0]
produces values [P, 2 Q, 2 P~ 2 Q~ 2 ], etc., the values at s, for a general loading
system are
P, P,t P,2 P,3 P,4 At
Q, Q,l Q,2 Q,3 Q,4 A2 (7·52)
P'II p~l p~2 p~3 p~4 A3
Q~ Q~l Q~2 Q~3 Q~4 A4
The force normal to the axis and the tangent rotation are given by
expressed in terms of the constants by using Eqns. 7·18 and 7·19. The con-
stants are determined in the usual way from the boundary conditions:
Hl H ) at s = St Hz = -H ) at s = Sz
M1 = -rMq,q, Mz = rMq,q,
When the constants have been found, the stress and deflection distributions
are completely determined. To calculate the flexibility matrix, it is necessary
to find four sets of constants by putting [H1 M 1 Hz Mz] equal to [1 0 0 0],
[0 1 0 0], [0 0 1 0] and [0 0 0 1] in turn. These four sets of constants can also
be used to find the stress and deflection distributions due to unit force or
moment at the edges.
The particular solution of the governing equations required when there is
an axial load, surface load or a non-uniform temperature distribution can
be found by including the appropriate terms in the functions X, Y used in
Eqn. 7·50. The extra terms, obtained from an inspection of Eqns. 7·20 and
7·45 are respectively
cos<f>(l ) Vz Lcot<f> cos¢ M'
-- +JlV - + - - ; ---(Vz+<l>)+-
r Rz Rz Dr D
The starting values for the integration can be chosen to suit two boundary
conditions at s = Sz. For example, if edge 2 is unrestrained, H = Mq,q, = 0
at n = 1 ; two further conditions are required and these may be arbitrarily
taken as D = Xq, = 0 at n = 1. The choice of the last two conditions will in
general imply the existence of a force H and moment Mq,q, at edge 1. If
this edge is also unrestrained the effect of the implied force and moment
must be removed by using the solution for edge loads. If this procedure is
adopted the starting values are
!. 1 = fn+l-fn-1
n 2h
!.n"= fn+l-2fn+fn-l
hz
When the applied loading terms from Eqn. 7·45 are included, the finite
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 269
r,,,
(7·53)
and </J,., r,., etc., are the values of </J, r, etc., at node n. This equation must
be satisfied at all nodal points within the shell. The values of W at the
auxiliary nodes 0 and N + 1 are eliminated by means of the boundary con-
ditions and hence
r 0 W0 +A 1 W 1 -r 0 W 2 = Y0
-ro WN-1-AN WN+ro WN+t = YN+t
where
r, ~ r: _] ~ ~ [: 2'h::s~,J A• ~ [: 2'h~~s~,J
Y, [~H(~'+Mf,)JY.., ~ [~H(~'-Mf,)J
270 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The equations that must be solved simultaneously for the force normal to
the axis and the tangent rotation are therefore
~
trl
r:...
'-'
....
~
0
~
. ~
+
:.;
II
....
-;
+
~ . ~
:.;
== = ....
+
:.;
:i 0
j;..,j j;..,j
:.;
=....
:i :.;
j;..,j
<I
....
.
I
+ :.;
:i
j;..,j"
0
j;..,j j;..,j
. I
j;..,j" ==
....
.
I
j;..,j"
== =
.....
rl
0
j;..,j j;..,j
I
.... ,..;'
< j;..,j
.....
0
0
j;..,j j;..,j
= ==
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 271
This equation may be solved for a number of. different right-hand sides to
obtain the influence coefficients and the values for Hand X.p due to a particular
loading system. Once the equation has been solved, the remaining stress
resultants and deflections can be calculated from Eqns. 7·18 and 7·44. When
the shell is complete at 4J = 0, an alternative formulation is required because
the values of H 2 and M 2 are then unknown. It is possible to derive alternative
equations by considering the limits of the stress resultants as 4J approaches
zero, but the easiest method consists of using Eqn. 7·54 with a very small
value of 4J 2 and applying the boundary conditions () 2 = x2 = 0.
The co-ordinate system for a thick flat plate is the same as that for a cylinder,
but when the plate is thin the stress resultants are found by integrating with
respect to axial instead of radial distance. The curvature is zero in all direc-
tions and the arc length is equal to the radial distance from the inside boun-
dary, so
1 1
- = - = 4J = 0: s = r
Rt R2
The governing variables are H, the radial force per radian, and x, the tangent
rotation. Combining Eqns. 7·18, 7·19 and 7·44, the remaining stress resultants
and deflections under general axi-symmetric loading are
H
N,
r
Noo H'+rp,
J
r
N,"' -- 1
V2- - rp dr
r r "'
rz
(7·55)
M, = D [x;+~ x,J-M
Moo D [vx;+~ x,J-M
'•
J x,dr
1
() = - [rH'-vH +r 2 p,+rN(1-v)]; bv-bv 1 =
Et
r
The stress resultants and deflections are shown in Fig. 7·5 (p. 272).
The governing equations for Hand x, are independent because l/R 2 = 0.
272 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Including in Eqn. 7·20 the loading term from Eqn. 7·45leads to the following
governing equations:
J
r
M'- -
- 1
V2 - - rp dr
D rD rD z
The constants are found in the usual way from the boundary conditions
H1 H } H 2 = -H }
at r - r 1 at r = r2
M 1 = -rM,, M 2 = rM,,
After evaluation of the constants and substitution into Eqn. 7·55 it is found that
the equation becomes as shown on p. 273, where rdr = a, r2 /r = b.
The independence of the two governing equations is reflected throughout the
stress system, which splits into two separate parts. The first part is the Lame
solution for thick cylinders and the second part is a pure bending system.
The stresses due to an axial force V2 applied at the inner boundary are
obtained by finding a particular solution of Eqn. 7·56 1• The particular solution
may be taken as
H = 0
v2
Moo =2 [(1+v)log.a+1-v]
m
=
t"
t"
(/l
0
r,(l_:a') "!j
[ N" r, (1-b') ~
NBB 1 r1(1+b 2 ) r 2(1 +a 2)
l [ = -2-2
r1-r2 rr rr 2
l [=:l m
<
0
t"
() E: {(1-v)+(1+v)b 2 } Et {(1-v)+(1+v)a 2 } c
....>-l
0
M,, r r, (1-b') r, (1-a') z
MBB r 1(1+b 2 ) r2 (1 +a 2)
l rr2 2
l [::]
Xr I -1
= 2--z D( 1rr, 2) {(1-v)+(1+v)b, } D(1 -v 2) {(1-v)+(1+v)a} (7·561)
r 1-r2 -v
{Jv-()vl I
l r1 { rr-r 2 d
D 2(1+v)+1-v 1og.a
} r2 { rr-r~ ri
D 2(1+v)+1-v 1og.a
}
~
~
274 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
r (r
duced by
M *-
2 - -
2 V2 (1+v) 1
og. - 1 )
2 r2
The stress distribution due to this moment can be calculated from Eqn. 7·56.
In particular, the flexibility matrix for the system of loads shown in Fig. 7·6
is the matrix of coefficients in Table 7·2 (p. 275).
H = _( 1 ~v) f rNdr
r
x' = Dr
2_ f rMdr
These values can be substituted in Eqn. 7·55 to obtain a particular stress
and deflection distribution. In general, there will be edge forces associated
with this solution and edge moments and forces must be added to obtain an
unrestrained state. When these calculations are carried out it is found that
N, 1-b
= - - (1-v)
ri-d
2
I' rNdr--
1
1-v I' rNdr
r2
(7·57)
-1+b
r 1-
2
2- -2
2 r
(1-v) I' rNdr+-
1
1-v I' rNdr-N(1-v)
r
2
The moments have exactly the same form and can be obtained from Eqn.
7·57 by changing N to M. The shear force is zero and the deflections are
TABLE 7·2 0
trl
FLEXIBILITY MATRIX FOR FLAT ANNULAR PLATES ztrl
~
>
t"'
H1 M1 H2 M2 v2
til
0 0 0 1:1::
~1 1 2b1 trl
_!_e+bi_ J t"'
Et 1-b 1 v Et 1-b~ t"'
til
0
0 "!j
X1 • 1 2b1 r1 e-v ~
1 2)e+bi
D(1-v 1-bi -v J D(1-v 2) 1-bf - D(1-v 2) 2 - trl
<
0
- (l+v)bi log b J t"'
1-bi c 1 c::>-l
......
0
t52 • • 0 0 z
1 [l+bi
Et 1-b1 +v J
X2 • • • -r2 [1-v
1 2)e+bi
D(l-v 1-bi +v J D(l-v 2) 2 -
-bf log.b1
- 1l+v J
Jv2 -Jv1 • • • • 2
rf [ hi l+v
2D 1-bi 1-v (log.b 1) -
1+v 1
- 4! . 3+v(l-b2)]
N
*Denotes symmetrical element; b 1 = r2/r1 -...l
Vl
276 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
D [M88 -vM,,+M(l-v)]
r
=
Xr =D
1 ( -('J.3r+-;
('1.4)
where
('1.1 =! I r2
[(2+v)p,+r p;] dr
! I
r
('1.2 r 2 [(2+v)p,+rp;]dr
(7·58)
r2
f[ ~ f J
r r
('1.3
! r Pz dr dr
r2 r2
f[ f
r r
('1.4 =! r r Pzdr] dr
r2 r2
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 277
The stresses and deflections associated with this particular solution are
0(2 0(2
N,, = -0(1 +2; Noo = -0(1-2+r Pr
r r
0 r [ !X 1(1-v)+ !X2
--
Et
2 (1+v)-rp,
r
J
1-v
M,, -!X 3 (1+v)-!X4 - 2-
r
!X4(1-v)
Moo -!X 3(1+v)+ - 2-
r
r
Xr = D
1 [ -0(3 r+-;
0(4]
[
rt
(7·60)
If there is no central hole in the plate, r 2 must be put equal to zero in all the
preceding formulae. As an example of the application of Eqns. 7·59 and
7·60, suppose p, = 0, Pz = P = constant as in Fig. 7·7. Then
0(1 = 0(2 = 0
0(3 4 2 2
p [ -2-+r2loge ( r )]
r -r2 2 r2
p
0(4 = - [r2-dJ2
16
K
278 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The stresses and deflections can be found by direct substitution in Eqns. 7·59,
7·60 and 7 ·56. When there is no central hole in the plate the a functions become
(%1 0(2 = 0
Pr 2 Pr 4
0(3 (%4 =
8 16
z
Prt/2
The complete system of stresses and deflections for the plate loaded and
supported by the forces shown in Fig. 7·7 are therefore
N,, Noo = (> = 0
Pr
N,,.
2
p 2 2
M,, - - (r -r 1)(3+v)
16
Dv-Dv 1 = -p
64D
(r 21-r)
1+v
c+v
2 - - r 21 -r2)
The edge values of the displacement and rotation under this form of loading
are
usually found that the head must be made thick in comparison with the
cylinder, so we will include the effect of the offset of the forces from the mid-
surface of the plate. The forces H and M could be considered as distributed
loads on the underside of the plate, and then it would be necessary to sub-
divide the plate into two regions and compute the effects of p, and Pz on
the outer annulus by employing Eqns. 7·58 and 7·59. There is no difficulty
in principle, but the algebra becomes laborious; furthermore t/r 1 is small and
the distributed loads can therefore be replaced by a statically equivalent
system by St. Venant's principle.
The forces acting at the mid-surface of the plate are therefore
Hd
H1 = -H; M 1 = -M-2
From Eqn. 7·561 the flexibility matrix related to the displacements and forces
at the cylinder to head junction may be written as the matrix of coefficients
in the equation
l -l{-~>D,~:+v)} 2D,!l+v)llHl
li 1]
Xt
=
2D 1 (11-v) D 1 (1+v) M
A1F
Usually the bending stresses are high because most of the pressure expansion
of the cylinder is prevented, and there is a large rotation due to the high
value of the unrestrained rotation of the head. Graphs of maximum stresses
are given in Chapter 8.
The design of tube plates in heat exchangers sometimes requires a knowledge
of the behaviour of a flat plate which is supported by an elastic foundation
provided by the tubes. Suppose that the foundation modulus is such that
Pz = P-k4 D()v (7·62)
The rotation Xr is related to the displacement Dv by the equation
Xr = -Dv'
and the second row of Eqn. 7·56 becomes an equation for Dv. Multiplying
this equation by r and differentiating leads to
The solution of this equation when the surface load and temperature terms
are zero is
(jv = Cd1 +Czfz+Cd3+C4j4
where the Ci are constants of integration and
ker(kr) /2 kei(kr)
(7·64)
ber(kr) /4 bei(kr)
Hence the non-zero deflections and stress resultants are as shown on p. 281,
0
t!l
zt!l
::c
>
1:"'
(I>
::r:
t!l
1:"'
1:"'
(I>
0
l'!j
::c
t!l
DV l r fl fz !3 !4 <
cl l 0
1:"'
c::
L -~ -~ -~ -~ Cz ::l
0
M,, = k 2 D(g 1 +f2 ) k 2 D(gz-f1 ) k 2 D(g 3+f4) k 2 D(g4-f3) c3 (7·65) z
Mee -k 2 D(gl-vfz) -k 2 D(gz+vf1 ) -k 2 D(g 3 -vf4) -k 2 D(g 4 +vf3) c4
.
Nrz k 3 Dfz -k 3 Dft k 3 Dj4 -k 3 Dj3
N
00
-
282 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
where
g; = (1-v) -'
f.·
X
M1
V1
= -rM,,
= r N,,.
l at r = r 1
V2 = - r N,,.
M2 = rM,,
at r = r 2
l
When there is no central hole, C1 and C2 must be taken as zero because
ker x and kei x increase without limit as x approaches the origin. The remain-
ing constants can be found in terms of the edge forces from the above boundary
conditions at r1 :
(7·66)
· · 1-v(· •)
where
.!J. = !3, d4,1-!4, d3, 1 - ~ !371 + !4:1
[l [ l[l
If the foundation has no influence on radial movement, the flexibility matrix
for the forces Hl> M 1 and V1 is the matrix of coefficients in the equation
<5 1 Et 0 0 H1
1-v (7·67)
X1 0 a2, 2 a2, 3 M1
bv1 0 a2, 3 a3, 3 v1
where
. .
a2,2 = <if.1+if.1)/D!J.x1; a2,3 = {f3,d3,1+!4,d4,1)/kD.!J.x1
a3, 3 Uf.1 +ff.1 +h 1g3,1-!3,1 g4,1)/k 2D.!J.x1
Returning to Eqn. 7·63, it can be seen that when Pis constant a particular
integral may be taken as
C5v = Pjk4 D
(7·68)
x' = o
There are no forces or moments associated with this solution, which gives
the deflections when all the load is transmitted into the foundation. If all
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 283
the load is supported at the edge, V1 = -Pd/2 and there is no resultant load
on the foundation. However, there is a non-uniform deflection under these
conditions, so part of the foundation is compressed whilst the remainder is
I
[: l
7·68 and 7·65 with C 1 = C2 = 0 and C3 , C4 calculated from Eqn. 7·66
with M 1 = 0. In particular the edge values of the displacements are
= - ~ ~(!3,
U
[ J3,1 +!4, J4,1)
U
]--:- (7·69)
kD
bvt ff.t +ff.t +!4,1 g3,t-!3,t g4,1- x 1
284 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Consider the vessel shown in Fig. 7·9. There is symmetry about the plane
z = 0 and the barrel is assumed to be semi-infinite so that each half may be
considered separately. If there are n tubes of cross-sectional area a and
radius r0 with Young's modulus E,, the extension of the tubes from z = 0
under a load nP(d- nr~) is
(a) (b)
Comparing this with Eqn. 7·68 we see that the foundation constant k is
given by
k4 = E,na
1r (r~- nr~) lD
The axial load in the barrel is statically indeterminate and must be found
from a compatibility of displacement condition at the intersection of the
barrel and tube sheet. The unrestrained state can be taken either as the
condition when the tube sheet is held in equilibrium by an edge force, in
which case Eqn. 7·69 should be used, or as the condition when the axial loads
are supported by the tubes, for which the unrestrained displacements are
given by Eqn. 7·68. The axial loads acting in the first of these alternative
conditions are shown in Fig. 7·10(a), and Fig. 7·10(b) shows the edge forces
required to maintain continuity of displacement. The unrestrained displace-
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 285
ments from Eqns. 5·28, 5·29, 6·44 and the preceding work in this section are
p 2 vP 2 r~
c5~ 1r1---
2 1
X~ 0
Eltl'
l l•(P,- l
c5v1 z(Pzr~
- -vP 1r 1)
2r 1
c5*
[ x* - Iroo . rc5;l - rP2 r~(1-v)J
2E3t3
The conditions of equilibrium at the intersection of the head and tube sheet
give
Employing the flexibility matrices from Eqn. 5·28, Table 6·2 and Eqn. 7·67
the displacement conditions at the junction of the tube sheet with the barrel
and head lead to the equations in Table 7·3 (p. 286).
These equations can also be used for other forms of loading provided the
appropriate unrestrained displacements are used. Once the edge forces have
been calculated, the stress and deflection distributions can be found from
Eqns. 5·27, 6·34 and 7·65. Allowance is made for the presence of holes in
the tube plate by adjusting the value of E, v and D as discussed in § 16·3·1.
See also Chapter 16 for simplified design methods.
The co-ordinate system for a cone is shown in Fig. 7·11. The co-latitude is
constant and the meridional curvature is zero. Defining s to be the length
along the generator from the apex, we have
1
c/J = constant; R 1 = 0; R 2 = scot¢; r scos cP
N
00
0\
TABLE 7·3
HEAT EXCHANGER PROBLEM (FIG. 7·10)
y21 Yt (1-v) t v t I Ht t
2P~Dt - 2PfDt -Et - 2 a22 Etft- Z023 o*+ 2-x* -o*1
v 0 0 a23 . ovt-ov*
I H
Etft E 1 t 1r 1 + G33
1 1 I x~-x* c::
P3t) v ~
-r3- ( 1+2P3t)
- - r3- ( 1+- a23 -P2r~(r1-r3) tTl
2P~D3 r3 P3D3 2P~D3 r3 P3D3 + 022
2P3D3 <
tTl
(/l
(/l
tTl
t""
t:l
tTl
(/l
......
0
z
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 287
V Pr
N •• -- 2
+--
r sin cp 2 sin cp
Pr
sin cp
(7·71)
----+v V2 Pr (2
-v)
2
Et sin cp 2 Et sin cp
= V2 1 _ 3 Ps cot 2 cp
Xs Ets sin 2 cp 2 Et
Etsm
•
V2
2 cp
cos
(s
cp log. - 1) + P(sf-s
s 4
Et
2)
coscp[1-2v-3cot cp]
2
288 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
When this value for the rotation is substituted into the expression for the
moments it is found that
Moo = D
-
Et
2
2 . 2 </J - -
3 2
2 Pcot </J(1+v)
J
If these moments are substituted into the moment equilibrium equations, it
can be shown that N,z is zero, so the assumptions of the membrane solution
are justified. I
The moments in Eqn. 7·71 1 are small for a wide range of angles and can
usually be neglected. If the cone is so shallow that the moments are significant,
they must be included with the other stress resultants. To obtain an unre-
strained solution, the effects of edge momentslwhich cancel the value of M •• at
the edges must be added to the solution in Eqn. 7·71. Similar results may be
derived for other forms of surface loading.
When examining the bending behaviour o~ cones, we can therefore restrict
our attention to edge bending, with the possible exception of temperature
gradient effects, unless the surface loading is varying rapidly with distance
from the apex.
The governing variables for the bending behaviour of a cone are H, the
radial shear force, and x., the tangent rotation. The analysis in § 7·3·2 gives
all the required results in terms of the variables introduced in that section.
From Eqns. 7·32 and 7·35
1
2; 1{1 = 2 tan <P
(7·72)
fl ker 2 x; !2 = kei 2x
f{ 2xs (ker 2 x)"; !2 ~(kei 2 x)"
2s
(7·73)
!3 ber2 x; !4 -bei 2 x
The ker, kei functions of order 2 are related to those of order zero by the
formulae
Similar formulae exist for the ber2 and bei 2 functions and can be obtained
from Eqn. 7·73 1 by replacing ker, kei with her, bei respectively.
The bending behaviour of a cone under axi-symmetric loading is completely
described by Eqns. 7·47 and 7·25-7·28 with the functions taken from Eqn.
7·73. When the argument of the Kelvin function is large, say x~ 12, the
asymptotic form may be used and the functions from Eqn. 7·37 can be
employed. The argument of these functions is
= ~{3(1-v 2 )} Jtanc/J
--..~,. (Jr 1 -Jr)
tcos 'I'
The criterion that x~ 12 is sufficiently accurate for most calculations, but the
error in the asymptotic expressions is still several per cent. The complete
solution in Eqn. 7·73 should be used if there is a significant amount of further
calculation to be carried out after evaluation of the cone behaviour, unless
x ~ 20. In terms of the cylindrical radius, the first criterion becomes
Most conical shells used in pressure vessels have proportions which satisfy
this criterion and may therefore be analysed with the asymptotic formulae.
290 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Consider the conical reducer shown in Fig. 7·12 and suppose that the cone
is semi-infinite, and that the criterion in Eqn. 7·74 is satisfied for all points
on the cone: i.e.
(J r_Jr
1
t
2)
t
-Jsin¢ ~ 4.6 ;
cos¢
Jr 2 -Jsin¢
(t) cos¢
~ 6.6
r1 D
2f3f ]
/3 1 D~sin¢
In these matrices /3 1 is the cylindrical flexibilit~ characteristic. The unrestrained
displacements for the cylinder are simply the membrane displacements and
are obtained from Eqn. 5·29. The unrestrained displacements for the cone
are the sum of the membrane displacement$ and those produced by a force
H* = -!Pri cot¢, so
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 291
Pri(2-v)l [Pri(2-v)
Di = [ 2Et ; Di = 2Etsincp
3 Pr 1 cotcp
0 2Etsincp
The force and moment whose effect must be added to the unrestrained
solution are therefore
H -p 2- v
Pr; [ 2-v-----=---A,.+2fJ I.
1 cotcpysmcp
J 1 . -~..
1 + y 1Sill
J
4 1 Sill 'I' 'I'
_ Pri )sin cp cp [ 1 3
M - 4fJ 1 1+-Jsincp cot 2Pisincp
These forces and moments may be compared with those given in§ 6·3·3 for a
case of a part-spherical head on a cylindrical shell. It can be seen that the
difference between the two sets of formulae is due to the difference between
the membrane expansions of the cone and sphere. The stress distribution is
similar to the one shown in Fig. 6·6. This result could have been anticipated,
because it was realized in § 7·3·2 that use of the asymptotic formulae for a
semi-infinite shell is equivalent to replacing the shell with a tangent sphere.
The bending effects at the upper intersection can be calculated in the same
way. If the cone is short, both intersections must be considered simultaneously
and the forces obtained by solving the four simultaneous equations from
Eqn. 4·25.
A particular solution for a general loading system can be found by using
the functions from Eqn. 7·73 or 7·37 in Eqn. 7·48 and integrating analytically,
if this is possible, or numerically if it is not.
If the temperature distribution is such that N', M' are constant, it can be
seen that the exact solution of Eqn. 7·45 is
H -scotcpM'
N'(1-v)
x. = -scotcp--- Et
Hence the particular solution for the temperature distribution for which
N a 0 +a 1 s; M = b0 +b 1 s
is
(7·75)
292 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(> = ra.T
-ra. dT
Xs
sin <P ds
d(Jv
ds
. -~..
-a. T sm 'I' + r a. cot 'I' a;
-~.. dT
The main purpose of this analysis is to derive a solution which can be used
to calculate the stresses in the type of shell, shown in Fig. 7 ·13, often used
at changes in vessel thickness and in taper hub flanges. To complete the
structure in these cases, it is sometimes necessary to introduce a small
ring at each end of the variable thickness component. If the taper is
gradual, these rings will have very little effect and may be omitted,
whilst for a very steep taper, the component will be short and the whole
shell may be treated as a ring. From Eqns. 7·18 and 7·44 the stress resultants
and deflections are
1
N •• - [ H + (V2 +<I>) tan ¢]
s
Nee H' +r(pzsin ¢+ p.cos ¢)
1
Nsz - [ H tan¢- (vi+ <I>)]
s
M •• D1 s 3[, J v -M
x.+~x. (7·77)
Dt s 3[ ,+ J
v Xs 1 Xs - M
~
cos¢ [ vH . tan¢
- - H' - - + s cos¢ (Pz sm ¢ + p.cos ¢ )- v (V2 +<I>)--+
E1 s s
+N(l-v)J
dt5v sin ¢ [H ,
--vH +
(V2 +<I>) tan 4>
vscos¢(pzsin¢+p.cos¢)+
J-
ds E1 s s s
+ N ( 1- v) Xs cos¢
s
<I> = Jscos¢(Pz cos¢- p.sincf>)ds
S2
In these equations
The governing variables are H and x. and the equations which they must
satisfy are still obtained from the last equilibrium condition in Eqn. 7·12
and the expressions for the rotation from Eqn. 7·14. Using the stress resultants
and deflections from Eqn. 7·77 and working in terms of the variables s 2 x••
H it is found that
294 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(7·78)
H " ---2-H
(1-v) , E 1 tancf>( 2 )
+ 2 s X.
s s
where
(1-v)tancf> . .
L1 = 2 (V2 +ClJ)-scos cf>(p~sm cf>+ p~cos cf>)- p,.smcf> cos cf>
s
-p.(cos 2 cf>+v)-E1 s [N( 1 -v)]'
E1 s
Equation 7·78 is similar in form to Eqn. 7·20 and can be operated on in the
same way. When terms of order ejtan cf> are ignored in comparison with
unity, it is found that
H Ctf1 +Cd2+C3/3+C4j4
2p2
X. = ~ [Ctf2-Cd1-C3/4+C4j3]
E1 s
where / 1 + i/2 , / 3 - i/4 are the two independent solutions of the equation
! " - 2ip~ tan cf> f -_
s2
2. (M's
-+ClJ)
L1+ zpl2 - -V2 2- s
(7·79)
JED
and
p ~ = ! 1 = .J{3(1-v2 )}
1 s
Considering first the homogeneous solution associated with radial edge loads
and edge bending moments, the complete system of stress resultants is given
by the equation
/1 !2 /3 /4 c1
N •• s s s s
!1 !~ /3 !4. c2
Nee
/ 1 tancf> / 2 tancf> / 3 tancf> / 4 tancf> c3 (7·80)
Nsz =
s s s s
s g2 -sg1 -sg4 s g3 c4
M ••
2p~ 2p~ 2p~ 2pi
sG2 -sG 1 -sG4 sG 3
Me
2p~ 2p~ 2p~ 2p~
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 295
In this equation
, (1-2v)
G.J = vf·+
J s f.J
[()] [rh2pifz
1
= __!_ C2 (7·81)
Xs Et - -
s
The constants of integration can be found in the usual way from the boundary
conditions, and because 2pifs is equal to the quantity denoted by 2p 2 in
§ 7·3·2, the form ofEqns. 7·80 and 7·81 is the same as that ofEqns. 7·25 and
7·26. Hence the formula in Eqn. 7·27 may be used provided the values of 2p 2
multiplying M 1 and M 2 are taken to be 2pi/s1 and 2pi/s2 respectively. The
elements bii• cii can be calculated in exactly the same manner as before once
the form of the functions jj has been determined. The flexibility matrix is
the matrix of coefficients in the equation
s: r1 b 2pi b r1 b
u1 - 11 - 12 13
tl • tlsl . t1 .
2p2 4pt b 2pfb 4pt b
Xt _1b -t--2 2,4 M1
1 ttst z,t rtttsi z, z t1sl 2,3 2r2s1
-- (7·82)
E
rz b 2pirz b b 2pib
()2 tz 3, 1 - - 3 2 rz
tz 3, 3 -t- 3,4 Hz
t1s2r1 . zSz
Xz
l2pl b
tzSz 4, 1
4pt b 2pib
r1ttsi 4, z tzSz 4, 3
4pt b
t--2 4,4
zrzSz
Mz
!"- 2ipftancf> f = 0
sz
i.e.
m = t±!y'(8ipftancf>+1)~ ±p 1(1+i)y'tancf>
296 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Y' ~tan~
tions are
!1
( S
-
)Pl ~tan~ COS1J; !2
( S
-
•
Sin7J
s2 s2
!3
( S
-
rP1 ~tan~ COS1J; !4
( s)-p,~tan~ .
- Slll7J
s2 s2
f = H + i~~f Xs =
2
V2 [cot¢+ i~;iv)J
The complete system of stress resultants and the radial deflections associated
with this particular integral is
1
N ••
rsin¢
NBB 0
Nsz 0
-D 1 (1-v)(2-v)
Mss V2 (7·84)
El
D1 (1-v)(l-2v)
MBB
E1
-v
(J
Etsin¢
1-v
Xs Ets
The factor DdE1 is of order s 2 , so this solution is almost a membrane solu-
tion and for shallow tapers the moments may be ignored. To obtain an unre-
strained solution it is necessary to add the effects of Ht = - H! = - V2 cot ¢
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 297
to the values given in Eqn. 7·84. If the moments are significant, the appro-
priate values of Mf and M~ must be applied when calculating the unrestrained
displacements and stresses.
The edge forces and moments are illustrated in Fig. 7·14 which also shows
a pressure acting along the normal to the inside surface of the shell. Resolving
this constant pressure in directions normal and parallel to the mid-surface
gives the loads
Pz Pcose/2; Ps = Psine/2
From Eqn. 7·77
where
The solution for the v; part of <P can be found from Eqn. 7·84. For the
remainder
The complete system of stress resultants and the radial deflection associated
with this particular integral is
{B 1 tanc/J-!Pcoscpcos (c/J+i)} s
(7·85)
M ••
x.
The unrestrained solution for this surface load can be obtained by adding to
the solution in Eqn. 7·85 the effects of Hf, Mf, Hi and Mi chosen so that
they cancel the edge forces and moments associated with the particular
solution.
From Eqns. 7·13 and 7·15 the membrane stresses and deflections due to
an axial force V2 applied in a membrane manner are
De4
Etb2 V2f('1) =
(t)b 2
e4
12(1-v2) V2f('1)
wheref('l) is a function of sin '1 and cos 1J, for whichfand dffd'l are bounded
for all values of '1· From an inspection of the first two rows of Eqn. 7 ·12 and
the form of Nq,q,, N 00 in Eqn. 7·87, this implied shear force is negligible in
comparison with the direct stress resultants, and the assumptions of the
membrane solution are valid. Hence Eqn. 7·87 may be used for all values of '1
provided that the forces are applied at the edges of the shell in a membrane
manner.
From Eqn. 7·16, the membrane stresses and deflections due to a constant
pressure inflation are
Pa 2
= - [1-e2sin2'7]1/2
2b
() =
2Pa 3
Xq, = Et b 2 e2sin1JCOs1J[1-!e2 sin 21J][1-e2 sin2 17r 3' 2
t2 Pa 3
The value of rNq,z implied by this rotation is of order - e2 -b f('l) where
3ab 2
f is another function of sin '1 and cos 17, for which f and dffd'l remain
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 301
bounded for all values of '1· Now the order of magnitude of the terms con-
taining the direct stress resultants in the second row of Eqn. 7·12 is
(Pa 3 j2b) sin '1· Hence the shear force term is negligible in comparison with
the direct stress resultant term when sin '1~e 2 tf3a. For smaller angles than
this limiting value, the membrane solution is not valid and some bending
occurs. The angle is usually very small, e.g. for the thick 2 : I ellipse with
tfa = 1b- it is approximately 1·5 degrees, and the distance over which bending
can develop is so short that the bending stresses do not reach significant
levels. This criterion is only approximate, but it is sufficiently accurate to
conclude that the membrane solution in Eqn. 7·88 can be used in all practical
cases, provided that the edge is supported by membrane forces.
Membrane solutions for other forms of surface loading can be calculated
by evaluating the function cl>, and the approximate range of applicability
can be established by the method used in the two preceding cases.
The bending behaviour of ellipsoidal shells under edge loading, is governed
by the radial shear force and tangent rotation, as described in§ 7·3·2. The
analysis in that section can be directly employed once the variables introduced
there are known in terms of the geometry of the ellipse. From Eqns. 7·32
and 7·35
,
1/J = ~ [1-e 2 sin 2 11r 1 14 J[1-e sin 17]11
2 2 4 a11
J7 J~
0
ker 1 x __!:___
..)2 dx
[!£ ker x- .!!_ kei x]
dx (7·90)
order zero and as ker 1 x, kei 1 x are linear combinations of the derivatives
of ker x, kei x we may take the governing functions to be
/3 J~ t/1 d
sm dx berx; /4 =
-Jsincp
_1_ !:_ beix
dx
!2 P./2
R2
[J_t_
sincjJ
kerx- 2+(l+Jl)t/JcotcjJ /
4 x
2]
!~
_P./2
R2
[J-f-
smcjJ
beix+ 2+(l+Jl)ificotc/J f
4 x
3]
!4. = _P./2
R2
[ J-$-
smcjJ
berx+ 2+(l+Jl)t/fcotcp / 4]
4 x
The similarity between these equations and Eqn. 6·38 is very pronounced
and the two sets are in fact identical when e = 0.
t/1
The value of cjJ can be easily calculated from Eqn. 7·86, but the radii of
curvature are slightly more complicated and the arc length s and the angle
must be obtained by numerical integration. Table 7·4 contains the values
for a 2 : 1 ellipse. The flexibility characteristic Pa is the value of {3 at rJ = tn.
TABLE 7·4
ELLIPSOIDAL SHELL PARAMETERS
This value for the force may be compared with the one acting on a hemi-
spherical head, given in § 6·3·3 or obtained from the above formula with
a = b. The force is much larger for an ellipsoidal head because of the low
tensile or compressive value of the membrane hoop stress in the head
near the junction. For a 2 : 1 ellipse the force is four times as large as the
C=-
Pa
t
Meridional stress
a
'X Hoop stress
a
--
X -
T I
surface
----
~nside
~::- __.. J·o
'\\!f
.......... r-.S_utsidc surface f----! ~
/ ' 1 ~- .........
o·s
~ ' v
'~ ~ /
,~
0
"-... .,. "" ....... -
'r-' ~-
,', / ""
-o·s \ ' ~...--...-
...........
K
--'
\
Inside surface
' f.-outside surface
... --
o-s o·4 o·3 o·2 o·J o o·J o·2 o·3 o·4 o·s 1'2/l
fa
X J'ja
F'Io. 7·16 Stress distribution in cylinder with 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head.
value for a hemispherical head. The stress distribution due to the force can be
calculated from Eqn. 7·25, using the functions given in Eqn. 7·37 with the con-
stants obtained from Eqn. 7·38, namely
C1 = C2 = C4 = 0; C3 = a 1 ' 4 H 1
Hence
(7·92)
306 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The stresses in the cylinder can be found from Eqn. 5·27. The value of the
meridional direct stress in the head due to bending effects is small in com-
parison with the membrane stress, but the hoop stress is significant and so are
the meridional bending stresses. The values of the stresses are plotted in
Fig. 7·16 and may be compared with those of a hemispherical head in
Fig. 6·6.
b a
toroid whilst P* passes through all points on the inner half. Hence every
point on the shell has a unique co-ordinate if -n<</J~n.
The radii of curvature and the cylindrical radius at a general point are
given by
a+bsin <P .
R 1 = b; R 2 = . <P ; r = a+bsm<jJ (7·93)
Sin
When <P is negative R 2 is also negative, so the product 1/R 1 R 2 (which is
called the Gaussian curvature) is positive and negative with ¢.
As in the case of ellipsoidal shells, we shall first study the membrane solu-
tions of§ 7·3·1 and will not calculate the axial displacement because it is
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 307
rarely required. From Eqns. 7·13 and 7·15 the membrane stresses and deflec-
tions due to an axial load V2 applied in a membrane manner are
v2
Nq,q,
r sin cjJ
v2
Noo
b sin 2 cjJ
(7·94)
b
Et
b ~2 2 cp
Slll
[a+(l+v)bsincp]
a . coscp
--p. -r
v2
Xq, = [2r+bsmcp] ~
Et sm
The meridional stress resultant is negative when cjJ is negative and the loading
system is the one shown in Fig. 7·18(a). However, the stresses and deflections
become infinite at cjJ = 0, so this solution is not valid at this point and the
v2
sin ¢ 2
formulae in Eqn. 7·94 may only be used if the shell is a part toroid as shown
in Fig. 7·18(b). The part toroid can have either positive or negative curvature
and Eqn. 7·94 may be applied in both cases provided the appropriate sign is
taken for cp. Because the rotation is large for small values of IcjJ I and n- I cp I,
the membrane solution is not very accurate in these regions. From Eqn. 7·13
and the moment equilibrium condition in Eqn. 7·12, the order of magnitude
of the shear force implied by the rotation is
10
3a b 2
(a t) 2 cos 3 cjJ
. 6 ..f. V2.
sm 'I'
Hence the orders of magnitude of the terms associated with the implied shear
308 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
force and the direct stress resultants in the second row of Eqn. 7·12 are
respectively
20 (a t)z cot4 ¢ V . ~
b2 sin 3 ¢ 2 ' sin¢
The membrane assumption is valid if the first of these is negligible in com-
parison with the second, which is the case when
. 20a 2 t
sm 2 '1'
A. tan 4 A.>.:--
'I' """ b3
b3 fazt 3 7 17 40
The membrane solution for constant internal pressure given in Eqn. 7·16
produces stresses which are infinite at cp = 0, n, but if this solution is added
to Eqn. 7·94, the meridional stress resultant becomes
Pb [2a+bsincp]
2r
Pb
2
(7·95)
Pb .
<5 = 2Et [a(1-2v)+bsm¢(1-v)]
Pabcotcp
Xq, =
2Etr
Application of the procedure used for the axial load solution leads to the
following orders of magnitude for the implied shear force and direct stress
resultant terms in the second row of Eqn. 7·12:
Pa (t)
! b
2 cot2 cp
sinz cp ; Pa
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 309
Hence the membrane solution in Eqn. 7·95 is valid if sin 2 ¢ tan 2 ¢ ~ t/4b.
This criterion is satisfied for the following pairs of values:
bft 16 52 270
~a . J( sin¢
1+~sin¢
) f.PJ (l+~sin¢
sin¢ ) d¢
fJ
fJ PI/I ~2
L
310 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
rJ(~~~ns:n·~·) d~·
-1/1*; cp = -¢*; x = -ix*
~· ~ ! J(~~~,::~.)
(7·96)
J(~~::n.~')
0
P' ~ P.
x* P* 1/J* .J2
When cp is small, sin c/J=c/J and the value of a defined in Eqn. 7·96 is
a =
1 1
s R2 -;fr = b cp acp 2b3acp2 =
3
2
where s has also been measured from cp = 0. The same value is obtained for
a2 if the calculations are carried out for negative cp; furthermore, 1/1 2 coe cp
has the same value for both positive and negative ¢. Consequently the value
of the function G, defined in Eqn. 7·33, is the same for positive and negative cp
and is given by
and the solution of Eqn. 7·34 in terms of Bessel functions is justified because
G- G0 is small in comparison with the other coefficients in the equation.
The solution of Eqn. 7·34 in terms of K.(x.ji) is not very convenient for
this application because it becomes infinite at x = 0, which has been chosen
to be a point within the shell instead of a point at the edge. Because -r is non-
integral, it is possible to take I_.(x.ji) as a second independent solution (4)
so the two independent solutions are
1± 113 (x.Ji) = (i)'F 113 [ber± 113 x+i bei± 113 x] (7·97)
In the region of negative ¢, x = - ix*, so the two independent solutions
for this part of the shell are I± 113( - ix* .ji). Expressing .ji and - i.ji as
complex numbers without square roots
.Ji = (1+i)f.J2; -i.Ji = (1-i)f.J2
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 311
Hence the two independent solutions when ~ is negative are the conjugate
functions of those when ~ is positive and are given by
I ±113 ( -lx v'
'*'') = ( -1')+1/3[ber± 113 x * _,'b'
e1± 113 x *] (7·971)
There are no simple relationships between the Kelvin functions of order
one-third and those of order zero, so the series solution must be used (Ref. 4).
When x tends to zero, the values of the four functions and their derivatives
tend to
her 113 x } (x/2) 113 . her _ 113 x } (x/2) - 113
bei 113 x -+ .J2r(4/3)'-beL1/3 x -+ .J2r(2/3) (7.98)
d { ber 113 x} (x/2)- 213 . d { ber_ 113 x} -(x/2)- 413
dx bei1 13 x -+ 6.J2r(4/3)' dx -beL 11 3 x -+ 6.J2r(2/3)
If the solutions in Eqn. 7·97 are taken as they stand, the functions fj and
their derivatives are not continuous at ~ = 0, but they can be made so if
linear combinations of the solutions are chosen.
To this end, we multiply Eqn. 7·97 by (1-i) i± 1/3 and obtain for the
governing functions when ~ ~ 0
!1 = J . ~.
_l/1 [ber113 x+bei113 x];
sm '+'
!2 = -J ·"' . ~.
sm '+'
[ber113 x-bei113 x]
f{ P.J2
- -
R2
[J l/1 -d {her 113 x+bei 113 x}+ F:~]
-.-
sm~ dx
!~ -P.J2 [J
~ sin~
dl/1
dx {ber1/3 x- bei 113
x}- }!2] (7·99)
!~
P.J2
- -
R2
[J -.-, d {her _ 113 x +beL
l/1 -d
Sllll{J X
Fj3]
. 113 x} + -
X
!~ = R'; [J
P.J2 l/1
sin~ dx
d {ber_ 113 x-beL Fj4]
. 113 x}+~
where
F = - b . ) 1/J cot~
1 - a- ( 1+2-sm~ -.-
2 4b a sm ~
F * = -1 - -a ( 1 - -2b sm
. ) cot~*
~* 1/J* - -
2 4b a sin~*
312 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
From the relationships in Eqn. 7·98 the values of these functions when 4> = 0
are
co (-1t(x/2)4n
bei± 113 x+ber± 113 x = ,J2(x/2) 2 ± 113 Io (2n+1) !r(2n+2±1/3)
(7·101)
In these expressions, the alternative signs must be taken either from the top
or the bottom row but not mixed. Series for the derivatives required in
Eqn. 7·99 can be obtained by differentiating the expression in Eqn. 7·101
term by term.
When x is large, x ~ 2 may be used in place of these Kelvin functions.
Hence the asymptotic solution is of little help if the toroid is complete, but
it may be used for some toroidal heads and transition pieces.
Once the functions jj have been calculated, a particular integral for the
distributed pressures and axial load can be calculated by using the formulae
in §§ 7·3·2 and 7·3·3. The influence coefficients are given in Eqn. 7·28, and
can be used in conjunction with the unrestrained displacements calculated
from the particular integral in the type of analysis described in Chapter 4.
GENERAL SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 313
TABLE 7·5
PARAMETERS FOR TOROIDAL SHELLS OF POSITIVE GAUSSIAN CURVATURE
TABLE 7·6
PARAMETERS FOR TOROIDAL SHELLS OF NEGATIVE GAUSSIAN CURVATURE
For 0~ ql*~90° use table directly.
For 90° < ql* < 180° Take x*(ql*) = 2x*(90°)-x*(180°- ql*)
1/J*(ql*) = x*(ql*) 1/1*(180°- ql*)
x*(180°- ql*)
REFERENCES
8·0 INTRODUCTION
I willthisbe chapter,
N the methods of analysis discussed in Chapter 4 et seq.
applied to some of the vessel components most commonly in use.
Diagrams showing the maximum stresses under internal pressure will be
presented and, whenever possible, the predicted theoretical results will be
compared with experimental data.
In addition to the methods of design based on an elastic analysis, other
criteria-fatigue or bursting strength-are sometimes used. A short descrip-
tion of such methods has been included.
Flat closure plates are often used as manhole covers in low-pressure vessels
and small bore openings. Their use is generally limited to light duty service
since they are uneconomical for other applications. Some typical designs were
illustrated in Fig. 3·13. A bolted fiat closure plate with a full face gasket is
shown in Fig. 8·l(a) and a similar type, with a ring gasket in Fig. 8·l(b).
J~
For the usual applications, the design may follow one of the national Codes.
The thickness of the fiat plate is then obtained from Eqn. 3·1(t = D x C)
where C = 0·434 for clamped plates; = 0·556 for plates free to rotate at the
edges. These values of the constant C, derived from considerations based on
thin plate theory (Ref. 1), are often modified by the design Code, to take into
account the flexibility of the support at the edges of the plate. Thus, the
A.S.M.E. (Section VIII) Code specifies,
C = 0·403 for plates with full width gaskets (Fig. 8·l(a))
= 0·5 for plates welded to the vessel as shown in Fig. 3·13
318
APPLICAT ION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONE NTS 319
,. D .,
(a) (b)
FIG. 8·1 Typical bolted flat closure plate.
e
0"1> <:1z> 0"3
200
0"1
lit-., 0"1- 0"3
S.C.F. = PD/2T
150
t.;
0
t-i
100
~
FIG. 8·2 Stress concentration factor in welded, flat closure plates.
320 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(a) (b)
in the assessment of the rigidity of the support. This is quite simple in the
case of plain cylinders welded to fiat plates; it becomes more complex in
bolted plates due to the possibility of slip between the plate and the flanges
(see for instance Refs. 4, 5). The analysis can be simplified following the
method described in Chapter 7, valid for thin plates, under any known
condition of restraint at the edges and with or without a circular opening
in the centre. Ref. 6 may also be consulted. For plates welded to cylindrical
vessels under internal pressure, the maximum stress may be obtained from
Fig. 8·2 (Ref. 7). It must be noted that the stress concentration caused by
the sharp re-entrant corner at the junction is not taken into consideration.
In practice, this corner is smoothed by means of a transition radius, as
shown in Fig. 3·13.
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 321
~
Cl.- 15° I
,.-
3·5
v- ~
I
..... ~
}'0
~...--
2•5 _..,.....
f..--
~
/
1"5 ........
~
--
0"5
~v
a = 30' ~
-
---
7
k::::::" ~
6
l.--" IJ.J--!--"
5 ~ 1-
~ l..--:'"'" ~
4
v ~
__. ~
~
/ v----
3
·-
R'
2
1
r..; 0
0
~
V:i 13
Cl. ~ 45°
-
~
12
~lb?'l ""3
11
10 r - - -1-
. J;J~
9
~
--
8
..4 ~ --
V?
~ -- ]_=----
/
7 f------
pI~T
5
1'2-..., ~J S.C. F. ~
4
3 cr,
2
/r =J·o
' 1 I
I - --· --
,- -
50 100 150 200 250 300 J:>O 400 4:>0 )00
.f)_
T
Conical shells are sometimes used in tanks and silos as roofs or floors. They
find their main application as reducers, providing a smooth transition be-
tween two parts of different diameter in cylindrical pressure vessels or pipe-
lines. Some typical designs are shown in Fig. 8·3. Ofthose illustrated type (a),
incorporating a sharp cylinder-cone junction, is the easiest to manufacture
since it only involves the rolling of a plate between parallel rollers followed
by welding in the hoop and longitudinal directions. This simplicity in the
manufacture is partly lost when a knuckle radius is specified, to reduce the
stress concentration at the junction of the cylindrical and conical shells
(types (b) and (c)). In practice, the sharp junction is only acceptable if the
angle a is less than 30°. For larger values of this angle, or when fatigue
becomes a possible cause of failure, it is necessary to provide a transition
knuckle radius.
The results of a stress analysis, following the method of§ 7·4 for the sharp
junction problem, are summarized in Fig. 8·4. It is assumed that the cylindrical
shell is semi-infinite and that it is joined to a complete conical shell. The
validity of the analysis is therefore strictly restricted to long thin cylinders
joined to conical heads or long conical reducers, under internal pressure.
Furthermore the stress concentration effect of the sharp re-entrant corner
at the junction is not taken into account. Details of this analysis may be
seen in Ref. 8. A comparison of the predicted stress distribution with experi-
mental results (Ref. 9) shows that there is good correlation only in the region
away from the junction. In the vicinity of the junction, the predicted stresses
are always higher than their corresponding experimental values. This is
especially pronounced in the case of relatively thick vessels, with D/T of
the order of 25, where the experimental stress concentration factor may be
less than one-half of the theoretical value. Better agreement is obtained in
thinner vessels. For example, when D/T = 79, T/t = 1 and a = 30° the
predicted value of the stress concentration factor is about 2·5, while the
experimental value is 2·0. It is expected that even better agreement exists for
D/T> 100. The discrepancy between theory and experiments in the immediate
neighbourhood of the junction may be due to two causes: first to the obvious
limitation of the theory in assuming that the shells are infinitely thin; second,
to the impossibility of measuring point stresses in an experiment. However,
even in relatively thick vessels, the agreement between theory and experi-
ment is excellent, at a distance equal to or greater than one or two thicknesses
away from the intersection of the mid-surfaces of the conical and cylindrical
shells. Figure 8·4 can then be used to provide a substantially safe basis for
design.
When the pressure vessel is subjected to cyclic loading it becomes necessary
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 323
to avoid the sharp corner which exists on the inner surface of the intersection.
This is achieved by providing a radiused transition knuckle, as illustrated in
Fig. 8·3(b) and (c). The knuckle radius is usually taken as r = 0·06 D or 3 T
whichever is the largest. Provided that the knuckle radius does not exceed
this value, the analysis based on a sharp junction gives conservative results.
This may no longer be the case if too large a knuckle radius is selected, since
then the problem is no longer the junction of a conical and a cylindrical
shell but that of a conical to toroidal shell, which is then joined to a cylinder
(see Fig. 8·5). The method of analysis is then as described in Chapter 4 using
the influence coefficients for cylindrical, toroidal and conical shells. Since
the analysis has to be undertaken for each particular case, it is advisable to
have rules that will give some rough guidance as to the dimensioning of the
design. One such rule, based on Ref. 9 and in good agreement with German
~~/
(a) {b) ~
FIG. 8·5 Junction loads in true cylinder-cone junction and in toriconical
junction.
practice, is to take the thickness of the conical shell equal to the largest of:
-T- 3+
8cosoc
~ J( 1+--~,- 1 ))
5osoc
or -T-
cosoc
with the notation of Fig. 8·3(c). Tis the minimum required thickness of the
plain, cylindrical shell under internal pressure.
When the conical shell is used as a reducer, it must be noted that the
critical junction may be that of the conical shell with the cylinder of smallest
diameter. In general, this is only the case when the largest diameter junction
is radiused while the smallest diameter one is sharp. It is therefore good prac-
tice to provide both junctions with approximately the same knuckle radius.
the case of small diameter, thick heads. This type of head is perhaps the
most expensive but it is still widely used in heavy duty, high-pressure vessels
due to the fact that the most efficient use of the material is achieved.
All design Codes neglect the possible interaction between the cylindrical
and hemispherical shells and treat both as independent. This approach is
justified in the case of relatively thin vessels under internal pressure. In that
case, it has been shown in Chapter 6, Fig. 6·6, that the maximum stress in a
vessel with equal barrel and head thicknesses is only 3% higher than the
membrane hoop stress in the barrel. Watts and Lang (10) have shown that
the discontinuity stresses do not exceed the maximum membrane stress by
more than 4%, provided that the hemispherical shell thickness to cylindrical
shell thickness ratio is in the range 0·8-2·0. The same conclusion holds for
the usual case in which the head thickness is one-half of the cylindrical shell
thickness.
The general stress analysis has been discussed in Chapter 4, while the
influence coefficients for cylinders and spheres are given in Chapters 5 and 6.
This analysis is only applicable to thin shells. A similar treatment for thick
vessels, with a wall thickness to diameter ratio higher than -:fo, has not yet
been fully developed (see also § 6·1). There is, however, a large amount of
experimental information (see for instance Refs. 11, 12 and 13), from which
it appears that the maximum stresses due to internal pressure are not much
in excess of the maximum stress in the plain spherical or cylindrical sections
of the vessel. For the calculation of these stresses, the Lame equations
(Eqns. 5·5, 6·5) should be used.
(d) (e)
N::::~=2==t'
\
(g)
(f)
(h)
FIG. 8·6 Typical formed heads and transitions.
326 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
t/r o·Jo
0'75 to 2·00
j
m-2 t/T o·m
3
\_/
2•5
o·7'
2
1•5
c:;
- J-00
· ,, / ·nn
~ /•50
1
-
6
m=2·5 tfr o·Jn
--
~~ 5
~
b"-1
6-~ 4 v 0•75
II
>..; 3
-=----
1·nr
0 ~ 2•00
1•7'i
-
"2
2 ·'i(]
-
1
9 m= J2_
2b
8
~
7
m=3
,.,.... ~
6
/
5 /
/ ~
0·75
4 ~
/---
1~
~
1•2'i
3
...,...--
~
= J· 'in
?·OO
2 ~-
1
0 100 2()() 300
D
T
FIG. 8·7 Stress concentration factors in ellipsoidal heads.
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 327
~/&////~
FIG. 8·8 Tapered transition junction and approximate models for its analysis.
of such joints, it may sometimes be sufficient to assume that the two sections
of different thickness are joined without any taper. In this way, the structural
discontinuity stresses are obviously exaggerated. The transition section will
not only reduce the stress raising effect that would exist in the sharp step
328 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
between the two main sections, but will also reduce the structural discon-
tinuities. When the taper is symmetrical, the theory of shells of non-uniform
thickness may be applied. This, however, is seldom the case and it then
becomes advantageous to split the transition section into any number of unit
shells of uniform thickness, matching the edge displacements and rotations
(see Chapters 5 and 7).
It is seldom necessary to assess the discontinuity stresses in 1 to 4 tapered
transitions, and such stresses are implicitly neglected in most Codes. This has
been justified experimentally for circumferential joints in cylindrical shells
(Ref. 17). In these joints, the maximum longitudinal stress was always found
to be lower than the maximum nominal hoop stress in the thinnest section,
while the hoop stresses never exceeded that value.
Tapered longitudinal joints in boiler drums are often used, especially
when there are a large number of tubes on one side of the drum (Fig. 8·9).
High localized stresses may then occur, largely due to possible misalignments
(Ref. 18). A further problem in this case is the evaluation of the effect of the
perforations on the flexibility of the shell. This problem has not yet been
solved and is probably best approached empirically for each particular case
(Ref. 19).
One of the most important problems in pressure vessel design is that of the
adequate reinforcement of openings. A brief description of the methods
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 329
(a)
(c) R (d)
(D/2)
FIG. 8·10 Typical nozzle reinforcements.
undertaken assuming either that the shells can be replaced by their mid-
surface, or that there exists a given distribution of forces and moments across
the shell thickness at the junction.
Experimental information on the stress distribution in reinforced radial
openings in spherical vessels may be found in Refs. 20, 21 and 22, amongst
many other publications. It is found that there is good agreement between
experimental results and simplified theoretical analysis, such as the one
published by Rose and Thompson (23) and based on the work of Eslinger. In
330 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
this analysis, the shells are replaced by their mid-surfaces. Better agreement
is achieved using Langer's asymptotic solutions. The agreement between
theory and experiments is excellent away from the junction, both in the actual
vessel shell and in the reinforcing branch. Near the junction, the theory
predicts high bending stresses in the branch that are not, in fact, found in
practice. This shortcoming of the theory is due to the replacement of the
shells by their mid-surfaces at the junction.
In addition to the structural distribution of forces and moments at the
junction, another source of divergence between theory and experiment is the
stress-raising effect of sharp corners. (Some stress concentration factors are
given in Chapter 12, and reference is made to the results published by Peter-
son). A method of applying these results to shells is suggested in § 6·4·3.
From photoelastic models, it appears that the order of magnitude of this
effect can be assessed by the expression
True s.c.F.~Theoretical S.C.F. X (rofn-O·l
where S.C.F. = stress concentration factor or ratio between the maximum
stress and the nominal hoop stress in the unpierced shell, and r 0 and Tare as
defined in Fig. 8·10(d). Peak stresses, usually highly localized around the
stress raiser, may have some bearing on the pressure vessel performance
when this is subjected to cyclic loading. It is, however, questionable that they
alone will ever be sufficient to cause a failure and there is a general tendency
to neglect them. Smooth transitions, with radius equal to about one-third of
the shell thickness, are often provided. It must be pointed out that a larger
radius causes an increase in the effective diameter of the opening, increasing
the structural discontinuity stresses even while decreasing those due to the
corner. In such a nozzle, fatigue damage would be minimized but the margin
of safety against failure due to bursting during the first pressurization would
be reduced.
Figures 8·11 and 8·12 {after Ref. 24) show design curves for radial nozzles
in spherical vessels. In these diagrams, the stress concentration factors have
been calculated in terms of the maximum stress in the sphere, neglecting the
high bending stresses predicted by the theory for the branch. Only the struc-
tural discontinuity has been taken into account. In addition to the limitation
of the maximum S.C.F. to 2-3, the designer must bear in mind the following:
(a) It is advisable to use 'balanced' reinforcement, on the inside and out-
side of the vessel shell.
(b) The reinforcement should be concentrated in the neighbourhood of the
opening.
(c) The provision of large transition radii, to avoid the stress-raising effect
of sharp corners, is not essential and may prove a dangerous practice if too
large a radius is selected.
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 331
P=t~
FIG. 8·11 Stress concentration factor in flush nozzle reinforced openings in
spherical shells (Ref. 24).
I/;
10
J~k Iv
~ 11 ~
8
~12~
b
6
vv ~/v
II
tt:
0 \;)
c-5 4
v
2
O:OI
- =----
_-----::::t:::::v v ~
o·oJ o·o5 o·o1 o·J
r:- -
,......,.
1--
10
P= t}!i
FIG. 8·12 Stress concentration factor in protruding nozzle reinforced
openings in spherical shells (Ref. 24).
332 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(d) Pads, welded to the vessel shell and to the branch, are often used as
being a cheap method of providing a reinforcement. The minimum diameter
of the pad is usually 11--2 times the diameter of the opening. High thermal
stresses are often induced due to the poor heat transmission coefficient
between shell plate and pad. In addition, the stress-raising effect of the weld
fillets may initiate cracking under cyclic loading.
I
~~~ I v/_
v
10
//
8
r~·
!!~
11..._
D
v
b~
..;
6
y
G
t-:i ~ v
v
/
--
4
t /T=" 0 ~ ~
v ~
2
0
o·o1 o·oJ o·o5 o·o7 o·1 10
P=d/JE
D~ll
FIG. 8·13 Approximate stress concentration factors in flush nozzle reinforced
openings in cylindrical shells.
(e) The minimum height of local thickening in nozzles of the type shown
in Fig. 8·10(d) should be
(f) Rim reinforcements, of the type shown in Fig. 3·6, are likely to be the
most efficient. Their analysis can be undertaken following the general methods
of Chapters 4 et seq., dividing the rim into any number of elementary cylinders.
If the nozzle is attached to the vessel by part penetration welds, the welds
must be dimensioned to carry the loads shown in Fig. 6·9. See also Chapter 3
for the limits of reinforcement.
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 333
where r is the mean radius of the equivalent nozzle reinforcement. This rule
provides a means for the dimensioning of a preliminary design. Assuming
that the required S.C.F. is 2·5 and that p = 1·0, from Fig. 8·11, t/T = 1·0.
If the shell thickness is 1 in and the bore of the opening is 9 in, 2r = 10 in,
t = 1 in. The area of an equivalent rim reinforcement would then be, from
Eqn. 8·1,
plane stress. It is clear that the first limitation of this analysis is that the
curvature of the shell must be small with respect to the bore of the opening.
A second limitation of the model is that only the direct stresses can be
estimated (Ref. 31). A design method, based on this approximate analysis,
has been proposed by Hicks (Ref. 32) and by Rose et a/. (Ref. 33). For the
application of these approximate methods, the effect of hydrostatic thrust in
the nozzle must be considered.
The inherent limitations of such approximate analysis are apparent in the
case of unreinforced openings. It is known that the maximum stress in a
flat plate with an elliptical hole of semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b,
under the plane stress system a 1 , a 2 is O'max = a 1 (1+2a/b)-a 2 •
a
O'max = O'nomimal X 2b (8·2)
When
(8·3)
Equation 8·2 could be used to predict the maximum stress in a spherical shell.
We see that for radial openings (a = b) the stress concentration factor thus
obtained is 2·0. Similarly, Eqn. 8·3 could be applied to cylindrical shells, for
which the stress concentration factor would be 2·5. Comparing these values
with the curves of Figs. 8·11 and 8·13, we see that the approximation of the
shell to a flat plate is acceptable only when pis less than, say, 0·2. For rela-
tively thin vessels, with D/T = 200, this corresponds to a hole of bore not
larger than four times the shell thickness. For a thick vessel, D/T = 20, and
the maximum bore would be about 1·2 times the shell thickness. For larger
openings or, in general, higher values of the parameter p, the flat plate
approximation can no longer be used. Although this conclusion is based on
radial openings, it can obviously be extended to elliptical openings.
From the limited available information (Refs. 20, 33, 34) it appears that
Eqns. 8·2 and 8·3 can be used to assess the magnitude of the direct stresses
in oblique reinforced openings of relatively small bore. Naturally, they do
not provide any information as to the amount of reinforcement that is
required to bring the maximum stress down to a specified level. They also
fail to give an assessment of the bending stresses at the junction of shell
and reinforcement.
If ex is the angle between the centre line of the opening penetration (flush
APPLICATION OF GENERAL ANALYSIS TO VESSEL COMPONENTS 335
This approximate empirical rule is justified when the obliquity does not
exceed 45°. In this equation the radial stress concentration factor may be
estimated from Figs. 8·11-8·13. In general, it is found that the meridional
stresses increase more quickly than hoop stresses when the obliquity increases.
At 45°, the meridional and hoop stresses are approximately equal. For more
oblique nozzles, the meridional bending stresses, specially in the acute section,
exceed the values predicted from Eqn. 8·4.
same result. By comparison with Eqn. 8·5, the last criterion is acceptable if
d;::,2J(shell thickness x shell diameter)
It has been shown (36) that the stress distribution in perforated shells
with multiple unreinforced openings arranged in a regular pattern may be
predicted from flat-plate results. A comprehensive chart has been prepared
by Coults and Snell (36), giving the maximum stress concentration factors
for a large number of configurations. This information, unfortunately, is not
applicable to the conventional pressure vessels, where the openings are
reinforced by means of a nozzle, a rim or a pad. The effect of the reinforce-
ment is obviously to reduce the stress concentration factor, increasing at the
same time the rigidity of the perforated shell. As a result, the edge loads set
up by discontinuity effects are increased. Although experimental data on the
flexibility and maximum stresses in such shells has been published (see for
example Refs. 37, 38, 39), it is not possible at present to establish any general
design rules, which remain based on past practice.
d
~I:_ I Nozzle.
I
I
i ar~a
1\ i
I ~Shell~ !
~ i area I ~T
~ I
I
i ~
Ii I
~.
i
!
f
L f .. I
The B.W.R.A. in Britain and Soete eta/. in Belgium have suggested that the
design may be based on fatigue data, obtained from cyclic pressure tests.
In Soete's experiments, the aim is to obtain the nominal design stress required
to produce failure after 100,000 cycles. This stress, defined as the membrane
stress in the pressurized, unpierced shell, is a function of the configuration
of the opening, its relative size, etc. Based on experimental results, it may be
possible to prepare design curves for the determination of the design stress
for each type of opening. It appears that pad reinforcements cause a reduc-
tion in life of 30%, with respect to the fatigue life of the unpierced vessel;
flush nozzles only cause a reduction of 15% and protruding nozzles about
10%.
The limit analysis methods, discussed in Chapter 11, have recently been
applied to the study of radial nozzles in spheres (Refs. 41, 42) and in cylinders
(Ref. 43). As pointed out in Chapter 10, limit analysis constitutes the only
rational basis for the design of vessels subjected to static loading. It may also
be relevant to the prevention of incremental collapse. As a result, it is apparent
that the extension oflimit analysis to reinforced openings is a most promising
development. At present, there is some published experimental confirmation
of the results published by Lind and Gill for spherical vessels (Refs. 44, 45)
and by Hodge for cylinders. Gill's results may be presented in the same
338 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
p* = p ultimate
pyielding
is defined as the ratio between the pressure causing plastic collapse (hinge
circles in nozzle, shell and junction) and the pressure causing yielding in the
thin, unpierced shell
4TY
p)'ielding
D
I I I
-
J!}
1"0 I"=-
~
0'9
"~ ~
o·s '\
~ ['._ 1/r =1'0
\ l\'\ ""'<.'
0"7
*1:1.. o·6
o·s ~
o1 f'\\ ~ !'...
~""'\_o·s
"
0•4
o·J o./i\. '\.
'\' l\
0"2
o·J
0
o·oJ o·oJ o·os o·o1 o·Jo 10
p=tffr
FIG. 8·15 Plastic collapse of radial nozzles in spherical vessels.
REFERENCES
4. KENNY B., MooRE G. G. & DuNCAN J.P. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 5 (1963) 1.
5. DUNCAN J. P. & TAYLOR J. E. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 4 (1962) 143.
6. ZAID M. & FoRRAY M. 'Deformation and Moments in Elastically
Restrained Circular Plates under Arbitrary Load or Linear Thermal
Gradient', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 59-A-39.
7. WATTS G. W. & LANG H. A. 'The Stresses in a Pressure Vessel with a
Flat Head Closure', Pressure Vessel and Piping Design: Collected Papers
(A.S.M.E., 1960).
8. WATTS G. W. & LANG H. A. 'Stresses in a Pressure Vessel with a
Conical Head', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
9. 'Report on the Design of Pressure Vessel Heads', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
10. WATTS G. W. & LANG H. A. 'The Stresses in a Pressure Vessel with a
Hemispherical Head', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
11. FESSLER H. & LAKSHMINARAYA 'Stresses in Hemispherical Drum Heads',
Symposium on Pressure Vessel Research Towards Better Design (I.Mech.E.,
1962).
12. FESSLER H. & RosER. T. Proc. I. Mech. E. 171 (1957) 633.
13. DALLY J. W. & SCHNEIDER G. T. Welding J. (Res. Supp.), 43 (1964) 461s.
14. A.D.-MERKBLATTER B3, Wanddicke gewolbter Boden (1952).
15. KRAUS H., BILODEAU G. G. & LANGER B. F. 'Stresses in Thin-Walled
Pressure Vessels with Ellipsoidal Heads', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 60-SA-12.
16. SCHOESSOW G. J. & BROOKS E. A. 'Analysis of Experimental Data
Regarding Certain Design Features of Pressure Vessels', loc. cit. Ref. 7.
17. RODABAUGH E. C. & ATTERBURY T. J. 'Stresses in Tapered Transition
Joints in Pipelines and Pressure Vessels', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 61-WA-
117.
18. BERMAN J. & PAID. H. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 41 (1962) 307s.
19. DALLY J. W. & DURELLI A. J. Proc. S.E.S.A., 117 (1962) 71.
20. MERSHON J. L. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 77, 1962.
21. TAYLOR C. E., LIND N.C. & SCHWEIKER J. W. Welding Research Council
Bulletin No. 51, 1959.
22. BABCOCK & WILCOX Co. LTD., Reports 1/61/24 (146/1620) Hinkley Point
Reactor Vessel-Pressure Test.
23. RosE R. T. & THOMPSON J. M. 'Calculated Stress Concentration for
Nozzles in Spherical Pressure Vessels', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
24. LECKIE F. A. & PENNY R. K. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 90,
1963.
25. WATERS E. 0. Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 51, 1959.
26. WELLS, A. A., LANE P. H. R. & RosER. T. 'Stress Analysis of Nozzles
in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
27. SoETE W., HEBRANT F., DECHAENE R. & HEIRMAN J. 'Pressure Vessel
Research in Belgium', loc. cit. Ref. 11.
340 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
9·0 INTRODUCTION
I equipment,
N most industrial plants there are a number of pressure vessels, or other
connected by a piping system used to convey fluids from one stage
of the process to the next. For example the turbine in a power station is
connected to the steam circuit from the boiler and to the feedwater, to the
condenser and to the cooling tower system. The previous chapters have
described methods of analysis for the types of shells used in pressure vessels
and the current chapter covers similar ground for the piping system.
The loads to which the pipe is subjected are the same as those applied to
the pressure vessels, namely pressure, weight, temperature variations, wind
etc. However, there is a major difference between the effects of a temperature
rise in vessels and piping. This comes about because vessel supports and
attachments are usually designed in such a way that relatively little restriction
is placed upon the expansion of the vessel. Under these circumstances thermal
stresses arise as a result of variations about the new temperature level and are
not directly dependent upon the magnitude of the overall temperature rise.
In contrast to this the piping is normally attached to several items of plant
which are not free to move relative to one another, and consequently the
free expansion of the pipe is restricted. Since this expansion is primarily
dependent upon the temperature level, the thermal stresses are directly
dependent upon the temperature rise that has taken place. These stresses are
caused by the action of the forces required to restrain the free expansion, so
one of the main objectives in piping design is to reduce the magnitude of these
forces. This is usually achieved by introducing additional runs of pipe, or
'expansion joints', which increase the flexibility of the system.
The pipe usually consists of seamless or welded tube of circular cylindrical
form, but a typical run contains bends and other local components as well
as straight lengths of constant cross-section. The bends can be of several
different types, the most common being smooth bends, lobster back bends
and mitred corners. The main factors governing the choice of bends are
availability, cost, flexibility requirements, space available and the permissible
pressure drop in the system. Generally the same considerations apply to all
M 341
342 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
the bends in the system, but occasionally bends of different types are used
in the same run. Other local components frequently required are conical
reducers which act as transition pieces between pipes with different diameters,
and T and Y junctions which are used where the pipe branches. In addition
to the above components there are three items of equipment used in piping
systems which are of major importance; these are pumps, valves and expan-
sion joints referred to above. The design of these specialized items is not
considered here since it is outside the scope of this book. They are mentioned
because one of the most important conditions of loading to which they are
subjected is the action of the forces in the pipe due to the restrained expansion.
Considerable attention has been paid to calculating the stresses in piping
systems and there are several approaches, graphical and analytical, and all
approximate to a greater or lesser degree. Probably the most well known
and comprehensive treatment is that contained in Ref. 1, which covers most
aspects of piping design in great detail and also includes an extensive biblio-
graphy of the subject. Matrix notation is not used in Ref. I and as a result
it is somewhat difficult to obtain an overall picture of the problem.
The pipe stressing problem is particularly suited to computer solution
because of the repetitive nature of the calculations, and several computer
manufacturers have written programmes which perform most of the calcu-
lations described in this chapter.
All methods of analysis in common use are based on the assumption that
plane cross-sections of a straight pipe remain plane after bending and make
no reference to the results described in the previous chapters. However, it
has been recognized for a long time that deformation of the cross-section
occurs in bends and much of the work on piping systems has been devoted
to obtaining the effect of end loads on these components. This chapter is not
concerned with this work which is described in Chapter 16.
The inaccuracy of the beam bending assumption for the straight pipe
depends upon the ratios of thickness and length to pipe radius and is at
present ignored. Clearly, further work is required in this area. It is strongly
recommended that the methods of the previous chapters be used to calculate
the stresses in the pipe when local bending is expected-e.g. at the intersection
of pipe and vessel-once the restraining forces have been found using the
methods described in the remaining sections of this chapter.
The general pipe run follows a complex three-dimensional path, has many
branches and terminal points, and is analysed in the following pages. As an
introduction to the general case consider the two-dimensional single run
shown in Fig. 9·1. P 1 and P 2 are the points where the pipe joins the pressure
vessels, or other terminal structures, and the pipe consists of straight lengths
and bends which lie wholly in the plane OXY. If the temperature of the pipe
is increased and the pipe is disconnected from the anchor at P2 , the move-
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 343
p 5Y + 5Jii
P.'2
Original P.-f-........
2 _ _ _ __.
---f
position SX + 5X1
Original position
0~---------------------------------------x
FIG. 9·1 Two-dimensional single run.
and this is known as the thrust line for the system under the loads producing
344 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
these end reactions. This terminology is used because the end reactions are
statically equivalent to a force of magnitude .J(F} 2 +Ff2 ) acting along the
thrust line. The bending moment can now be expressed as
M = .J(Fi:2 +F~ 2 ) xp
where p is the perpendicular distance from the thrust line to the point on the
pipe. It is clear from this expression that the points of maximum bending
moment will be those whose distance from the thrust line is greatest. If it is
necessary to modify the layout to reduce the restraining forces, the most
effective way of achieving this is to introduce expansion joints or additional
runs of pipe perpendicular to the thrust line for the unacceptable system.
A single run of pipe is a series of straight lengths and bends connecting two
anchors without branching en route. The anchors are the pressure vessels or
structures which terminate the pipe and may be flexible or rigid in compari-
son with the pipe; more often the latter, hence the terminology.
As a result of the beam bending assumption we may regard the pipe as a
curve, such as that shown in Fig. 9·2 with terminal points P 1 and P2 • 0 is the
origin of any convenient co-ordinate system XYZ. The forces and deflections
at the general point P of the pipe, can be written in vector form as F and D,
where
F' = [F xFyFzMxMyMz]; D' = [bxbybzXxXYXz]
and Dis the deflection of P relative to P 1 • The total deflection at P relative to
P 1 is the sum of the deflection due to the action of the restraining forces
at P 2 and the deflection brought about by the loading on the pipe when P 2
is unrestrained, say D 1 •
When the only loading on the pipe is the restraining force F 2 , the deflec-
tions at P will depend solely on the corresponding value of F and the pro-
perties of the pipe between P 1 and P. Since we are assuming the deflections
to be small this dependence is linear and we may write
(9·1)
and in particular
(9·2)
where A and A2 are flexibility matrices whose elements are as yet undefined.
The absolute deflections of the anchors may similarly be written
Di = A~F2 +Di 1 ; Di = AiF2 +Di 1
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 345
Pz=Q,.
FIG. 9·2 General single run.
are rigid in comparison with the pipe, A! and A! are put equal to zero.
Sometimes the pipe is guided through a partial restraint at an anchor, e.g.
there is no restraint parallel to one of the axes. In these circumstances the
relevant forces are known to be zero and the appropriate equations contained
in 9· 3 are deleted.
In the following sections the values of the coefficients in the flexibility
matrix are determined by evaluating the strain energy of the pipe.
346 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Consider a section of pipe between points P; and Pi (Fig. 9·2) which has
acting upon it at Pi forces Fi and at P; equilibrating forces - F;. It can be
easily verified that
F Xi F Xi; Fy; = FYi; Fz; = Fzi
Mx; = (Z;-Zi)Fyi-(Yi- Y)Fzi+Mxi
My; -(Z;-Z)F xj+(X;-X)Fzi+MYi
Mz; (Yi- Yj)F Xi-(X;-Xj)FYi+Mzi
fi]
where
Z; -
0 X;
-X; 0
Here I and 0 are respectively the 3 x 3 identity and null matrices. Note
that Vii is a transformation matrix for which ViiVik = V;k and that
V;iVii = U;; = I (6 x 6 identity matrix).
Suppose now that there are no forces acting on the pipe, but that P; is
moved through D;; it can be seen that for small deflections the movements
at Pi are given by
(9·5)
Reverting now to the pipe run P 1P 2 and applying the above formulae, the
force at the general point of the pipe is
(9·6)
Now let Ptnb be a right-handed system of axes, with t tangent to the pipe in
the direction P 1P and n normal to the curve and passing through the centre
of curvature of the pipe at P. The directions of these axes are related to those
of the reference system OXYZ by the scheme of direction cosines:
t n b
X ll lz 13
y ml mz m3
z nl nz n3
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 347
In this scheme /1 is the cosine of the angle between Pt and 0 X, etc. Writing
L
11
[ m1
lz
m2
l3l
m3
nl nz n3
and resolving the forces F into the forces N, where
N' = [F1FnFbMtMnMb]
we obtain
We shall now evaluate the strain energy of the pipe and use Castigliano's
theorem to obtain the deflections at P2 relative to P 1 • It is customary to
ignore the energies of extension and shear in comparison with those of
bending and twisting and this approximation is made here; there is no diffi-
culty in principle and the approximation is made to shorten the time required
for calculation. It is important to note the limitations imposed by this
approximation, namely that the results are valid only if the principal cause
of flexibility is the length of pipe subjected to bending or torsion. Thus the
results are inapplicable to a straight length restrained against movement in
the direction of the pipe. With this approximation the strain energy of the
pipe is given by
:J
0
k 1 M'f+k 2 M:+k 3 M; =
[: :] N
348 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
F 2, U'02 [T'LKL'T
LKL'T
The displacements of P 2 relative to P 1 due to the forces F 2 are given by
oWfoFx2 , •• •, oWfoMx2 , •• •, etc., so carrying out the differentiations and
then integrating we obtain for the flexibility matrix
(9·8)
where
T'LKL'T T'LKL']
Ao = [a;J = [
LKL'T LKL'
Thus the total deflection of P 2 relative to P 1 is given by
D2 = U~2AoUo2F2+D21
The form of this equation has led to the concept of forces and deflections at
the origin end of a rigid link joining 0 and P 2 • Supposing such a link to exist
and the deflection and force at 0 to be D 0 and F 0 , we have from Eqns.
9·4 and 9·5 D 0 = U~ 0 D 2 and F 0 = U 02 F 2, so
D 0 = A 0 F 0 +U~oD21
Ifthe anchors are rigid Eqn. 9·3 becomes
AoFo
and Eqn. 9·6 gives
F = Up 0 F 0
The coefficients of A2 involve two 6 x 6; 6 x 6 multiplications after the co-
efficients of A0 have been calculated, whereas the equations for F 0 in the
case where the anchors are rigid can be set up with only one 6 x 6; 6 x 1
multiplication. Thus when the anchors are rigid the time required for cal-
culation can be shortened by using the rigid link concept.
The elements of the flexibility matrix are therefore determined by Eqn. 9·8
in terms of the geometry of the pipeline referred to the axes 0 XYZ. The
expressions for the elements aii are obtained by expanding LKL', etc., and
are given in § 9·2. In most practical cases, the pipe run is built up from com-
ponents such as straight lengths and bends and it is convenient to carry out
the integration from P 1 to P 2 by separately evaluating the integrals over the
lengths of the various components and summing the results.
Suppose that Q, r = 1, ... , n are points along the pipe which terminate
these components, then Q1 and Qn are the same points as P 1 and P 2 ; for
example Q1 Q2 might be a straight length parallel to OX, Q2 Q3 a circular
bend in the XYplane, Q3 Q4 a straight length parallel to 0 Y, etc. Choose local
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 349
axes Q,xyz lying along tnb at Q, and let the value of L at Q, be L,. Then the
value of L at a general point between Q, and Q,+ 1 may be written
L = L,L
where L is the matrix of direction cosines relating tnb at the general point
to xyz. Now
Since [b;j] has the same form as [aii] the values of the elements bu can be
obtained from those given for aii in § 9·2, by substituting local geometric
Qr+l
A2 = L
n-1
U(r+1)2
[L' (9·10)
1 0
between Q,+ 1 and p2 and post-multiplication by u(r+ 1)2 modifies the forces
to allow for the fact that the loads are applied at P 2 •
The coefficients of A2 can be calculated using any of Eqns. 9·8, 9·9 or
9·10; 9·9 requires fewer operations than either of the others but 9·10 has the
advantage than it is easier to visualize the meaning of the elements, whilst
9·8 requires only one co-ordinate system.
Finally it is useful to observe how to calculate the new flexibility matrix
if a length of pipe is added to a run for which the flexibilities are already
known. If A3 is the matrix for P 1P 3 , and this run is extended by a length
P3 P2 , the value of the force acting at P 3 when F 2 is applied at P2 is U 32F 2
and this produces a deflection at P 2 of amount u; 2 A3 U 32 F 2 due to flexing
of the length P 1P 3 • To this must be added the deflection of the length P 3 P 2 ,
so A2 = U; 2 A3 U 32 +A 23 where A23 is the flexibility of the run P 3 P2 calcu-
lated on the basis that P 3 is the start of the run.
It was shown in the previous section that the elements of the flexibility
matrix for a single run can be calculated when the values of the quantities
aii or bii are known; and that
(9·12)
a 34 =L 12 X-L 11 Y; a 3s=L 22 X-L 12 Y; a 36 =L23 X-L 13 Y
a44 = L 11 = k 1 lf+k 2 l~+k 3 1~; a4s = L 12 = k 111m 1 +k 212m 2+k 313m 3
a46 = £13 = kl n111 + k2n212 + k3n313
ass= L 22 =k 1 mf+k 2 mi+k 3 m~ as 6 = L 23 = k 1m 1n 1 +k2m 2n2+k 3m 3n3
a6 6 = £33 = k 1 nf+k 2 n~+k 3 n~
The direction cosines are functions of the co-ordinates of the general
point, i.e. of XYZ or xyz, and it is usually much easier to formulate the
functions in terms of the local co-ordinate system; the same remark applies
to the increment of length ds. It is therefore easier to calculate the elements
of the flexibility matrix using Eqn. 9·9 or 9·10 than by using 9·8. The follow-
ing sections contain details of the calculation for the shapes in common use.
Q.
FIG. 9·3 General plane curve.
B 11 = B 12 = B 13 = B 14 = B 15 = B 16 = 0
B 22 = l 3/3EI; B 23 = B 24 = B 25 = 0; B 26 = -l 2/2EI;
B 33 = l 3/3EI; B 34 = B 36 = 0; B 35 = l 2/2EI; (9·14)
B44 = (1 +v) l/EI; B45 = B46 = 0
B 55 = l/EI B 56 = 0;
B 66 = l/EI
With the following exceptions all Cii = Bii:
C26 = -Bz6 = l2/2EI; C3s = -B3s = -l 2 /2EI
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 353
B1 6 = R 2 k 3 (¢-sin¢)
B 22 = !-R3 k3 (2¢-sin2¢); B23 = B 24 = B2 5 = 0
B 26 = -R2 k 3 (1-cos¢)
B 33 = !-R3 [k 1 (6¢-8sin ¢+sin2¢)+k2 (2¢-sin2¢)]
B34 = -;\-R2 [k 1 (2¢-4sin¢+sin2¢)+k2 (2¢-sin2¢)] (9·15)
354 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
C 16 = -R 2 k 3 (sin<f>-<f>cos<{>)
Now with the assumption that variations about the average temperature at
any cross-section may be ignored the unrestrained deflections are given by
L, r+ 1
D(r+1) 1 = [ O IXTdx J
r+ 1
J IX T dy
r+ 1 (9·17)
J rxTdx
0
0
0
or D2 1 = [f oc TdX, J IX J
TdY, oc TdZ, 0, 0, OJ
CaFe must be taken when assessing the importance of circumferential
variations since these cause the centre line of the pipe to bow. The relative
movement of the ends brought about by the bowing may not be significant,
356 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
but the relative rotations can cause large deflections at the far end of an
attached length of pipe. Circumferential variations in bends can usually be
ignored since only relatively short lengths are involved, so we will consider
the effect only on straight lengths of circular cross-section.
A straight length l with radius a and thickness t is shown in Fig. 9·4 with
the local axes xyz. The temperature is assumed constant through the wall
thickness, but varies with both x and 0. A rigorous analysis of the stresses
and deflections is complicated and in view of the relative importance of the
effect under consideration it is not required for our present purpose ; see,
however, Chapter 5.
y
::
Consider the length of wall PP' of width adO and thickness t as a separate
I
strip, then the expansion of this strip is I aT dx. This expansion can be
0
completely prevented if a load
- Et~d() f
0
l
cx Tdx
II
l 21t
F = E;a
X a Td8dx
0 0
II
l 21t
2
My E;a a Tsin8d8dx (9·18)
0 0
Ett I I
l 21t
Mx = - 2
a Tcos8d8dx
0 0
I
The stress in the unrestrained state is given by
l
Fx Mysin8 Mzcos8 E d
u = --+ - na 2 t --l aT x (9·19)
x 2nat na 2 t
0
and the unrestrained deflections are those due to Fx, My, Mz. Therefore,
when there are straight lengths with circumferential variation of temperature,
the value ofD<r+l)l to be used in 9·16 is given by
, [ lFx
D<r+t> 1 = -nat
2
12 Mz -l 2 My lMy lMz J [L;0 L'0J (9·20)
E' 2~E' na t O, na
na t 2-y---E' ---y-E'
t na-y-E
t ,
Circumferential variations are most likely to arise in horizontal legs of the
system and to be approximately linear with distance from the centre line of
the pipe. If this is the case, and there is no axial variation, T = T0 +!T1 sin (J
and T0 , T1 are constants. Substitution of this value for T in the preceding
formulae gives
D(r+ 1) 1
-1 2 a T1
[ alT0 , 0, 4 a , 0, ~·
l a T1
0 [ L; 0
J J
0 L;
0.
If the loads acting on the pipe in the unrestrained state are mechanical, there
will be forces acting in the pipe, even though there are no loads applied at
358 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
+F~[O 0 ]F1
0 LKL'
Carrying out the operations described above,
(9·21)
Note that the first three columns in the matrix multiplying F 1 are zero since
only bending strain energy is included. Observe also that if point loads W 3
are applied at P 3 , F 1 = Up 3 W 3 between P 1 and P 3 and F 1 = 0 between
P 3 and P 2 • Thus
(9·22)
D21 = (9·23)
p, p
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 359
In this formula
and
N<r+t> 1 =[L; O]F<r+t> 1; ro=[L; O]w
OL; OL;
are loads referred to the local axes. It can be seen from the form of Eqn. 9·24
that each pair of terms in the series represents the deflection at P 2 due to
bending of the component Q,Qr+l· The first term is the deflection due to the
action of the loads on the pipe between Q, + 1 and P 2 and the second term is
the deflection due to the distributed loads acting upon Q,Q,+l. Ifthe loads
are distributed uniformly on a straight length
A =PH p2 5 p26 p2 7
P,
z
FIG. 9·5 A seven anchor run.
Ai L
N
D*1 U1iFi+D!1
2
Dj A;"F;+D;"1 (i = 2, ... , N)
Now the force at Pi produces a deflection at P; which may be written as
AiiFi if Aii is suitably defined. Adding the deflection produced by all the
forces to the unrestrained deflection, the deflection of P; relative to P 1 is
STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPING SYSTEMS 361
N
D; = L2 AiiFi+Dn (i = 2, ... , N)
Equating D; and Df - U~; D! for each anchor we obtain 6(N -1) equations
for the 6(N -1) unknown forces:
i-1
L2 (Aij+ u~iAi U1)Fj+(Aii-At + UJ.iAi uli)F;
N (9·26)
+ L (Au+U~;AiUi)Fi
i+1
= Di1-UJ.;Di 1-Dn (i 2, ... , N)
Again, if there are partial restraints at any of the anchors the relevant forces
are zero and the corresponding equations are deleted from the set 9·26.
As in the case of the single run the anchors are often rigid in comparison with
the pipe and then 9·26 reduces to
N
L2 AijFj = Dit-UJ.iDit-Dil (i = 2, ... , N) (9·27)
In order to determine the form of A;i, consider the pipe under the action
of Fi and its reaction at P 1 • Suppose the single runs P 1P; and P 1Pi intersect
at Pii' then the force acting on the pipe at P;i is U(iiliFi and the deflection at
P;i is A(ij)U(iniFi where A(in is the flexibility matrix of the single run P 1Pii.
Now the pipe between P;i and Pi is unloaded and moves as a rigid body, thus
the deflection at P; is U(iiliA(inUoniFi. Hence
(9·28)
Note that Ai; = A;i and that the matrix of coefficients in Eqns. 9·27 is
symmetrical. There are t,N(N- 1) different 6 x 6 matrices required to set up
the left-hand side of the set 9·27 but the number of distinct flexibility matrices
is fewer than this. Thus for the system shown in Fig. 9·5 the total number
required is -!-7 x 6 = 21, but because P 24 = P 25 , etc., only eleven flexibility
matrices are required. In general the number required is N- 1 plus the number
of different branch points. Further, the flexibility matrices can be built up
progressively by using the result derived at the end of§ 9·1. Thus for example
loads present the effect of the loads from the lengths which branch from
P 1P; must be included in the unrestrained deflections. Therefore, if the branch
I
points along P 1P; are ij, ... , ik, ... , il the expression I U(ik) i A(ik) F<l> 1 must
k=j
be added to the unrestrained deflections due to the other discrete and dis-
tributed loads on P 1Pi. In this expression F~k)l is the load imposed upop
P 1Pi by the branch to Pk>
To evaluate the force at a general point P, suppose that P is on a section
of pipe which branches downstream (from P 1) of P to anchors P., ... , P.,
... , Pt. From equilibrium considerations
(9·29)
s=r
REFERENCE
1. M. W. KELLOGG COMPANY, Design of Piping Systems (J. Wiley, 1956).
10 Adequacy of the Design:
General Considerations
10·0 INTRODUCTION
Tconstruction,
reliable operation of a vessel depends on the material used for its
HE
the stress-strain distribution under the relevant loading
conditions, the temperature to which the material is subjected, the type of
environment and the time interval since the vessel was commissioned. Given
all the possible combinations of these factors, the designer has to satisfy
himself that failure will not, in fact, occur.
For a given material, at a fixed temperature, a simple form of purely stress-
strain dependent failure is the plastic instability treated in Chapter 11. In a
similar way, elastic instability is possible in vessels subjected to external
loading. This subject will be treated in Chapter 15. Failure to meet the speci-
fied design requirements may also occur due to excessive stresses or strains,
without affecting the structural integrity of the vessel. A well known example
is the leakage of mechanical joints, such as bolted-flanged connections and
expanded joints between tube and tube plates. In either case, leakage occurs
when the stresses set up during service are such as to counterbalance the
residual stresses obtained in the fabrication process. The provision of in-
sufficient clearance to allow for the differential expansion of the various
vessel components and of the vessel itself is often a cause of failure. Elongated
bolt holes, keyways or hangers must always be fitted for the support of the
vessel and a similar arrangement must be adopted whenever differential
expansion occurs between two connected parts. Similarly, mutual inter-
ference between the plant structure and the pressure equipment, especially
in the case of piping systems, is a common cause of failure.
No general rule can be given for the prevention of this type of failure due
to excessive stable deformations. In each particular case, it is the designer's
responsibility to ensure that sufficient clearances exist and that leakage will
not occur. It is always wise to specify generous clearances in order to allow
for uncertainties in the form of loading, inaccuracies of the analysis, etc.
The manufacturing tolerances must also be considered (refer to Chapter 3).
363
364 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
In this section, an attempt will be made to give the basic information required
by the designer. Detailed information concerning the fundamental mechanics
of fracture may be found in Ref. 1.
The fracture of a material may be described by the appearance of the frac-
ADEQUACY OF THE DESIGN: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 365
tured surface, the strain or energy required, or by the behaviour of the crystals
forming the material. Thus it is said that a fracture of fibrous appearance,
preceded by large strains and produced with the absorption of high energy,
is ductile. When the appearance is granular or crystalline and the strain and
energy are low, it is brittle. In ductile fractures, the crystals break along the
octahedral planes-shear-while in brittle fractures they are split along the
cubic planes-cleavage.
For the materials in general use in the pressure vessel industry the two
types of fracture usually co-exist. A clear example of this is the classical
cup-and-cone fracture of cylindrical specimens of mild steel tested under
uniaxial tension. The fracture surface in the centre of the specimen has a
crystalline appearance and can therefore be considered as brittle. A close
examination will show that some crystals have failed in shear and others in
cleavage (Ref. 2). The outer part of the fracture, inclined at 45° with the
direction of tension, is due to shear. It is generally agreed that the fracture
starts in the form of a cleavage crack, in the centre of the specimen, pro-
pagating in jerks, alternating shear and cleavage and forming the centre part
of the cup, while the outer material stretches plastically to form the 45° lips.
Boyd (3) has shown that a very similar situation occurs during the develop-
ment of cracks in a plate under uniaxial tension. In this case, illustrated in
Fig. 10·1, a crack, initiated next to the notch A where a stress peak exists,
propagates in a direction perpendicular to that of the applied tension and
stops at B. Sectioning the plate along the crack, as in Fig. lO·l(b), one sees
that there is a reduction in the plate thickness in the vicinity of the crack and
that there are two clearly defined zones, a central one corresponding to brittle
fracture and an outer one to shear. A closer examination will again show in
the central zone groups of crystals broken in shear and other groups in
cleavage. Ahead of the main crack propagating front an internal cleavage
crack appears, and it would seem that the wall between this crack and the
main front fractures by shear. Again the propagation is in jerks, alternating
shear and cleavage. Figure lO·l(c) shows several sections along the plate.
Each is strikingly similar to a section through a conventional tensile specimen
at some stage of fracture. In the section at the left-hand side there is complete
separation, with the 45° lips and the serrated centre portion, while in the one
at the right-hand side an internal cleavage crack is initiated. A characteristic
feature is the appearance of the chevrons, pointing towards the origin of
fracture and perpendicular to the main propagating front.
For those materials with little ductility, fracture occurs with negligible
plastic stretching. In such cases, the plate does not show any contraction
local to the crack and the flat, central portion extends over the whole thick-
ness. It is also frequently observed that the zone near the origin of the fracture
is smooth and crystalline while the roughness increases away from this
366 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
region. The coarse appearance would be a result of the fact that at the internal
cleavage cracks plastic deformation and tearing takes place. Obviously, one
would expect very brittle materials to break along smooth, even, crystalline
surfaces. In that case, the chevrons would disappear. This is not entirely
(a) A~------------B
(b)
(c)
backed by experience. The well-known rib marks and hackle marks shown in
the fractured surfaces of glass specimens (Ref. 4) correspond, in fact, to the
traces of the main crack propagating front and to the chevrons that appear
in metals. The cause of these marks can be explained as follows.
ADEQUACY OF THE DESIGN: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 367
dW dW
dA 2nRdR dO
dO
where R(O) is the crack radius. Comparing these equations
. dR . VT
vT = 2 n R d O' 1.e. R
2
---:;;: 0 + C
The main propagating front may be considered as the envelope of the circular
cracks. From Fig. 10·2
or
(10·1)
368 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
1C
i.e.
T
ve = -+x
2n
Substitution into Eqn. 10·1 gives the equation of the family of envelopes as
y2 = !.n (x+.!...)+c
4n
yz
or, taking C in the form C = -(a-1)
4n
y2 = !_(x+
n
aT)
4n
(10·2)
y
-2n
= ±C 1 exp { T(x+C }
2)
A ductile material may well fail in service due to plastic flow in a highly
stressed region of a comparatively large size, for instance in the neighbour-
hood of a structural discontinuity such as a bracket attachment or the
connection between two different shells of revolution. This plastic flow is
accompanied by an internal crack, as has been discussed. Since there usually
is a stress system inhibiting plastic deformation in the vicinity of most stress
raisers, fracture starts with little evidence of necking or reduction of plate
thickness local to the starting point of the fracture. Once the fracture has
started, it spreads in a stable or an unstable way, depending on the toughness
of the material and on the elastic strain energy stored in the structure.
Toughness is a most elusive parameter which, in each individual material,
depends on the straining rate, the stress distribution, the temperature, whether
the material has been cold worked or not, etc. It is therefore not surprising
that little quantitative information concerning the conditions required for
the development of one or the other types of crack propagation exists. Both
stable and unstable propagations do, in fact, render the vessel unfit for service,
the first because it produces leakage, the second because it impairs the
structural integrity of the vessel. However, unstable-brittle-propagation
has naturally received more attention than the stable propagation, since it
results in a catastrophic failure.
It is clear that the most direct way to prevent the initiation of cracks in
ductile materials, barring the effects of fatigue, creep and corrosion, is to
maintain the stress below that value causing plastic flow. Peaks of very high
stresses, concentrated in a small region, are relatively unimportant and so are
some of the stresses developed by the constraint of the structure, such as
those due to thermal effects. Local yielding or small deformations will relieve
these stresses, and failure will not occur provided that the material remains
sufficiently ductile to accommodate those deformations without rupture. It is
therefore of the utmost importance to ensure that the ductility of the original
material is not lost due to the fabrication process or during service. This
exhaustion of ductility is one of the main causes for the brittle failure of
steel structures. In brittle materials, of course, the maximum value of the
stress, no matter how localized that is, must be kept below the rupture stress.
Stress corrosion, causing intercrystalline cracks, is an important source of
crack initiation and will be treated in the next section.
10·2 CORROSION
The simplest form of failure caused primarily by the effect of the environment
is the removal of successive layers of material by corrosion or erosion,
370 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
identical to the ordinary fatigue cracks. The only: apparent difference between
a fatigue failure and a corrosion-fatigue failure is that in the latter the
cracks are initiated after some pitting takes place. All materials are subjected
to corrosion-fatigue, and it is a general rule that their resistance to this type
of failure depends principally on their resistance to corrosion. It is currently
accepted that in most cases no fatigue limit can be given when corrosion is
present.
The procedure for the prevention of corrosion-fatigue is, first of all, to
choose a material resistant to ordinary corrosion. The second is to minimize
the notch-type stress raisers, as is usually done when the design will be sub-
jected to cyclic loading in service. Shot-peening, introducing compressive
stresses on the surface, the use of protective coatings and the treatment of the
contained fluid are also current practice.
The materials used for the construction of nuclear reactor vessels or other
components subjected to neutron irradiation may undergo important changes
in their mechanical properties. These changes depend on several factors, the
most important being:
(a) Chemical composition and metallurgical structure of the material.
(b) Temperature during irradiation.
(c) Neutron flux and neutron energy spectrum.
(d) Stress and environment.
The principal effect of neutron irradiation is the embrittlement of metals.
General information on this subject may be found in Refs. 6 and 7. Some
data on the behaviour of specific materials is contained in Ref. 8.
.B
Stress relaxation
y
Y'<Y
higher than at zero load, thus reducing the yield stress Y with respect to Y'.
Entirely brittle materials are seldom, if ever, used for the construction of
pressure vessels; but it is possible for ductile materials to become brittle, for
N
374 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
instance, by work hardening. If this is the case, the material is likely to show
a marked anisotropy, thus reducing the accuracy of the conventional stress
analysis. On the other hand, the behaviour will be elastic up to fracture. It is
important to note that brittle fracture is then associated with the existence
of flaws or other defects and their distribution, and becomes highly unpre-
dictable. For this reason only it is essential to maintain the maximum stress
in the structure well within the elastic region.
Elastic stress analysis is therefore a powerful tool that finds very wide
application. The most important limitations to its use can be listed as follows:
(a) It fails to provide a solution to the problem of the determination of
the load required to produce the plastic collapse of a vessel.
(b) It cannot be used to describe the time-dependent deformation of
materials at high temperatures (creep).
(c) Some of the accuracy is lost when the material is anisotropic. Although
this is seldom the case, work-hardened materials, especially non-ferrous
alloys such as zircaloy, magnox, etc., may show this effect.
(d) The stress-strain redistribution that takes place before the eventual
elastic shakedown cannot be assessed accurately.
y
S.F.
where S.F. is a safety factor. Usually S.F. = 1·5.
A similar situation arises in an elementary thin shell of revolution-e.g.
a sphere or a cylinder-loaded under internal pressure. The only difference
is that now the state of stress is no longer uni-axial and it becomes necessary
to obtain first the equivalent uni-axial stress. This is done following Tresca's
criterion, which states that if u 1 > u 2 > u 3 are the principal stresses the
equivalent stress is
I I
ii =maximum of u1-u21• u1-u31• u2-u31 I
In the thin cylinder or sphere u 1 = u 8 , u 2 = fu 8 or u 8 , u 3 = 0 therefore
ij = O'o·
When the beam is under a bending moment, the condition for the initiation
of yielding is for the bending stress to be equal to Y. Increasing the bending
moment by 50% over the value required to initiate yielding results in the
failure of the beam due to the development of a plastic hinge. The working
stress can then be defined as
O'b = y
plastic hinge formed in a beam. Failure, however, does not take place until
the plastic region spreads at either side of the first hinge joint and two more
such joints are formed, as shown in Fig. 10·5(b). The behaviour ofthe cylindri-
cal shell can therefore be compared to that of a beam, with built-in ends and
1
Jab J+ Jaa J
FIG. 10·4 Determination of safety factor.
I
I
I I I
--t----1
I 1
_J- ---1 -
I
~
I I
~\
I
.I ,
i.
FIG.
~
10·5 Plastic collapse of cylindrical vessel.
a central load (Fig. 10·5(c)). In both cases, due to the presence of the supports
or the adjacent elastic zones, the load carrying capacity of the structure is
increased over that calculated by a formula such as Eqn. 10·4. Clearly this
ADEQUACY OF THE DESIGN: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 377
criterion, based on the prevention of the formation of the first hinge joint,
is safe; but its application may well be unduly restrictive. The rational
approach would be to maintain the load during operation below the critical
or collapse load. However, as will be seen in Chapter II, it is seldom possible
to calculate the collapse load and it then becomes necessary to assign a more-
or-less arbitrary value for the working stress, calculated on the assumption
of elastic behaviour. It would appear that this fictitious stress may be allowed
to be as high as twice the yield stress in the majority of cases, without
jeopardizing the safety of the vessel.
Consider now a rigid frame welded to the ends of the beam and assume that
the beam temperature is held constant while that of the rigid frame varies as
shown in Fig. 10·6. If rx is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the beam,
/12 .,...
~
)1-
E'
~
~
0 Time
FIG. 10·6 Thermal cycling of a beam welded to a rigid frame.
when the temperature of the frame is raised to T 2 for the first time, the strain
in the beam becomes
Bmax = rxfl.T
If
y
Bmax > yield strain
E
the beam yields, but failure does not occur until the uniformly distributed
strain becomes of the order of 100 times the yield strain. Therefore the onset
of yielding no longer corresponds to the incipience of failure. During cycling,
the straining of the beam will follow loops of the type shown in Fig. 10·3,
and failure (if it occurs) will be caused by the mechanisms of fatigue or
incremental collapse discussed in Chapter 12, where appropriate design rules
will be given. In principle, it would appear advisable to limit the stress range
to twice the yield stress, in order to enable elastic shakedown and thus prevent
any work hardening or incremental growth of the vessel. This rule, which has
been suggested by Kerkhof (13) among others, may well be too restrictive in
some cases while not allowing for the possibility of fatigue in others.
w
.....:J
00
TABLE 10·1
DETERMINATION OF WORKING STRESSES
Ia! = maximum of Iahoop- a 1onal, Iahoop!, Ia1onal at a given location. The sign of a is that of the principal stress of maximum absolute
value. The radial stress is neglected.
a. = calculated value of a at the outside wall
a1 = calculated value of a at the inside wall
a.+at a.-at .
a4 = - 2- ; ab = - 2- ; a.= maximum of!a.!,lad
Principal Material
Stress Characteristics and Service Conditions Form of F a i l u r e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ductile Brittle
Caused by mechanical load, e.g. pressure, weight or any Plastic y ai~!U.T.S. '"d
other uniformly distributed load whose magnitude is un- Collapse a/~tU.T.S. ~
a/~ S.F. m
affected by the deformation of the shell. Geometrical dis-
continuities not considered. (I) where S.F. is obtained from Fig. 10·4 "'"'c::
~
Caused by concentrated mechanical loading, e.g. weight a.'+a. 11 ~2Y a.'+a.' 1 ~U.T.S. m
acting on a bracket, pressure load on a nozzle, piping re- <
m
action. (II) Rational design based on safety factor applied to collapse
load (Chapter 11) "'"'m
t""
t:l
m
"'....0
z
>
tj
tr1
,0
c:=
>
(')
TABLE 10·1 continued ....::
0
>tj
Principal Material ...;
Stress Characteristics and Service Conditions Form of F a i l u r e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ::c
Ductile Brittle tr1
tj
Caused by self-constraint of structure. Internal, self-equili- Fatigue or u.1 + u.11 + u.111 .;; 2 Y u. 1 + u. 11 + u.111 .;; U.T.S. tr1
brating stress resultants set up by incompatibility of defor- Incremental "'Cl
-
mations and relieved by yielding. Stress causing large Collapse Rational design based on fatigue and incremental collapse z
overall deformations only. (III) (Chapter 12)
Cl
tr1
Peak stresses caused by notch-type stress raisers as well as Fatigue Working stress based on fatigue analysis (Chapter 12) ztr1
thermal stresses not causing large deformations, e.g. dif-
~
ferential expansion in clad plates, temperature gradient
through plates
>
t"'
(')
Operation at sub-zero temperature. Embrittlement of due- Low stress Design rules in Chapter 13 0
tile materials brittle fracture z
"'t j
-
Operation at high temperatures Creep Working stresses and design rules in Chapter 14 tr1
~
~
-.1
\C)
380 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The essential difference between this example and the previous one is that
no external forces are present and the stresses are only due to self-constraint
of the structure. The internal forces set up by the incompatibility of defor-
mation between the adjacent structural members are relieved by yielding.
If the material remains ductile, failure during the first application of the
loading is only possible after extremely large deformations. Similar charac-
teristics are to be found in the thermal stresses in pressure vessels and the
discontinuity stresses in the vicinity of shell junctions. Such stresses are usually
safe if their calculated value-elastic method-is maintained below twice the
yield stress, unless a large number of cyclic variations of load is anticipated.
The presence of flaws, notches or sharp corners in a structural member
gives rise to high stress peaks, concentrated in the vicinity of the stress
raisers. Such stress peaks only have to be considered when the vessel is
subjected to cyclic loading. The procedure is then as described in Chapter 12.
Ductile materials may lose their ductility under certain conditions and
behave in a brittle way. Design rules to prevent this occurrence are discussed
in Chapter 13. Working stresses and design rules for vessels operating at
elevated temperatures in the creep range of the material, or under external
pressure, are given in the corresponding chapters.
10·3·5 Summary
Table 10·1 summarizes the preceding sections. It must be emphasized that
the use of working stresses involves many simplifying assumptions and
arbitrary decisions. It is therefore not surprising to find that widely different
ADEQUACY OF THE DESIGN: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 381
limits have been suggested by the various Codes and by several authors (see,
for example, Refs. 13, 14 and Chapter 3).
In addition to checking that the stress level is below the working stresses,
the designer must ensure that the design rules contained in the following
chapters are satisfied. This is especially important when the elastic stress
analysis is not entirely adequate and for materials which may exhibit a dual
ductile-brittle behaviour.
Higher working stresses may be used if suitably justified by a detailed
analysis.
REFERENCES
N*
11 Plastic Collapse
11·0 INTRODUCTION
T of revolution,
HEpreceding chapters have dealt with the stress analysis of thin shells
loaded in the elastic range, for which the relationship
between the state of stress and the state of strain is adequately described by
means of the generalized Hooke's law. The states of stress and strain are
then directly related to the actual load and are independent of the loading
history. At increased values of the load, there comes a more or less well
defined point where the elastic conditions outlined cease to be valid over a
certain region of the vessel. If this region were isolated from the rest of the
vessel, it would flow plastically. This is prevented by the remaining elastic
regions. As the load is further increased, the plastic region spreads over the
rest of the vessel until the elastic region either disappears or is insufficient to
prevent the failure of the structure. The value of the load for which this
occurs is called collapse load or bursting pressure and its calculation will be
discussed in the following paragraphs.
At present, the incipience of plastic flow is predicted in accordance with
one of two criteria. The maximum shear criterion, proposed by Tresca, states
that yielding begins when the maximum shearing stress reaches a critical
value. If the state of stress is described by the three principal stresses, q 1 ,
q2, (1 3 , one can write
-rmax = maximum of 1 2
I
1(1 -(1211(1 1 -(1 3 1(12 -(13 I
= critical value •
' 2 ' 2
(11·1)
where Y is the yield stress in uniaxial tension. The von Mises criterion states
that yielding begins when
1
.J2 .J {((11- (12) 2+ (ql- (13) 2+ (q2- (13) 2} y (11·2)
382
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 383
Equations 11·1 and 11·2 represent two surfaces, called the yield loci. When
u 3 = 0 (plane stress) these loci become, respectively, a hexagon and an
ellipse (Fig. 11·1). Taking the vectorS of components (u 1 , u 2 , u 3 ) to represent
the state of stress, when S is interior to the yield locus, the material remains
elastic; but when the end point of Sis on the locus, it starts to yield.
When the behaviour of the material under uniaxial tension is described
-Y y
(O.C)
Tresca hexagon
y
Von Mises ellipse
-Y
(0,- C)
i.e. (11·3)
384 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The components of the strain vector E are then (e 1 , e2 , -e 1 -e2 ), and those
of the strain rate vector E are (8 1 , 82 , -8 1 -8 2 ). At a given scale, E can be
represented with its origin on the end point of S. The flow rule then states
that when the end point of S lies on the yield surface, E is along the outward
normal to this surface. The flow rule associated with Tresca's criterion for
plane stress (Fig. ll·l) is therefore
81 c, 82 0 when 0'1 y
81 0, 82 c "
0'2 y
81 -C, 82 c "
0'1 -0'2 -Y
81 -C, 82 0 0'1 -Y
"
81 0, 82 -C 0'2 -Y
"
Ill c, 82 = -C 0'1 -0'2 y
"
(a) (b)
.:= .:=
<;; <;;
,.£!
~ ~
l:l
~
.,';:s"'
t!:;
Strain Strain
Fxo. 11·2 Uniaxial stress-strain curves under progressive loading: ideal
elastic/plastic and rigid/plastic materials.
where Cis a positive parameter. At the corners of the hexagon, any linear
combination (with positive coefficients) of the adjacent sides is acceptable.
The flow rule associated with von Mises criterion is obtained by noting that
the direction cosines of the normal to the yield surface are proportional to
(2a 1 -a2 - a 3), (2a 2 - a 1 -a3 ), (2a 3 - a 1 -a2 ). The flow rule is then expressed
by the equations
(11·4)
In the case of a strain hardening material (Fig. 11·3) the uniaxial stress-
strain curve may be represented by two expressions, one valid in the elastic
field
(jelastic E Belastic < Y (11·5)
and one valid in the plastic field
uplastic = B ebplastic+ Y
the total strain being
8 = Belastic + Bplastic
When large plastic deformations exist, the elastic strain may be neglected.
In these expressions, u is the true stress, i.e. the ratio of the load to the actual
cross-section, and e is the logarithmic strain, defined as
dl . l (l-1 0 )
de = l' I.e. e = log.~ = log. ----z;-+1
where 1is the actual length of an element of initial length /0 • For small strains
l-1 0
8 ::::::!
lo
maximum of I u 1 - u 2 1 or I u 1 - u 3 1 or I u 2 - u 2 1
according to Tesca's criterion or
1 y /{ (u 1 - u2 ) 2 +(u 1 - u 3) 2 +(u 2 - u 3) 2} =
..) (e 1 , e2 , e3) (11·7)
2 uM
relationship that exists between uniaxial stress and strain exists between the
so called significant stress, iiT or iiM and a significant strain, defined as being
equal to the maximum absolute value of e1 , e2 , e3 ,
(11·9)
where a is the hoop or meridional stress, r is the mean radius (initial value r 0 )
and t is the shell thickness (initial value t0 ).
Also
t .
e, = 1oge -, I.e. t = to e
e
r
to
r .
e9 = 1oge -, I.e. r = r0 ee9
ro
Due to symmetry, the hoop and meridional strains are equal. The incom-
pressibility condition then gives
e, = -2e0
For a strain hardening material, the significant strain is obtained from
Eqns. 11·8 or 11·9
since the hoop, radial and circumferential directions are principal. Expressing
r and t as function of their initial values and e,
C1
u- Pro 32/2
= - e
2t0
i.e.
P __ 2to
- e -32/2 u-
ro
if, in this case, is the significant stress.
For instability to occur, increased deformation must be possible without any
increase in load, i.e.
dP
de
i.e.
2 dii
= (j
3 de
The values of if and e corresponding to this condition may be obtained by
means of the graphical method illustrated in Fig. 11·4, once the uniaxial
stress-strain curve is known. In Fig. 11·4, AS is the tangent at the point of
388 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
TABLE 11·1
BURSTING PRESSURE OF THIN SPHERICAL AND
CYLINDRICAL VESSELS
for a cylindrical vessel: r0 and t0 are the initial values of the mean radius
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 389
and the thickness. The case of strain hardening materials will be considered
next.
(a)
C1 + tiCTr
(b)
fle
FIG. 11·5 Stress and strain in thick-walled vessels.
B,
(11-10)
390 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
and the significant stress and strain (Tresca or von Mises) become
e= 1e, 1 = - e, = 2 e6 (11·11)
jj = a9-a, (11·12)
From the preceding equations
du re"8 de6 + (e"8 -1) dr
du (e- 8 -1)dr = !re'12 de+(efl2-1)dr
therefore
de 2dr
e 3</2_1 (11·13)
r
From Fig. ll·S(a), the equilibrium of the volume element A' B'C' D'-
A"B"C" D" gives the condition
a, = 0, r
"
the internal pressure becomes
p (11·15)
e0 = ~ log. [ 1 +(~J (e 3
""
2
-1) J (11-16)
In Eqn. 11·15, the pressure corresponding to a given strain at the bore can
therefore be obtained by substituting 80 from Eqn. 1H 6, provided that the
significant or uniaxial stress-strain relation is known. The maximum pressure
can then be obtained by taking
which is equivalent to
ei and 80 are obtained from Eqns. 11·16 and 11·17 with the stress-strain
relation
a = F(e)
which may be given by Eqn. 11·5 or in graphical form. Once ei and 80 are
determined, the maximum pressure is obtained by integrating Eqn. 11·15.
When the stress-strain relation is given in graphical form, it is possible
to use the method illustrated in Fig. 11·6. The first step is to draw curves OA
and OB and a straight line at 45° to the axis, OC. Selecting a point M, the
points Nand Pare then obtained. For instability, the segment NP must be
parallel to the strain axis. Mter some trials, the points M, N, P corresponding
to instability are determined. Drawing now the line OD, the maximum
pressure is equal to the area defined by the N and P ordinates.
Stress- Strain
t t
du, u,-u6 __
0
--+--
du+dr u+r
From these equations, and following the same procedure as for the spherical
vessels, one obtains
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 393
p = I iid e
ii
to
e• "' 3 -1
(11-151)
(11-161)
50
~
Eo= J log,[l + Cf;f (e..f3E; -I)] (Eqn. 11.16') o·J
:§.
::!:!
§
::::, JOO
700
900
1100
1300~~-------------------------------------------J
FIG. 11·7 Theoretical bursting pressure of Al-2Mg cylindrical vessel
(U.T.S. = 14 ton/in 2).
e'' v'3
iii f = f1
iii i! = i!0
X 1 +(r; 2
;:;,) (e •·v'3
' -1)
(11-17')
The same method that was used for the solution of the problem in the
case of spherical vessels may now be applied to cylindrical vessels. This has
been done, for an aluminium alloy vessel, in Fig. 11·7. The bursting pressure
in this case is 27,500 lb/in 2 , when the outside radius is twice the inside
radius. The experimental value (Ref. 3) was 24,500 lb/in 2 •
Since
The significant stress is (Ref. 4)
jj J {Yor (uiJ- u,) + YIJx (uiJ- ux) + Yrx (u,- Ux)
2 2 2}
(u 8 -u,)JG
where
G = YIJx Yrx + Yor Yrx + YIJx YIJr
and the significant strain
(11-1611)
These equations are similar to those derived for isotropic materials, with the
exception of the factor 2.jG, instead of .j3. In fact, for an isotropic material
Yo = Yr = 1
Yex = Yer = Yrx = -!
and G = i, 2-JG = -J3
Due to this similarity, the same method of solution is applicable.
using the same notation as for Eqn. 11·18. In addition, Y is taken either
as the yield stress or the 0·2% proof stress.
rn-!
r2
r,
ro
i\
/:"--
I.
~
/~ ~
~ ~
/['_
~/
I
['.,
/f'.- ~
v~ I
~/ ~
V'-
/'\,
~~
I
•
'\,/
""
I
~
~/
~ ~ ~
['< I ['\
(11·21)
If we assume now that the material follows Tresca's yield criterion, incipient
yielding will occur when
1 -!Y [1-G:YJ
P = P0
(11·23)
~~-~ ~1-!Y[l-G:YJ = Po-!Y[2-G:Y -G:YJ
Pn = Pn_ 1 -!Y[1-(r~~ 1 YJ = P -!Y[n-G:Y -GJ
0
2
- ••• -(,.",.~ 1 YJ
398 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(11·25)
The design procedure is to select the number of simple cylinders, n, and their
final radii, checking that Eqn. 11·23 is satisfied. The interference between
inside and outside initial radii of each adjoining cylinder is then obtained
from Eqns. 11·25. The process is repeated until satisfactory interferences,
compatible with the available manufacturing methods, are obtained. Al-
though the analysis has been limited to simple cylinders having the same
yield point, different materials may be used. The extension of the analysis
to cover this case is trivial.
The bursting pressure of the compound ideally plastic cylinder may be
obtained in a very simple way. When all the elementary cylinders are fully
plastic, from § 11·2,
or taking
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 399
0
2 rn
-Ylog-
.J3 e rn-1
2 rn
-.- Y log.--
..j3 rn-2
2 rn
po = .J3 y log. -;:;;
When all the elementary cylinders are made of the same, ideally plastic
material, there is therefore no apparent difference between the bursting
pressure of the compound vessel and that of a solid wall cylinder of equal
dimension and of the same material. The only advantage lies, then, in that
a higher pressure is required to initiate yielding in the compound cylinder
than in the equivalent solid wall vessel. This conclusion does no longer hold
for strain hardening materials.
The previous equation may be modified to take into account the possi-
bility of using different materials for the elementary cylinders. We would
then have
Po 2 ( Y0 log.-+
= ..,- r2
r 1 Y log.-+···+ rn )
Yn-l log- (11·26)
.J 3
1
ro r1 rn-1
Inside
,fr•·
face
Outside
Ne face
Outside face
Inside face
(a)
(b)
where
Ne. Nq,.
ne = No '
nq, = No '
No = Yt
Me Mq,. Yt 2
me = -·
Mo '
mq, = Mo'
Mo = 4
If Bem and Bq,m are the strain rates of the mid-surface and Xq, and i.e are the
rates of change of curvature, the rate at which energy is dissipated from a
shell element of unit area is
W = NeBem+Nq,Bq,m+Mq,Xq,+Mei.e
(11·28)
where
For the determination of the Tresca yield surface and associated flow rule,
it is convenient to express ne, nq,, me, mq,, and Bem• B<J>m• ke, kq, as functions of
three parameters p, q, r. Referring to Fig. 11·10,
. 4
Be Bem -i.e z = llem-t ke Z
4
eq, = Bq,m-Xq,Z Bq,m-t kq,z
and
Bem. Bq,m • q Bem+Bq,m
p = 4ks'
r
4k' = 4(ke+kq,)
(11·29)
4>
therefore
Bom = 4Cp(q-r)
Sq,m = 4Cr(p-q)
ko C(q-r)
kq, C(p-q)
The rate of energy dissipation, per unit volume, from an element situated
at a distance z to the mid-surface is
w1 = ¥8
t/2
no = _1 aW = ! _a
N 0 iJB 6m t 0 Born
[ f 8 dz]
-t/2
and the analogous expressions for nq,, m6 , mq,. These expressions will now be
used for the derivation of the relations between the resultant forces and
moments and the parameters p, q, r. Take for instance the strain distribution
throughout the shell thickness shown in Fig. ll·lO(a). 8 is obtained as
shown in Fig. 11·1 O(b) and the integral
t/2
J8dz
-t/2
is equal to the shaded area. If Bem is increased by bBem' the new strain rates
Be and Bq, are given by the dotted lines in Fig. ll·lO(a) and the variation in
the integral is
or
1 A
- ~=p+q=no
t uBem
In the same way one obtains
1 A
- -.- = q + r = nq,
t b Bq,m
t {) Ake
1 2 2
= 1-2 (p + q ) = me
1 A
t b kq, = 1-2(q2+r2) = mq,
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 403
The results of a complete analysis are summarized in Table 11·2 (Ref. 9).
In all cases, the upper or lower signs must be used consistently in a given
line, the correct combination being the one that makes W positive. When
p, q orr (as calculated from Eqns. 11·29) are greater than t. they are replaced
by t in the expressions given in Table 11·2 for the stress resultants. Similarly
when p, q or r are smaller than - !, they are replaced by - t. When p = q = r
the intermediate parameter corresponds to the parameter with the largest
numerator in Eqns. 11·29. Expressing the resultant forces in terms of p, q, r,
the equation of the yield surface (Eqn. 11·27) is
F'(p, q,r) = 0 (11·30)
TABLE 11·2
TRESCA YIELD CONDITIONS FOR UNIFORM SHELL
Intermediate
Parameter ne nq, me mq,
The tangent to this surface in the plastic regime t<p<q<r< --!is given
by the vector
or
S' = (dp+dq, dq+dr, -4pdp-4qdq, -4qdq-4rdr)
Defining the generalized strain rate vector
E = (88m• Bq,m• k9, kq,)
the product of the two vectors is
E.S'=O
It can be shown that this product is also zero for the other plastic regimes.
When the generalized strains and resultant forces and moments are expressed
as functions of p, q, r and Eqn. 11· 30 is satisfied, the flow rule associated
with Tresca's criterion is also satisfied.
It is apparent that the use of this yield criterion results in non-linear
problems of difficult solution. One possible simplification is to assume that
the shell behaves as if bending is taken by the outer layers and the inner core
has no tensile strength but takes all the shear. In such a sandwich shell, the
thickness of the core would be t' and that of the thin outer layers t", and
404 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
N 0 =2Y't"=Yt
M0 = Y't"t' = i Yt 2
For such shell, the Tresca yield condition is given in Table 11·3 (Ref. 10).
TABLE 11·3
TRESCA YIELD CONDITIONS FOR SANDWICH SHELL
TABLE 11·4
YIELD CONDITIONS: MEMBRANE SOLUTION
n<f>
TABLE 11·5
DRUCKER AND SHIELD APPROXIMATE YIELD CONDITION
(One Moment Limited Interaction)
0
406 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Hodge (10) suggests taking both resultant moments into account, assuming
that there is no interaction between them and the resultant forces. The yield
surface is then bounded by
n6 = ±1, nq, = ±1, n 6 -nq, = ±1
m 6 = ±1, mq, = ±1, m 6 -mq, = ±1
1 no= 1 C(1,0,0,0)
2 n,p = 1 C(0,1,0,0)
3 -n0 +n,p = 1 C( -1,1,0,0)
4 -n6 = 1 C( -1,0,0,0)
5 -n,p = 1 C(O,- 1,0,0)
6 n0 -n,p = 1 C(l, -1 ,0,0)
7 mo = 1 C(0,0,1,0)
8 m,p = 1 C(0,0,0,1)
9 -m0 +m,p = 1 C(0,0,-1,1)
10 -mo = 1 C(O,O,- 1,0)
11 -m,p = 1 C(O,O,O,- 1)
12 m 0 -m,p = 1 C(0,0,1, -1)
The projections of the yield surface on the (n 8 , nq,) and (m 6 , mq,) planes
will be two hexagons similar to the one of Fig. 11·1. In the n6-nq, hexagon
one can represent the plastic regimes 1-6 and in the m 6-mq, hexagon the plastic
regimes 7-12.
It can be shown (Ref. 12) that a yield surface of dimensions equal to those
of the two moment limited interaction surface multiplied by the constant
factor 0·618, lies within the Tresca yield surface. Using this modified limited
interaction surface therefore always results in conservative estimates.
In addition, the load, stress, strain rate and deformation rate systems have
to satisfy the boundary conditions. Also, from the principle of virtual work,
the work done by the stress resultants on the strain rates-internal work-
is equal to that done by the external loads on the displacement rates-
external work.
It is seldom possible to find the actual collapse load and its associated stress,
strain rate and displacement rates systems. In general, only upper and lower
bounds can be determined for the collapse load. A lower bound is obtained
by the determination of a statically admissible system, defined as any system
which satisfies the equilibrium conditions, the stress boundary conditions
and for which
d
dr (rN,)-Ne =0
d
r Nz- dr (r M,)+Me =0
1 dVn
i.e=---;
r dr
P,V,.
(b)
(a)
FIG. 11·12 Resultant forces, deformation rates and yield locus for a flat plate.
when R is the outer radius. This system is compatible with the boundary
conditions. The corresponding strain rate system, using the notation of
Eqn. 11·28, is
W:. ID
t = f WdA = t2 Von y
2
area
f(1-i)
R
W.,1 = V0 2nrdr
0
In this case, the kinematically acceptable system thus derived is also statically
acceptable. The equilibrium equations are
pr 3t
q ---r
2 2R 2
d
dr (rm,)-me
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 411
taking the plastic state AB, m0 = I, and from the preceding equation
m r
= (1- r2)
R2
p
v,.
I
FIG. 11-13 Resultant forces and deformation rates for a cylindrical shell.
dN" 0
dx
dM"-N 0
dx z
v,
Bom
r
d2Vn
Xo = O·' Xx
dx 2
M 9 , which does not appear in the equilib-
B rium conditions, has the character of a
reaction and may be eliminated from
the yield conditions. The one and two
moment limited interaction conditions
ne are then equivalent. With the same nota-
tion as in the previous section, the equilib-
rium equations become
A.
dnx = 0
dx
FIG. 11-14 Limited interaction sim-
plified yield condition for open ended
cylinder. dq 1
-+-no p
dx r
dm"-4!!. = 0
dx t
Since nx= 0, using the limited interaction yield surface (Fig. 11·11) it is
concluded that the plastic regime is AB (Fig. 11·14). From the previous
equation
If there is no discontinuity
(dVn)l
dx x =o
_O
however, the rate of deformation field may well be as shown in Fig. 11·15,
in which case the condition is
and a hinge circle is then produced. These hinge circles have the same effect
in shells as hinge joints in redundant frameworks. Taking the rate of deforma-
tion to be as shown in Fig. 11·15, one obtains c = - 1. At the ends,
(m,)lx=l 0
2
tr
2
- - (1-pr)l -1 0
p 1 (1
;:
tr)
+ 21 2
corresponding to a pressure
p (11·32)
FIG. 11-16 Yield condition (sandwich shell) for cylinder with end load.
the yield locus shown in Fig. 11·16 is obtained. For simplicity the yield locus
will be taken to be ABCDE. From the previous solution
2
m = - - (1-pr)x 2 +c
x tr
(mx) I
X= 0
= -(1-!!!);2
c = -(1- pr)
2
2 (1-pr)l-
-(;. 2 ( 1- pr) = 0
2
2 tr+21 2
PLASTIC COLLAPSE 415
corresponding to a pressure
2 Yt tr+2l 2
p (11·33)
r tr+4l 2
and a longitudinal moment
t
I
'X
I
~.~
.
Deformed
l
surface
If the cylinder had been closed with rigid ends, it can be shown that
2 Yt tr+ 12
p = -r- tr+2l 2 (l1· 34)
In the light of these results, the case of a band reinforced cylindrical vessel,
as shown in Fig. 11·17, will now be treated. It is apparent that in order to
achieve a balanced design, the shell and the bands should yield for the same
value of the internal pressure. From § 11·2 the maximum load transmitted
by the bands is
r+h Y' hw
Nzo ~ Y'wlogc-- ~--
r r
416 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The shell will yield following Fig. 11·16, n8 is still assumed to be equal to
unity and hinge circles will be produced at the reinforcing bands (x = ± /)
and at the centre, x = 0.
(mx)ix= o= -(1-p;)
(mx)I x= I=
1-pr
2
another boundary condition is
e~x)lx=l =
( dd:x)lx =I
c = (mx)l X= 0
= -(1-pr) 2
mx 2 (1-pr)x 2 -
= -(;. ( 1-2
pr)
· f
I
J V ((-x)dx-2nrM q V (,-l)-
I
W., 1 = 2nrN0 p 0 0 0 0
I l
-2nrM0 V0 (mx) x = 1-2nrM0 V0 (mx) x = 0 +2nY'whV0 (,-1)
The solution is also kinetically admissible. For the design of a band re-
inforced vessel, the only equations that are required are Eqns. 11·33 and
11·35, giving respectively the bursting pressure and the required dimensions
of the bands. The junction of the bands to the vessel must be sufficiently
rigid to prevent rotation.
TABLE 11·7
COLLAPSE LOAD OF THIN SHELLS AND PLATES
sin cp
= 1+-t .- = y
4r
log ~-sincp
e cos cp
Where cp <a
Lower bound, c > J·O, c > 0·6J8 y ; validity as (1).
p I r
t = plate thickness
JilJJJJJ!jlllll~
- I -
t = plate thickness
~I
(6) Conical Shell. Any Support
rrYt 2
Q collapse _- ---y- • 2
Sill a
t = shell thickness
~
t shell thickness
p 2Yt tr+ 12
collapse = - r - tr + 21 2
REFERENCES
12·0 INTRODUCTION
2x t m(Aep) 2
per cycle. After N cycles, the energy becomes Nm(Aep) 2 • It is assumed that
Stress
D,, __
I D
I
I
I
I
0'
the material can only absorb a certain amount of this energy (Ref. 4) and
that failure occurs when
(12·1)
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 423
where k is the critical value of absorbed energy (work hardening) for failure.
A further cause of cyclic failure is the progressive growth of the vessels
under a maintained load and cyclic stresses. This process, known as incre-
mental collapse or ratchetting, brings about failure through plastic instability.
In this chapter, fatigue and incremental collapse will be discussed in order
to derive the necessary design rules.
Uo-~1
e~ =
E
e~ -e~' a.T
If the temperature of the outer bars is now reduced by T, the central bar
will be unloaded and the stress-strain conditions become,
Stress
aT
aT
FIG. 12·4 Incremental collapse of a bar: stress-strain diagram.
I ~2
e~ = el--
E
and for the outer bars,
u'{ u~' + ~2
y u'f.- y
e'f. = - +- - = e~ = e2
E EP
In Fig. 12·4 the points 2' and 2" correspond to the final conditions of the
central and outer bars.
Increasing again the temperature of the outer bars by T, the central bar is
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 425
loaded by Ll 3 , the outer bars are loaded by - il 3 and the difference between
the respective strain is rxT. In Fig. 12·4, points 3' and 3" are then obtained.
A reduction of the temperature by T would then cause a stress redistribution
by ± Ll 4 , and points 4' to 4" would finally correspond to the second tem-
perature cycle. It can be shown that points 2', 4', ... corresponding to the
stress-strain in the central bar at the end of 1, 2, ... cycles are located along
CA', symmetrical to CA with respect to OX, while 2", 4", ... are on CA.
Furthermore, the locus of points 1", 3", ... corresponding to the stress-
strain in the outer bars at the end oft. f, ... cycles is a line, parallel to CA'
and displaced by rxT.
A graphical method for the solution of the preceding equations is illustrated
in Fig. 12·5. Given the stress-strain curve, let 0 represent the initial condi-
Stress
c'
--r-=:::::::t~~~h:h=:==---:A'
:A."
tions. Take CA', symmetrical to CA with respect to OX, and C'A" displacing
CA' parallel to itself by rxT. The intersection of C' A" with the elastic portion
of the stress-strain curve is M, corresponding to I" in Fig. 12·4. The parallel
to the horizontal axis through M gives the point N on CA'. From N, the
parallel to the vertical axis gives PonCA. From P, the parallel to the elastic
part of the stress-strain curve gives Q on CA' and from Q, R is obtained by
drawing the parallel to the vertical axis. R and Q correspond to the points
2" and 2' of Fig. 12·4 respectively. Repeating this construction, the points
4, 6, 8, etc., are obtained. At the end of the first cycle the bars have stretched
by e2 , after two cycles by e4 , etc. It can also be shown that the points F, G, H,
I in Fig. 12·5 are aligned. The maximum elongation, after a sufficiently high
number of cycles, will be 6 00 :
426 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
\ ~
(a)
(b)
(
.f X Elongation (c)
Mid Surface
(a) (b)
aT= (a+l)2 I
a 3
(c)
FIG. 12·7 Elastic shakedown after the first cycle in an ideally plastic material
(3-bar example).
3aTE-4 Y = 0, aTE = 1- Y
in which case, elastic shakedown takes place after the first cycle. This is
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 429
illustrated in Fig. 12·7(a): cycling occurs between 2'-1' and 2"-1". A similar
effect is shown in Fig. 12·7(b), where
aTE <4 Y
In both cases, the final strain range for each bar is aT and the average stress
in the three-bar system u 0 •
In pressure vessels it is often the case that the deformation of a relatively
small part is forced by the elastic deformation of the bulk of the material.
In the three-bar &ystem, this condition can be approximated by assuming
the cross-sectional areas of bars II to be considerably larger than that of the
central bar I, say a times larger. For elastic shakedown to occur after one
cycle it is then necessary (Fig. 12·7(c)), to have
(a+l) 2 Y
aT'E ::::;; -
a 3
The limitation of the sum of the stresses of types (a) and (b), calculated by
means of an elastic analysis, to twice the yield stress has been suggested in
Chapter 10. In the three-bar example, the maximum stress, calculated
assuming elastic behaviour, is
a
u = u 0 +--
1 aTE
a+
In order to maintain this stress below 2 Y, one must have
4(a+l)Y
rxTE:::;; -
a 3
Comparing this expression with the previous one, it is apparent that the
working stress criterion only covers against incremental collapse when
For instance, when a = 1, the limitation to twice the yield stress of the
fictitious elastic stress requires
aTE::::;; tY
or twice the value previously calculated. In this case, incremental collapse
can only be prevented by strain hardening. On the other hand, when only
a very small portion of the vessel is affected-large values of a-the cal-
culated stresses may be higher than twice the yield point. This is a con-
servative criterion in the majority of cases. Complete and satisfactory design
rules are not yet available.
430 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The problem oflow cycle fatigue, i.e. the effect on the pressure vessel material
of plastic straining, will be dealt with first. The failure of a material under
gradual uniaxial tension can be considered to be a case of low cycle fatigue,
in which failure occurs after i cycle. Referring to Eqn. 12·1, the critical work
hardening energy for failure provides a link between the conventional tensile
test and other cases of failure after a certain number of cycles.
Nm(Aep) 2 = k = ;imei
where ep is the strain to rupture, which can be calculated as follows. Assum-
ing that during yielding the volume of a specimen of initial length /0 and
area A 0 remains constant,
l0 A 0 = lA
Adl+ldA 0
dl dA
deF = -
l A
A
Bp =
-I~ Ao
= lo 100
g. 100-RA
where RA is the per cent reduction of area at failure. Referring to the first
equation
100 ) 2
N(Aep)
2
= 1 (
4 log. 100-RA
Assuming that the total strain range is approximately equal to the anelastic
strain, Eqn. 12·2 is obtained:
100
log. 100-RA
AeT = (12·2)
The effect on the pressure vessel material of cyclic variations of stress has
been studied experimentally by cycling simple specimens between two stress,
strain or load limits. In the case of ordinary, high cycle fatigue, the material
remains elastic and there is little or no difference between tests based on
controlled load, stress or strain range. This is not so in low cycle fatigue: if
the load range is the controlled variable, the strain range does not remain
constant throughout the test. Furthermore, due to the anelastic behaviour
of the material the stress is not proportional to the load and the stress range
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 431
also varies during the test. The work hardening and consequently the fatigue
damage per cycle then depends on the type of test.
From strain controlled tests with plain specimens, Tavernelli and Coffin (7)
found that Eqn. 12·2 predicted the fatigue life of twelve ferrous and non-
ferrous materials accurately over a wide range. Figure 12·8 summarizes their
results for several types of steel commonly used in pressure vessel construc-
tion, obtained under conditions of complete strain reversals.
StrbJ\ lEmax
10
7
r -V ____ _,__-Emax
0"!.
.;:
:.: 6
t:::i
5
2 10 J02
N (Cycles to failure)
FIG. 12·8 Comparison between strain controlled fatigue experiments and
theoretical prediction. (Complete strain reversals.)
In Fig. 12·9 (Ref. 8) the results obtained for Mn-! Mo steel to specifica-
tion A.S.T.M.-A302 under various mean strain-to-strain range ratios are
compared with the values predicted by Eqn. 12·2. It can be seen t~at the
predicted values are fairly accurate and that the errors are on the safe side
when
N> 4 and
0 (complete strain reversal)
432 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
When the mean strain differs from zero, Eqn. 12·2 can no longer be used.
A modified equation in good agreement with the experimental results is
the following:
I 100
oge 100-RA
AeT =
Taking Ae~ to be the strain range that would cause rupture after the same
number of cycles as AeT, under complete strain reversals,
'''·
!a '\
'-,
40 ·-....----- Theoretical curve (Eqn. 12. 2)
0'5 ............ '\. Emean =0
"'-:-- [, Aer
....
- ~ .....
---·
--
3'5 1-7 ~-~
-~ .........
~ 8::! ~
r""
4 ...
10 100
N
FIG. 12·9 Comparison between strain controlled experiments and theoretical
predictions for various values of the mean strain (Ref. 8).
I 100
oge 100-RA
AeT ---------------- (12·3)
100
loge 100-RA -Bmean
where the strain range under complete strain reversals, equivalent to cycling
between Bmean±Aen is given by Eqn. 12·2.
When the number of cycles to rupture is below four, failure occurs at
lower strain ranges than predicted by the previous equations. This has been
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 433
explained by Sachs eta!. (9), who pointed out that in the static tension test of
ductile materials failure is usually due to a ratchetting process followed by
plastic instability, rather than to a work hardening process. It has been
suggested that the strain to rupture to be used in Eqn. 12·3 should then be
the 'apparent fracture ductility', sj,, obtained from extrapolation to N = !
of fatigue data. In general
' 1 100
SF< og. 100-RA = SF
In most experiments, the number of load cycles was considerably higher than
ten, and it therefore made little difference whether sF or sf. were used.
When the strain range is such that
y
AsT < 2 E
FIG. 12·10 Mean stress corresponding to cycling between emu and smln
(strain range less than twice yield strain).
work hardening-in the simple model of Fig. 12·2-only occurs in the first
cycle. The mechanism is then one of high cycle, low strain fatigue and cannot
be adequately described by the direct application of Eqns. 12·2 and 12·3.
In order to take into account the existence of an endurance limit in some
materials, or the tendency for the strain-range/cycles-to-rupture curve to
level off in others, Eqn. 12·2 can be modified as follows:
100
log. 100-RA 2S
----:-=-+-e (12·i)
2N 1 ' 2 E
where Se = endurance limit (unnotched specimens) or! of the stress range
to produce failure after 108 cycles (complete stress reversals). The yield stress
can be taken instead. When cycling occurs about a mean strain s 0 between
Smax and Smin> SUCh that
434 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
S = y _E!18r
m 2
The strain range under complete strain reversals, 118~, equivalent to cycling
between 8max and 8min• may be obtained from a Goodman diagram as usual:
U.T.S.
!18r E118r
U.T.S.-Y+-2-
k (~+ nz +···)
Nt Nz
When this damage is equal to the critical constant k, failure occurs. Following
Miner (1 0), it is then necessary for
(12·4)
13
12
11
10
9
Kf 8
7
4 '"C
::c
m
3
"'
c::"'
2 ::c
m
t I I I I I I
I
lr o·s <
m
2b (inches) "'"'m
1:"'
FIG. 12·11 Stress concentration factor: longitudinal crack and ellipsoidal cavity (Ref. 11).
t:l
m
......
"'
0
z
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 437
with the ultimate tensile strength expressed in 103 lb/in 2 • Since for most
pressure vessel steels U.T.S. is less than 100,000 lb/in 2 , a conservative value
of a is 0·007 in.
It is sometimes possible to estimate K 1 more accurately than can be done
by the application of the method summarized in the previous paragraph.
This has been done in Figs. 12·11 and 12 ·12, based on Ref. 11. These figures
show the effective stress concentration factor for several types of stress
raisers. In all cases, K 1 refers to the net cross-sectional area. For other stress
raisers (grooves, shoulder, etc.) refer to the very comprehensive book by
Peterson (1). It must be noted that the maximum value of K 1 does not
correspond to r = 0, for which value Kr-+ oo. This is in agreement with
experimental results obtained for aluminium, where it was found that the
critical value of the notch radius corresponding to the maximum weakening
Worm holes
r (inches)
FIG. 12·12 Stress concentration factor: worm holes and spherical cavities
(Ref. 11).
was 0·006 in. A maximum value for K 1 , specified by the A.S.M.E. Boiler
and Pressure Vessels Code (Nuclear Vessels), is five. For threaded members
the recommended value is four.
An important question that arises is whether or not the effective stress
concentration factor is independent of the number of cycles to fracture. It
is well known that the strength of a ductile material in a tensile test(-!- cycle to
failure) is not affected by the presence of a notch. This would indicate that
lower values of K 1 should be used when the nominal stress in the member is
increased, and when the number of cycles to failure is reduced. From experi-
mental evidence obtained by Coffin, Langer (11) concludes that K 1 may be
taken as independent of the number of cycles to failure when this is over
100. For smaller numbers of cycles, the strain required to produce failure is
so large that the geometry of the specimen becomes appreciably altered and
p
438 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
and apply the effective stress concentration factor to a. For cyclic variations
of a, between a' and a", the notch is assumed to be under cyclic straining
between the two limits K 1 a' IE and K1 a" IE. The initial value of the mean
strain is then
is not necessarily the mean of its highest and lowest values. Thus, if most of
the damage occurs near the maximum vessel temperature, the equivalent
mean temperature will be shifted towards this maximum. Here again, no
quantitative rules can be given, the only general rule being that at tempera-
ture well below the creep range the fatigue strength may be taken to be not
much lower than at room temperature.
The most severe case oflow cycle fatigue occurs when the surface of a vessel
is rapidly heated to a high temperature and cooled down again, or vice versa.
In this case, small cracks forming an irregular pattern may appear on the
/
~
~"' 10"1--+--+--e-+-----i~-t
a
~
~
!:::
~
]021----::1-~+:--~~~-t_
o·2 o·4 o·6 o·s 1'0
Annealed Length
S=·
Specimen Length
(a)
(b)
FIG. 12·13 Effect of non-uniformity of material (Ref. 14).
was increased from 0·16 to 2·5 c.p.m. It is obvious that the slow cycling of
perhaps one or two cycles a day, occurring in actual practice, cannot be
reproduced in the laboratory because it is essential to keep the test time
within a reasonable limit. We would therefore expect that the semi-empirical
expressions derived in the previous paragraph, on the basis of conventional
tests, would give an optimistic assessment of the fatigue strength of a material
under most operating conditions.
The significance of non-uniformity of the material in low-cycle fatigue is
well illustrated by Coffin (14). An annealed specimen (Fig. 12·13), was cold
worked by applying a torque through the enlarged central portion, which
was later machined down to the same diameter as the adjacent portions. In
this way, the central portion remained in the annealed condition while the
rest was cold worked. The number of cycles to failure N, under cyclic strains
of 1%, is plotted in Fig. 12·13(b) as a function of s:
annealed length
s =
total length
From Fig. 12·13(b) it can be seen that the life of the uniformly twisted
specimen was about ten times higher than the life extrapolated from the test
points. This is explained by the reduction in fatigue strength caused by the
presence of a non-uniform region between the annealed and the cold-worked
portions.
The presence of weldments in pressure vessels introduces non-uniformity
regions, similar to those introduced by Coffin in his tests. A reduction in
fatigue strength due to the presence of the weldments is therefore to be
expected. To some extent, this reduction is counteracted by the properties of
the filler metal, the absence of flaws, inclusions, etc., and the post-welding
heat treatment.
The maximum variation of the combined stress ii during the loading cycle
then defines the equivalent elastic stress range (E.S.R.).
When E.S.R. ::::;2Y, strain range~(E.S.R)/E.
When E.S.R.>2Y, strain range#(E.S.R.)/E,
the difference increasing with increasing values of the E.S.R.
The cyclic strain range, ~8~, under complete strain reversals can then be
obtained from Eqn. 12·3:
100
K (E.S.R.) log. 100- RA
1 E 100
log. 100-RA +8mean
In both Eqns. 12·6 and 12·6', K 1 is the stress concentration or fatigue reduc-
tion factor caused by notch-type stress raisers.
The application of Eqns. 12·2 and 12·21 for the evaluation of the fatigue
life, using the values of ~8~ assessed from Eqns. 12·6 and 12·61, can only be
justified if enough experimental confirmation is available or, alternatively, if
the assumptions involved are theoretically acceptable. It has been shown that
this is possible in the case of specimens tested under uniaxial straining between
442 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
10
/02 /OJ 10 4 JO[J !U 6 •
ecritical ~ 20%
Ae' =
T
1 [ecritical
2 2N1/2
+2 S
E
e] (12·7)
This equation is similar to Eqn. 12·2', with ecriticai instead of ep and the
application of a safety factor of two on the strain range.
Strictly speaking, Eqn. 12·7 is only applicable to mild steel vessels loaded
under cyclic conditions causing failure between 300 and 106 cycles. Its
extension to cover other materials and conditions must be left to the discretion
of the designer.
For the application of Eqn. 12·7, it is necessary to know Se and ecriticai
for the selected material. While the former is readily available, this is not so
for the latter, which can be obtained from a true stress logarithmic strain
curve (see Chapter 11). Alternatively, it can be taken to be equal to the
maximum uniform strain preceding necking of the conventional tensile
specimen. This limit of uniform strain forms part of the commercial specifica-
tion in various European countries.
Having obtained the number of cycles to failure, N, under a strain range
Lie~, the assessment of the fatigue damage after n cycles is then made follow-
ing Miner's criterion.
As an example of the application of the previous equations, consider a
low alloy steel bar with the following mechanical properties:
FATIGUE AND INCREMENTAL COLLAPSE 445
E 29 x 106 lbjin 2
y 45 x 103 lb/in 2
U.T.S. 80 x 10 3 lb/in 2
se 50 x 10 3 lbjin 2
Bcritical = 20%
Assume that the effective stress concentration factor Kf• due to the presence
of a threaded part, is four and that the bar is subjected to 1000 stress cycles
from 0 to 20,000 lbjin 2 :
E.S.R. 20,000
Kf(E.S.R.) 80,000 < 2 y
From Eqn. 12·6\ the equivalent strain range (complete strain reversal) is
Ae~ = 85,500
E
and from Eqn. 12·7, the number of cycles to failure is
N =[ E Bcritical ]
2
= 1660
4(EAe~-Se)
and nj N = 0·6.
If the bar is subjected to ten thermal stress cycles, between 10,000 and
60,000 lbjin2 ,
E.S.R. 50,000
KJ(E.S.R.) 200,000 > 2 y
From Eqn. 12·6
200,000
Ae~ = E
and from Eqn. 12·7
N = 94; njN = 0·1
Assuming that no more cyclic variations of stress occur, the cumulative
fatigue criterion
n
:t- = o-1 < 1
N
indicates that the bar will not fail.
At present the only Code to cover the design of vessels under cyclic loading
is the A.S.M.E. Section III (Nuclear Vessels). The set of rules given therein,
based on the work of Langer (19, 20), are particularly comprehensive and
p*
446 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
REFERENCES
1. PETERSON R. E. Stress Concentration Design Factors (Wiley, 1953).
2. HEYWOOD R. B. Designing by Photoelasticity (Chapman & Hall, 1952).
3. FORREST P. G. Fatigue of Metals (Pergamon, 1962).
4. MARTIN D. E. 'An Energy Criterion for Low-Cycle Fatigue', A.S.M.E.
Paper No. 61-Met-4.
5. MILLER D. R. J. Basic Eng. 81 (1959) 190.
6. EDMUNDS H. G. & BEER F. J. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 3 (1961) 187.
7. TAVERNELLI J. F. & COFFIN L. F. 'Experimental Support for Generalized
Equation Predicting Low-Cycle Fatigue', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 61-WA-
199.
8. SESSLER J. G. & WEISS V. 'Low-Cycle Fatigue Damage of Pressure Vessel
Materials', A.S.M.E. Paper No. 62-WA-233.
9. SACHS G., GERBERICH, W. W., WEISS V. & LATORRE J. V. Proc. A.S.T.M.
60 (1960) 512.
10. MINER M.A. Trans. A.S.M.E. 67 (1945) 159.
11. LANGER B. F. Bettis Technical Review WAPD-BT-18, Apri11960.
12. YAo J. T. P. & MUNSE W. H. Welding J. (Res. Supp.), 41 (1962) 182s.
13. CoFFIN L. F. Trans. A.S.M.E. 76 (1954) 931.
14. CoFFIN L. F. Paper in Symposium on Effect of Cyclic Heating and Stress-
ing on Metals at Elevated Temperatures, A.S.T.M. Spec. Pub. No. 165
(1954).
15. LANE P. H. R., B.W.R.A. Rep. FE 16/41/56.
16. LANE P. H. R. & RosER. T. Paper in Symposium on Pressure Vessel
Research Towards Better Design (I.Mech.E., 1962).
17. RosER. T. loc. cit. Ref. 16.
18. MARKL A. R. C. Paper in Pressure Vessel and Piping Design: Collected
Papers (A.S.M.E., 1960).
19. LANGER B. F. Welding J. (Res. Supp.) 37 (1959) 4lls.
20. LANGER B. F. J. Basic Eng. 84 (1962) 389.
13 Low Stress Brittle Fracture
13·0 INTRODUCTION
alloy steel vessels which were furnace stress relieved have been recorded in
Britain.
The calculated average stress in the structures when the failures occurred
has usually been reported to be within the limits specified by the design
Codes and, sometimes, much lower. Since the methods used for the analysis
of the stresses ignore in most cases the effect of bending in the shell, it is
suspected that high discontinuity stresses were present. This was proved, at
least in one case, by Galletly (4).
A notch effect, causing a highly localized stress concentration, has always
been present. This effect has sometimes been due to bad design details such
as the existence of sharp re-entrant corners or to cracks caused during
fabrication, welding or service. The propagation, in a brittle way-i.e.
unstable and fast-of fatigue or stress corrosion cracks is by no means un-
common. In general, all failures were preceded by insignificant deformation.
Finally, the temperature at the time of the failure ranged from 20 oc to
-163 oc. Since service failures have all occurred at low temperatures, it has
been suggested that a transition temperature exists for each structure, above
which the behaviour is ductile and below which there is a potential brittle-
ness. Since the change in the fracture properties occurs more or less gradually
over a certain range, a transition range would be a more correct term.
It is generally agreed that brittle failure has occurred due to a combination
of three factors, viz. the material, the temperature and the presence of a
notch. In addition, the service experience shows that high stresses have
existed in the neighbourhood of the notch. These high stresses may result from
the loading itself, from structural discontinuities, from notch effects, or they
may be residual stresses due to the fabrication process. Brittle fractures have
started with little deformation and proceeded through areas stressed well
below the generally accepted limits, causing the catastrophic failure of the
structure at a load below its calculated load carrying capacity.
The initiation, under progressive loading, of brittle fractures in normally
ductile materials has been studied in detail by engineers and metallurgists,
and the reader is referred to the work of Parker (I 0), Tipper (11) and Week
(12). In this chapter, only those aspects of direct interest to the pressure
vessel designer will be discussed.
For the past 20 or 30 years, a great deal of effort has been devoted to the
study of the brittle fracture problem and several theories have been proposed
LOW STRESS BRITTLE FRACTURE 449
to explain and systematize the experimental results and to suggest new lines
of research. Most of the theories fit into one of two groups. The first group
includes the dislocation theories, dealing with the physical nature of the
fracture phenomenon. They are based on the microscopic behaviour of the
aggregates of elementary particles (grains) that form the material and they
are of special interest for the study of the metallurgical variables involved.
In this group, the theories developed by Cottrell, Petch and others have been
remarkably successful in providing some insight into the fundamental laws of
the problem and have been applied to explain the effect of the grain size,
alloying elements, neutron irradiation, etc. In the second group, the problem
is approached from a different standpoint. The material here is assumed to be
isotropic and the theory's aim is to develop a fracture criterion to be used with
the macroscopic concepts of stress and strain. As a first step, the classical
theory initiated by Ludwick in 1920 and developed principally by Orowan
and Irwin, is summarized here.
can only occur after yield takes place, it is preceded by large deformations
and the fractured surfaces are fibrous. At temperatures below Tb the fracture
occurs before any yield takes place, it is ·not preceded by any significant
deformations and the fractured surfaces are crystalline. A modification to
Fig. 13·1 is suggested by Orowan (13) to take into account the work of Hahn
et al. This is illustrated in Fig. 13·2, where it can be seen that at a temperature
below T 1 , the fracture stress curve lies between the upper yield and the lower
yield curves, indicating that plastic yield and cleavage fracture are strongly
related and that fracture takes place after some plastic deformation.
The approximate relationship between stress-strain and temperature is
'
''
'
s
..._./Constrained yield
-
...._curve, qY
...... .....
Temperature
Fracture
Rupture curve, S
Constrained
yield curve, qY
Strain
Yield curve, Y
Strain
o;J 7b
(a}
(Tl) P-+R
.,.... c b
;:s
~
.,.... E = Elastic behavour
~ P = Plastic
r::: R = Rupture
Fro. 13·3 Stress-strain/temperature diagram.
-
fractures are readily obtained when the specimens are
li tested under impact. In a specimen with a notch whose
plastic constraint factor is q, tested under progressive
1 loading at a temperature above T 2 , plastic deformation
will be required for the initiation of a crack. Once
II started, the crack will propagate in a brittle manner pro-
vided that the strain rate effect is sufficient to bring the
FIG. 13-4 Plastic yield curve above the fracture curve at the test tempera-
constraint.
ture. A high average stress, of the order of yield, is
required to produce the plastic deformation of the notch required to start
the crack.
36"
Full plate
thickness.
a rigid frame while cooling. Soete (16) carried out experiments by welding a
disc containing some weld runs (as the notch effect) into a stiff frame;
spontaneous fracture while cooling was also obtained. In all these tests, no
prior deformation was observed. Wells (17, 18) tested wide plates as shown in
Fig. 13·5. When the plates are in the stress relieved condition, and when the
sawcuts are made after welding, brittle fracture only occurs at an average
stress approaching yield, indicating large strains in the vicinity of local strain
raisers. In some cases spontaneous fractures occurred, the cracks extending
for a few inches at either side of the weld. In order to extend these cracks
'I/HII/111/1111111/1111.
'1/l/1/ll/1/1/ll/1111111.
10"
l
(a) Plate (b) Complete Specimen
average stresses of the order of yield were again required. Plates notched
previous to welding and non-stress relieved reproduced the low stress,
negligible deformation, fast crack propagation features of service fractures
remarkably well. Mylonas (19, 20) was also able to reproduce these features
using notched plates, as shown in Fig. 13·6. These plates were subjected to
in-plane compression, causing a prestrain of about 2% over their net section.
They were then welded to specimen holders thinner than the plate and tested
under progressive tension. Brittle fractures, some of them at an average
stress as low as 12% of yield, were observed.
These results cannot be explained only by the plastic constraint and strain
rate effects upon the uniaxial yield curve. A reasonable explanation, suggested
by Mylonas, is that the ability of the material to sustain large deformations
before breaking has been lost in the notch region. The precompression of the
plate causes a strain in the notch region much greater than the overall 2%.
As a result, this region work hardens. Exhaustion of ductility in the notch
454 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
region, through work hardening, could also account for the low stress brittle
fractures of the B.W.R.A. plates.
In these cases, the stress relieving treatment would restore to the material
its original ductility, and fracture at low strains-corresponding to low
average stress-would be impossible. This is confirmed by Wells' experiments,
where brittle failure did not occur in any of the specimens stress relieved
at 450-500 oc.
The loss of ductility due to work hardening of the notch region depends both
on the amount of prestrain and on the temperature. When prestraining occurs
at very high temperatures (above, say, 700 oq little loss of ductilityisobserved
(Ref. 21). The reverse is the case when a steel is prestrained in the blue brittle
range 400-600 oc. Age hardening, which occurs in many structural steels at
temperatures of 100-200 oc, also causes a reduction in the ductility. From
these considerations, it follows that the behaviour of a welded structure or
specimen will be affected by the temperature cycle during fabrication as well
as by the existing notches.
If residual stresses of the order of the yield point Y are present in the
vicinity of the notch, they can be relieved by small plastic strains of the order
of Y/E or 10- 3 • Assuming an elastic stress concentration factor at the tip of
the notch of five, an average stress of 0·2 Y will then be sufficient to iron out
the residual stresses. This average stress was largely exceeded in most of the
experiments before fracture occurred, and it must therefore be concluded
that when the specimens broke all localized residual stresses had disappeared.
In specimens that broke spontaneously, however, these stresses must have
had an important effect, probably in conjunction with severe embrittlement
due to welding. It is known that in very brittle materials stresses of this type
do cause fracture.
Although residual stresses have no effect on the initiation of a crack in any
but the very few cases where severe embrittlement has taken place, large fields
of residual stresses can help to propagate a crack under reduced external
loading. In Week's experiments, spontaneous cracking may have been
initiated by the severe embrittlement and high localized residual stresses in
the heat affected zone. The propagation through unaffected material may have
been due to the strain rate effect and to other reasons that will be discussed
next.
become unstable and grow without further increase in stress. Westergaard (23)
has shown that when the notched plate of Fig. 13·7 is subjected to a uniform
tension (J, the volume of the notch (crack) becomes
2n(Ja 2
v = -E-
The strain energy associated with this expansion is
1t(J2a2
w = 1 v(J = -E-
which is equal to the work required to close the crack. When the crack grows,
the rate of energy release is
where the subindex c indicates that the various magnitudes are measured at
the onset of instability. Defining the stress field parameter associated with a
456 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(13·1)
Once the fracture toughness is known, Eqn. 13·1 can be used to predict the
critical stress corresponding to a given crack length. For the determination
of Kc, a tensile test in a notched plate or bar, measurement of the critical
stress (ac) and corresponding minimum crack length (ac), is sufficient. The
application of Eqn. 13·1 to design will be discussed in § 13·3.
The Griffith theory, based on elastic analysis, has been successfully used to
explain the mechanical properties of brittle materials such as glass. Irwin's
extension finds increasing application for the determination of the fracture
behaviour of high strength materials with a yield stress-to-density ratio of
about 7 x 10 5 in (200,000 lb/in 2 for steel). In such materials, plastic flow is
confined to a very small region round the tip of the advancing crack (see
for example Ref. 27). A further extension to materials loaded at or beyond
general yield has recently been proposed by Wells (28).
A serious shortcoming of Griffith's theory is that it ignores the increase in
yield due to accelerated strain rate, which, as previously mentioned, is an
important factor in most structural steels. For these strain rate sensitive
LOW STRESS BRITTLE FRACTURE 457
Several tests have been proposed for the determination of the transition
temperature and have also been used for the substantiation of the brittle
fracture theories. It is apparent that the first aim, intended to be of immediate
application to the design of structures, is better served by testing large struc-
tural components under simulated service conditions. Although this has been
done in the past, it becomes an almost impossible task on a commercial
basis and at the same time limits the value of the test by narrowing its field
of applicability. Most of the tests are then made using relatively small
specimens under simple loading conditions. The tests differ according to the
actual fracture property used for the definition of the transition temperature,
to the form of loading and to the geometry of the specimen.
Table 13·1 and Fig. 13·8 summarize the typical features of a few of the
most widely used tests. From Table 13·1 it can be seen that the transition
temperature may be assessed using three main criteria. The appearance of the
fracture gives an indication of the actual mode of failure, brittle (cleavage)
fractured surfaces having a crystalline aspect while ductile (shear) fractures
look matt and fibrous. The ductility can also be measured by the amount of
deformation preceding failure, i.e. the contraction at the notch root of bend
specimens or the reduction of area of tensile specimens. This offers a second
.f::o.
Ul
00
22mm
IMPACT
~
...,
00
-
Species
ls 55mm
~ Dimensions as Charpy V 10 mm sq or 0"45" dia
t
"'"' Charpy V Charpy Keyhole Izod
~ 45Q
s·"' ::·
~
.,.,::
~ ~11 ~) ]
s:: "C
~ Hard weld, sharply notched· ~
m
til
w 3mm ~ til
-5mm c::
g ~
0 t/MPACT
EP~ v Notch depth = 2 mm
Notch radius, r, variable
m
<
....'-f 55mm m
.... depending on specimen. Sharp notch til
til
':-' pressed in some cases m
t"'
Schnadt Pellini (Full plate width may be used) t:l
m
til
0
-z
I:"'
0
Full plate thickness. Notch pressed· Full plate thickness ~
with sharp tool Pre- Vl
compression >-!
followed ::c
t!1
1 200mm 1 by static Vl
Vl
tension
t=
w
-~ I ~&\dE II \Weld beads in full
plate
l ::c
.....
oO >-!
thickness >-!
45° ~ I:"'
~~ t!1
f ~;2: 'V' ~; ..,
r= o·or f ::c
225 mm. ~ >
(')
>-!
c::
::c
t!1
VanderVeen Kinzel Reversed Bend ( Ludley & Drucker)
i~
"'s·
~
Temperature constant
~ (isothermal)
";i;'
g . ~::::·~::::1 or variable
~
...., ~___.~~::..:;,
Q- : _, , "" :, {~~:~t:_ate
~ 6?J thermal)
l..f
' :-'
--
Wide Plates Navy Tear Robertson
Ul
10
""'
460 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
criterion for the assessment of the type of failure. A third criterion is given
by the fact that the impact energy required to break a notched specimen
drops when the fracture changes from ductile to brittle. In slow tests, the
maximum stress to rupture may be used instead.
Whatever the criterion selected for the assessment of the brittleness, it
has already been mentioned that the change from ductile to brittle fracture
ror-----------------------.
SEMI-KILLED ST.E/EL, ____"'_
Ql8 C
50
0.54 MN '
~ 40 0.07$1
j
>
t: 30
> 20
~ 10
z
IIJ 0 ..--
.r
"/~~:""'.
I
.
.
~eo
~ 40
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(/)
./•
or-~~------------------4
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~o o~~J--L-J--L-~-L~~~
•40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
TESTING TEMPERATURE, DEG f
usually occurs more or less gradually over a certain temperature range. The
transition temperature is then conventionally defined as that temperature at
which there is a given degree of brittleness. For example, Fig. 13·9 (taken
from Ref. 30) shows the variation with temperature of brittleness, assessed
according to the three criteria previously defined and using the Charpy V
test specimen. Usually, in commercial specifications, the transition tempera-
ture is defined as the temperature corresponding to l>. minimum impact
energy of 15lb ft, although 50% crystallinity or I· 5% lateral contraction could
be used instead. The three values thus obtained for the transition tempera-
ture are, respectively, 35, 50 and 15 °F.
Besides the tests mentioned in Table 13·1, many others have been proposed
LOW STRESS BRITTLE FRACTURE 461
TABLE 13·1
TESTS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
(see also Fig. 13·8)
Charpy V 1, 2, 3*
T.T. usually defined by 15 lb ft impact energy
50% crystallinity, 1· 5% lateral contraction (less
frequent)
Most frequently used in commercial specifications
Charpy Keyhole 1, 2, 3*
Izod 1, 2*
Impact Schnadt 1, 2, 3*
bending T.T. sometimes defined by 2 kgmfcm 2 impact
energy. The stress distribution in the vicinity of
the notch is controlled by the dimensions and
form of the notch. The most severe test corre-
sponds to the 'tachycoheracic' specimen, Ao
VanderVeen 1, 2*
T.T. defined by fracture appearance, fibrous zone
extending to 32 mm or deflection under maximum
load 6 mm
462 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Slow Kinzel 3*
bending T.T. defined by 1% lateral contraction at
below notch root
"* in
50
40
: ~
A
30
p 20
~ 10 ! ··!!! • A
3. •
• • !•·Q· •
~
!;;( 0 ~
""~ -10
• A• • • ~
:::E
I=! -20 A ...r-A A o A
•
• ....~-•-• o A A
Z -30 •,A•. - - ; - 0 • A •
Q 6 • •A oao• o •o o
c.n -40
!:: (. 0
6 "' o A 0 o 0 °
z '50
i§
1- -60 I
.a• 0
0 0
A
o
• IS ft-lb }
-70 X A • SO"L crystallinity Charpy V
A 32 mm fibre: Van der Veen
-80 0
- 8 tons/sq. in.: Robertson
-90 0 • Nil ductility: Pellini drop weiqht
FIG. 13·10 Correlation between five transition criteria for thirty steels
(Ref. 32).
(Courtesy Commission IX, The International Institute of Welding)
In the light of these considerations, Johnson and Stout (30) have examined
the correlation between various tests. They found that the disparity between
Pellini and Charpy tests was substantially reduced if the criterion used for
the assessment of the Charpy V transition temperature was the 1·5% lateral
expansion. Good agreement was also obtained with the Kinzel test, when
establishing the properties of the plate material, but wide discrepancies were
observed when heat affected zones were present. For rimmed and semi-
killed steels, the Pellini N.D.T. (see Table 13·1) corresponded roughly to the
Charpy V 10 lb ft, while for killed and low alloy steels the Charpy V 85%
crystallinity was found to be in better agreement.
It must be emphasized that the above correlations were only obtained on
a statistical basis, and that wide and unexplained variations still existed. The
idea of grouping the tests according to their emphasis on crack initiation
and propagation, or on ductility and fracture transitions, has been criticized
because the two processes are too intimately related to be separated. It is
always possible to obtain some correlation between two tests, for a given
group of steels, by altering the criterion for the assessment of the transition
temperature, but it does not necessarily follow that this agreement still exists
for another group. For example, the agreement between N.D.T. and Charpy
10 lb ft for rimmed and semi-killed steels has been mentioned already. When
it is desired to extend this to alloy steels, it is necessary to alter the Charpy
transition temperature, using either the 85% crystallinity or higher impact
energy criteria. This confirms that the transition temperature is an indication
of the brittleness of a material under specific testing conditions. It is not a
constant material property, as may be concluded from§ 13·1.
00 Q
~·
a
~ §
f..;
t; v
e:
~ ~
.q-.
o·5a
C~t
,...-..
-¢--
....,I=
.........
J•/5
JA -LJ-a
0"58
A" t=mT
ff·
0•5
A' B'
at
FIG. 13·11 Stress diagram (after Schnadt) constant temperature and strain
rate.
-
Temperature
(0)
of the same material has a different plastifying power, say II3 , the transition
temperature would be T 3 • The dependence of the transition temperature on
the state of stress is then apparent. A graphical representation of this effect
can also be seen in a paper by Kochendorfer and Scholl (35).
It is generally agreed that the larger the specimen the smaller is the pro-
portion of the crack initiation stage. This size effect has been remarkably
well brought to light by Wundt (36). Using Charpy specimens with
various ratios of notch/specimen depth and notch sharpness, they proved
that whereas general yield was required to break small sharply notched
specimens, fully brittle fracture was obtained in the larger sizes. A similar
effect was observed in experiments with welded plates (Ref. 18). Here again,
LOW STRESS BRITTLE FRACTURE 467
Robertson crack arrest test can be used for the prediction of the transition
temperature of a structure made of rimmed or semi-killed steel, within
± 30 °C. For fully killed and low alloy steels, the casualty temperature cannot
be predicted by any test. Both the Charpy V 85% crystallinity transition
temperature and the Pellini N.D.T. are higher than the casualty temperature
for these steels. However, given the good agreement between the N.D.T.
and the Robertson crack arrest temperatures it is possible for the N.D.T.
to be lower than the casualty temperature for some rimmed or semi-killed
steels.
LOW STRESS BRITTLE FRACTURE 469
T.T.
Assessed T.T.
Assessed Charpy V - - - 15lb ft
by test
- b y test
loH·er tlza11 higher than
casualty casualty - - - - 85% cryst.
temperature temperature
- - - o·J5% lat. cont.
5
4 ~ N.D.T. ·
·-,
r·-· ·-· l !
I
I I
20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 140
[(Transition temperature) - {Casualty temperature)] (°C)
two rigidly clamped plates, showing the necessity to allow for the differential
contraction of the two sections being joined without setting up high restrain-
ing forces. For instance, thick small bore protruding nozzles may be too
rigid to be welded to, say, a boiler drum. Even when cracking does not occur
during welding, if a large number of such nozzles is regularly spread over a
small area of the drum, the restraining forces may well be excessive and
cracks may spread before stress relieving. Besides this problem, due attention
must be paid to the correct selection of electrodes, welding procedure, pre-
heating, etc., developed if necessary with the help of full-scale mock-ups.
The welding sequence in large site-welded vessels is also important. Another
source of notches are the weld defects, i.e. slag inclusions, fish eyes, etc. Bad
workmanship is naturally a primary factor, assuming that the weld procedure
is correct, but the conditions under which welding took place must always
be considered. Lack of protection at site, bad accessibility, unnecessary
complications introduced in the design are all excuses for bad workmanship.
Here again it is important to emphasize that simplicity of design and good
accessibility must be achieved.
Notches are also caused by machining operations, such as drilling and
tapping for the attachment of lugs or covers, undercuts when machining
flanges and forgings, etc. Simplicity in the design will naturally help to avoid
these defects. All drilling and tapping should be located only in areas sub-
jected to stresses well below the average stress in the shell.
Finally, defects in the material itself, like slag inclusions and laminations
in plates and forgings, constitute notches.
Notches can only be avoided by good design and careful selection of
materials and welding procedure, together with good workmanship con-
firmed by regular tests of the welders. However, the assurance that notches
are indeed absent can only be obtained by inspecting material and weld-
ments alike, using the non-destructive methods summarized in Chapter 3.
After inspection and the necessary repairs to make good any defect, a final
check will take place. Two questions then arise; the one is how detailed must
the inspection be, the other is what defects are not permissible. At present not
enough is known about the relative severity of the various types of defects
to give a qualified answer to the latter. To say that, until we have this answer,
no defect whatsoever can be accepted is a safe but unrealistic position. It is
therefore left entirely to the inspector's discretion, assisted in some cases by
more or less arbitrary Code rules, to say which defects have to be repaired
before the vessel is commissioned. A similar situation arises with the former
question: the safe position would be to specify complete non-destructive
inspection. This again is always expensive and sometimes impracticable.
Furthermore, to constitute a danger a notch has to be in a highly stressed
area, or must act as a severe stress raiser. It would therefore follow that a
LOW STRESS AND BRITTLE FRACTURE 471
the residual stresses are relaxed but also a substantial improvement in the
material ductility may be achieved. When local stress relieving is required,
due to the size of the vessel, special care must be taken to avoid yielding
during the cooling period. This requirement imposes some limitations to the
type of joints, since the presence of large heat sinks or protrusions in the
neighbourhood may well restrict the feasibility.
Mechanical stress relieving, performed by causing plastic flow, has some-
times been used. Although it is adequate in some very simple cases, it is
possible to embrittle the material by work hardening. This method should
therefore be limited to peening of the different weld runs during welding.
work hardening. Full plate width specimens can be used, thus eliminating the
possible problem of size effect while retaining the properties of the plate.
Some typical results are shown in Fig. 13·15. With this test a study can also
be made of the effects of ageing at various temperatures, environment and
heat treatment. The properties of a weldment can also be investigated using
a specimen as shown in Fig. 13·16. A disadvantage of this test is that it does
1?()0
I E -STEEL UN AGED
: 1000
I TESTED AT 75°F.
7 -~/-,/-·J
";!..?. -
0:
uJ 2
a. I
~ 0 I. -
w 2
o,~~
1- 600
0 e
Cl
z ~ o
1 2 4 11 Jo., o et2 o- DUCTILE
0
0 ~~~2 2 a~2 e e e 2 e-BRITTL.E
zw 4 00 ., ~~2. ~ &
co 0
~ JO" Z~.£L~::-("~.;
- 3- ;:i:},.-!12 Gl Transition rcng"
..J p 3 Unag"d bars 75°1'.
~ 200
T~,;uoo ''"~~
!::
z 0
,,;, o< 0
bar5 t<t~t<td at 75 ° F. V/ //. ~
~.20 o.2s o .30 o,35 o.4o o.45 o.~o
~
O.=>S
r.
0.60 o 65
COMPRESSIVE PRE 51 ~A IN
nc. 13·15 Reversed-bend tests of unagcd bars prcstrained at various
temperatures (Ref. 20).
f '"
(Courtesy John Wiley & Sons Inc.)
/ .,E ~./
vo J6t
~ "';,~'"" p/o"
Fro. 13·16 Reversed-bend test specimen for the investigation of the effect of
a weldment.
the N.D.T. +30 °F, the breaking stress equals half the yield stress. At
N.D.T. +60 °F it equals the yield stress and at N.D.T. + 120 °F, the U.T.S.
The safe operating temperature for a vessel designed to work, say, at ! Y,
would then be N.D.T. +30 °F. The N.D.T. can be assessed by the use of the
Charpy V test as well as drop-weight tests. An empirical correlation has been
published elsewhere (Refs. 38, 39).
The preceding criteria assume that an extremely severe notch is present in
the vessel. If this is not the case, they may well prove overcautious. This is in
fact illustrated in Fig. 13·14, which shows that failures have occurred at far
lower temperatures than the N.D.T. Furthermore, the maximum permissible
Shear lips
Crack length ;. 21
size of notch cannot be estimated. Irwin (26) has used equations similar to
Eqn. 13·1 to overcome this drawback. In a pressure vessel of wall thickness t,
an internal crack starts as shown in Fig. 13·18, filling the area enclosed by
curve 1. It then proceeds to spread until it reaches curve 3, when shear lips
are formed and leakage ensues. A safety criterion is to prevent the spreading
of the crack in a brittle manner at any stage of its development. This is known
as the 'leak-before-break' criterion. Assuming that the length of the crack at
curve 3 is 2t and that the stress is equal to yield, the minimum required
toughness to satisfy the 'leak-before-break' criterion is obtained from Eqn.
13·1,
K~ = 2n Y 2 t
The fracture toughness is determined as a function of the testing temperature
from wide plate tests as described in Ref. 40. An equivalent criterion applied
to surface cracks, caused by fatigue, corrosion, etc., requires a minimum
toughness established from notched bar tests (Ref. 41) equal to twice Kc.
The variation of fracture toughness with temperature is of the same type as
illustrated in Fig. 13·17. Values of K for various types of notches have been
determined by Paris and Sih (42).
476 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
TABLE 13·2
MAIN DESIGN PRECAUTIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF BRITTLE FRACTURE
GENERALLY ACCEPTED IN BRITAIN (B.S. 1500) AND THE U.S.A. (A.S.M.E.
CODES)
Minimum
Operating Special Materials Other Precautions
Temperature
("C) U.S.A. Britain U.S.A. Britain
extension. This value is based on the permanent set measured in the vicinity
of structural discontinuities. This method is susceptible to extension to cover
the determination of permissible size of defects and of working stresses.
Finally, the design criteria accepted by the British Standards and the
A.S.M.E. are summarized and compared in Table 13·2. In most cases, the
LOW STRESS AND BRITTLE FRACTURE 477
REFERENCES
14·0 INTRODUCTION
Wdeformation
a material, subjected to a constant load, undergoes a progressive
HEN
with time it is said to show creep. In the conventional creep
test, a prismatic specimen withstands a constant load at a fixed temperature
and its elongation is recorded and plotted against time. Very often curves of
the type illustrated in Fig. 14·1(a) are obtained, showing three different
stages. In the first stage-primary creep-the strain rate decreases; in the
secondary stage of creep, the strain rate remains constant and it increases
during the tertiary stage until rupture occurs. If, during the tests, the load
is removed, only a part of the elongation is recovered and the creep curve
during unloading follows A-B.
It is generally accepted that the primary stage of creep is mainly a result of
thermal activation, enforcing slip under sufficiently high stresses. The thermal
activation required is very small, as is proved by the fact that primary creep
exists at very low temperatures. On release of the load, only a small amount
of the deformation is recovered and the behaviour of the material is prac-
tically indistinguishable from normal plastic flow. In both cases, the material
deforms until it strain hardens enough to withstand the applied load.
At higher temperature a complex mechanism of softening-thermal re-
covery and recrystallization-is superimposed on the strain hardening pro-
cess, resulting in increased plastic flow. When equilibrium between the strain
hardening and the thermal softening is reached, the strain rate remains
constant. This is the secondary stage. It may only last for a very short time,
in which case it will be shown as a point of inflexion in the creep curve. On
the other hand, several regions of equilibrium as shown in Fig. 14·1(b) may
exist. In this diagram, AB, DE and GH correspond to regions of secondary
creep and BD and EG are the so-called transition regions.
Tertiary creep may be partly due to plastic instability, brought about by
the progressive reduction of area during deformation and the resulting
increase in the true stress under constant loading. In the same way as with
the conventional tensile specimen, this decrease in area can be due to the
growth of internal cracks or voids (see Chapter 10). Metallurgical factors,
479
480 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Primary Secondary
(a)
.·§
Elementary· ..
til
-- -B
Time
(b)
With
Transitional
Regions
£=:
Time
8
i)
6
/
(a) I 1.
.s 11'4 Ton/in 2 9·5 To1/in 2
v
. .v
Creep Strain / Time ~ 4 ' v
/sostress 14 Ton/~
2~,_..... ~
7'6Totin 11-
0
~~
100 I
I
1/u
80
(b) 1/9'5 Ton/in 2
Ton/in 11 11·4 Ton/in
I
Creep rate Time
0
I
/sostress
)
0
)
f]
.. v
2o......._ /
ol~ K I- 7·6 Ton/in 11
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (10 6 hr)
(c) 14
Creep Stress I Strain
-
Isochronous 12'75
2,500hr
;;"'
.s Jl·S
0:::
~
'-
~ 10'25
~
9
8
Creep Strain (10-2)
FIG. 14·2 Creep curves for 1 Cr-!Mo steel at 500 oc (Ref. 6).
482 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The bulk of the information on creep of specific materials comes from con-
stant uniaxial load and constant temperature tests. Ideally, the testing time
should be at least equal to the design life, but since this is seldom possible
three types of tests are used, as described by Oro wan (4):
(a) Abridged tests, conducted at the anticipated service temperature and
various initial stresses.
(b) Mechanically accelerated tests, conducted at the anticipated service
temperature and higher initial stresses than the estimated design stress.
(c) Thermally accelerated tests, conducted at temperatures higher than the
one anticipated in service and under initial stress of the order of the esti-
mated design stress.
5 tonsfi~2
0·2
0
0' 0·1
~ O·Ob·
....
0::
-...... ....
V)
u 0·02 ',, __
i=
V>
<
-I 0· 01 --- - .... _ ---,
Q..
=i. 0·006
0>- 3in.plate
N.920°C
0·002 T.2 h 650°(
It will be noted that the actual stress varies during the test. This variation
is only significant in the tertiary stage, in which there is a significant reduction
in area.
The total testing time is usually 1-10% of the design life. The test results
may be expressed in the conventional forms shown in Fig. 14·2(a), (b) or (c).
These diagrams reproduce the results of tests performed at 500 oc and nominal
stress of 7·6, 9·5, 11·4 and 14 tonjin 2 in a lCr-tMo steel. In Fig. 14·2(a)
the strain is plotted against time while in Fig. 14·2(b) the ordinates represent
strain rate (Ref. 6). In Fig. 14·2(c), the stress required to reach a given strain
CREEP 483
after a specified time interval is plotted against the strain. The form shown in
Fig. 14·3 is due to Glen (5). In this, the strain is plotted against the strain rate
40·01--:--~-===:;===-=:=.:=---1
,~ /
I
I '
I
I
I
I
I
l
l
I
\
0 \
o- '\
z~
\
< \
---
\
0:: \
I- \
V)
',,
v
i=
< 0·1
V) -- -,
~ O·Ob ', \
',~'o,
'~i,l
---- ........ _
0·01
0·006 4so•c
0·002
to·& 10· 5 to-• 10· 3
CREEP RATE,in./in./h
FIG. 14·4 Family of strain/rate curves at constant temperature on Al-killed
1% Mn steel (Ref. 5).
(Courtesy J. Iron Steel lnst.)
-
40
- ••
---
-;- I-
-X-'f- X X
.... :-=:
-- ---- -
~
- -- ----
---~~--1<-~ X
t--+- - - t--.r---
----X
:-
~ 10
.., 8 -r-~- ~
::-- .......__
X-
~
1/1 8
1- STEEL A ~
• 500° .......
X550°
0 575°
+ fJOOj
2
100 1000 10 000 100000
TIME-h
FIG. 14·5 Creep-rupture curves for 1 Cr-i Mo steel (Ref. 6).
(Courtesy Instn mech. Engrs)
for tests conducted at 5 ton/in 2 nominal stress and various temperatures.
The broken curves are extrapolated from the full ones. Figure 14·4 shows a
484 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Temperature T
Time
FIG. 14·6 Presentation of stress relaxation data.
cerning the selection and properties of materials the designer should consult
an experienced metallurgist at an early stage of the project.
One of the main problems that the designer has to face is how to apply the
results of tests, that do not extend over a period of more than one year, to
vessels with a service life of more than 20 years. Very often, the only informa-
tion required by the designer or by the specified design Code is of the form,
(a) The value of the initial stress required to produce rupture after a
specified time at the operating temperature.
(b) The value of the initial stress required to produce a specified creep
strain at the operating temperature.
(c) The value of initial stress required to produce a specified minimum
strain rate at the operating temperature.
This information can be obtained from the creep tests previously described,
or from standard, short time, creep tests (see B.S. 3228 and B.S. 3500). In
general, the testing time should be at least of the order of 1-10% of the
service life. Extrapolation may be done graphically, from curves such as
those shown in Figs. 14·2-14·5.
When the only information required is in the form of time to rupture at
the design stress and temperature, Allen (10) has suggested that two sets of
curves should be used for the extrapolation. One set is as illustrated in Fig.
14·3(a). The other is a plot of (!/temperature) against log (time to rupture)
for selected values of the initial stress. An entirely different approach is based
on the application of equations that attempt to represent the creep behaviour.
One such equation, proposed by Dorn (II) for low stresses, is
e = Clu"e-H/RT (14·1)
where e = strain rate = defd(), H = activation energy, R = Boltzmann
constant, T = temperature COK) and C 1 ,n = constants.
Assuming that the volume of an element of cross-sectional area A and
length l remains constant during creep, AI = constant and
. .
. l A
e = - = -- (14·2)
l A
Assuming now that rupture is mainly due to plastic instability, it will occur
when
. .
F = &A-Au = 0 (14·3)
486 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
as in the case previously studied in Chapter 11. Combining Eqns. 14·2 and
14·3, we obtain at rupture 8 = aju, the stress at rupture being infinity.
Substituting this expression into Eqn. 14·1, and integrating
(14·4)
where 0, is the time to rupture and u0 and 80 the initial values of the stress
and the strain rate respectively. Equation 14·4 can also be written in the form
_j_r---------:ilj
~ ,~
2Lr
1, ~
~
~
.
Orr, Sherby and Dorn (11) assume that the activation energy H is indepen-
dent of the stress, in which case
N
log1o 0, = T+log 10 S(u 0 ) (14·6)
where N is a constant and S(u0) is a function of the initial stress. Testing the
material at constant initial stress and recording the times to rupture at the
temperatures T1 and T 2 (expressed in °K)
log1o 0' 1 = N
O,z
(_!_-
Tl Tz
!._)
It is then possible to extrapolate the data obtained in two iso-stress curves
at temperatures T1 and T2 to any other temperature. Plotting, as suggested
by Allen, log 10 0, against 1/T in Fig. 14·7(a), N is obtained and it is possible
to predict the time to rupture 0, 3 corresponding to the temperature T3 •
Extrapolation to other stress conditions is also possible. To this end, it is
CREEP 487
noted that if the material is tested under the initial stress a0 and, at equal
temperature, under the initial stress a 0
log10
0,
0; =
S(a 0)
log1o S(ao) = -log1o
(ao)"
~
= N(ao) -L
T
or
T(log 10 O,+L)
which comes to the same as
a 0 = F [T(log 10 O,+L)]
where the term inside the square brackets is called the Larson-Miller para-
meter. The constant L may be averaged from any two tests under equal
initial stress and temperature T1 and T2 :
L = Tl loglO e,l- T2 loglO 0,2
T2-Tt
Usually this constant is taken to be equal to 20. Plotting the initial stress
against the Larson-Miller parameter, with the constant equal to 20 or
determined experimentally, the curve shown in Fig. 14·8 is obtained. Pre-
diction of the rupture time is then possible by extrapolation of this curve.
A purely empirical approach to the problem of extrapolation is followed
by Manson and Haferd (13). From a large number of tests, these authors
observed that the following expression was satisfied:
log10 0, = P-Q(ao)T
488 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
\
\
\
\
T("R)
\
L "'20 (standard}
&,,hours
Experimental
data
''
'' ..
T(log1o &, + L)
Flo. 14·8 Extrapolation of creep rupture data (Larson-Miller parameter).
(a) (b)
' .. ...
T-T, T
logto &,1 - logto&r
and then
log 1 0 8, 1 -log 1 0 8,
T-T1
CREEP 489
which is equivalent to saying that the initial stress depends on the Manson-
Haferd parameter
log 10 0, 1 -log 10 0,
and can be plotted against this parameter as illustrated in Fig. 14·9(a).
T1 and log 10 0, 1 are two constants that may be obtained from Fig. 14·9(b),
which expresses the relationship
log 10 0, 1 = P-QT1 = P-Q'T1 = P-Q"T1 = · · ·
Once T1 and 0, 1 are obtained from experimental data, the curve of Fig.
14·9(b) can be plotted and extrapolated.
Other extrapolation methods have been proposed by Graham and Walles
(14), Murry (15), Brozzo (16), etc.
A very promising method for the extrapolation of data has been proposed
by Rabotnov and proved to give satisfactory results by Goldhoff (17). If a
family of isochronous curves (as shown in Fig. 14·2(c)) is plotted, Rabotnov
found that each curve could be obtained from another one by multiplying
its ordinate by a certain function of time. Taking
u = cf> (e)
to represent the equation of stress-strain curve in an ordinary tensile test
cf> (e)
u = l+Oab
where a and b are constants. Goldhoff found that excellent agreement was
obtained when b was taken to be equal to 0·3 and a and cf>(e) were derived
experimentally. Prediction of creep data would then be possible from a
conventional tensile test and one constant load creep test at the same tem-
perature and reduced stress. Having obtained a and cf>(e), a family of iso-
chronous creep curves can be plotted. The results may then be presented in
the more conventional forms of Fig. 14·2(a).
The parametric methods of extrapolation of Larson-Miller, Dorn and
Manson-Haferd, have been compared in great detail by several investigators.
It would appear that the Manson-Haferd method is marginally more exact
than the other two. Large errors are, however, possible if the creep curve
shows unexpected transition regions and the predictions of any of these
methods must be looked upon with some suspicion. The same can be applied
to Rabotnov's method. A method of extrapolation such as the one proposed
by Glen, although it has the disadvantage of requiring a large number of
experimental results, is considered to be more rational and to give more
exact and useful results.
490 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
The shape of the creep curves is seldom as simple as the one illustrated in
Fig. 14·1, and in general transition regions will exist. If this is the case, the
methods previously described for the extrapolation of data will be inapplic-
able. Extrapolation is, however, possible from experimental strain-rate curves
(Figs. 14·3 and 14·4). Once a family of such curves is plotted, either from tests
at constant stress or at constant temperature, creep curves at lower stresses
or temperatures can be estimated from the general pattern. Having obtained
the estimated creep curve at the design stress and temperature, it is possible
to derive the ordinary strain-time curve by graphical integration. A step by
step procedure for this integration may be seen in Ref. 5, but any standard
method can be used.
creep curve, such as the one shown in Fig. 14·1, at least over a certain region.
It is, however, difficult to derive an analytical expression that will also take
into account the creep recovery effect-branch AB-and that will remain
valid under large stress variations.
where a is the actual stress at time (). This equation is identical to Eqn. 14·8
for constant stress a = a 0 • If at a given instant the load is removed (point A
in Fig. 14·1(a)) it follows from Eqn. 14·10 that only the first two components
of the strain are recovered. This is shown in Fig. 14·11, which represents a
r------------------------------------iEp
Time
Flo. 14·10 Approximation of creep data by the superposition method.
a
E
c
D
1qC ae
0
&
2
.
-q&
dfi
Time
FIG. 14·11 Creep recovery in superposition method.
8 ~ fC 3 a"d0
0
or
8 c3 a" (14·12)
under variable stress conditions. The similarity between Eqns. 14·12 and
14·1 will be noticed.
I I
6 6
I f
6 6
and taking derivatives with respect to (}, the following equation is obtained:
1 ) [ u"-
E(n- 1
1 1- J
1 1 +nC1log-;
o0- CT0
= C 3 0+(1-e-q6)C2
[( )n-1 J
sient terms are neglected:
0 - ~-1
0 CTo -1
- E(n-1)C 3 --;
This expression can be used for the interpretation of relaxation data, the
parameters 1/E(n-1)C3 and n-1 being then determined experimentally.
time. Significant stresses and strain rates, if and dejd(), can be defined in the
same way. It may be assumed that the preceding relations, valid for uniaxial
stresses and strains, are also valid for significant stresses and strains in the
case of general stress systems. In addition, relationships of the St Venant
type will also hold, together with the volume constancy condition, i.e.
Ill +82+83 = 0
and
or
81 2 C [a 1 -Ha2+a3)]
82 = 2C[a2-Ha 1 +a3)]
83 = 2C[a3-t(a 1 +a2)]
which, together with the significant stress and strain (von Mises' criterion)
(14·14)
de 1
dO x B[a 2 -Ha1+a3)] (14·15)
de 1
dO x ~ [a3 -Hal +a2)]
The relations previously quoted between uniaxial stress and strain rate will
now hold between the significant stress and strain rate. For instance, under
steady creep conditions (Eqn. 14·12)
-x-1 = C3 a-n-l
de
d() (j
The creep damage factor is assumed to act only on the maximum principal
stress, so that Tresca's criterion and its associated flow rule are more suitable
for the application of this method to the general stress systems (see Ref. 20).
Metallurgical changes, hysteresis effects and the development of aniso-
tropy during service restrict the validity of the preceding relationships. The
effect of loading and temperature history, being even more important in the
case of creep than in the case of plastic flow, cannot be ignored without
impairing the accuracy of the analysis. In addition, creep strains of the same
order of magnitude as elastic strains are sometimes important, restricting
even further the validity of the basic assumptions that lead to the formulation
of the general stress-strain relations. Under these conditions, any analysis
can only be aimed at results of a very approximate nature.
Johnson eta!. (18, 19), have discussed the application of these and other
more complex equations to the solution of creep problems. More accurate
relationships between the stress-strain invariants have also been suggested.
However, some development is still required before they can find general
application in design. In the following sections the simplified stress-strain
relations, adapted from plasticity theory, will be used bearing in mind their
shortcomings.
14·5 APPLICATIONS
for small deformations. The solution of this equation, with the volume
constancy condition previously given is
Be = ktr-2
The significant strain rate is obtained from Eqns. 14·14 and the volume
constancy condition:
de 2 .
,J3
- Bo
df)
ii = 2,J3 (uo-u,)
The steady creep law (Eqn. 14·12), valid for uniaxial stress, is assumed to
hold for the significant stress and strain, so that
de
dfJ = c3 ii"
or
,j3)n+ 1
eo (2 C3(uo-u,t = k 1 r- 2
On the other hand, the equilibrium condition (Eqn. 11·141) can be written in
the form
(14·16)
CREEP 499
and 2
( -;;-1 ) (r-;)2/n +1
(14·17)
p (rn)2/n
- -1
r;
r. .
The hoop strain rate is
.
.. ~ T
(.}3)n+ 1
c, ~
(2)n
p [(
n
~r -1
(~J ~
(14·18)
the total strain rate being the sum of an elastic, a plastic and a creep-time
hardening component. The elastic strain rate components are obtained from
Hooke's law, with 2ux = ue+u,:
Bre :0 [21E{u,(2-v)-3vue} J
For the plastic component, with the same assumptions as in the previous
analysis,
dep C ( .}3)n ( _ )n- 1 d(ue-u,)
d() n 1 2 Ue u, d()
J
The total strain rates in the hoop and radial directions are then
d [ 1 (.}3)n+1 C 1(ue-u,t
·
Be = d(} 2 E {ue(2-v)-3vu,}+ 2 +
.}3)n+ 1
+C 3 ( T (ue-u,)nem
1
d [ 2E
d(} {u,(2-v)-3vue}- (.}3)n+1
2 C1(ue-u,t - J
J3)n+1
-C 3 ( 2 (u8 -u,)nfr
500 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
or
which exists when a steady creep state has been reached, after a sufficiently
long time, and neglecting the initial strains. ((}'6 -(}',) 00 is therefore obtained
from the previous analysis. Having obtained the constant Q, integration of
the general equation will give ((}'6 -(J',) at any given time, and hence the creep
strain rate. This approach has been successfully followed by Johnson eta!.
(18, 19, 23, 24).
Thick spherical vessels can be treated in the same way. Taking in this
case the meridional and hoop stresses to be equal as well as the meridional
and hoop strains, one obtains for the steady state conditions:
)3/n -1
r0
(-
-P (; )3/n
(14·19)
0
- -1
r;
(14·20)
14·5·2 Steady Creep of Thin Cylindrical Vessels Under Internal Pressure and
Axial Loading
Pipes, tubes and cylindrical vessels are sometimes subjected to axial loading,
bending or torsion in addition to the internal pressure. The weight of the
vessel and its contents results in a bending moment acting on long horizontal
vessels, and a direct load in vertical vessels. External constraints may also
induce twisting moments on piping systems. In general, the magnitude of
these external loads can be reduced by the adequate distribution of supports
and anchors. These are usually quite inexpensive, since their design is fairly
simple; they can be made of ordinary mild steel and their fabrication does not
require any particular skill. The addition of more supports than would be
strictly necessary therefore seldom involves a very high economic penalty.
Under these conditions, a rough estimate of the effect of the external load on
the piping system or vessel is all that is required to guide the designer in the
selection of the number and distribution of the supports and anchors. This
estimate is usually based on a steady creep analysis.
In a thin-walled cylindrical vessel the radial stress can be neglected; the
hoop stress is
Pr
(14·22)
t
where tis the thickness, and the axial stress is
ae
ax = 2 + b ae (14·23)
where b is a parameter equal to zero when the vessel is under internal pres-
sure only. It is assumed that the vessel will always be subjected to an internal
pressure when its temperature is within the creep range. The significant
stress is (see Eqn. 14·14)
-
(J =
ae 1
-y3+4b 2
2
and the hoop and axial strain rates become, from Eqns. 14·12, 14·14 and 14·15,
(-./3)"+
T
1
c3 ae
n
R
502 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
3
)2 3-2b
n-1
3
---
. 4 (3+4b
Bop- --
3
2
3
)2 n-1
Taking n = 4 and b = 0·25, the strain rate in the hoop direction is reduced
from 80p to about 0·9380p, while the axial strain rate increases from zero
to 0·3788 p.
The total strain after a time interval() is obtained from Eqn. 14·9, neglecting
the plastic component and assuming implicitly that the variation of the
stress is small. The resulting strain is
n-1
(14·26)
()C+:bz)z-
n-1
where b is given by Eqn. 14·25 and the factor time may appear with an
exponent m, different from unity.
Although Eqns. 14·22, 14·23 and 14·26 are generally used for the design
of tubes subjected to internal pressure and axial load, more exact relations
will be developed by taking into account the variation of stress during opera-
tion. Similar methods have been used by various authors, for instance
Rimrott eta!. (25). The hoop stress is given by Eqn. 14·22, where rand tare
respectively the mean radius and thickness at the instant 8. The longitudinal
stress is
During operation, the radius increases while the thickness decreases, and it
is apparent from the previous equation that the rate of increase of the
longitudinal stress component due to the axial load is smaller than that of
the component due to internal pressure. Taking ux to be given by Eqn. 14·23,
where b is constant, will therefore lead to conservative results. The hoop and
CREEP 503
longitudinal strain rates are then obtained from Eqns. 14·24. The radial
strain rate is
(14·27)
At the same time
f i
' 8, =
r
and therefore
Pf
--f
Pri
= tPr e• -t
8
Pr •
e,
(" .)
= u8 e6 -e,
Substitution of 89 and 8, from Eqns. 14·24 and 14·27 into this equation gives
6C n-1
O'n+l __3 (3+4b2)"""2
9 2n+l
(14·28)
fi = c3
9 2n+l
u:
90
[1-3C3u9on(3+4bz)~
2n
o]-1(3+4bz)-·;-t(3-2b) (14·30)
_ f
B9-B9e+
9
•
89
d() _
-B9e-~
3-2b l [ -
oge 1
3C 3 U::0 n(3+4b
2"
2 )~ ()]
(14·31)
0
Eqns. 14·28, 14·29 and 14·31, with b obtained from Eqn. 14·25, then define
the state of stress and strain reached after a time () in a cylindrical vessel
under internal pressure and axial loading.
504 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
14·5·3 Steady Creep of Thin Cylindrical Vessels Under Internal Pressure and
Bending
In bending, it is assumed that plane sections remain plane, and that the
vessel behaves as a conventional beam, so that the following relation applies:
. y .
BxMy = -r BxMr
where BxMy is the axial strain rate of the cylinder under internal pressure and
bending, at a distance y from the neutral plane (see Fig. 14·12). From this
expression and Eqn. 14·24
n-1 n-1
(3+4b;)_2_ by= (3+4b;) 2 b! (14·32)
'r
M =I uxydA
then becomes
(14·33)
-r
From Eqns. 14·32 and 14·33 it is possible to obtain b,. The problem is
simplified when the bending stresses are much smaller than the pressure
stresses, in which case Eqn. 14· 32 becomes
by ~ br ~r
and substituting into Eqn. 14· 33
M My
b =
r 1! r2 tuo nr4 P
CREEP 505
The state of stress and strain after a time lJ can then be obtained from Eqns.
14·22, 14·23, 14·26 or 14·28, 14·29, 14·31, taking in those equations
b =by
Usually, only the conditions in the outer fibres (b = b,) will be required.
The rate of curvature of the vessel is
r
or
r
the initial curvature being
)n-t CoE
so that
rate of change of curvature = C 3 ( .)3
2 u6
Since it has been assumed that the bending stresses are small compared with
the pressure stresses, the preceding equation is only valid when u6 ~0.
14·5·4 Steady Creep of Thin Cylindrical Vessels Under Internal Pressure and
Torsion
When a cylindrical vessel is subjected to internal pressure and to a torsional
moment M 1, the stress components are
Pr
t
Pr
(14·34)
2t
M, M,
r = --
2 = fu 6 with f = - -3-
2nr t 2nr P
J{(O'e; O'xy
the principal stresses are then
The principal strain rates are obtained from Eqns. 14·12, 14·14 and 14·15, as
J3)n+l n-1
f (2 C3a6(1+4/ 2 f 2 (1+)(1+16j2))
When the stress system does not change much with time, the strains, after
a certain time interval (), are obtained by multiplying the strain rates by the
factor e.
W = I ude
but is defined by
W' = I edu
In the case of carbon steel, the design stresses can be based solely on short-
time properties up to a design temperature of 350 oc, while a knowledge of
the creep behaviour of the material is required for design temperatures
above 400 °C. These temperature limits are raised by some 75 oc for alloy
steels. While below the creep range the design stress varies little with the
temperature, it is important to point out that in the creep range a small
increase in the temperature often results in a large reduction in the creep
strength and, consequently in the design stress.
A comparison between the various Code rules for the determination of
design stresses in the creep range shows that they are all roughly in agreement
(see Table 3·1 ). Two criteria are usually specified, one of rupture and one of
deformation. According to the rupture criterion, the design stress is defined
as 0·6-1·0 times the minimum or average stress for rupture after 100,000 hr
at the design temperature, determined by extrapolation from creep data. As
an additional check, the German Code specifies that the design stress must
not exceed the stress for rupture after 100,000 hr at a temperature 15 oc
higher than the design temperature. In accordance with the deformation
criterion, the design stress is usually defined as the average stress for 1%
creep strain after 100,000 hr, or 0·01% per 1000 hr creep strain rate. Very
often the design stress is established by deformation rather than by rupture
considerations.
On the whole, the application of these design stresses has resulted in satis-
factory designs. Most failures of pressure vessels and piping systems operat-
ing at elevated temperatures have been due to unforeseen metallurgical
factors rather than to excessive stresses. With the introduction of expensive,
creep resistant materials in conventional plant, it becomes advisable to con-
sider increasing the design stresses in order to achieve more economical
construction. Given the record of safety of the present design stresses this
should be possible. On the other hand, unconventional designs, not backed
by previous experience, would require the acceptance of even lower stresses
than those specified by the Codes, as well as other precautions. These also
apply when load or temperature cycles occur in operation or when notches
are unavoidable.
For the selection of the design stresses in the creep range, it is necessary
to consider the design life, the possibility of regular inspection, the cost in-
curred by replacements and the hazards involved in a failure. If a very long
design life is required, expensive creep resistant materials or cheaper materials
with poorer creep properties operating at very low design stresses will be
used. Peculiar to the creep phenomenon is the wide scattering of the material
properties, which may be poorer than expected. Satisfactory operation can
only be assured by regular inspections and consequent repairs or replace-
ments. These inspections could justify the use of higher design stresses and
CREEP 509
The values of 8,1> 8, 2 , ••• , 8,;, ... can be obtained from conventional constant
load creep tests, since the effect of stress variation due to reduction of area
is either negligible or leads to conservative results.
When deformation is the deciding factor, a similar criterion could be used.
If 8 ~. 8;, ... , 8;, ... are the times required for the stress cr 1 , cr 2 , ••• , cr ;, ...
at the temperature T1 , T 2 , ••• , T;, ... to cause a specified creep strain or
strain rate
8.
L~<1
•
where 8 1 , 82 , ••• , 8;, ... are the times of action of the corresponding stresses.
Randall (39) has examined the validity of these considerations and found
that they were justified in the case of A.S.T.M. A 201 boiler quality steel at
temperatures below 500 oc, but not when a period of high initial tempera-
tures-above 600 °C-was followed by operation at temperatures of about
450 °C.
Although the preceding considerations are not always fully justified, they
still provide some guidance as to the relative magnitude of the design stresses
R*
510 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
on the basis of the design life and the required time between inspections. It is
obvious that when safety is of paramount importance, the design stresses
should be equal to or lower than the Code values, and the materials used
must be backed by adequate service experience.
Glen (40) points out that the true safety factors have generally been lower
than those specified by the Codes, since the predicted long-time properties,
on which the Codes base the design stresses, have been proved to be opti~
mistic. This is a reason for accepting higher design stresses provided that they
are backed by abundant and accurate data obtained from long-time tests to
reduce as much as possible the extrapolation errors.
Material under
cyclic loading
only 100%
relaxation
Cyclidoading
and creep
relaxation
J
FIG. 14·13 Combined cyclic loading and creep.
remain the same. In subsequent cycles the stress will vary between a positive
value, when the pipe is cold, and zero when it is at the operating temperature.
The effect of creep in this simple case is, therefore, beneficial except when a
brittle material such as cast iron is used, since it could fail under the tensile
stress. When the initial compressive stress exceeds the yield point, and the
cyclic strain range is constant and equal to Aee+AeP, it is apparent from
Fig. 14·13 that the material subjected to creep suffers more work hardening
than the one under pure fatigue (see Chapter 12). However, Fig. 14·13 must
be regarded as an over-simplification of a very difficult problem and the
conclusions one could infer may be, in fact, completely false. An idea of the
complexity of the behaviour of mild steel under strain cycling at elevated
temperatures is given by the experimental work ofTavernelli and Coffin (41),
while a general discussion of this problem is found in Ref. 42.
The development of any design rules, similar to those derived in Chapter
12, to take into account high strain fatigue combined with creep is seriously
hampered by lack of experimental information. It is obvious that this infor-
mation, besides requiring expensive and lengthy testing, can only be of
interest in a very narrow field, so that its scarcity is not surprising. For this
reason, the design has to be based more on the designer's intuition and
experience than on factual information, relying on large factors of safety.
i.e.
/! I /!
It is apparent that section I tends to deform at a faster rate than II, so that
after a certain time most of the deformation will be localized in the thinner
section. If the bar is heated between two fixed supports
u1A1 = uuAu
th+eu = constant or e1+liu = 0
Taking Eqn. 14·10 to represent the creep law, and neglecting the plastic and
transient components,
e =
and
0 = e1+eu d-1+d-n C ( n
. . = --E-+ 3 u1+uu = o-1 T+u;
") 1+: 1
[
1+ (A)"] c3
A;1
therefore
>0
CREEP 513
The strain in the most highly stressed section tends to increase, while that in
the rest of the bar tends to decrease. After a sufficiently long time, most of
the deformation will be localized in the thinner section, as previously.
The general effect of local constraints or any other type of discontinuities
is therefore to localize the creep strain in a region that may become seriously
overstrained. It is important to note that this strain concentration occurs
even when the stress level is relaxed. For this reason, the stress distribution
throughout a structure operating in the creep range must be maintained as
uniform as possible. The presence of components such as bolts, bellows, pipe
bends, etc., operating at a much higher stress than the rest of the structure
is undesirable. Peak stresses in the vicinity of welded nozzles, flanges and other
discontinuities must be minimized. The designer must also be aware of the
fact that besides these geometrical stress raisers, local variations in the
material properties due to welding, cold working, etc., have exactly the same
effect. It is obvious that the strain amplification, serious as it is under steady
loading conditions, is even more harmful when the structure is subjected to
cyclic loading, since the strain range over a certain critical region may be
such as to produce severe damage or instability after a few load cycles. The
provision of smooth transitions and the careful dimensioning of all reinforce-
ments, junctions and discontinuities is essential for vessels and piping systems
designed to operate in the creep range. The design must be undertaken as a
whole; it is of little use to design a given component as distinct from the rest
of the structure. For example, if the bar in Fig. 14·14 is so designed as to have
a stress within the limits permitted by a Design Code over its centre portion,
it may still be unsatisfactory in service due to creep strain concentration
effect.
The effect of notch-type stress raisers is considerably less clear than that
of structural discontinuities, since sharp notches give rise to metallurgical
changes and embrittlement. Moreover, a stress analysis in the region of the
notch becomes a truly formidable task due to the variations with time of the
notch geometry, especially in the case of ductile materials. This makes
prediction of the notch effect from tests in smooth specimens impracticable.
For this reason tests on notched specimens have been proposed for materials
of limited ductility by several authors (Ref. 43). It is obviously of interest
to avoid notches in the design, but sometimes this is not possible, a typical
example being the use of bolts and other threaded components. In these
cases the stress concentration must be minimized by providing smooth
transitions, avoiding undercuts during machining and achieving a smooth
surface finish whenever this is economically feasible. Reference 44 is finally
suggested for further reading on the subject.
514 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
REFERENCES
15·0 INTRODUCTION
I sidered
N the preceding chapters plastic instability and fracture have been con-
as possible sources of failures. In thin-walled vessels, subjected to
compressive stresses over an extensive region, the possibility of buckling
must be considered also. The imposition of an external force on a vessel in
equilibrium under a given basic load results in some additional deformation,
which may or may not vanish upon removal of the external force. In the
first case the equilibrium is stable, while it is unstable in the second. At
sufficiently low values of the basic load the equilibrium will be stable, but
when the basic load is increased above a critical value the equilibrium
becomes unstable, any insignificant load giving rise to large, permanent
deformations. Buckling is then said to occur and it may be followed by the
complete collapse of the vessel.
Elastic buckling is usually the decisive criterion in the design of vessels
operating under vacuum or, in general, under external pressure; and of shell-
like structures such as containment vessels and storage tanks subject to
wind loads. In thick-walled vessels, the critical pressure for elastic buckling
often exceeds the value required to initiate yielding and plastic instability then
becomes the design criterion. This is a similar situation to that existing in the
design of columns where failure is due to elastic buckling or to plastic
instability, depending on the slenderness.
In large site-erected vessels, the minimum thickness is often based on
considerations of stability during erection rather than on the buckling of the
completed vessel. Once completed, the vessel will be remarkably stiffer than
any of its components taken separately. In small vessels, considerations of
dimensional stability may also require an increased thickness or some addi-
tional stiffeners during fabrication and transportation. In these cases the
design is mainly based on experience, the only general rule being to ensure
that sufficient stiffeners in the form of temporary frames, spiders, etc., are
provided. At the same time, the use of thicker plates than theoretically
necessary may be an economical proposition, especially when an inexpensive
material like mild steel is used, since it may simplify the construction.
516
BUCKLING 517
l
burg and Trilling (5). For cylindrical vessels loaded under radial pressure
only, open ended vessels free to expand axially, we have
J (t)
2E~
1 22n 2 -1-v 2E 3 D
Pc=3 n-1+ 2(2L)2 (1-v2) D + 2 [2(2L)2 ]2(15·1)
n - -1 (n -1) n - +1
nD nD
with the same notation as in Eqn. 15·1. The number of lobes can be obtained
from Fig. 15·1, reproduced from Ref. 5. Here again it is assumed that the
ends are free to rotate and to expand axially, and that only radial expansion
is prevented. In the case of cylindrical vessels with dished heads, a fictitious
simply-supported end is assumed along a circumference situated at one-
third of the depth of the head from the head-cylinder junction. The distance
Lis measured as shown in Fig. 15·2.
The application of Eqn. 15·3, although considerably simplified by using
Fig. 15·1, is still rather cumbersome. An approximate formula (independent
of the number of lobes) obtained by Windenburg and Trilling (5) that can
be used instead, is
2-42E
(1-v2)3f4£
- -0·45 -
(t)112 (15-4)
D D
JOI
9
8
7
.., 6
c
...... 5
)(
~ 4
.::::.
3'
1
o·J 1 10
L/n
Vl
FIG. 15·1 Number of lobes formed in buckling: closed ended cylindrical shells (Ref. 5). -IC
520 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
h
L
L
L
~--·-·-·-·----------,
ll JJ
Actual shape
(n = 3)
Perfect shell
On the other hand, when it is an odd integer as in Fig. 15·4, we may find
that Dmax ~ Dmin and consequently, in the absence of local flats, u becomes
zero. Local flats are likely to be entirely within the arc defined by Eqn. 15·7,
so that a = A. Taking, in Eqn. 15·5
u 4A
100 = D (15·8)
and, from Eqn. 15·5, the collapse pressure of the vessel previously considered
becomes
P~ = 132 lb/in2
with a yield stress of 45,000 lb/in 2 • The agreement between this value and
the one previously obtained from Eqn. 15·6 is fairly good in this case, but
no general conclusion should be inferred from this.
Holt's method is definitely a rational approach to the problem. The out-
of-roundness is clearly defined and can be measured in a very simple way,
but the calculation of the critical pressure is less straightforward than in the
German Code method. The use of Eqn. 15·5 with u as defined by Eqn. 15·8
may then be preferred to that of Eqn. 15·6.
Deviations from the circular shape can be caused by external loading in
service, for example concentrated radial loads transmitted by attached
pipes or supporting lugs. The reduction in the collapse pressure brought
about by this loading can be estimated by taking for the out-of-roundness
the sum of the manufacturing tolerances and the deviation from circular
shape in service. In this respect, it is interesting to note that the manufacturing
tolerances considered by most manufacturers to be representative of good
workshop practice are very frequently considerably smaller than those
specified by most design Codes.
524 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
which is basically the same formula specified by the A.S.M.E. (Section VIII)
paragraph UG-29.
It is apparent that of these two methods of design the first one is con-
siderably simpler to apply, and is by no means less rational than the second.
PC
S.F. = - - . - - ' - - -
workmg pressure
Finally, it must be checked that the maximum nominal stress does not exceed
a certain fraction of the yield stress, or the U.T.S., say,
U.T.S.
nominal stress < or
6
y
nominal stress <
3
pk = 0·365 E GY (15·11)
= Pkr
t
rrk -2t = 0·1825 E -
r
(15.12)
This lower buckling stress is also independent of the deviations of the actual
shell from the perfectly spherical shape and of the load distribution.
It has been shown (Ref. 4) that the calculation of the lower buckling
pressure from Eqn. 15·11 could yield an error of a factor of two. Conse-
quently a generous s;tfety factor is necessary in design, six being generally
considered to be sufficient. The design stress is then
([design =
also (15·13)
U.T.S. Y
([design = -6- o r -
3
The design procedure is therefore to select a value of tfr and to obtain the
nominal stress by means of the formula
Pr
(f nominal = 2t
when only uniform pressure exists. Otherwise, rrnominal will be equal to the
maximum membrane stress. The design stress is then calculated from Eqn.
15·13 and checked to be higher than the nominal stress.
Hemispherical and torispherical heads (Figs. 15·5(a) and (b)) are designed
as complete spherical shells, taking the radius r to be equal to the radius at
BUCKLING 527
(a) (b)
Deformed
shell
Sphere
r
(c) (d)
It is seldom possible to take into account the effect of rigid end supports
or of discontinuities such as manholes and nozzles in design. Intuitively, it
would appear that any rotationally symmetrical connection between two
shells, or a shell and a bulkhead, should provide additional reinforcement
against buckling. This would not be the case when the additional stresses set
up by the structural discontinuity are of such a nature as to assist in the
deformation of the shell during buckling. More often than not pressure
vessel designers are content to ignore this possibility, and to assume that the
high safety factor selected will result in a safe design.
528 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
REFERENCES
16·0 INTRODUCTION
T components
chapter will deal with the stress analysis and design of some special
HIS
used in piping systems, heat exchangers and pressure vessels
in general. These components are pipe bends, cascade corners, bolted flanged
connections and tube plates.
Two types of pipe bends are in general use: smooth bends, formed by a
pipe curved to the desired radius, or for very large-bore ducts fabricated from
a series of pressed plates, and lobster-back bends as shown in Fig. 16·1(a).
(a) Plane sections remain plane during deformation and these deforma-
tions are small.
(b) The hoop strains vanish at the middle surface of the pipe wall and
longitudinal strains are constant throughout the thickness.
(c) The deformed cross-section is symmetrical with respect to the centre
line of the pipe-bend.
(c)
II
since from Eqn. 16·1, dv = - ud() and u may be neglected with respect tor.
The slope at 2' will be
du d2u du ( d2u )
dO+ r'd0-r'd0 2 dO- r'dO = dO 1 - r'd0 2
dO ( 1 - ,.~;;2) 1 1 ( d2u)
(16·2)
X = (r' +u) dO -~ ;::;;, -;J u+ d0 2
The hoop strain may then be written as
(16·3)
_ Et ( 2 t 2 x2 ) (16·5)
dW - 2(1-vz) eq,+U
J
=
0
(16·9)
It has been shown (Ref. 3) that sufficiently accurate results are achieved by
limiting the expansion of the tangential displacement to the first three terms
of the series (Eqn. 16·7). From Eqns. 16·8 and 16·9
518·75 + 147,150 .A? +4,410,000 .A.4
A
92·5 + 18,375A. 2
(16·10)
A
26·25
where
A = 787 ·5 + 230,975 A.2 + 7,644,300 A.4 + 8,820,000 A.6
and the strain energy becomes
nr 3 tEc 2 cjJR 9·375+ 10,250.A. 2 + 1,029,300.A. 4 +8,820,000.A. 6
W = 2(1-v 2) A
The work done by the external bending moment M, on the other hand, is
W =!MeR¢
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 535
(
M ) (1-v 2 )A
c = nr 3 tE 9·375+10,250A.2+1,029,300A. 4 +8,820,000A. 6
Noting that the first factor, in brackets, in this expression is the change of
curvature of the straight run of pipe, the flexibility factor may then be ex-
pressed as
2 A
(1- v ) 2 4 6
9·375+10,250A. +1,029,300...1. +8,820,000A. (16·11)
dA = Rr (1+jisino)d¢d0
[I
and the strain energy for the pipe bend, given before by Eqn. 16·6, is now
A2 (~+~Y)d¢d0]
+ 12 (R+rsinO)
The tangential displacement v has to be expressed in the form
00 00
The method of solution would be the same as for the case of in-plane bend-
ing, and has been detailed by Pardue and Vigness (4). However, the advantages
to be gained by the exact solution of the problem do seldom justify the time
and effort spent. It is therefore customary to accept that all the assumptions
536 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
m (16·12)
The stresses due to the external bending moment are given by the expressions
where eq, and e8 are the longitudinal and hoop strains, previously derived
(Eqns. 16·3 and 16·4). Substituting for v in these two equations its expression
in series form (Eqn. 16·7), and expressing the change in curvature in function
fl'
~·r-------~------~------~~-------.------~ "d
rrJ
'A =!!i. n
......
r' >
1:"'
PR 2 (1-v 2) n
0
m= rtE a::
"d
0
3'~------~-----4--------------~------------4--------------+------------~ zrrJ
z
>-!
r(mean radius) fl'
r:..::"'
~
~
0
~
,!!!
to;;
0
0 o·J 0'2 o·J 0'4 0'5
A Ul
Flo. 16· 3 Flexibility factors for pressurized and unpressurized smooth bends. w
-...1
538 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
where
I
and a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , are as defined in Eqns. 16·10. In all cases, the + sign corre-
sponds to the outside surface and the - sign to the inside surface.
The maximum stress occurs for 8>::!0, and is given by the expressions
Mr ( 3 756+105,888A.2 +1,411,200A.4 )
(a,;)max >::! ±I vA. 3+3280A. 2 +329,376A.4 +2,822,400A. 6
1 (16·15)
(a 8 )max >::! - (a ,;)max
v
and
Therefore
For (} =0 or (} =n
_Mr (!_) 12 + 7992 A. 2 + 564,576 A. 4 + 2,822,400 A. 6 (16·17)
I R 3+3280A.2 +329,376A. 4 +2,822,400A. 6
(16·141)
Vl
15
~
acj> = ± Mr vS Stresses at A (in plane bending)
m = 0\ 1 Stresses at B (out of plane bending)
13
I \ 6
a = ± Afr S A B
+ -
11'r---------\------t--------------~t----------------+----------------+-~~--~-------1
\ '--+;{
9
I '\
c;;-
'-
~
'-' 7
~ 1m= o·5 x w-}...- ~
' "'
~ 5; ~~~
m=IO~V ......_~ "C
~
t!l
Cll
I /L..---- -- :::--: ~ Cll
3 c:::
~
t!l
m=3xJO~~~ <
t!l
7 m =5 X w-V Cll
Cll
t!l
t"'
0 o·J 0•2 o·J 0•4 o·5 t::j
t!l
Cll
A ......
FIG. 16·5 Stress concentration factors for pressurized and unpressurized pipe bends under bending. 0
z
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 541
where
ac~ -~
Mr ( Rr) X (stress factor)
~
~ r--
1
0 OJ 02 03 04 05
A
FIG. 16·6 Compressive stress in unpressurized pipe bend under bending.
as the ratio of the actual stress due to the bending moment to the stress which
would exist in the straight run of pipe, is also reduced. Figure 16·5, based on
the work of the Rodabaugh and George (5), shows the stress concentration
factors for various values of the parameter m defined by Eqn. 16·12 and for
the unpressurized bend. The compressive stress uc can be assessed from
Fig. 16·6 (Eqn. 16·17).
16-1-3 Design
Smooth pipe bends usually have the same thickness as the straight run of pipe,
although the maximum membrane stress due to internal pressure is higher
than in the equivalent straight pipe. The first step in the design is the evalua-
tion of the flexibility factor, from Fig. 16·3 or from Eqn. 16·11. The maximum
bending moment acting on the pipe is then obtained following the procedure
s*
542 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
in these equations
S = 8·4 for the unpressurized bend.
S = 4 for the pressurized bend.
uc = - ~r x :i x 2·14 is assumed the same for both cases. Using Tresca's
criterion, the effective stress is found to be equal to the maximum stress,
and equal to 15·6 tonjin 2 in the unpressurized case.
For the pressurized bend, the maximum effective stress is 11·4 ton/in 2 ,
less than for the unpressurized bend.
If the pipe bend had been subjected to out-of-plane bending, the method
would be the same, but now
Pr Mr S
u-. ~ -+-v
oy 2 t- I
Pr 2R+r +Mrs
Uo ~
t 2(R+r)- I
in the neighbourhood of point B (Fig. 16·5), and
Pr 2R-r MrS
Uo ~ t. 2(R-r)±I
in point B'.
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 543
where
torque
40~--------------------------------------~
30
Kp 20
ends
10
g.~04~--~o~-o~6~--~o~-o~s----~o·'j----~o~-J~2~--o~-~I4~--~o·J6,
A
FIG. 16·7 Effect of end restraints on the flexibility factor of pipe bends.
some of the bends were + 1·38% to -1·43% in outside diameter and + 12·6%
to -14% in thickness. The theoretical value of KF, predicted from Fig. 16·3,
was 17·3. The maximum theoretical stress was 10·2 x Mr/1. The correspond-
ing experimental values were 19·4 and 9·2 x Mr/1. It will be appreciated that,
whilst no conclusion can be drawn from this single example as to the sign of
the difference, or its relationship with the manufacturing tolerances, it is
quite obvious that the order of magnitude of these differences is such as to
have a negligible effect on the assessment of the design.
In some applications, pipe bends terminated in heavy flanges or in other
544 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
types of end restraints may be present. The effect of end restraints has been
treated experimentally by Pardue and Vigness (4). Of special interest are the
tests they made using 90° bends of R/r = 3·0 and A. ranging from 0·04 to
0·14, terminated by:
(a) Straight sections of the same diameter and thickness as the bend.
(b) A straight section at one end and a rigid flange at the other.
(c) Rigid flanges at both ends.
For type (a) the results are in good agreement with the theory, while for
types (b) and (c) the measured flexibility factor was considerably reduced.
Figure 16·7 reproduces some of the experimental results and facilitates their
comparison with the corresponding theoretical values. The change in the
overall flexibility factor due to the end restraints is obviously greater for
values of the bend angle lower than 90°, and vice versa. At the same time, the
addition of end restraints causes a reduction in the value of maximum stress.
The net result is an increase in the load to which the pipe bend is subjected,
accompanied by a decrease in the stress per unit load, that balances, at least
in part, the effect of the higher load. For example, for the pipe bend that has
been discussed, with a rigid flange welded at one end, the decrease in KF is
of the order of 25% while the maximum stress per unit load is reduced by
about 30%.
In general, the use of rigid end restraints is to be avoided, since they reduce
unnecessarily the overall flexibility of the system and cause an unpredictable
perturbation of the stress distribution.
Lobster-back bends, of the type shown in Fig. 16·l(a), are usually designed
using the smooth bend theory. The experimental information available
(Refs. 11, 12) indicates that there is little difference between the flexibility
of a lobster-back bend and that of a smooth bend of similar dimensions,
provided that the angle is sufficiently small-say less than 15°. On the other
hand, higher stresses can be expected near the junctions of the rings. These
Box Type
Hairpin Type
Fm. 16·8 Different types of heat exchangers.
peak stresses may well have a negligible effect on the bursting pressure of the
bend but they are likely to cause a reduction in its fatigue life. A detailed
analysis of the stresses in these components will be found in Refs. 32 and 33.
The tube plates that will be considered here are those used in cylindrical
heat exchangers of the types shown in Fig. 16·8. They are flat, circular plates
with a perforated central part and a solid rim, bolted down to a flange or
546 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
E* t 3
D* =
12(1-v* 2 )
defines the effective flexural rigidity D* of the tube plate, in terms of the
effective elastic constants E* and v*. This method will be followed here.
Once the effective elastic constants have been obtained, the next step is the
calculation of the stress distribution in the equivalent plate. A detailed
analysis has been given in § 7·4, for a typical box-type heat exchanger.
For other cases, the analysis would have to take into account the relative
1"0.---------,----------,--~--,----,--~
Plate thickness= t
{f-d)/f
FIG. 16·9 Effective elastic constants for perforated plates (Ref. 16).
flexibilities of the central, perforated, part of the plate, its rim, its connection
to the heat-exchanger shell and the shell itself. The same procedure would
be followed.
(18) and constitutes the basis of the B.S. 1500 method of design. A similar
approach has also been followed by Gardner (19}. A more refined method of
analysis, taking into account the stiffening effect of the rim, has been used
by Duncan (14), including experimental information on the stiffening effect
of the unperforated section in two and four-pass tube plates. The problem
has been treated recently by Boon and Walsh (20). Following Ref. 18, it
can be shown that the stress distribution in the equivalent plate is as follows:
(a) Box-type heat exchanger. Simply-supported tube plate
With the notation:
P 1 = shell side pressure
P 2 = tube , ,
n = number of tubes
a = cross-sectional area (metal) of one tube
R = inside radius of shell
A = cross-sectional area of bore of shell
B = , , , (metal) of shell plate
C = , , , perforated part of tube plate
t = thickness of tube plate
2! = length of tubes
E1 = modulus of elasticity of tube material
E. = , , , , shell ,
r = radial position in tube plate
the following functions are then defined:
Q = E 1nafE.B
y = (E1naf l AD*) 114
1-v*
f 1 (yr) ber(yr)--- bei'(yr)
yr
1-v*
!2 (y r) = bei (y r ) + - her' (y r)
yr
1-v*
ft'(y r) v*ber(yr)+-- bei' (yr)
yr
1-v*
i2'(yr) v*bei(yr)- - - ber'(yr)
yr
y R [bei' (y R)f1 (y R)- her' (y R)f2 (y R)]
3 [!1 (y r)f2 (y R)-! 1 (y R)f2 (y r)]
y2 R 2 [her (y R)f1 (y R) + bei (y R)f2 (y R)]
6 [!1 (y r)f2 (y R)-! 1 (y R)f2 (y r)]
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 549
cr*
r
+ P 1 -P 2
- Gl
(!!:.)
t
2
P (R)
(16·21)
1 -P 2 2
+
-
-
G~
- -t
a: = a: = ±(P 1 -P2 )
3 (3 + v*)
8
(R)t 2
at the centre (16·23)
v,
,.* a 8* -_ ± (P 1 - p) 3(1+v*)
2 8
(R)t 2
at t h e centre (16·24)
In the case of box-type and floating-head type heat exchangers the stresses
in the tubes can be obtained with sufficient accuracy from the expressions
of Ref. 18. Thermal stresses, due to differential expansion of tubes and
shells in box-type heat exchangers, can be taken into account by taking an
effective pressure difference, in Eqns. 16·18 and 16·19
Pe = (ext Tr -ex. 1:)Et
where ext, ex. are respectively the coefficients of linear thermal expansion of
tubes and shell, and Tt and r. are the temperatures of tubes and shell.
Equation 16·18 then becomes
a* = + (Pt-P2)(A-C)-P 2(na+AQ)+Pena (~) 2 (16·26)
' - A(QG1+G2) t
a similar expression being obtained for a:.
In addition to the radial and tangential bending stresses, a shear stress
will also act in a perpendicular direction to the plate. In general this stress
is considerably lower than the bending stresses, and it is sufficient to assume
that it is given by the expression
(P 1 -P 2 )(A-C)r
-.*n = 2At
(in box-type heat exchangers) (16·27)
and
*
'<n = (P 1 -2 p
t 2) r c·m fl oatmg-
· h ead an d h a1r-pm
· · type h eat exch angers) (16 ·28)
Referring to Fig. 16·10(a), where M and N are the centres of two adjacent
holes, the stress normal to MN is
u: = u: sin <P + u: cos <P
2 2
(a)
General Stresses
jn Equivalent
Plate
(b)
.Average Stresses
ina
Ligament
I
(c)
Mohr Circle
for the Stresses
in the Ligament
00 (T,.)_,
(d)
Direct Shear
in the Ligament
r* = (u:-un sin;¢
The average stresses on the ligament are then (Fig. 16·10(b))
= (Jn
* J-d
f
* f
't" f-d
i"OI----+---1--_:::::~----~
o·s~-'-"""-'-*~
·J·O -0·5
............~..+-~....~...~r-~-...~..-.&...~.-!
0
The maximum shear stress in the ligament-assuming that the normal stress
component in an element perpendicular to MN is zero (Ref. 16)-is
\
30
\
25
\ 1\r,
20
cr, = -1
I.<;
0 15
v5
\ ~,\1\
""- "
I0
~~ 1
~ ~ !'-...
""" r-- r-
~
5 r-.:. t- r-
1--.r-- - r-
r-- 1-.. ~
0
0 02 03 04 05 06 08 10
(f-dJ/!
FIG. 16·12 Maximum peak stresses in perforated plates (Ref. 16).
(b)
(a)
(c)
where S.C.F. is the stress concentration factor, from Fig. 16·12 (Ref. 16) and
u 1 and u 2 have the same meaning as in the previous section.
Due to the temperature drop between shell and tube sides and, in the case
of hair-pin heat exchangers, between the tube inlet and tube outlet sides,
thermal stresses also are set up. Their order of magnitude is
Ur = Erx/1 T {16·32)
where 11T is the temperature drop across tube plate or between hot and cold
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 555
the average combined stress and average shear being obtained from Eqns.
16·29 (or Fig. 16·11) and Eqn. 16·30, respectively.
In order to prevent large deformations, that would cause leakage in the
tube-to-tube plate connections, the value of CTmax+ CT T (from Eqns. 16· 31 and
16· 32) should be maintained below 2 Y. Alternatively, these stresses may be
evaluated in accordance with the limited life criteria of Chapter 12.
An important consideration is the design of the joints between tubes and
tube plate to ensure that there is no leakage. In general, the tubes are simply
expanded on to the tube plates as illustrated in Fig. 16·13(a). In the sketch,
the three tapered rollers, rotating in the clockwise direction, are forced
against the tube by the progressive withdrawal of the central tapered needle.
After withdrawal of the expanding tool, the elastic springback ofthe assembly
sets up a positive contact pressure between tube and tube plate. For the
calculation of this contact pressure, it is generally assumed that the expansion
takes place under constant pressure, no credit being taken for the localized
plastic deformations under the rollers, the hammering effect due to vibrations,
etc., during rolling, and the possible bonding between the contact surfaces
of tube and tube plates (Ref. 22). Given these simplifying assumptions, it is
not surprising to find that the correlation between predicted and measured
values is poor. However, the theoretical contact pressure can still be used as
a figure of merit that will enable the designer:
(a) To predict the behaviour of a proposed design on the basis of experi-
mental information available for a different joint.
(b) To assess the effect of differential expansion during service (due to
pressure and temperature).
(c) To investigate the effect of creep.
In most conventional joints, a reduction in the tube wall thickness of
6-10% is specified as giving the best seal. Grooves, as shown in Fig. 16·13(b),
are usually cut in the tube plate, and the tube expanded until the grooves are
at least partly filled with tube material. Although the main purpose of this
construction is to increase the axial load that can be taken by the joint with-
out separation, it also improves the sealing. The problems involved in
556 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
It has been mentioned that the design of bolted flanged connections following
the A.S.M.E. method is usually satisfactory for most conventional applica-
tions. In exceptional cases, such as full width flanges in large vessels or very
high pressure connections, a structural analysis following Chapters 4-8 and
a safety assessment in accordance with criteria given in Chapters 10-14 is
essential. Such an analysis, however, cannot be integrated into a compact
design method: its purpose is to assess whether a design is satisfactory or
not. The A.S.M.E. method can still be used in these cases as a reliable guide
for the preparation of a preliminary layout.
Some practical considerations for the design of bolted flanged connections
are given below.
(a) Full face gaskets, extending to the outside diameter of the flange and
with the bolt holes cut out, should only be used for low temperature, low
pressure design. In general, the gasket material is then rubber.
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 557
(b) Wide ring gaskets, extending to a point within the inside of the bolt
holes, are used under all temperature conditions, depending on the gaskets
material. The flange faces may be flat or raised. The gaskets most commonly
used are asbestos, flat metal jacketed asbestos filled, and flat metal. For large
diameter flanges and for highly penetrant fluids, spiral wound metal, asbestos
filled gaskets may be used.
~-------------A
(c) For high pressure application, ring joint gaskets are preferred.
(d) For connections subjected to alternate loading, tapered hubs and studs
with reduced diameter shank should be used. Lap joint flanges are known
to behave unsatisfactorily under cyclic conditions.
(e) In piping systems, bolted flanged connections should be located in
such a way as to minimize the external loading acting on them.
558 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
(f) The bolt spacing should be between 2f and 3! times the bolt diameter.
Bolts smaller than i in should only be used when considerable care is taken
during tightening up to prevent yielding. In any case, it is advisable to specify
the maximum torque to be applied.
(g) For critical applications, and when studs of a very large diameter are
used, it is customary to use heaters to obtain the required bolting load. In
that case, the studs are hollow for the insertion of the heating element. The
elongation is measured with a clock gauge, a feeler gauge or a micrometer.
An alternative to bolt heating is the use of hydraulic tensioners which are
seated on the upper face of the flange and which exert a tensile load on the
studs.
(h) The bolting load in non-critical connection with very large bolts is
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 559
Recessed
nut
Some designs suitable for high pressure service are shown in Fig. 16·15.
In all cases the seal is achieved by the internal pressure itself, which com-
presses the gasket against the flange. Rules for the design of some of these
'pressure energized' connections, following the A.S.M.E. method, are con-
tained in Ref. 27.
The correct design of the bolts to minimize stress concentrations is often
as important as their overall dimensioning. Whitworth threads, accurately
machined to ensure an even engagement between nut and bolt, are recom-
mended, as well as the use of recessed nuts or shanks to avoid the tendency to
overload the first few threads. Tapered shanks and elliptical transitions
between bolt head and shank should also be used, as shown in Fig. 16·16.
The washers should always be of a material harder and more creep resistant
than the bolts. Whenever large relative rotations are expected between the
mating flanges, a spherical bearing surface (machined and ground) may be
used. The use of these spherical washers is standard in large diameter,
relatively high pressure closure heads for nuclear reactor vessels.
[tube
At the same time, assuming the creep strain rate in the bolt to be given by
Eqn. 14·12, the bolt elongation due to creep is
6
taking the total bolt length to remain nearly constant. If the creep rate of the
tube is assumed to be proportional to that of the bolt, we can write
6
u(1+17)+C3(1+J1)Ebolt J u"d()
0
or
() = 1+11
(1+Jl)EC 3 (n-1)
[-1- __ u"- 1
1_]
u~- 1
(AE/l)bou 2
-
(3 AE/2l)bolt 3
SPECIAL COMPONENTS 563
REFERENCES
proposes a general method for the estimation of the fatigue life from tensile
data and a knowledge of the endurance limit. The first is 'Fatigue: a complex
subject-some simple approximations', Experimental Mech. 1965 (5) 193,
and the second 'Interfaces between fatigue, creep and fracture', Inter J.
Fracture Mechanics, 1966 (2) 327. Also of interest are T. D. SCHARTON and
S. H. CRANDALL. 'Fatigue failure under complex stress histories', A.S.M.E.
65-Met-3; A. J. BROTHERS and S. YUKAWA, 'Fatigue crack propagation in
low-alloy, heat-treated steels', A.S.M.E. 66-Met-2; G. R. HALFORD, 'The
energy required for fatigue', J. of Materials, 1966 (1) 3; G. H. RoWE, 'Corre-
lation of high-cycle fatigue strength with true stress-strain behaviour' J. of
Materials, 1966 (1) 689.
Some recent publications on high strain fatigue and incremental collapse
or cyclic growth are K. D. !VES, L. F. KOOISTRA, and J. T. TUCKER, 'Equibi-
axiallow-cycle fatigue properties of typical pressure-vessel steels', A.S.M.E.
65-Met-19; D. J. HARRIS and P. P. BENHAM, 'Effect of high-strain fatigue
cycles on the brittle-ductile transition of two mild steels', J. Mech. Eng. Sci.,
1965 (7) 93; P. P. BENHAM, 'Some observations of cyclic strain-induced creep
in mild steel at room temperature', Int. J. Mech. Sci. 1965 (7) 81; T. YoKo-
BORI, H. Y AMANOUCHI, and S. YAMAMOTO, 'Low cycle fatigue of thin-walled
hollow cylindrical specimens of mild steel in uni-axial and torsional tests at
constant strain amplitude', Int. J. Fracture Mech. 1965 (1) 3; B. R. GAIN and
G. M. SINCLAIR, 'Effect of temperature on cyclic creep', A.S.M.E. 66-Met-7.
D. S. WooD has published some work on 'The effect of creep on the high
strain fatigue behaviour of a pressure vessel steel', Welding J. (Res. Supp.)
1966 {45) 90s. and R. A. DE PAUL, A. W. PENSE, and R. D. STOUT on 'The
elevated temperature fatigue properties of pressure vessel steels'. Welding J.
(Res. Supp.) 1965 (44) 409s.
Fatigue tests on pressure vessel components of various types have been
reported by T. J. ATTERBURY, G. M. MCLURE, and E. C. RODABAUGH,
'Fatigue of welded branch connections subjected to cyclic bending loads',
A.S.M.E. 64-Pet-38; B. M. HANNON, 'Correlation of fatigue tests of thick wall
cylinders subjected to repeated internal pressure', A.S.M.E. 64-W A/Met-7
and B. CROSSLAND and B. A. AUSTIN, 'Low endurance fatigue of thick-
walled cylinders: development of a test machine and preliminary results',
Proc. I. Mech. E. 1965-66, (180) Pt. 1, 44.
Index
571
572 INDEX
Ludvik tension test, 461 Nil-ductility temperature, 474, 475, see also
Lyman, T., 20, 27, 38, 45 'Pellini'
'Nimonic', 46
MACFARLANE, D. S., 545 Northrup, M. S., 55
Mackenzie, A. C., 544 Notch sensitivity factor, 435
Mackenzie, I. M., 27, 34 Notch-tough steel, 25-27
Magnetic crack detection, 68 Notch-type stress raisers, stress concentra-
Mahlmeister, I. E., 336 tion factor, 435-438
Mahoney, J. B., 546 Nozzles, see 'Openings'
Manson, Haferd parameter, 487-489 in spherical shells, 209, 237
Manson, S. S., 487, 507 stress concentration factor in oblique
Mantell, C. L., 20, 38 nozzles, 333-335
Manufacturing tolerances, 64--66, 518-523 stress concentration factor in radial
Marin, J., 395, 484, 490-493, 502, 506, 560 nozzles, 330-333
Markl, A. R. C., 442 typical designs, 329
Marshall, J.D., 447 welded nozzles, 78, 80, 211
Martin, D. E., 422
Materials, selection, 19-47 O'DONNELL, w. J., 546, 554
mechanical properties, 19, 20 Onat E. T., 403, 417, 507
Matrices, rules for operation on, 96 Openings, design of reinforcement, 57-60,
McClintock, F. A., 364 78-80, 329-338
McKean, J. D., 337 balanced reinforcement, 330
McWilliam, J. A., 74, 75 Code rules, 57-60
Membrane solution, definition of, 89 comparison of design rules, 59, 60
Mendelsohn, A., 507 fatigue design, 59, 60, 337
Mershon, J. L., 329, 334, 335, 337 limit analysis design, 337, 338
Michel, R., 23, 37 rim reinforcement, 332, 333
Mig process, 76, 78 welded pads, 332
Mild steel, 22-27, 431, 482, 483 Operating pressure, 11
corrosion resistance, 27 Orowan, E., 450, 455, 482
creep, 482, 483 Orr, R. L., 485, 486
fatigue, 431 Ovality, out-of-roundness, see 'Manufac-
mechanical properties, 24-26 turing tolerances'
physical properties, 23 Owen, B. S., 544
Miller, D. R., 421
Miller, J., 487 PAI, D. H., 328, 374
Miller, K. A. G., 63, 548, 550 Parameters, variation of, 261
Mills, E. J., 502 Pardue, T. E., 530, 535, 544
Miner, M. A., 434 Paris, P. C., 475
Miner's criterion, 434, 435, 509 Parker, E. C., 448
Mitred bends, see 'lobster-back bends' Pellini, W. S., 447, 458, 461-464, 468, 469,
Mohr circle, 552 474, 475, 478
'Monel', 45 Penny, R. K., 330, 507
Moore, G. G., 320 Peterson, R. E., 421, 435
Morgan, L. H., 75 Pipe bends, 63, 529-545
Multiple openings, 335-337 Pipe supports, 9, 10
Munse, W. H., 438 Pipelines, failure of, 447
Murray, R. K., 507 Plastic constraint, 451
Murry, G., 489 Plastifying power, 464
Mylonas, C., 453 454, 462 Point loads on spheres, 202, 231
Prager, W., 403, 408, 417
NADAl, A., 555 Pratt, C. W., 556
Navy tear test, 459, 462 Pressure test, 17
Neutron irradiation, 371 Proctor, E., 336
Nichols, R. W., 26 Proof tests, 18
Nickel, 44-46 Puzak,447,478
576 INDEX
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