Structural Training Note (Updated) PDF

Homik Oil & Gas Facility Engineering Schools.
Basic Steel Structural Design and Detailing
BASIC STEEL STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING
(CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES)
BY
HOMIK ENGINEERING LIMITED
FOR
HOMIK OIL & GAS FACILITY ENGINEERING SCHOOLS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2. BEAMS
2.1. GIRDERS
3. COLUMNS
4. CONNECTION DESIGN
5. FOUNDATION
6.TRUSSES
1.0 Strength of material
During this session, the following issues will be addressed:
 Materials, what are they?

 How do they behave when subjected to various load combination?
 Which term fits what.
 What criteria would necessitate the choice of a material under certain load.
 Etc.
Everything around the world are made up of one substance or another. Material is that substance
from which a thing is or can be made. Some of the materials in various application include:
 Vehicle body - steel, polymer, paint, composite.

 Spark plug - ceramics, steel.
 Tyre - plastic, steel, composite.
 Windscreen - ceramics
 Pipes - steel
 Offshore structures steel
 Well head tubing steel
 Pumps/valves - steel, rubber
 Pipe support - steel, concrete
 Manifold - steel
 List goes on.
Materials are therefore classified into the following:
 Metals
 Polymers
 Ceramics
 Composites
 Etc.
These materials behave differently under various load combination hence their strength. Strength of
material or mechanics of material is a subject that deals with the behavior of material under load. It
deals with the application of action - reaction law to the material system, giving rise to the study of
forces and their effect on the stability of the material system. These behaviors are considered as
resulting from the properties of material.
The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under load and its susceptibility to various
failure modes takes into account the properties of the material such as its yield strength, ultimate
strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition the mechanical element's macroscopic
properties (geometric properties), such as its length, width, thickness, boundary constraints and abrupt
changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
Definition of terms:
 Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a material. In some
materials, the point of yielding is difficult to identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required
to cause 0.2% plastic strain. This is called a 0.2% proof stress.
 Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a material in the
manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure (rupture as the result of crack
propagation, or sliding along a weak plane.
 Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to tensile
failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure, some hardening in the
second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation) or brittle failure (sudden breaking in
two or more pieces at a low stress state). Tensile strength can be quoted as either true stress or
engineering stress, but engineering stress is the most commonly used.
 Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under cyclic loading,
and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength measures.
 Impact strength is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and is
expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or Charpy impact
test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a sample. Volume, modulus of
elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect the impact strength of a material. In order
for a material or object to have a high impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly
throughout the object. It also must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high
material yield strength.
 Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied (as a result of
applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion, etc.). Deformation is
expressed by the displacement field of the material.
 Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is displaced when
subject to an applied load.
Types of loadings in mechanics of material are:
 Transverse loadings — These are forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a
member. It causes the member to bend and deflect from its original position, with internal tensile
and compressive strains accompanying the change in curvature of the member. Transverse loading
also induces shear forces that cause shear deformation of the material and increase the transverse
deflection of the member.
Transverse loading
 Axial loading — The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member. The
forces result in tension or compression.
Axial loading
 Torsional loading — Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and oppositely
directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple applied to a member
that has one end fixed against rotation.
Torsional loading
A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal forces within the member called
stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause
deformation of the material in various manners including breaking them completely. Deformation
of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed on a unit basis. The applied
loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or rotational (strength shear). The stresses and strains
that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the load capacity
of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the member, its constraints,
the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of which the member is
composed. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry of the member, the state
of stress and state of strain at any point within the member can be calculated. Once the state of
stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load carrying capacity) of that member,
its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to maintain its original configuration)
can be calculated. The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure of the strength
of the member such as its material yield or ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the
member may be compared to a deflection criterion that is based on the member's use. The
calculated buckling load of the member may be compared to the applied load. The calculated
stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to calculate the member's dynamic
response and then compared to the acoustic environment in which it will be used.
•Limit of proportionality (A)
This is the extent where load-extension curve is linear and elastic.
•Elastic limit (B)
At this point, the material will recover its original shape on removal of the load. The section of the
curve between the limit of proportionality and the elastic limit can be described as non-linear
elastic.
•Yield point (CD)
This is the stress at which the material yields and behaves plastically beyond this point. The
extension of the specimen from C to D is approximately .10 times greater than extension of the
specimen up to B.
• Strain hardening (DE)
In this region of the curve, the material strain hardens and the slope of the curve is much lower
than the slope between the origin and A.
• Peak load (F)
This is the maximum load that the material can withstand. This load is used for calculating the
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) or Tensile strength of the material. After this point, the specimen
"necks" and eventually fractures at F.
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝐿
Strain, =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Stress, =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
STRESS -STRAIN CURVE:
From the load and extension values from the Tensile Testing, stress and strain values are calculated.
When the stress values are plotted against strain values, a stress-strain curve result.
Hook’s law:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Proof stress
Certain materials like Aluminum do not exhibit a definite yield point hence it is difficult to
determine the yield stress of such materials precisely. For such materials 0.1% or 0.2% proof stress
is defined. Here 0.1% or 0.2% strain is set off along the horizontal axis and a straight line a drawn
from this point, parallel to the linear portion of the stress-strain curve. From where the straight line
cuts the curve, a line is drawn parallel to the strain axis to cut the stress axis at 0.1% proof stress
for 0.1% strain and 0.2% proof 'stress for 0.2% strain.
FACTOR OF SAFETY
In practice although the ultimate tensile stress is used as a basis for design the maximum allowable
stress or working stress is always less than this value The ratio of the ultimate tensile stress (UTS)
to the working stress is called the factor of safety, thus
𝑈𝑇𝑆
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Factor of safety has also been defined as the ratio of yield stress or even elastic limit to the working
stress since the member is considered to have failed if the stress in any part of It is sufficient to
cause plastic deformation.
It is not satisfactory to allow the stress in structural component to exceed the limit of
proportionality. If the stress exceeds this value, it is likely that certain parts of the structural
component will suffer permanent deformation. If the stress in a structure does not exceed the
materials' limit of proportionality, the structure will return to its undeformed shape upon removal
of the loading.
2.0 BEAMS
Beam is a horizontal structural member that supports vertical load. It resists loads applied laterally
to the beam's axis with mode of deflection is primarily bending. The loads applied to the beam
result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the
beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal
stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized based on type of support,
shape of cross section, length and their material.
CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS BASED ON TYPE OF SUPPORT
 Cantilever beam
 Simply supported beam
 Overhanging beam
 Continuous beam
 Fixed beam
Cantilever Beam: A cantilever beam is a beam which is fixed from one end and free at the other
end.
Simply Supported Beam:A beam resting on supports at both ends is called simply supported beam.
Overhanging Beam: This beam has one of its ends extended beyond the support.
Fixed Beams: A beam which has both of its ends fixed or builtin walls.
Continuous Beam: This is a beam which is provided with more than two supports as shown in the
figure.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE SHAPE OF CROSS SECTION
Classification of beams based on shape of cross section are divided into three classes
 I/H-beam – Beam with ‘I’ cross section

 T-beam – Beam with ‘T’ cross section
 C-beam – Beam with ‘C’ cross section
I-BEAM (UNIVERSAL BEAM):
Just as the name impliesthese steel beams are shaped like the capital letter ‘I’. The inner surface
inclination of upper and lower flanges is generally 1:6 which makes the flange thin outside while
thick inside.
T- BEAM
A T-beam used in construction, is a load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete, wood or metal,

with a t-shaped cross section. The top of the t-shaped cross section serves as a flange or
compression member in resisting compressive stresses. The web (vertical section) of the beam
below the compression flange serves to resist shear stress and to provide greater separation for the
coupled forces of bending
C – BEAM: The C beam is used primarily in building construction and civil engineering. Its cross
section consists of a wide "web", usually but not always oriented vertically, and two "flanges" at
the top and bottom of the web, only sticking out on one side of the web. It is distinguished from I-
beam or H-beam type steel cross sections in that those have flanges on both sides of the web.
Beam design consideration:

After establishing the design bending moment andshear force, the next thing is to assess the size
and strength of beam required bearing in mind that the design load does not exceed the loadcapacity
the beam.
𝑀 = 𝜎𝑍
𝜎𝐼
𝑀=
𝑦
Z=elastic section modulus
I=moment ofinertia or second moment ofarea of the section
y=distance fromneutral axis

2.0 Girder plates
These are typical I beam in shape made from different structural steel plates or sections. They are
welded, rivetted or bolted together instead of having them in single rolled steel cross section.
Plate girder components:
 Web plate
 Flange plate (addition of cover plate curtailed at proper sections)
 Stiffeners like bearing stiffeners, longitudinal stiffeners, and intermediate stiffeners
 Splices for flange plate and web plate
 End connections
Web plate: The web plates allows the beam to resist shear acting on it. Its thickness varies as well
as its depth. The depth of the web plate depends upon the type and quantity of loading. For larger
depths, stiffeners are used to ensure stability
Flange plate: They resist the bending moment which will be acting on the beam by developing the
compressive force in one flange and tensile force in other flange. The resistance to bending as well
as shear may be increased by increasing the distance between the flanges.
Stiffeners: in trying to prevent the web from buckling, stiffeners sre used.
3.0 COLUMN AND STRUT DESIGN
COLUMN AND STRUT
Both strut and column belong to the group of compression members. They can withstand the
compressive forces inside the structure instead of the tensile forces. Struts are mostly found in
roof trusses, steel bridges, and other structures that combine trusses for their structural
development.
Columns are found in buildings and related type of structures, where the structure directly takes
care of the gravitational force. The materials used to construct these compressive members are
built with various materials like steel, concrete, timber.
What is a Strut?
Strut stands for an inclined compressive member or component of a truss type structure. The two
ends of a strut are set to other members of the truss, and usually the objective of the strut is to
sustain the hardness of the structure, which otherwise prone to move freely. Besides, it is can
include more strength to the structure. A strut may be defined as a long, inclined column.
A specific value named “Slenderness Ratio” is set, that ascertains whether the specific member
comes into the category of Struts or into Columns. If the slenderness ratio becomes higher, the
structure element will be more slender. If the slenderness is higher, the structural element will come
into the category of struts, and the less slender ones will come into the category of columns. Struts
may collapse because of buckling. It signifies that they bend off if compressed apart a specific
limit.
Differences between Strut and a Column
1. Both Strut and Column belong to compression structural members.

2. Slenderness ratio of struts is elevated, while it is low for columns.
3. Struts collapse because of buckling, but columns collapse due to crushing.
4. Columns are dependent on bending moments and shears additionally and are considered as the
primary supports in a building or structure while the Struts are short members in an assembly of
members that get compressed, in place of ties which are stretched (i.e. subjected to tension)
5. Column is vertical member that is dependent on axial compressive load whereas strut belongs
to the inclined member that is dependent on the axial load.
6. The objective of the column is to withstand compressive load only whereas the objective of the
strut is to withstand both compressive and tensile load.
7. The column is usually supported with fixed supports at both ends whereas the strut is set by
hinged or pin joint at both ends.
Depending upon the Slenderness ratio (ratio of effective length to least lateral dimension of the
column).It is used extensively for finding out the design load as well as in classifying various
columns in short/intermediate/long.
Short Column: If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less
than12,it is called a short column.
Long Column: If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension exceeds
12, it is called as long column. A long column fails by bending or buckling.
FAILURE MODE OF COLUMNS
Columns may fail in one of the three mechanisms:
1. Compression failure of the concrete or steel reinforcement.

2. Buckling.
3. Combination of buckling and compression failure.
NB. Compression failure is likely to occur with columns which are short and stocky.
Buckling is probable with columns which are long and slender.
4.0 COMPRESSION MEMBER DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

 Compression Members: Structural elements that are subjected to axial compressive forces
only are called columns. Columns are subjected to axial loads through the centroid.
 Stress: The stress in the column cross-section can be calculated as
1
P
f  (2.1)
A
where f is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section.
 This ideal state is never reached. The stress-state will be non-uniform due to:
- Accidental eccentricity of loading with respect to the centroid
- Member out-of –straightness (crookedness), or
- Residual stresses in the member cross-section due to fabrication processes.
 Accidental eccentricity and member out-of-straightness can cause bending moments in the
member. However, these are secondary and are usually ignored.
 Bending moments cannot be neglected if they are acting on the member. Members with axial
compression and bending moment are called beam-columns.
COLUMN BUCKLING
 Consider a long slender compression member. If an axial load P is applied and increased
slowly, it will ultimately reach a value Pcr that will cause buckling of the column (Figure 1). Pcr
is called the critical buckling load of the column.
2
P
(a) Pcr (b)
P
Pcr
3
What is buckling?
Buckling occurs when a straight column subjected to axial compression suddenly undergoes
bending as shown in the Figure 1(b). Buckling is identified as a failure limit-state for columns.
Figure 1. Buckling of axially loaded compression members
 The critical buckling load Pcr for columns is theoretically given by Equation (4.1)
2 E I
Pcr = (4.1)
K L 2
where, I = moment of inertia about axis of buckling
K = effective length factor based on end boundary conditions
 Effective length factors are given on page 16.1-511 (Table C-A-7.1) of the AISC manual.
4
5
EXAMPLE 4.1 Determine the buckling strength of a W 12 x 50 column. Its length is 20 ft.
For major axis buckling, it is pinned at both ends. For minor buckling, is it pinned at one end
and fixed at the other end.
Solution
Step I. Visualize the problem
Figure 2. (a) Cross-section; (b) major-axis buckling; (c) minor-axis buckling
 For the W12 x 50 (or any wide flange section), x is the major axis and y is the minor axis.
Major axis means axis about which it has greater moment of inertia (Ix>Iy)
Figure 3. (a) Major axis buckling; (b) minor axis buckling
6
 According to Table C-A-7.1 of the AISC Manual (see page 16.1 - 511):
- For pin-pin end conditions about the major axis
Kx = 1.0 (theoretical value); and Kx = 1.0 (recommended design value)
- For pin-fix end conditions about the minor axis
Ky = 0.7 (theoretical value); and Ky = 0.8 (recommended design value)
 According to the problem statement, the unsupported length for buckling about the major (x)
axis = Lx = 20 ft.
 The unsupported length for buckling about the minor (y) axis = Lx = 20 ft.
 Effective length for major (x) axis buckling = Kx Lx = 1.0 x 20 = 20 ft. = 240 in.
 Effective length for minor (y) axis buckling = Ky Ly = 0.8 x 20 = 16 ft. = 192 in.
Step III. Determine the relevant section properties
 For W12 x 50: elastic modulus = E = 29000 ksi (constant for all steels)
 For W12 x 50: Ix = 391 in4. Iy = 56.3 in4 (see pages 1-26 and 1-27 of the AISC manual)
Step IV. Calculate the buckling strength
2 E I x  2  29000 391
 Critical load for buckling about x - axis = Pcr-x = =
K x L x 2 2402
Pcr-x = 1942.9 kips
2 E I y  2  29000 56.3

K y L y 2
Critical load for buckling about y-axis = Pcr-y = =
1922
Pcr-y = 437.12 kips
 Buckling strength of the column = smaller (Pcr-x, Pcr-y) = Pcr = 437.12 kips
Minor (y) axis buckling governs.
 Notes:
- Minor axis buckling usually governs for all doubly symmetric cross-sections. However, for
some cases, major (x) axis buckling can govern.
- Note that the steel yield stress was irrelevant for calculating this buckling strength.
4.3 INELASTIC COLUMN BUCKLING

 Let us consider the previous example. According to our calculations Pcr = 437 kips. This Pcr
will cause a uniform stress f = Pcr/A in the cross-section
7
 For W12 x 50, A = 14.6 in2. Therefore, for Pcr = 437 kips; f = 30 ksi
The calculated value of f is within the elastic range for a 50 ksi yield stress material.
2 E I y

K y L y 2
However, if the unsupported length was only 10 ft., Pcr = would be calculated as
1748 kips, and f = 119.73 ksi.

 This value of f is ridiculous because the material will yield at 50 ksi and never develop f =
119.73 ksi. The member would yield before buckling.
 Equation (4.1) is valid only when the material everywhere in the cross-section is in the
elastic region. If the material goes inelastic then Equation (4.1) becomes useless and
cannot be used.
 What happens in the inelastic range?
Several other problems appear in the inelastic range.
- The member out-of-straightness has a significant influence on the buckling strength in the
inelastic region. It must be accounted for.
- The residual stresses in the member due to the fabrication process causes yielding in the cross-
section much before the uniform stress f reaches the yield stress Fy.
- The shape of the cross-section (W, C, etc.) also influences the buckling strength.
- In the inelastic range, the steel material can undergo strain hardening.
 So, what should we do? We will directly look at the AISC Specifications for the strength of
compression members, i.e., Chapter E (page 16.1-31 of the AISC manual).
4.4 AISC SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLUMN STRENGTH

 The AISC specifications for column design are based on several years of research.
 These specifications account for the elastic and inelastic buckling of columns including all
issues (member crookedness, residual stresses, accidental eccentricity etc.) mentioned above.
 The specification presented here (AISC Spec E3) will work for all doubly symmetric cross-
sections and channel sections.
8
 The design strength of columns for the flexural buckling limit state is equal to cPn
Where, c = 0.9 (Resistance factor for compression members)

Pn = AgFcr (4.2)
KL E Fy
- When  4.71 (or  2.25 )
r Fy Fe
 Fy

 
Fcr = 0.658 Fe  Fy (4.3)
 
 
KL E Fy
- When  4.71 (or  2.25 )
r Fy Fe
Fcr = 0.877 Fe  (4.4)
 2E
Where, Fe = 2
(4.5)
 KL 
 
 r 
Ag = gross member area; K = effective length factor

L = unbraced length of the member; r = corresponding radius of gyration
1.0
Fcr =  
Fy
0.658 Fe F
  y
Fcr/F y  
0.39 F cr = 0.877 Fe 
E KL
4.71
Fy r
2E I
 Note that the original Euler buckling equation is Pcr =
K L 2
9
Pcr  2E I  2E  2E
 Fe      r 2

Ag  K L  2 Ag  K L  2 K L
2
 
 r 
KL E
 Note that the AISC equation for  4.71 is Fcr = 0.877Fe
r Fy
- The 0.877 factor tries to account for initial crookedness.

 For a given column section:
- Calculate I, Ag, r
- Determine effective length K L based on end boundary conditions.
E
- Calculate Fe, Fy/Fe or 4.71
Fy
E
- If (KL/r) greater than 4.71 , elastic buckling occurs and use Equation (4.4)
Fy
E
- If (KL/r) is less than or equal to 4.71 , inelastic buckling occurs and use Equation (4.3)
Fy
 Note that the column can develop its yield strength Fy as (KL/r) approaches zero.
4.5 COLUMN STRENGTH

 In order to simplify calculations, the AISC specification includes Tables.
- Table 4-22 on pages 4-322 to 4-326 shows KL/r vs. cFcr for various steels.
- You can calculate KL/r for the column, then read the value of cFcr from this table
- The column strength will be equal to cFcr x Ag
EXAMPLE 4.2 Calculate the design strength of W14 x 74 with length of 20 ft. and pinned
ends. A36 steel is used.
Solution
 Step I. Calculate the effective length and slenderness ratio for the problem
Kx = Ky = 1.0
Lx = Ly = 240 in.
Major axis slenderness ratio = KxLx/rx = 240/6.04 = 39.735
10
Minor axis slenderness ratio = KyLy/ry = 240/2.48 = 96.77

 Step II. Calculate the elastic critical buckling stress
The governing slenderness ratio is the larger of (KxLx/rx, KyLy/ry)
 2E  2 * 29000
Fe   = 30.56 ksi
 KL 
2
96.772
 
 r 
Check the limits
KL E F
(  4.71 ) or ( y  2.25 )
r Fy Fe
E 29000
4.71  4.71  133.68
Fy 36
 Fy

Since
KL
 4.71
E
; 
Therefore, Fcr = 0.658 Fe  Fy
r Fy  
 
Therefore, Fcr = 21.99 ksi
Design column strength = cP n = 0.9 (AgFcr) = 0.9 (21.8 in2 x 21.99 ksi) = 431.4 kips
Design strength of column = 431 kips
 Check calculated values with Table 4-22. For KL/r = 97, cFcr = 19.7 ksi
4.6 LOCAL BUCKLING LIMIT STATE

The AISC specifications for column strength assume that column buckling is the governing
limit state. However, if the column section is made of thin (slender) plate elements, then failure
can occur due to local buckling of the flanges or the web.
11
Figure 4. Local buckling of columns

 If localbuckling of the individual plate elements occurs, then the column may not be able to
develop its buckling strength.
 Therefore, the local buckling limit state must be prevented from controlling the column
strength.
 Local buckling depends on the slenderness (width-to-thickness b/t ratio) of the plate element
and the yield stress (Fy) of the material.
 Each plate element must be stocky enough, i.e., have a b/t ratio that prevents local buckling
from governing the column strength.
 The AISC specification B4.1 (Page 16.1-14) provides the slenderness (b/t) limit that the
individual plate elements must satisfy so that local buckling does not control.
 r) for the local buckling
of plate elements.
12
Figure 5. Local buckling behavior and classification of plate elements

- r then it isslender. It will
locally buckle in the elastic range before reaching Fy
- r, then it is non-slender. It will
not locally buckle in elastic range before reaching Fy
- If any one plate element is slender, then the cross-section is slender.
 The slenderness r for various plate elements with different boundary conditions are
given in Table B4.1a on page 16.1-16 of the AISC Spec.
 r) and the definition of plate slenderness (b/t) ratio depend
upon the boundary conditions for the plate.
- If the plate is supported along two edges parallel to the direction of compression force, then it
is a stiffened element. For example, the webs of W shapes
- If the plate is supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of the compression force,
then it is an unstiffened element, e.g., the flanges of W shapes.
 The local buckling limit state can be prevented from controlling the column strength by using
sections that are nonslender.
- If all the elements of the cross-section have calculated slenderness (b/t) ratio less than r, then
the local buckling limit state will not control.
- r for various situations see Table B4.1a and Spec B4.1.
13
EXAMPLE 1.3 Determine the local buckling slenderness limit and evaluate the W14 x 74
section used in Example 4.2. Does local buckling limit the column strength?
Solution
 Step I. Calculate the slenderness limits
See Table B4.1a on page 16.1-16.
- For the flanges of I-shape sections
E 29000
r = 0.56 x = 0.56 x = 15.9
Fy 36
- For the webs of I-shapes section
E 29000
r = 1.49 x = 1.49 x = 42.3
Fy 36
 Step II. Calculate the slenderness ratios for the flanges and webs of W14 x 74
- For the flanges of I-shape member, b = bf/2 = flange width / 2
Therefore, b/t = bf/2tf.
For W 14 x 74, bf/2tf = 6.43 (See Page 1-24 in AISC)
- For the webs of I shaped member, b = h
h is the clear distance between flanges less the fillet / corner radius of each flange
For W14 x 74, h/tw = 24.17 (See Page 1-24 in AISC)
 Step III. Make the comparisons and comment

For the flanges, b/t < 𝜆r Therefore, the flange is non slender
For the webs, h/tw< 𝜆r Therefore the web is non slender
Therefore, the section is non slender.
Therefore, local buckling will not limit the column strength.
4.7 COLUMN DESIGN

 The AISC manual has tables for column strength. See page 4-12 onwards.
 For wide flange sections, the column buckling strength ( cPn) is tabulated with respect to the
effective length about the minor axis KyLy in Table 4-1.
14
- The table takes the KyLy value for a section, internally calculates the KyLy/ry, and then
calculates the tabulated column strength using either Equation E3-2 or E3-3 of the
specification.
 If you want to use the Table 4-1 for calculating the column strength for buckling about the
major axis, then do the following:
K x Lx
- Take the major axis KxLx value. Calculate an equivalent (KL)eq =
rx / ry
- Use the calculated (KL)eq value to find ( cP n ) the column strength for buckling about the
major axis from Table (4-1)
 For example, consider a W14 x 74 column with KyLy = 20 ft. and KxLx = 25 ft.
- Material has yield stress = 50 ksi (always in Table 4-1).
- See Table 4-1, for KyLy = 20 ft., cP n = 495 kips (minor axis buckling strength)
- rx/ry for W14x74 = 2.44 from Table 4-1 (see page 4-16 of AISC).
- For KxLx = 25 ft., (KL)eq = 25/2.44 = 10.25 ft.
- For (KL)eq = 10.25 ft., cP n = 819.5 kips (major axis buckling strength)
- If calculated value of (KL)eq<KyLy then minor axis buckling will govern.
EXAMPLE 4.4 Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W14 x 132 that is part of a
braced frame. Assume that the physical length L = 30 ft., the ends are pinned and the column is
braced at the ends only for the X-X axis and braced at the ends and mid-height for the Y-Y
axis.
Solution
 Step I. Calculate the effective lengths.
For W14 x 132: rx = 6.28 in; ry = 3.76 in; Ag =38.8 in2
Kx = 1.0 and Ky = 1.0
Lx = 30 ft. and Ly = 15 ft.
KxLx = 30 ft. and KyLy = 15 ft.
 Step II. Determine the governing slenderness ratio
KxLx/rx = 30 x 12 in. /6.28 in. = 57.32
KyLy/ry = 15 x 12 in./3.76 in. = 47.87
15
The larger slenderness ratio, therefore, buckling about the major axis will govern the column
strength.
 Step III. Calculate the column strength
K x Lx 30
KxLx = 30 ft. Therefore, (KL)eq = = = 17.96 ft.
rx / ry 6.28 / 3.76
From Table 4-1, for (KL)eq = 18.0 ft. cPn = 1370 kips (design column strength)
 Step IV. Check the local buckling limits
E
For the flanges, bf/2tf = 7.14 < 𝜆r = 0.56 x = 13.5
Fy
E
For the web, h/tw = 15.5 < 𝜆r = 1.49 x = 35.9
Fy
Therefore, the section is non slender. OK.
EXAMPLE 4.5 A compression member is subjected to service loads of 165 kips dead load
and 535 kips of live load. The member is 26 ft. long and pinned at each end. Use A992 (50 ksi)
steel and select a W shape
Solution
 Calculate the factored design load Pu
Pu = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL = 1.2 x 165 + 1.6 x 535 = 1054 kips
 Select a W shape from the AISC manual Tables

For KyLy = 26 ft. and required strength = 1054 kips
- Select W14 x 145 from page 4-15. It has cP n = 1230 kips
- Select W12 x 170 from page 4-18. It has cP n = 1130 kips
- No W10 will work. See Page 4-21
- W14 x 145 is the lightest.
 Note that column sections are usually W12 or W14. Usually sections bigger than W14 are
usually not used as columns.
16
Note the following for conversion between imperial and metric units.
1 kip = 4.4482N
1 kips = 0.0044482 kN
1 kip/in.2 = 0.006895 MPa
1 lb/ft3 = 0.1571 kN/m3
1 lb/in.2 = 0.006895 MPa
1 kip/ft = 14.59 kN/m
1kip = 1000 lbf
ksi = kips per square inch

ksf = kips per square foot
1 ksi = 6894800 Pa
1 ksi = 6894.8 kPa
1ksf = 47880 Pa
1ksf = 47.88 kPa
I ft = 304.8mm
1ft = 0.3048m
1 in = 25.4mm
1 in = 0.0254
17
5.0 CONNECTION DESIGN
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Steel sections are manufactured and shipped to some standard lengths, as governed by
rolling, transportation and handling restrictions. However, most of the steel structural
members used in structures have to span great lengths and enclose large three-
dimensional spaces. Hence c o n n e c t i o n s ar e n e c e s s a r y t o s yn t h e s i z e s u c h
s p a t i a l structures from one- and two-dimensional elements and also to bring about
stability of structures under different loads. Thus, connections are essential to create an
integral steel structure using discrete linear and two-dimensional (plate) elements.
A structure is only as strong as its weakest link. Unless properly designed, the
connections joining the members may be weaker than the members being joined. However,
it is desirable to avoid connection failure before member failure for the following reasons:
• To achieve an economical design, usually it is important that the connections

develop the full strength of the members.
• Usually connection failure is not as ductile as that of steel member failure. Hence it is
desirable to avoid connection failure before the member failure.
Therefore, design of connections is an integral and important part of design of steel

structures. They are also critical components of steel structures, since
• They have the potential for greater variability in behaviour and strength,
• They are more complex to design than members, and
• They are usually the most vulnerable components, failure of which may lead to the
failure of the whole structure.
Thus designing for adequacy in strength, stiffness and ductility of connections will ensure
deflection control during service load and larger deflection and ductile failure under over-
load. Hence, a good understanding of the behaviour and design of joints and connections
in steel structures is an important pre-requisite for any good design engineer. This chapter
gives an overview of the design of connections in steel structures. The following five
chapters deal with bolted and welded connections in greater detail.
2.0 COMPLEXITIES OF STEEL CONNECTIONS
Margins of safety of any design, in particular that of connection, involves uncertainty due
to random nature of (a) the forces acting on the structure and (b) the actual strength of the
joint designed.
18
The randomness of the loads has been discussed in an earlier chapter; that of the actual
strength is due to the variability of the dimensions of the elements and that of the strength
of constituent material as well as errors due to simplification in analysis and design.
The reasons for the high uncertainty and complexity of the connection are:
 Complexity of connection geometry

 Geometric imperfections
 Residual stresses and strains
2.1 Complexity of connection geometry
The geometry of connections is usually more complex than that of the members being
joined (Fig.1). The stress analysis of the joint is complicated by the (locally) highly
indeterminate nature of the joint, non-linear nature of the behavior due to lack of fit,
local yielding etc. and stress concentration due to discontinuity in elements around bolt
holes and weld profiles.
Bo
Colu lts Bracket
Tee
mn
Beam
Angle Flange Plate
Stiffener
(a) Bolted Connection (b) Welded Connection
19
Fig. 1 Complex Beam to Column Connections

2.2 Geometric imperfections
The following factors contribute to the geometric imperfections in connection:
• Bow in the beam or column as rolled

• Lack of fit in black bolts in clearance holes
• Gaps in the connecting plate and the surface of the member to be connected to, due to
fabrication errors, welding distortions, and tolerances allowed for ease of fabrication and
erection
2.3 Residual Stresses and Strains
Residual stresses and strains are inherent features of steel joints due to differential
cooling after the hot rolling, gas cutting and welding stages. The residual stresses cause
premature local yielding and the residual strains cause distortions and lack of fit.
3.0 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
Connections are normally made either by bolting or welding. Bolting is common in field
connections, since it is simple and economical to make. Bolting is also regarded as being
more appropriate in field connections from considerations of safety. However, welded
connections, which are easier to make and are more efficient, are usually resorted to in
shop fabrications.
3.1 Bolted Connections
Two types of bolts are used in bolted connection. The most common type is bearing bolts
in clearance holes, often referred to as ordinary bolts or black bolts. They are popular
since they are economical, both in terms of material and installation costs.
The force transfer mechanism under shear is as shown in Fig. 2(a). The force is
transferred by bearing between the plate and bolts at the bolt holes. The bolts experience
single or double shear depending upon the plate configuration. The failure may be either
by shearing of the bolts or bearing of the plate and the bolt.
20
The main disadvantage of bearing type of bolted connections is that the elements
undergo some slip even under a small shear, before being able to transfer force by
bearing. This is due to clearance between the bolts and the holes. Such a slip causes
increased flexibility in the lower ranges of load and unexpected joint behavior in some
situations. In such cases high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts are used.
In HSFG bolted joints, high strength bolts (8G or 10K grade) are pre-tensioned against
the plates to be bolted together, so that contact pressure is developed between the plates
being joined [Fig. 2(b)]. When external shear force is applied, the frictional resistance to
slip between the plates prevents their relative slip. These bolted joints achieve higher
stiffness in shear because of frictional resistance between the contact surfaces. Only
when the externally applied force exceeds the frictional resistance between the plates, the
plates slip and the bolts bear against the bolt holes. Thus even after slip, there is a reserve
strength due to bearing.
The HSFG bolts are expensive both from material and installation points of view. They
require skilled labour and effective supervision. Due to their efficient force transfer
mechanism they have become very popular recently. Moreover, their performance is
superior under cyclic loading compared to other forms of jointing. This is discussed
later.
3.2 Welded Connections
Welded connections are direct and efficient means of transferring forces from one
member to the adjacent member. Welded connections are generally made by melting
21
base metal from parts to be joined with weld metal, which upon cooling form the
connection. The welded connections in a majority of the cases may be categorised as
fillet weld or butt (or groove) welds as shown in Fig. 3.
Fillet welds, as shown in Fig. 3(a), are made against two surfaces of adjacent plates to
join them together. The merits of the fillet welds are:
• no prior edge preparation is necessary,

• simple, fast and economical to make, and
• does not require very skilled labor.
The demerits of fillet welds are:
• not appropriate to transfer forces large in magnitude,

• poorer performance under fatigue loading, and
• less attractive in appearance.
Butt welds, as shown in Fig. 3(b), are made by butting plate surfaces against one another
and filling the gap between contact surfaces with weld metal, in the process fusing the
base metal also together. In order to ensure full penetration of the weld metal, normally
the contact surfaces are cambered to obtain gap for the weld metal to flow easily.
Edge preparation
(b) Butt welds

(a) Fillet Welds
22
Fig. 3 Typical welded Connections
The merits of butt welds are:
• easily designed and fabricated to be as strong as the member,

• better fatigue characteristics, compared to fillet welds,
• better appearance, compared to fillet welds, and
• easy to detail and the length of the connection is considerably
reduced. The demerits of the butt welds are:
• more expensive than fillet welds because of the edge preparation required, and
• require more skilled manpower, than that required for filled welds.
3.3 Riveted Joints
Riveted joints are very rare in modern steel construction practice. The behavior and
design of riveted connections are very similar to bearing type of bolted constructions. Since
structural rivets are driven hot, the rivet shank expands to fill the hole while being driven.
Hence, while calculating rivet strength, the hole diameter and not the nominal rivet
diameter is used. Due to this, the slip in riveted joints is less than in bearing type of bolted
joint. Further, in the process of cooling, the rivet shank length reduces, thereby causing
some clamping force, as in HSFG.
Riveting has been traditionally limited to railway bridges in India. However, with the
introduction of HSFG bolts, which are better suited under cyclic loading than rivets, their
use is discontinued even in railway bridges in most countries.
3.4 Moment Resisting Connections
Moment resisting connections between beams and columns in multistoried buildings are
very common. These connections may be made using bolting or welding. Depending
upon the type of joining method and elements used to make the joint, the flexibility of the
joint may vary from hinged to rigid joint condition. The moment at the joint, M, may
vary between rigid joint moment, Mr [Fig. 4(a)], and zero value [Fig. 4(b)] and the
relative rotation between members at the joint, θ, may vary between zero [Fig. 4(a)] and
hinged joint rotation, θh [Fig. 4(b)].
23
>90ο
Mr θh
(a) Rigid Joint (b) Hinged Joint (c) Semi-rigid

Joint
Fig. 4 Types of Beam to Column Joints
Moment
Rigid joint
Mr
Semi-rigid joint
Hinged joint
θh Rotation
Fig. 5 Moment Versus Joint Rotation
24
In practice the joints are neither ideally hinged nor ideally rigid. In fact all the joints
exhibit some relative rotation between members being joined [Fig. 4(c)]. This is due to
the deformation of elements in the joint. The moment versus relative joint rotation of
different types of connections is shown in Fig. 5. Any joint developing more than 90 %
of the ideal rigid joint moment is classified as rigid and similarly any joint exhibiting less
than 10 % of the ideal rigid joint moment is classified as hinged joint; and the joint
developing moments and rotations in between are referred as semi-rigid. Based on test
results and theoretical studies, moment rotation relationship for different standard
connections exhibiting semi-rigid behaviour has been presented in literature.
4.0 CONNECTION DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Traditional methods of analysis of connection stresses were based on the following

assumptions:
• Connected parts are rigid compared to connectors themselves and hence their
deformations may be ignored
• Connectors behave in a linear-elastic manner until failure.
• Connectors have unlimited ductility.
However, in reality, connected parts such as end plates, angles etc. are flexible and
deform even at low load levels. Further, their behavior is highly non-linear due to slip,
lack of fit, material non-linearity and residual stresses. Ductility of welds in some
orientation with respect to direction of loads may be very limited, (e.g. Transverse fillet
welds)
Even though truss joints are assumed to be hinged the detailing using gusset plates and
multiple fastener and welding does not represent hinged condition. However, in practice
the secondary moment associated with such a rigid joint is disregarded unless the loading
is cyclic.
The complexity and variability in strength of connections require a rational design

philosophy to account for their behavior. Keeping in view the large number of joints to be
normally designed in a structure and the considerable variability in the design strength, any
sophisticated analysis is neither desirable nor warranted. The design should ensure that
equilibrium is satisfied, slenderness of the elements is consistent with the ductility demand
and the deleterious effects of stress concentration on fatigue strength is considered
in cyclically loaded structures. The following approach is consistent with connection
design requirements in most general cases encountered in practice in statically loaded
systems.
The steps to be followed in the proposed rational design approach are enumerated
initially. These are illustrated using a simple framing angle connection between a beam
and a column of a framed building designed to transfer a shear force of V, as shown in
Fig. 6.
25
4.1 Steps in Transfer of Member Forces to Joints
Overall connection behavior should be clearly understood in order to effectively and

efficiently design connections following simple procedure, such as the one discussed below.
To start with, the stress resultants (moment, shear, torsion, axial force etc.) transmitted by
the members to be joined are to be determined. Normally analysis for forces is carried
out using a model wherein members are represented by their centroidal line. Thus the
calculated forces in the joints are at the intersection of centroidal line of members meeting
at the joint. Therefore the effect of the size of the joint in reducing the design forces to
correspond to that at the face of the joints, if substantial, has to be considered. The force
resultants thus obtained should be replaced by an equivalent system of forces on the
elements of the joint. In carrying out this replacement by an equivalent system of forces in
the joint elements, the following are to be considered.
 The distribution of forces in the elements being connected is considered first. (For
example, in the case of a beam, major proportion of the bending moment is carried by the
flanges and the major proportion of shear force is carried by the web. Hence, the
equivalent forces may be assumed to act on the corresponding elements at the interface).
 The equivalent system of forces should be consistent with the flexibility of the joint.
For example plate elements are stiffer in resisting forces acting in their plane than in
resisting forces normal to the plane. Hence most of the forces acting at a junction would be
transferred to the plate in the plane of the force and little is transferred to a plate
perpendicular to the force.
 Equivalent system of forces should be in equilibrium with the external force resultants and
also in equilibrium with the joint as a whole.
In the framing angle joint shown in Fig. 6, the shear from the beam web acts eccentric
with respect to reaction from the column flange causes couple. The framing angle leg
connected to the column is weak in resisting any moment normal to the plane of the leg.
Hence the moment at this flange connection may be assumed be negligible and only the
shear force, V, may be assumed to be acting on the leg connected to the column flange. In
the framing angle connection with the web of the beam, the forces act in the plane of the
framing angle and in the plane of web of the beam. Hence both shear and the moment to
equilibrate the couple due to eccentricity of shear in the framing angle can be resisted by
this connection.
4.2 Determination of Force flow in the joint
Once the equivalent forces in the interface elements are obtained, the flow path of the forces
through the elements in the joint is to be established by using equilibrium and simplifying
assumptions regarding the force sharing, based on their relative stiffness as discussed
earlier. At each stage, each element in the force flow path should be checked to ensure
that they have
26
(a) Adequate strength to withstand the force and
(b) adequate ductility to redistribute the forces to parallel elements in case of overload.
The strength and ductility evaluation is to be done for all component plates in the force path
as well as all the joining elements such as bolts and welds.
As mentioned earlier the distribution of forces to different elements in the joints is complex
due to highly indeterminate interaction of different element. Hence in practical joint design,
the force flow analysis is based on simplifying assumptions with regard to sharing of forces.
These assumptions may be at variance with the actual stresses in the elastic range. Hence it
is important that adequate ductility is exhibited by all elements to redistribute the forces
among alternate elements in case of over-load. This step in the framing angle joint
example in Fig. 6(a) is illustrated in Fig. 6(b), in the form of free body diagram of all
the elements and the force flow in the elements, while satisfying equilibrium.
Using these free body diagrams, the stresses/forces in the elements in the joint can be
evaluated and compared with their respective strength, as given below:
• The bolts are assumed to share the shear force equally. Due to misfit and clearance
between the bolts and the holes, in the elastic range, this need not be true. However, as
long as the bolts behave in a ductile fashion, the assumption of equal sharing of shear by
bolts is valid, before failure, due to plastification.
• The framing angle experiences shear and bending due to the eccentricity of the shear
load. The section with holes corresponding to the bolts connecting framing angle to the
beam web is the critical section, since this section experiences shear and moment.
The “Strength of Materials” approach to calculate shear and bending stresses is not strictly
appropriate here due to the deep beam nature of the bending behavior of angle leg.
Nevertheless, usually stresses in the framing angle are calculated based on “Strength of
the Materials” concepts, due to very small value of these stresses. These stresses are usually
very nominal and hence frequently need not be checked.
Bolts connecting framing angle with the beam web are subjected to the same shear force
and moment in the angle legs. This is an eccentric bolted connection. The vertical shear
and horizontal shear in the bolts due to the shear force and moment, respectively, are
calculated and the resultant shear in the bolt is evaluated. This again is based on the rigid
angle and flexible bolt assumption and the method of superposition. The maximum
resultant shear force in the bolt has to be checked against the shear strength of the bolt.
The stresses in beam web and column flange can be checked at the location of bolt force
transfer, by following block shear method at critical sections as shown in Fig. 6(b). Usually
these stresses would be very nominal.
27
5.0 BEHAVIOUR OF ELEMENTS IN CONNECTIONS
Many local elements such as end plates, framing angles, stiffeners are used in a
connection design. These elements on the load path have to perform the function of
transferring forces imposed upon them. Frequently forces are distributed somewhat
arbitrarily between parallel elements in the load path. In order to redistribute the loads as
assumed and in order to avoid sudden failure, these elements have to behave in a ductile
fashion in case of overloading.
5.1 Distribution of Forces in Elements
The joints are locally complex and theoretically exact calculation of element force/stress
is a highly indeterminate analysis problem, making exact analysis of a joint impractical in
day-to-day design. Theoretically exact analysis methods and experimental studies are
used for research to develop a better understanding of the force flow and simplified
connection design procedures. One often makes simplifying assumptions consistent with
the internal behaviour of the elements and relies heavily on ductility to redistribute over-
load on any element. This process requires a good understanding of the following:
• Free body diagram and equilibrium analysis of elements in the load transfer path,
• Relative stiffness of elements in the load transfer path, and
• Ductility demand on the elements and the consequent slenderness limitation.
The simplified analysis steps are illustrated through a few examples. Let us consider an
interior beam to column moment resisting connection of a frame, as shown in Fig. 7. It is
seen that shear and bending moment should be transferred from the beams to the column
as shown. We know that a major portion of the bending moment in a beam is transferred
through bending stresses in flanges and a major portion of the shear force in the beam is
transferred through shear stress in the web, as shown. Equal and opposite forces act on
the column flanges, as shown in Fig. 7.
The concentrated beam flange forces (C and T) have to be transferred as shear to the
column web, since the column web plate is the stiff element in that plane in the load path.
The transfer to the column web is through column flanges, which may cause excessive
bending of column flanges and excessive bearing in the column web flange junction. In
order to overcome this, we often use stiffener plates, S1 and S2 as shown.
28
S1 T
C
T S2 C
Fig. 7 Elements in Connections
The forces T and C may be either assumed to be fully transferred by the stiffeners
provided or the balance force in excess of the bearing capacity of the web and bending
capacity of the flange may be assumed as the design force in the stiffeners. The
assumption made dictates the ductility requirement of the stiffener. If the entire force is
assumed to be transferred by the stiffener, the actual force in the stiffener in the elastic
range will be less than this and hence only semi-compact design requirement with regard
to the b/t ratio has to be satisfied by the stiffener (see chapter on plate buckling), since it
needs only to carry the load without local buckling.
If, however, the stiffener is designed for forces in excess of the capacity of the flange and
web of the column, the design force on the stiffener is usually an underestimation of the
actual force experienced by it in the elastic range. This is due to the higher rigidity of the
stiffener compared to the column flanges. Consequently, the stiffener should deform
plastically on over-loading so that the load on stiffener, in excess of what it has been
designed for, can be redistributed. Hence stiffeners should not only sustain the force but
also plastically deform (adequate ductility is needed) in order to redistribute the force and
hence the slenderness of the stiffener should meet the compact plate element requirement
(see the chapter on plate buckling).
The unbalanced beam moment transferred by the beam to the column at the junction causes
shear (V = C+T in Fig. 7), locally at the joint in the column web. This may be in
excess of shear capacity of the column web. Hence the column web may have to be
locally thickened or provided with a diagonal stiffener, as shown in Fig. 7. Further, the
welds between the stiffeners and the column flange should be sufficiently large so that they
remain elastic during the plastic deformation of the stiffener, discussed earlier.
The shear from the beam is directly transferred to column B through column flanges, as
an additional axial compression. Thus, all the elements in the force transfer path across
the joint should be ensured to have adequate strength, stiffness and ductility, to perform
the function based on rational simplifying assumptions.
29
6.0 COST OF CONNECTIONS
Usually cost of fabrication and erection constitute as high as 50% of the total cost of steel
structures, per tonne of material used. Hence, designers of connections have a great
responsibility in reducing the overall cost of steel structures.
Factors affecting design cost:
Important factors affecting connection design costs are discussed below:
• Connection design takes up a significant part of the overall design cost of steel
structures and decisions made at this stage considerably influence the fabrication and
erection costs.
• The connection designs should be done using simple and standard cases, so that using
design tables, connections can be designed and detailed rapidly. Such tables considerably
reduce repetitive calculations, improve accuracy and speedup fabrication.
Factors affecting fabrication/erection costs:
Important factors in improving productivity, decreasing cost of fabrication and erection

of connection work are discussed below:
• Repetitive use of standard detail
The repetitive use of standard details spread the cost of learning, cost of setup, cost of
templates etc. over a large number of products/components to be fabricated, thus
reducing the cost and time required for fabrication. Special, complicated and precise
fitting details should be avoided or minimized.
• Ease of joining
The detail should provide easy access to welding and bolting. The positioning of
members should be simplified with temporary supports to facilitate quick release of the
handling equipment, ease of adjustment and alignment and quick joining.
30
• Appropriate mix of automatic and manual fabrication
The productivity of numerically controlled automatic machineries (NC machines), and

continuous submerged arc welding is very high compared to manual methods. The quality
is usually superior. However, their setup costs are high. Hence, automatic fabrication
methods are appropriate in large volume jobs. For example, a large number of framing
angles can be cut and drilled to the same part detail using NC machines and long continuous
fillet weld between plate girder web and flange can be done using an automatic submerged
welding machine, economically. In the Indian market such machines are not widely
available. Most fabrication shops still work with outdated equipment and require capital
equipment infusement to bring about efficiency and economy in shop fabrication and
erection.
Manual methods take less setup time and unit time costs are low, but productivity and
quality are also low. Hence the manual methods are appropriate in fabricating a smaller
number of elements or in shorter welds, such as web stiffener welding.
• Choice of connection method
Generally welded connections are more direct and more efficient, but require more
elaborate preparation and machinery compared to bolted connection. This has generally
led to the use of welding in shop and on ground field connections and the use of bolting
at the erection connections.
There are exceptions to this general tendency. For example, if only a few angle trusses
are to be fabricated, then pre-drilling of the members in shop, based on theoretical
calculations of geometry of members and connection sizes and site assembly
subsequently by bolting would be economical compared to laying the truss out and aligning
the members appropriately and welding them together on ground. On the other hand,
welded fabrication may be economical in the case of a large number of trusses fabricated
to the same detail, wherein the higher cost incurred for templates, layout and welding are
spread over the larger number of units to be fabricated.
• Choice of shop versus site fabrication
Shop fabrication is faster, cheaper, has better quality and higher productivity. In India,
the cost advantage of shop fabrication is partly offset by differential excise duty rates
between the shop and site fabricated components, as well as low productivity equipment
and process used in shop practices.
Transportation cost also dictates the economy of shop fabrication. The transportation
cost is governed by distance to be transported, weight and volume of component to be
transported. Instead of transporting a very long girder from a shop, it can be shop
fabricated in shorter segments and joined at field using bolting or welding, to achieve
greater economy. Fittings such as framing angles can be pre-attached to one of the
31
members being joined (say the web of beam) at shop using welding and
connected at field to the other member by bolting.
• Other Factors
Difficult connection details cause difficulty in understanding and execution

at site. This may lead to frustration, carelessness, poor quality connections,
and also mistakes leading to delay, cost of repair and failure. Prefabricated
units to be connected at site should be of nearly uniform weight so that
handling capacity of the cranes is fully utilized, improving the productivity
of the handling equipment available.
HSFG bolted connections involve higher material cost, more skilled

labour, more complex equipment, higher level of inspection, when
compared to ordinary bolts. Hence its use should be restricted to special
situations such as high forces and fatigue environment. Otherwise, at site,
black bolts in clearance holes are preferred. Usually, the same grade of bolt
and only a few standard sizes should be used at site, in order to reduce
complexity of erection, maintenance of inventory of different size bolts and
mistakes in connection.
SUMMARY
Sound connection design is essential for safety and economy of steel

structures. Economical connection designs mostly take into account
practicalities of fabrication and erection. True behaviour of connections is
complex, variable and very difficult to analyse exactly. However, the
connection design should be simple and straightforward, based on a clear
understanding of the load transfer path, the effect of stiffness of elements
in the path on the force distributed to the elements in the connection and
the effect of ductility on the connection behaviour. The detailing of
connection should be simple and be based on repetitive use of standard
practices to facilitate ease of fabrication and erection, thus accure speed and
economy to the project.
FOUNDATION
Foundations are classified as shallow and deep foundations. Types of

foundations under shallow and deep foundations for building construction and
their uses are discussed.
It is advisable to know suitability of each types of foundation before their

selection in any construction project.
Types of Foundation and their Uses

Following are different types of foundations used in construction:
1. Shallow foundation
1. Individual footing or isolated footing
2. Combined footing
3. Strip foundation
4. Raft or mat foundation
Types of Shallow Foundations
1. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation
used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column
and also called as pad foundation.
The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads
from structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on
the column and safe bearing capacity of soil.
Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences

moments due to eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces.
For example, Consider a column with vertical load of 200 kN and safe bearing
capacity of 100 kN/m2 then the area of the footing required will be 200/100 =
2m2. So, for a square footing, length and width of footing will be 1.414 m x
1.414 m.
2. Combined Footing
Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough
and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated
footings, but their structural design differs.
The shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure is
carried by the columns.
3. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings

Spread footings are those whose base is wider than a typical load bearing wall
foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the
building structure over more area and provides better stability.
Fig: Spread Footing

Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and
bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground
surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the
structure over the base area of the structure.
These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow
of water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.
4. Raft or Mat Foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the
entire area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and
walls.
Fig: Mat Foundation

The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads
from structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent
differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or
combined footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure.
It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of
spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half
area of the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are
provided.
These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above the
bearing surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may lead to
scour and liquefaction.
Deep Foundation
Deep foundation is required to carry loads from a structure through weak

compressible soils or fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at
depth, or for functional reasons. Deep foundations are founded too deeply below
the finished ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by
surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level.
Deep foundation can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent
strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
Types of Deep Foundation
The types of deep foundations in general use are as follows:
1. Basements
2. Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)
3. Caissons
4. Cylinders
5. Shaft foundations
6. Pile foundations
1. Basement foundation
These are hollow substructures designed to provide working or storage space
below ground level. The structural design is governed by their functional
requirements rather than from considerations of the most efficient method of
resisting external earth and hydrostatic pressures. They are constructed in place
in open excavations.
2. Buoyancy Rafts (Hollow Box Foundations)

Buoyancy rafts are hollow substructures designed to provide a buoyant or semi-
buoyant substructure beneath which the net loading on the soil is reduced to the
desired low intensity. Buoyancy rafts can be designed to be sunk as caissons,
they can also be constructed in place in open excavations.
3. Caissons Foundations
Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the
surface and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.
Caissons foundations
4. Cylinders
Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.
5. Drilled Shaft foundations

Shaft foundations are constructed within deep excavations supported by lining
constructed in place and subsequently filled with concrete or other pre-fabricated
load-bearing units.
6.0 Pile foundations
Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by driving
preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or drilling-in tubes to
the required depth – the tubes being filled with concrete before or during
withdrawal or by drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined boreholes which are
then filled with concrete.
Pile foundation spacing and skin friction in a pile group decides the design of
pile foundation, its efficiency and capacity in any construction. The main
purpose of a pile foundation is to let the transfer of load through weak soil strata
(soil strata with poor bearing capacity).
The pile foundation is found to be an economical choice when soil strata at a

reasonable depth is weak. The ending of the pile foundation must reach into
strata that gain adequate bearing capacity. Depending upon the condition, a
cluster of piles can be inserted to improve the bearing capacity.
The piles are also employed in areas where the load must be transmitted by
certain frictional resistance over the depth by means of skin friction with the
surrounding soil. This offers adequate shear resistance.
Pile foundation also helps in avoiding the construction of cofferdams for

supporting piers in water. Here the pile will carry the load to an appreciable
supporting medium below a considerable depth of the water.
The piles that are driven at an angle are called as raker piles. These are used to
resist the inclined forces. The inclined forces are the effect of horizontal thrust.
Those piles that transfer the load to or through an underlying stratum by means
of friction is called the friction pile. Here one of the embedded surfaces is the
pile surface.
End bearing piles are piles that transfer the load to the lower stratum. Specially
designed piles will transmit the load by both the means.
Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is
influenced by the spacing between the piles.
Piles are driven generally in groups in regular pattern to support the structural
loads. The structural load is applied to the pile cap that distributes the load to
individual piles. If piles are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of
pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles. However, if the
spacing between piles is too close, the zones of stress around the pile will overlap
and the ultimate load of the group is less than the sum of the individual pile
capacities specially in the case of friction piles, where the efficiency of pile
group is much less.
Group action of piles is evaluated by considering the piles to fail as a unit around
the perimeter of the group. Both end bearing and friction piles are considered in
evaluating the group capacity. End bearing pile is evaluated by considering the
area enclosed by the perimeter of piles as the area of footing located at a depth
corresponding to the elevation of pile tips. The friction component of pile
support is evaluated by considering the friction that can be mobilized around the
perimeter of the pile group over the length of the piles as shown in figure below:
Pile group capacity, Q = q0 X B2 + 4 X B X L X f (Square)

Where, Q = ultimate capacity of pile group
q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B2 (B = size of pile group)

L = Length of pile
f = shear resistance
Efficiency of Pile Group:
The efficiency of pile group depends on the following factors:
1. Spacing of piles
2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and
3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)
The reduction in total bearing value of group of piles is more in case of friction
piles, particularly in clayey soils. No reduction in grouping occurs in end bearing
piles. The pile groups which are resisting the load by combined action of friction
and end bearing, only the load carrying capacity of friction is reduced. The
efficiency of the pile group can be calculated by using the following formula:
Thus, the pile group efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile in
the group at which the failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable single
pile.
Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse – Lebarre

formula:
Where m = number of rows
n = number of piles in a row
in degrees
d = diameter of pile end
s = spacing of piles.
Generally center to center spacing between piles in a group is kept between 2.5 d
and 3.5d where d is the diameter of the pile.
PILES AND PILE CAPS
When the bearing capacity of soil immediately below the structure is insufficient
for a spread footing, then piles are used to transfer the load to deeper, firmer
strata. Piles may also be used where the soil is particularly affected by seasonal
changes, to transfer the load below the level of such influence.
The load carrying (bearing) capacity of a pile is the sum of the end bearing
capacity and the skin friction capacity between the peripheral area of the pile and
the surrounding soil. The contribution of each differs widely depending on the
ground conditions. For example, the skin friction resistance in sandy soils is
small compared to clayey soils.
Usually, the load to be supported exceeds the bearing capacity of a single pile,
and so a group of similar piles is used.
The group is capped by a spread footing or a cap to distribute the load to all piles
in the group. Where there are a large number of closely spaced piles, rather than
provide individual caps, it may be more economical to provide just one large cap,
thus forming a piled raft.
Suitability of Pile Foundation in Construction
The pile foundation is generally employed in the following type of soil strata:
1. Area with compact or hard stratum, underlying soil is soft material, sand or
clay
2. The area with clayey soil with soft stratum overlying the firm layer. Here
the open foundations lead to high settlement
3. Dense or stiff soil with soft clay overlaid. Here the open foundations can be
spaced closely to reduce the pressure that is transmitted to the soft layer
4. Alternative layers of clay- soft layer and thick in nature
5. Sandy strata with high water table. This brings difficulty for excavation
Spacing of Pile Foundation in Pile Group Construction
The piles must be arranged in such a way that the force exerted by one of the
piles on the other is least. In the case of friction piles, this factor is very
important. This is because the soil surrounding the piles are in a stressed
condition. This force exertion will affect the frictional resisting capacity of the
neighboring piles.
The influence lines of a cluster of piles on the surrounding ground are shown in
the figure-1. The lines show the stress intensities at a point. More the distance
from the pile edge surface, lesser is the stress intensities. So, this provides an
idea on the minimum spacing that must be provided between the two piles.
Fig.1: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of

End Bearing Piles
Fig.2: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of

Friction Piles
For the convenience of driving and to provide adjustments for any error during
the placement or the problems due to the coming out of the pile from the plumb
causing the piles to come closer, provision of minimum spacing is employed in
the case of point bearing piles. The Indian code IS 2911 have given a proper
explanation on this note.
In the case of friction piles, the spacing must be such a way that the zone of the
influence lines on the surrounding soil must not overlap each other. This will
hence reduce the bearing values and reduce the settlement. It is hence mentioned
that the minimum spacing should not be less than the diagonal dimension or the
diameter of the pile.
The end bearing piles that are used in compressible soils must be spaced at a
minimum of 2.5d and a spacing of 3.5d(Maximum)for those piles placed on less
compressible or stiff clay soil.
The Indian Road Congress specifies a minimum spacing of 3d or a distance equal

to pile perimeter for the friction piles. In the case of end bearing piles, the space
between the piles that are placed adjacent must not be less than least width of the
pile.
The spacing of piles as per the practice followed in the UK are based on the
following formulae:
End bearing piles: Spacing S = 2.5d + 0.02L
Cohesion Piles: Spacing S = 3.5d + 0.02L

Here d is the diameter of the pile and L is its length. The standard also stipulates
for pile capacity till 300 kN, the distance from the edge of the pile to the pile
stem must be 100mm. For higher capacities, the mentioned distance must be
150mm.
Maximum Pile Foundation Spacing

The Maximum pile spacing should be decided by considering two factors:
o The design of pile cap
o Overturning Moments
The pile cap will be heavier with increase in the spacing between the piles. So,
while choosing the spacing of the piles, pile cap design should also be evaluated.
The stability of the whole pile cluster against the action of the overturning
moment must be evaluated along with the spacing of the piles.
Soil Friction Factors for Pile Foundation

The skin friction factors help in the preliminary estimation of the pile capacity.
The value of the soil friction factor varies from driven to bored piles. This factor
can be used only for preliminary calculations.
Before a final decision is taken, a full-scale load test must be carried out. The
table-1 shows the approximate skin friction factors in saturated clay. Here Ro is
the consolidation ratio.
Table.1: Skin Friction Factors of Saturated Clay

Pile Clay Driven Over Over
Length in Piles Normally Consolidated Consolidated
meters Consolidated Clay- Driven Pile Clay- Bored Pile
20 0.3 0.3 0.15
40 0.2 0.2 0.1
60 0.15 0.15 0.08
Design of Pile Cap

A pile cap is the mat that rests on groups of piles and forms part of the
foundation. The pile cap design, shape, and dimensions are discussed here.
Shape and Size of Pile Caps

The shape and plan dimensions of the pile cap depends on the number of piles in
the group and the spacing between each pile. The most common shapes of pile
caps are shown in figure below.
Fig.: Triangular Pile Cap for 3 piles

Fig.: Hexagonal pile cap for 6 to 7 piles
Fig.: Rectangular pile cap for all other number of piles

\
These pile cap shapes minimize the plan area for a symmetrical arrangement of
piles about the load.
The pile cap should overhang the outer piles by at least 150mm but should not be
excessive, generally not more than the diameter of the pile diameter.
This minimizes the plan area and thus the cost, while providing sufficient length
to:
o Anchor the tension reinforcement with a large radius bend
o Ensure adequate cover to the reinforcement
o Satisfy construction tolerances.

Depth of Pile Cap:

The depth of pile cap is governed by the following criteria, where applicable:
o Shear capacity of pile cap (beam and punching shear)
o Shrinkage and swelling of clay
o Frost attacks
o Pile anchorage
o Water table and soluble sulphates
o Holding down bolt assemblies for steel columns

From the criteria above, shear is the most critical criteria for selection of depth of
pile cap.
Generally, a pile cap is much deeper than a pad footing of similar dimensions,
because it is subjected to much higher concentrated reactions, and consequently
to much higher bending moments and shear forces.
However, the increased depth gives the pile cap greater rigidity which is
advantageous in spreading the load evenly to all piles.
The Federation of Piling Specialists recommend the following most

effective pile cap depths for a range of pile diameters as shown in table below:
Table: Pile cap depth for different pile diameters

Pile Diameters (mm) Depth of Pile Cap (mm)
300 700
350 800
400 900
450 1000
500 1100
550 1200
600 1400
750 1800
Load on piles
Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support load imposed
on them. Vertical piles can be designed to carry vertical loads as well as lateral
loads. If required, vertical piles can be combined with raking piles to support
horizontal and vertical forces.
Often, if a pile group is subjected to vertical force, then the calculation of load
distribution on single pile that is member of the group is assumed to be the total
load divided by the number of piles in the group. However if a group of piles is
subjected to lateral load or eccentric vertical load or combination of vertical and
lateral load which can cause moment force on the group which should be taken
into account during calculation of load distribution.
Piles arrangement
Normally, piles foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap
distributes the applied load to the individual piles which, in turn,. Transfer the
load to the bearing ground. The individual piles are spaced and connected to the
pile cap or tie beams and trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure at
cut-off level, and depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load,
they can be arranged in different patterns. Figure bellow illustrates the three
basic formations of pile groups.
b) PILE GROUP c) SYMMETRICALLY

a) PILE GROUP
CONSIST OF BOTH ARRANGED
CONSIST OF ONLY
VERTICAL AND VERTICAL AND
VERTICAL PILES
RAKING PILES RAKING PILES
Q = Vertically applied load

H = Horizontally applied load
The Pile load capacity calculation will determine the ultimate load the pile
foundation can take under service load condition. This capacity is also called as
bearing capacity of piles.
The piles installed can be a single pile or group piles. Hence the load calculation
for a single pile and group pile will be different. This is done for given load
condition or for the size of foundation.
Here the load carrying capacity calculation for both single piles and group piles.
Single Pile Load Capacity Calculation

Here the vertical load and the horizontal load acting on the pile has to be
determined.
Calculation of Vertical Load
Fig.1: Vertical Load on Pile

The allowable resistance to compression Rac of a single pile is provided by the
end bearing, Feb and the skin friction for each strata, Fsf. Thus,
Rac = Feb + Total (Fsf ) Eq.1
Therefore, the maximum compressive service load that can be supported by a

single pile is its total resistance Rac , less the self-weight of the pile, W. Thus
Nser < Rac -W = Rnet Eq.2
A pile can also resist a tensile load. The maximum tensile service load that can
be resisted by pile is
Rat = Total (Fsf ) + W Eq.3
The soil exploration details will provide the details of the end bearing and the
skin friction value. These values are obtained by test loadings and pile driving
energy procedures. These ultimate values are divided by a partial factor of safety
of between 2 and 3 to give the allowable values Feb and Fsf.
Calculation of Horizontal Load
Fig.2: Horizontal load on piles

The two main factors that limit the horizontal capacity of the pile are:
1. Maximum deflection on the structure
2. Structural Capacity of the pile

The maximum horizontal capacity for a given deflection is determined from the
modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3). There are several methods to determine
the modulus of subgrade reaction.
Group Pile Load Capacity Calculation

In order to support heavy loads, the piles are arranged in groups. The piles are
arranged in groups so that the size and the cost of construction of pile cap can be
reduced.
Fig.3.Group Pile Capacity

Undisturbed Bearing capacity and required driving conditions are obtained by
providing minimum Clear Distance between the piles. This distance will be equal
to the twice the pile diameter.
Fig.4.The minimum clear spacing between piles

The total vertical service load on a group of piles should not exceed the group
capacity, which is given by:
Group capacity= group friction capacity + group end bearing capacity
= 2D(L+K)k1 + BLk2 Eq.4

Where k1 and k2 are soil coefficients. Individual pile loads within the group are
limited to the single pile capacity.
Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles.
Two types of tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz.
vertical, horizontal (lateral) pull out, are performed on piles.
Initial Load Tests on Piles

This test is performed to confirm the design load calculations and to provide
guidelines for setting up the limits of acceptance for routine tests. It also gives an
idea of the suitability of the piling system. Initial Test on piles are to be carried
out at one or more locations depending on the number of piles required.
Load applied for the initial (cyclic) load test is 2.5 times the safe carrying
capacity of the pile. Loading for Initial Tests is conducted as per Appendix ‘A’
Clause 6.3 of IS-2911 Part IV.
Routine Load Tests on Piles

Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required
subject to maximum of ½% of total number of piles required. The number of
tests may be increased to 2% depending on the nature / type of structure. The test
load applied is 1½ times the safe carrying capacity of the pile.
The Maintained load method as described in Clause 6.2 of IS-2911 (Part IV) –
1985 shall be followed for loading for the Routine Tests.
This test will be performed for the following purposes:

a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles
b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial

Test.
The tests shall be performed at the cut-off level only. A detailed report for the
test result is prepared.
Vertical Load Tests on Piles
Fig: Vertical load test on piles
Pile Head – The pile head shall be chipped off till sound concrete is met
wherever applicable. The reinforcement shall be cut and head levelled with
Plaster of Paris. A bearing plate with a hole shall be placed on the head for the
jack to rest.
Reaction- Kentledge shall be suitably designed to get the desired reaction on the
piles. Anchor piles (if required) shall be placed at a centre to centre distance of 3
times the pile diameter subject to a minimum distance of 2 M.
Settlement- 2 dial gauges for a single pile and 4 dial gauges for a group of piles
with 0.01 mm sensitivity shall be used. They shall be positioned at equal distance
around the piles on datum bars resting on immovable supports at a distance of 3D
(min. of 1.5 m) where D is the diameter of pile or circumscribing circle for non-
circular piles.
Application of load- It shall be applied as specified depending on the type of test
(routine / initial). Each load shall be maintained till the rate of displacement of
the pile top is either 0.1 mm in the first 30 minutes or 0.2 mm in the first one
hour or 2 hours whichever occurs first. The next increment in the load shall be
applied on achieving the aforesaid criterion.
The test load shall be maintained for 24 hours.
Initial Tests– The safe load on a single pile shall be the least of the following:
(i) 2/3rd of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 12 mm
unless otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of
structure in which case, the safe load should be corresponding to the stated total
displacement permissible.
(ii) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement equals 10% of the pile
diameter in case of uniform diameter piles or 7.5% of the bulb diameter in case
of under reamed piles.
Routine Tests – Acceptance

The maximum settlement at test load should not exceed 12 mm.
Lateral Load Tests on Piles
Fig: Horizontal load test on piles

The jack should be placed horizontally, between two piles. The load on the jack
shall be the same on both the piles. The load will be applied in increments of
20% of the estimated safe load and at the cut off level. The load will be increased
after the rate of displacement is nearer to 0.1 mm per 30 minutes. If the cut-off
level is approachable, one dial gauge exactly at the cut-off level shall measure
the displacement. In case the cut-off level is not approachable, 2 dial gauges 30
cm apart vertically, shall be set up and the lateral displacement of the cut-off
level calculated by similar triangles.
The safe load on the pile shall be the least of the following:
a) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement increases to 12 mm.
b) Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm.

Pull out Tests on Piles

A suitable set up shall be designed to provide an uplift force to the piles. The
load increments and the consequent displacements shall be as per the case of a
vertical load test.
Fig: Pull-out test on piles

The safe load shall be the least of the following:
a) 2/3rd of the load at which the total displacement is 12 mm or the load
corresponding to a specified permissible lift.
b) Half of the load at which the load displacement curve shows a clear break.
Buoyancy rafts or hollow box foundations
Buoyancy rafts or hollow box foundations also known as the floating foundations
is a type of deep foundation is used in building construction on soft and weak
soils. Types of buoyancy foundations, their construction methods, and
advantages are discussed in this article.
The decision of construction of a deep foundation is taken when the load has to
be distributed to an area either with soft weak compressible soils or to reach
strata that have strong soil or rock or any other special concerns. One such
generally used a type of deep foundation is called as Hollow box foundations or
buoyancy rafts foundation.
These types of foundations are designed such a way that they behave as buoyant
(floating) substructures for the net loading over it. Hence reducing the load
intensity over the soil.
Buoyancy Rafts or Hollow Box Foundations

The buoyancy raft foundations are also known as compensated foundations or
deep cellular rafts. Whatever be the name they are known for, they come under
the category of floating foundations.
These are known as fully compensated foundations as during their construction

the soil underneath the foundation is removed, whose weight is equal to the
weight of the whole superstructure. Hence the weight removed from the soil is
compensated by the weight of the building.
The buoyancy rafts are adopted under the following cases:

1. The soil bearing capacity is very low
2. The estimated building settlement is more than the safe limit
Need for Buoyancy Rafts in Building Construction

Those areas with soft soil, layer in a huge depth is observed, it is economical to
go for floating foundation. No other foundation like pile foundation cannot be an
efficient replacement for these.
Occupants in low-altitude areas face the problem of high floods resulting in the
collapse of houses. The construction of buoyant foundation would help in
increasing the elevation of the house.
This arrangement is a flexible method, as the building would remain on the

ground under the normal conditions. When flood approaches, the building would
rise to a necessary height, as shown in the figure-1.
Fig.1: Buoyancy Rafts or Hollow Box Foundation in case of Flood
Types of Buoyancy Rafts or Hollow Box Foundations
Now the floating foundation can be of two types,
1. The basement rafts, and
2. The buoyant raft.

The buoyant rafts differ from the basement rafts and both should not be
confused. The basement rafts, unlike buoyant raft foundation, involve only
excavation of soil whose weight equals to a part of the weight of the building.
The whole building weight is not taken and hence called as a partially
compensated foundation.
Construction of Buoyancy Rafts or Hollow Box Foundations
In the case of buoyancy rafts construction, the shear strength of the soil in the site
is very low. Now under such conditions, the construction by floating of the
foundation is the only way that works.
To have such a foundation, cellular rafts are sunk in the form of the box section.
These forms a raft foundation that is rigid in nature, which reduces the
settlement.
Fig.2: Arrangement of Buoyant Foundations

As shown in the figure-2, the load from the soil is reduced and hence the
superstructure floats like a boat. The bottom basement as explained is placed on
the excavated area.
Fig.3: Arrangement of Cellular Buoyant Raft Foundation

As shown in the figure-3, the bottom slab can be treated as the basement for the
foundation. This is connected to the ground slab, which forms a raft foundation.
The foundation can be made cellular as shown.
By the usage of hollow raft or cellular rafts substructure, the total load value
contributed by the building and the foundation itself is reduced to a lower value
by the soil that is excavated, which make us clear about the designation, fully
compensated foundations.
Caisson Type Buoyancy Rafts

These forms cellular caissons as shown in the figure-4. This method is found
economical, except for the cases during the sinking. The sinking may cause
disturbances to the nearby soil causing further loosening of the soil arrangement.
Fig.4: Buoyancy Rafts with Cellular Caissons

The construction of these rafts can be limited to certain individual areas or in the
form of strips. Later these are connected to have a proper bond. This limited use
would help in reducing the amount of excavation conducted in the construction
area.
The figure-5 shows a construction of a buoyancy raft or hollow raft foundation

for a G+15 Building in Glasgow.
Fig.5: Construction of a Buoyancy Raft or Hollow Raft Foundation for a

G+15 Building in Glasgow
Design Considerations for Buoyancy Raft or Hollow Raft Foundation

The general design involves following step by step procedures:
1. The initial step involved is to determine the depth of the excavation. Its size is
determined by the plan of the building.
2. Next is to calculate the center of gravity that is required for the overburden
removal that must be equal to sustain the structural buoyancy
3. Compare the decision obtained in basement design with the client’s needs as well
as with his opinions.
4. Calculation of the water pressure, to check for the flotation phenomenon
5. To bring up a design combining all the needs and requirements obtained from
above four steps. This would give us avoided foundation
6. The final step in design is to prepare to design details for external walls, floors as
well as the separating walls. The main concern is to design for earth pressure, the
bending moments and the shear forces. Special design for flotation must be
considered.
Advantages of Buoyant Raft Foundation
 The building is elevated to a required height, which makes them stay above
high water levels.
 The chances of settlement are reduced. As the total weight coming is equal
to the excavated soil, there is no settlement. A slight increase in this load
would not bring any drastic change in exceeding the settlement limit.
 Watertight material for foundations would help in the durability of the

underground structure.
 Foundation having a height of 3 or 4 floors are used for skyscraper

construction. This construction is found for efficient than pile foundation in
areas with very weak soils for a larger depth.
 Disadvantages of Buoyant Raft Foundation
 As the depth of weak soil increases, the amount of excavation also
increases. In construction, the excavation process is an activity found very
costly.
 Catastrophic Movement possibilities- These occur when the excavation is

done beyond the critical depth of stability.
 Support of deep foundation may undergo settlement due to the earth

pressure it is subjected to, from the surrounding soft soils.
 Space is wasted as hollow raft foundations cannot be used for any other
purpose.
 Uplift pressure would affect the whole foundation arrangement.
 Leaving the cells unoccupied would result in water entering or seepage.

This may be through the substructure or due to any complaints in the water
pipelines going underground.
 There are possibilities of leakage of gasses into these hollow cells. As these
situations are unaware, they remain unventilated. This would cause
unexpected explosions, even if there are small chances of ignition
anywhere around.
 Corrosion of Piles
 Corrosion protection of underwater piles is essential in case of steel piles.

When steel piles are used in seawater, it reacts chemically to form anodes
and cathodes resulting in the flow of electricity, which results in the
corrosion of anodic areas of piles.
 Chemically active surface areas of underwater steel piles act as anodes and
less chemically active surfaces acts as cathodes.
 What is Corrosion of Piles?

 Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of the metal due to reaction
with water and atmospheric air or the oxidation of metals catalyzed by
chemical reaction with environment
 What are Underwater Piles?

 Piles are the substructure member of the building used to transfer the loads
from the super structure to the ground.
 When a structure is built in the water, the piles are to driven in the water to
underwater strata. As the piles are always inside the water, they are
subjected to corrosion. To eliminate this corrosion problem is very hard,
but the corrosion can be controlled by using corrosion protection measures.
 Zones of Corrosion of Underwater Steel Piles

 The piles which are driven into the water strata undergo corrosion in
several zones due to the different contact with water. It is convenient to
divide these areas into four zones, each having a characteristic corrosion
rate as shown in figure below.
 Corrosion Protection Methods for Underwater Piles

 Protective Coatings for Underwater Piles
 The corrosion in piles form when the surface of pile comes in contact with
water. To protect the piles from coming in contact with water, the pile is to
be coated with non-porous material which is anti-corrosive.
 The different types of coatings used for under water piles are:
 Inorganic Zinc Silicates Primers

 The steel structure which is below the plash zone is always immersed in
water are commonly not coated with any cathodic protective layers for
obvious reasons.
 There are numerous types of anti-corrosive pigmented primers in which

inorganic zinc silicate is the best. The best part of this is that it arrests rust
creep or undercutting of the coating surrounding the damages area and
confines the corrosion to the point of damage.
 High Build Epoxy Coatings

 These epoxy coating are more abrasion and chemical resistant that that of
primers and coats. It is because they not only protect the metal but the zinc
primers also from detrimental factors.
 It also has a drawback that is poor resistant to sunlight and chalk. When it
comes in contact with these factors, they fade quickly which leads to
erosion of coating which in turn reduces the barrier protection of the
system.
 Aliphatic Polyurethane Topcoats

 The polyurethane is actually not an anti-corrosion or corrosion barrier, but
is provides optimum resistance to UV and high degree of flexibility and
chemical resistance.
 They also help in retaining the cosmetic glow and color of the material.
They provide high level of protection to the coating system.
 Zinc Rich Epoxy Primers

 In is the mixture of both Inorganic Zinc Silicates Primer and High Build
Epoxy Coating. It provides a high level of service and more tolerant
ambient weather conditions. It is also most effective in maintaining the
damaged area and breakdown of coating system.
 Non-Skid Deck Coatings

 They are applied in very high film builds and normally without a zinc rich
primer. Coatings specifically designed with anti-slip properties normally
incorporate very course aggregates for an exaggerated profile.
 They are applied in very high film builds and normally without a zinc rich
primer. When primers are required they are usually epoxy types.
 Cathodic Protection of Underwater Piles
 Cathodic protection is the commonly used technique for the overcoming

the corrosion on piles. Cathodic protection is the process of using
electrochemical reactions to prevent steel from corrosion. It is commonly
used and accepted because it prevents the corrosion on steel which is in
water.
 In theory and practice, the implementation of a cathodic protection system

is quite simple. Assuming you already have corroding steel in seawater, all
you need is an anode, a power supply, and engineering talent. A protective
circuit is accomplished between the anode, steel (cathode), power supply
and electrolyte (seawater).
 This is a very simple process for installing a cathodic protection for

underwater piles. When the steel is corroded, an anode with power supply
is inserted into the water near the steel. The insertion or delivery of anode is
made in many ways depending upon the various factors. The types of anode
delivery are,
 Pile Mounted Anode

 This type of anode delivery method is used when anode can be attached to
the cathode or piles directly. Pile mounted anode are designed for
efficiently for the current distribution in and around the piling where the
complexity is faced in placing the anode to the pile in remote places.
 The Flat Back Pile Mounted Anode was designed specifically for H-Piles,
and can also be configured for installation on sheet piling.
 Pile Mounted Anode

 Retractable Mount
 This type of anode delivery system is used when the anode is to be replaced
with new one periodically. When the cathodic protection is needed only
time to time but not continuously, this type of system is used so that the
anode can be replaced easily.
 Retractable mount
 Sled Anode
 Sled anodes can be designed for operation in either seawater or buried in
the mud. Anodes mounted on the sea bed typically afford the best spread of
protection on a marine structure.
 By adjusting the height of the concrete sled, the mesh anode sled can also
be designed for operation out of the mud. The Post Tension Sled was
developed to insure anode operation out of the mud when resting in silty
and soft sea beds.
 The advantage of this type of sled is its low profile, thereby limiting the
potential for, damage by anchors fishing nets, etc.
 Sled Anode
 Application of FRP Composites for Corrosion Protection of Underwater

Piles

 The use of FRP is simply, that it is mixed with the wet concrete, which
makes it economical to conduct repairs on sub structure parts.
 Normally the repair of this parts require the enlargement to accommodate

new ties. But when FRP are used the completely corroded part of the
element is carefully removed and this FRP induced concrete is applied,
which provides the lost tensile capacity and also provides the lateral
support to the steel.
 As the FRP is applied with concrete, spreading of corrosion to other piles

can be protected and at the same time it protection from UV coating on the
wrap of the right color. The aesthetics of FRP repair is one of its
unheralded benefits.
Picture showing preparation for pile reinforcement
How to choose type of pile foundation?

 The types of pile along with their advantages and disadvantages and
applications can be used to guide designer to choose the most appropriate
type of pile for the given condition:
 Driven pile
 Driven and cast in place pile
 Bored and cast in place pile
Fig.1: Selection of types of pile foundations
Driven Pile
To be able to select driven pile for any project, the applications, advantages, and
disadvantages that such type of pile may offer should be known.
The most outstanding advantages of driven piles involves considerably long piles
can be installed and it can be carried out specifically in marine structures.
Moreover, it has sufficient stability in squeeze ground, it is not affected by

ground heave while neighboring piles are placed, the pile material can be
examined and inspected before it is forced into the ground, and ground water
does not influence the construction of driven piles.
As far as disadvantages of driven piles are concerned, strong driven might cause
unobserved damages and possible severe deterioration that not only extend
construction schedule but also increase construction cost.
Furthermore, driven piles cannot be installed in low headroom condition, end

enlargement are not always beneficial, and vibrations and noises due to driving
process could lead to damages.
Lastly, it is not cost effective when the amount of material in the pile is
controlled by driving stress instead to permanent load stresses.
Fig.2: Driven Pile Foundation
Driven and Cast-in-Place Pile

Similar to driven piles, it is necessary to outline and explain pros and cons of
driven cast in place pile along with its applications.
The advantages of this type of pile involves construction of enlarged base form
in certain types of driven and cast in place pile, the effect of ground water can be
avoided due to a closed end tube that driven into the ground, and noises and
vibrations of certain types of driven and cast in place pile could be reduced.
Another advantage is that the length of this type of pile can be changed according
to the level of bearing stratum and driven or handling stress would not affect
materials in the pile.
Regarding disadvantages of driven and cast in place pile, the length of the pile
cannot be varied, and it might suffer waisting and necking in squeezing ground
except if special considerations are practiced during concreting.
Moreover, structures at the vicinity of construction area are possible to

experience damages and deterioration due to vibrations and noises that generated
during construction.
Furthermore, it is neither suitable for substantially low head room condition nor
it can be considered in the marine structure or in river unless special adaptation is
considered.
Finally, ground displacement due to driven of pile could lead to adjacent green
concrete damages, and it is not possible to examine concrete after the completion
of construction process.
Fig.3: Construction of driven and cast in situ pile
Bored and Cast-in-Place Pile
This type of pile foundation offers several advantages for instance considerably
long pile can be installed, it can be driven in low head room situation, and large
diameter piles can be utilized.
Moreover, soil that taken out from borings during construction can be inspected,
sampled, or tested. Not only does the length of bored and cast in place pile can be
changed to accommodate ground conditions but also it can be installed without
generating much vibration and noise.
Regarding disadvantages of bored and cast in place pile, it is prone to necking in

squeezing land, poured concrete can be examined, and enlarged end piles cannot
be constructed unless special approached are employed.
Finally, washing out of cement due to water which is under artesian pressure,
sinking piles in cohesionless soil could cause the settlement of neighboring
buildings, and sandy soil and gravelly soil may be loosen and consequently the
base of the pile should be grouted to stabilize the base of the pile.
Fig.4: Bored and cast in place pile
The selection of pile foundation depends on the soil investigation data received
from soil exploration bore holes at different depths. Selection of appropriate pile
for the desired strength and requirement plays an important role in cost reduction
and efficiency. In this article we discuss about the selection of type of piles based
on soil conditions.
Factors affecting the selection of Pile Foundation

The factors that affect the selection of pile foundations are,
1. Soil conditions
2. Loads from structures
3. Nature of loads
4. Number of piles to be used
5. Cost of construction
Types of Pile Foundation
Depending upon the above mentioned factors, pile are generally categorised into
following 3 types,
1. End bearing piles
2. Friction bearing piles
3. Combination of end bearing and friction bearing piles.

1. End Bearing Pile Foundation
End bearing piles also called as point-bearing piles are selected when the depth
of hard soil strata or bedrock at site is within reasonable depth. The length of pile
to be used can be easily computed based on bedrock depth obtained from soil
exploration borehole records.
Fig 1: End Bearing Pile

In this case, the loads from structures are directly transferred the hard soil
through bearing action of pile bottom tip and it does not require the use of skin
friction to resist loads. The cost of construction of piles in such cases is optimum.
The ultimate capacity of pile or pile group depends on the bearing capacity of
bedrock or hard strata. Number of piles to be used in this case depends on the
loads from structure and individual capacity of piles.
In this case,
QU = QP
Where QU is the ultimate load capacity of pile foundation
QP is the load carried by the end bearing pile or pile group.
In case when the hard bedrock is not available at reasonable depth and fairly
compacted hard strata of soil exists, then piles should be extended a few meters
into the hard soil strata.
2. Friction Pile Foundation:

Friction piles resist the loads from structures due its skin friction with soil. This
type of pile foundation is selected when a hard stratum is available at large depth
and construction of end bearing pile becomes uneconomical. Then number of
piles in a group is selected to resist the load from structure through its skin
friction. This type of pile foundation also resists loads due to end bearing but its
value is small, thus it is neglected in calculation.
Fig 2: Friction Pile.

The length of friction pile to be selected in this case depends on the shear
strength of soil, loads from structures and size of piles. The capacity of
individual pile is calculated based on skin friction resistance provided by selected
length of pile. Optimum length of this pile should be used considering economy.
The number of piles required in a group can be calculated from individual pile
capacity.
In this case,
QU = QS
QS is the load carried by the friction pile or pile group.
The load is transferred to the soil through friction in case of sandy soil and
adhesion in case of clayey soil. Loose sand and soft clays may not provide
sufficient skin friction or adhesion resistance to heavy loads from structures.
3. Combined End Bearing and Friction Pile Foundation:

This type of pile foundation is mostly used in construction. The advantage of
using this pile is that it can resist loads from structures through both end bearing
and friction resistance. This pile has high pile capacity and is economical.
This pile is used when the soil exploration results shows hard bedrock or fairly
compacted soils at reasonable depth and soil above bed rock supports skin
friction resistance.
In this case,
QU = QS + QP
QS is the load carried by the friction pile or pile group
QP is the load carried by the end bearing pile or pile group.
The load is transferred to the soil through friction in case of sandy soil and
adhesion in case of clayey soil.
How to choose type of pile in the same pile category?
After the type of pile has been determined, it is necessary choose suitable type of
pile (timber, steel, concrete) in that pile category that has been selected.
Types of
driven Suitable condition Unsuitable condition
pile
Cannot be used when loads

are large. It may suffer
Timber decaying if water level
Suitable option for temporary works
driven fluctuates, and it is not
or when the load is small
pile suitable for heavy driven
since it may experience
unseen splitting.
Extra reinforcement ration is needed

to make the pile withstand driven
Concrete force, it needs time after casting to Suitable for all loading
driven obtain necessary strength and hence conditions, it can withstand
pile there is a gap between casting and corrosive soils
driven, and it may suffer from unseen
damage due to driven forces.
There are various types and forms of piles in each three major piles. Guideline
for the selection of pile type in each category are discussed.
 Driven pile
It is suitable for all loading condition, It is subjected to corrosion

it does not suffer damages due to in marine condition above
Steel
driven forces, it can be extended and soil level and subsequently
driven
cut down. Considerable long driven it needs protection, And
pile
pile can be used by welding on long piles may go off the
additional length. line during driving
 Driven and cast in place pile
 Bored and cast in place pile
Selection of Driven Pile

Driven piles can be constructed from timber, concrete, or steel. Table-1 can be
used as a guideline to choose an appropriate type of driven pile.
Table-1: Selection of driven pile type based on their advantages and

disadvantages and construction conditions
Selection of Driven and Cast-in-Place Pile

Table-2 can be used to help in the selection of suitable type of driven and cast in
situ pile
Table-2: Selection of driven and cast in place pile types based on their
advantages, disadvantages, and construction condition
Types of driven and

Suitable condition Unsuitable condition
cast in place pile
It is not good option

Withdrawable tube
It is cheaper compare with to use in water
driven and cast in
the other type bearing sand and
place pile
squeezing soil
Un-withdrawable It is suitable option for It is more expensive

tube driven and cast squeezing soil, water bearing compare with the
in place pile sand, and when the pile other type of pile
needs driven after ground

heave.
Selection of Bored and Cast-in-Place Pile
Simple uncased mechanically augered pile is the cheapest type of bored and cast
in place pile. This type of pile is suitable option in firm to stiff cohesive soil. The
cost of pile increases when casing is placed and withdrawn, and slow ordinary
boring technique is utilized.
An insufficient bearing capacity of the soil to bear a structure will demand for
pile foundation. The pile foundation will be chosen based on the:
1. Soil Condition
2. Types of Loads acting on the foundation
3. The bottom layers of the soil
4. The site conditions
5. Operational Conditions
The pile foundation consists of pile cap and piles either present in single or in
groups. The loads coming from the superstructure is transferred safely to the hard
strata, soil, and rocks below by means of piles. Piles are long slender members
that can have a length of more than 15m.
There are many functions provided by the pile foundation that result in its
tremendous applications in construction. Here, we will discuss the necessity and
the functions of pile foundation.
Fig.1: Pile Foundation Construction
When and Where Pile Foundations are used?
There are certain construction sites that can only go for a pile foundation because
it exclusively satisfies certain needs. Some of these needs are mentioned below.
1. Pile foundation is needed in areas where the structures constructed are large &
heavy and the soil underlying is weak.
2. In areas where settlement issues are common due to soil liquefaction or water
table issues, pile foundation is a better choice.
3. In some situations, the sub-soil water table at the site will be so high that the use
of other foundation will be affected badly. In such a situation, pile foundations
can be easily penetrated through the water and extended until a hard stratum is
reached.
4. Structures might be subjected to horizontal forces that will bring effect to the
foundation. The use of pile foundation help in resisting this bending action along
with supporting the vertical load coming over the foundation. Hence pile
foundation is needed for the construction of earth water retaining structures and
building structures highly subjected to lateral (earthquake and wind) forces.
5. The pile foundation is necessary to resist the uplift forces created due to water
table rise or any other cause. Uplift forces are more common in the construction
of transmission towers and off-shore platforms. These structures will need pile
foundations.
6. Pile foundation is necessary for areas where the structure surrounding has
chances for soil erosion. This might not be resisted by the shallow foundations.
7. When the plan of the structure is not regular the load distribution also will not be
uniform in nature. Employing a shallow foundation in these cases will result in
the differential settlement. In order to eliminate differential settlement in such
cases, the pile foundation becomes necessary.
8. Pile foundation is needed near deep drainage and canal lines.
9. The adjacent soil can be confined by means of sheet pile foundation as shown in
figure-2 below.
Fig.1.Sheet Pile Foundation to Confine the Soil Near the Water Body
Functions of Pile Foundation
The main functions of the pile foundation in the construction of structures are
enlisted below.
1. The principal function of the pile foundation is to transmit the loads coming over
it safely to the ground. The transmission is performed whether it is vertical or
horizontal or inclined loads.
2. The pile foundation can be constructed in cohesionless soil by undergoing

techniques of displacement and vibration methods.
3. Pile foundation helps in reducing the settlement.
4. The pile foundation helps to increase the factor of safety of heavy load structures
or buildings.
5. The pile foundation guarantees the vertical structures above with safety, security,
and reliability.
6. The pile and pile cap arrangement in pile foundation help the load distribution to
be performed in a uniform manner.
TRUSSES DESIGN
What are trusses
In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two-force members only,

where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a
single object”. A "two-force member" is a structural component where force is
applied to only two points. Although this rigorous definition allows the members
to have any shape connected in any stable configuration, trusses typically
comprise five or more triangular units constructed with straight members whose
ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes.
In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are
considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members that are
either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments (torques) are
explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated
as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members.
A planar truss is one where all members and nodes lie within a two dimensional
plane, while a space truss has members and nodes that extend into three
dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are typically in
compression, the bottom beams are called bottom chords, and are typically in
tension. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are
called panels.
Picture showing a typical truss section

A truss consists of typically (but not necessarily) straight members connected at

joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically (but not
necessarily) composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that
shape and design. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change
shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both the angles and
the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint
at which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the
Munter Point.
The simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a
framed roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist, and in other mechanical
structures such as bicycles and aircraft. Because of the stability of this shape and
the methods of analysis used to calculate the forces within it, a truss composed
entirely of triangles is known as a simple truss. However, a simple truss is often
defined more restrictively by demanding that it can be constructed through
successive addition of pairs of members, each connected to two existing joints
and to each other to form a new joint, and this definition does not require a
simple truss to comprise only triangles. The traditional diamond-shape bicycle
frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss.
Planar truss
A planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are typically used in parallel to
form roofs and bridges.
The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what
makes it an efficient structural form. A solid girder or beam of equal strength
would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a
given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords and greater
material in the verticals and diagonals. An optimum depth of the truss will
maximize the efficiency.
Space frame truss
A spaceframe truss is a three-dimensional framework of members pinned at their

ends. A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss, consisting of six members
that meet at four joints. Large planar structures may be composed from
tetrahedrons with common edges, and they are also employed in the base
structures of large free-standing power line pylons.
Simple tetrahedron
Diagram of a planar space frame such as used for a roof
Types of Trusses
A truss can be of two types as far as workspace is considered;-
1. Planar truss
2. Space truss
Planar truss is that in which members lie in a two dimensional plane while space
truss lies in three dimension.
A truss is composed of three basic parts, one is top chord, the beam at the top
which is usually in compression, bottom chord, beam at the bottom which is
usually in tension, webs are interior beams.
On the basis of usage, trusses can be grouped into two types as well
1. Roof trusses
2. Bridge trusses
Descriptions of some truss types
 Fink truss - A unique looking truss design that is placed only under the decks of
bridges (usually intended for carrying train or road vehicle transport). At the time
of its creation in 1860, a Fink truss enabled the creation of the longest all-iron
bridges in the world.
 Howetruss - A very popular truss type in which features triage diagonals that
slope upward toward the center. Many smaller bridges and architectural solutions
for homes feature this simple design.
 K-truss – Bridge type that features several types of triangles, who in the center
of the structure from the normal and inverted character of “K”
 Kingpost truss – An evolution of the easiest to make “Simple” truss, which is
enhanced with a single vertical support line.
 Queenpost truss – Similar as Kingpost truss, but with added horizontal
extension that separates two diagonal outer supports.
 Waddell truss – Another very simple truss design. It uses a single tall triangle
that is reinforced with two inward-facing triangles.
 Lattice truss – This truss type demands use of a large number of small and
closely spaced diagonal elements that form a lattice. This design is usually used
for the creation of lightweight structures (made from wood, iron or steel) such as
smaller bridges or hangars.
 Lenticular truss – Design of this truss type consists from a big lens-shape truss
that is elevated above the main deck of the bridge. This lens is separated into two
parts, with both upper and lower arches having their network of trusses. If the
deck of the bridge is placed in the middle of the lens, then that bridge is called
lenticular pony truss.
 Long truss – Based on the Howe Truss, but made exclusively from wood. The
longest surviving bridge of this type is Eldean Covered Bridge north of Troy,
Ohio. Built in 1860, this bridge spans the distance of 68 using one central anchor
point.
 Parker truss – This is a very popular truss design that instead of the smooth arch
features rigged arch that directly connects the edges of the truss mesh. It closely
resembles bowstring arch truss. It is also known as camelback truss design.
 Pegram truss – This is a hybrid of Pegram truss designs, with the most notable
difference is that upper chords are all of the equal lengths, and lower ones are
longer.
 Pennsylvania (Petit) truss – Truss type whose lower section of the mesh are
additionally reinforced with additional triangles.
 Pratt truss – Very popular truss design where diagonal supports slope down
toward center (while in Howe trusses are pointing in the opposite direction). This
design enables the creation of structures that have spans of 76 meters between
anchor points. Bridges with this design were very commonly made between a
middle of 19th and early 20th century.
 Thatcher truss – A rare variation of Pratt and Howe truss design.
 Truss arch - An arch bridge whose inverse arch is built from the truss mesh
below the main deck of the bridge. Vertical supports connect this arch to the
decking. It can be used for the creation of medium-sized bridges that can even
carry heavy railroad transport.
 Vierendeel truss – A truss design that does not uses regular triangular elements,
but rigid rectangular openings and strong reinforcements from other elements
and connectors. Today it can most commonly be found only in Belgium. Only
one movable bridge of this design exists today.
 Warren truss – A very simple truss design that consists of two parallel chords
and equally sized triangles placed in between. This effective design is popular
not only in construction but also in production countless other machines and
systems. For example, early two-winged airplanes used lightweight Warren truss
mesh to reinforce the structure of the wings.
 Whipple truss – Another variation of the Pratt truss design, but made with
vertical bars that are held together with an array of diagonal members
(lightweight and put at a shallower angle that enables them to cross one or more
vertical bars) designed to work together to alleviate tension from the rest of the
structure.
 Octet truss - Truss members are made up of all equivalent equilateral triangles.
The minimum composition is two regular tetrahedrons along with an octahedron.
They fill up three dimensional space in a variety of configurations.

 Allan truss – Created as an evolution of Howe trusses (where diagonals slope
toward the center of the bridge), first bridge of this design was created in August
of 1894 in Australia by civil engineer Percy Allan who during his career
designed over 580 bridges. Alan truss designs multiply the number of Howe
trusses, enabling the creation of much longer bridges that are supported by one or
more support points.
 Bailey bridge – Originally designed during WWII for easy assembly on site
during military engagements using pre-fabricated parts. Today, timber and steel
versions of these bridges are used for used for carrying pedestrians, road and rail
vehicles.
 Baltimore truss – A variation of Pratt trusses that utilizes an additional bracing
in the lower sections of the bridge truss network. It is used mostly for carrying
rail transport.
 Bollman truss – Very rare truss type that survives today in the only bridge of its
design left standing. Bollman Truss Railroad Bridge in Savage, Maryland
features revolutionary all-metal design.
 Bowstring truss – Patented in 1841, bowstring is one of the most popular truss
designs for smaller truss bridges.
 Brown truss – Very popular truss design that features diagonal cross
compression members that are connected to the horizontal top and bottom
stringers. They are mostly used for bridges made from wood, most notably
covered bridges.
 Burr arch truss – Another truss design that is used a lot in the creation of
covered bridges. In addition to the traditional planar triangle truss design, it also
features an arch that gives entire structure additional strength and rigidity.
 Cantilevered truss – A truss network that is placed on the cantilevered bridges,
whose main decks are heavily anchored from the central vertical spars. Most
bridges of this design have trusses placed both above (where construction is
placed under compression) and below (where the bridge is placed under tension)
the main decks of the bridge.
Other types of trusses are, Town’s lattice truss, Bowstring truss, North light truss,
Mansard truss, hipped truss, saw tooth truss etc.
Statically Determinate/Indeterminate Trusses
A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin
joints, and which is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers,
is described as being statically determinate. Newton's Laws apply to the structure
as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In order for any node that may be
subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the following
conditions must hold: the sums of all (horizontal and vertical) forces, as well as
all moments acting about the node equal zero. Analysis of these conditions at
each node yields the magnitude of the compression or tension forces.
Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically
indeterminate, and the application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to
determine the member forces.
In order for a truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it does not need to
be entirely composed of triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following
necessary condition for stability of a simple truss:
Where m is the total number of truss members, j is the total number of joints and
r is the number of reactions (equal to 3 generally) in a 2-dimensional structure.
When, the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m+3) internal
member forces and support reactions can then be completely determined by 2j
equilibrium equations, once we know the external loads and the geometry of the
truss. Given a certain number of joints, this is the minimum number of members,
in the sense that if any member is taken out (or fails), then the truss as a whole
fails.
The stability of a truss also depends on the truss geometry, support conditions
and the load carrying capacity of the members.
Some structures are built with more than this minimum number of truss
members. Those structures may survive even when some of the members fail.
Their member forces depend on the relative stiffness of the members, in addition
to the equilibrium condition described.
Note:
1. If m+r= 3j or m = 3j-r, we can compute all the internal forces using the
equilibrium equations. In this case, the structure is stable and is called a
“determinate system”.
2. If m+r>3j or m >3j-r, we have more unknowns than the number of equations

and, therefore, we cannot find the internal forces by satisfying the internal
equilibrium only. However, the structure is stable and is called an
“indeterminate system”.
3. If m+r<3j or m <3j-r, we have more equations than the number of unknowns.
This means that the internal forces cannot be computed due to the instability of
the structure and the structure is called an “unstable system”.
It is important to note that the stability versus instability condition mentioned

here is only a “necessary” and not “sufficient” condition. This means that if m
<3j-r, the structure is unstable. However, we may have structures with m ≥ 3j-r
that are still unstable. To understand this better, consider the case of a two-
dimensional (plane) truss. For this structure, the above conditions are changed as
the total number of equations is ‘2j’ (two equations for each joint):
1. If m=2j-r → Determinate Truss

2. If m>2j-r → Indeterminate Truss
3. If m<2j-r → Unstable Truss
Analysis
Because the forces in each of its two main girders are essentially planar, a truss is
usually modeled as a two-dimensional plane frame. However if there are
significant out-of-plane forces, the structure must be modeled as a three-
dimensional space.
The analysis of trusses often assumes that loads are applied to joints only and not
at intermediate points along the members. The weight of the members is often
insignificant compared to the applied loads and so is often omitted; alternatively,
half of the weight of each member may be applied to its two end joints. Provided
that the members are long and slender, the moments transmitted through the
joints are negligible, and the junctions can be treated as "hinges" or "pin-joints".
Under these simplifying assumptions, every member of the truss is then

subjected to pure compression or pure tension forces – shear, bending moment,
and other more-complex stresses are all practically zero. Trusses are physically
stronger than other ways of arranging structural elements, because nearly every
material can resist a much larger load in tension or compression than in shear,
bending, torsion, or other kinds of force.
These simplifications make trusses easier to analyze. Structural analysis of

trusses of any type can readily be carried out using a matrix method such as the
direct stiffness method, the flexibility method, or the finite element method.
Design of members
A truss can be thought of as a beam where the web consists of a series of

separate members instead of a continuous plate. In the truss, the lower horizontal
member (the bottom chord) and the upper horizontal member (the top chord)
carry tension and compression, fulfilling the same function as the flanges of an I-
beam. Which chord carries tension and which carries compression depends on
the overall direction of bending. In the truss pictured above right, the bottom
chord is in tension, and the top chord in compression.
The diagonal and vertical members form the truss web, and carry the shear stress.
Individually, they are also in tension and compression, the exact arrangement of
forces is depending on the type of truss and again on the direction of bending. In
the truss shown above right, the vertical members are in tension, and the
diagonals are in compression.
The members under compression also have to be designed to be safe against

buckling, this can be effected by installing braces and also stiffening the web
members.
The weight of a truss member depends directly on its cross section—that weight
partially determines how strong the other members of the truss need to be.
Giving one member a larger cross section than on a previous iteration requires
giving other members a larger cross section as well, to hold the greater weight of
the first member—one needs to go through another iteration to find exactly how
much greater the other members need to be. Sometimes the designer goes
through several iterations of the design process to converge on the "right" cross
section for each member. On the other hand, reducing the size of one member
from the previous iteration merely makes the other members have a larger (and
more expensive) safety factor than is technically necessary, but doesn't require
another iteration to find a buildable truss.
The effect of the weight of the individual truss members in a large truss, such as
a bridge, is usually insignificant compared to the force of the external loads.
Forces in members
The method of joints is one of the simplest methods for determining the force
acting on the individual members of a truss because it only involves two force
equilibrium equations. Since only two equations are involved, only two
unknowns can be solved for at a time. Therefore, you need to solve the joints in a
certain order. That is, you need to work from the sides towards the center of the
truss. When a force points toward the joint, the member is said to be in
compression. If the force points away from the joint, the member is said to be in
tension. It is often important to know whether a truss member is in tension or in
compression because some building materials have diﬀerent strengths in
compression versus tension.
Problem
Find the force acting in all members of the truss shown in Figure T-01.
Solution
ΣMD=0
3AV+50(1)=80(0.75)
AV=3.33 kN
ΣFH=0
AH=80 kN
ΣMA=0
3RD=50(2)+80(0.75)
RD=53.33 kN
At joint A
ΣFV=0
3/5FAB=3.33
FAB=5.56 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FAE+ 4/5FAB=80
FAE+4/5 (5.56)=80
FAE=75.56 kN tension
At joint B
ΣFH=0
FBC=4/5FAB
FBC=4/5 (5.56)
FBC=4.45 kN tension
ΣFV=0
FBE=3/5FAB
FBE=3/5 (5.56)
FBE=3.34 kN compression
At joint E
ΣFV=0
3/5FCE=FAE
3/5FCE=3.34
FCE=5.57 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FFE + 4/5FCE=FAE
FFE + 4/5 (5.57)=75.56

FFE=71.11 kN tension
At joint F
ΣFV=0
FCF=50 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FDF=FFE
FDF=71.11 kN tension
At joint C
ΣFH=0
4/5FCD+4/5FCE+FBC=80
4/5FCD+4/5 (5.57)+4.45=80
FCD=88.87 kN compression
ΣFV=0
3/5FCD=3/5FCE+FCF
3/5 (88.87)= 3/5 (5.57)+50
53.3=53.3 check
At joint D
ΣFH=0
4/5FCD=FDF
4/5 (88.87)=71.11
71.1=71.1
check
ΣFV=0
RD = 3/5FCD
53.33 = 3/5 (88.87)
53.3 = 53.3 check
Summary
FAB=5.56 kN tension
FAE=75.56 kN tension
FBC=4.45 kN tension
FBE=3.34 kN compression
FCD=88.87 kN compression
FCE=5.57 kN tension
FCF=50 kN tension
FDF=71.11 kN tension
FFE=71.11 kN tension
The Warren truss loaded as shown in Fig. P-418 is supported by a roller at C and
a hinge at G. By the method of sections, compute the force in the members BC,
DF, and CE.
Solution 418
ΣMG=0
12RC+6(60)=6(100)+9(80)+18(40)
RC=140 kN
At section through M-M

ΣFV=0
2/√5 FBC=40
FBC=44.721 kN
compression answer
At section through N-N
ΣMD=0
6FCE+9(40)=3(140)
FCE=10 kN
tension answer
ΣME=0
6FDF + 3 (80) + 12(40) = 6(140) + 6(60)
FDF = 80 kN
Compression answer

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Homik Oil & Gas Facility Engineering Schools.

Basic Steel Structural Design and Detailing

BASIC STEEL STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING

(CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES)

HOMIK ENGINEERING LIMITED

HOMIK OIL & GAS FACILITY ENGINEERING SCHOOLS

1.0 Strength of material

During this session, the following issues will be addressed:

 Materials, what are they?

 Vehicle body - steel, polymer, paint, composite.

Types of loadings in mechanics of material are:

•Limit of proportionality (A)

This is the extent where load-extension curve is linear and elastic.

•Elastic limit (B)

•Yield point (CD)

• Strain hardening (DE)

STRESS -STRAIN CURVE:

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE SHAPE OF CROSS SECTION

 I/H-beam – Beam with ‘I’ cross section

A T-beam used in construction, is a load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete, wood or metal,

Beam design consideration:

Z=elastic section modulus

I=moment ofinertia or second moment ofarea of the section

y=distance fromneutral axis

Plate girder components:

3.0 COLUMN AND STRUT DESIGN

COLUMN AND STRUT

Differences between Strut and a Column

1. Both Strut and Column belong to compression structural members.

FAILURE MODE OF COLUMNS

Columns may fail in one of the three mechanisms:

1. Compression failure of the concrete or steel reinforcement.

Buckling is probable with columns which are long and slender.

4.0 COMPRESSION MEMBER DESIGN

4.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

Figure 1. Buckling of axially loaded compression members

Figure 2. (a) Cross-section; (b) major-axis buckling; (c) minor-axis buckling

Figure 3. (a) Major axis buckling; (b) minor axis buckling

4.3 INELASTIC COLUMN BUCKLING

1748 kips, and f = 119.73 ksi.

4.4 AISC SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLUMN STRENGTH

Where, c = 0.9 (Resistance factor for compression members)

Fcr = 0.877 Fe  (4.4)

Ag = gross member area; K = effective length factor

- The 0.877 factor tries to account for initial crookedness.

4.5 COLUMN STRENGTH

Minor axis slenderness ratio = KyLy/ry = 240/2.48 = 96.77

4.6 LOCAL BUCKLING LIMIT STATE

Figure 4. Local buckling of columns

Figure 5. Local buckling behavior and classification of plate elements

- For the webs of I-shapes section

 Step III. Make the comparisons and comment

4.7 COLUMN DESIGN

 Step IV. Check the local buckling limits

Therefore, the section is non slender. OK.

 Select a W shape from the AISC manual Tables

1kip = 1000 lbf

ksi = kips per square inch

5.0 CONNECTION DESIGN

• To achieve an economical design, usually it is important that the connections

Therefore, design of connections is an integral and important part of design of steel

2.0 COMPLEXITIES OF STEEL CONNECTIONS