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RESISTANCE
- measure of the degree to w/c the blood vessel The above equation shows that the viscosity of the
(BV) hinders, or resists, the flow of blood blood and the length of the blood are proportional
- main factors: BV radius, BV length and blood to peripheral resistance. The resistance is also
viscosity inversely prop. to the fourth power of the radius.
Lumen – opening of the BV where blood flows 2. Explain the effect that the flow tube radius
change had on flow rate. How well did the results
Questions compare with your prediction?
1. Blood flow is measured in - I predicted that the flow rate would increase if
ml/min. the radius was increased. It is true since the flow
2. Which of the following has the greatest effect rate is directly proportional with the flow tube
on blood flow? radius meaning the bigger the radius of the flow
blood vessel radius tube the faster the flow rate and vice versa. It is
also evident during the experiment since the flow
3. Which of the following would not result in a rate increased each time that we increased the
decrease in the blood vessel radius? radius.
vasodilation
3. Describe the effect that radius changes have on
4. The diameter of the blood vessel is the same as the laminar flow of a fluid.
two times the radius of the blood vessel. - The radius of the flow tube affects the laminar
flow of a fluid since the wider the radius the more
5. The opening of the blood vessel where the freely the fluid flows and the less fluid rubs
blood flows is called the against the wall of the tube thus increasing laminar
Lumen. flow, and vice versa
6. What is the driving force for blood flow? 4. Why do you think the plot was not linear?
pressure gradient (Hint: look at the relationship of the variables in
the equation). How well did the results compare
7. How does the body increase the blood vessel with your prediction?
radius? - The graph did not make a straight line even if the
smooth muscle relaxation flow is directly proportional with the flow tube
radius because there are additional factors that
8. The variable that you altered in this activity was affect the flow such as pressure gradient and
vessel radius. peripheral resistance
3. Which of the following does not contribute to 4. Discuss the effect that polcythemia would have
the viscosity of the blood? on viscosity and blood flow.
oxygen level in the blood - Polycythemia is caused by an increase in
red blood cells (RBC). Thus, if the RBC
increases, the viscosity also increases
4. Viscosity most directly affects resulting in a decrease in blood flow rate.
peripheral resistance.
10. Which of the following describes why the Layers of blood vessels
body might require an increase in vessel radius?
to provide more blood flow and, therefore, Tunica Intima - endothelial layer, innermost
nutrients to a particular body part Tunica Media - smooth muscles and elastic fiber,
middle
REVIEW Tunica Externa - collagen fibers, outermost
- Diameter changes are easier for the body
Questions to make. Pressure changes require the
heart to be able to respond to force.
1. Pressure changes in the cardiovascular system
primarily result from 4. Use your data to calculate the increase in flow
changes in the force of contraction of the heart. rate in ml/min/mm Hg.
- Study
2. What is the driving force for blood flow?
pressure gradient
3. Explain why pressure changes are not the best End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
way to control blood flow. - volume in the ventricle at the end of diastole, just
before cardiac contraction
8. If the left flow tube represents the pulmonary
Stroke Volume veins, what does the left source beaker represent?
- volume ejected by a single ventricular blood coming from the lungs
contraction
9. The pump piston in the simulation is up during
End Systolic Volume (ESV) Diastole.
- volume remaining in the ventricle after
contraction 10.. The pump in the simulation represents the
left ventricle.
Cardiac Output (CO)
- equal to blood flow 11. The amount of blood flowing into the
destination beaker (right beaker) with a single
𝐶𝐶 pump is called the
= ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝐶𝐶) 𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝐶𝐶)
stroke volume.
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝐶𝐶) 12. In this experiment, the increase in right flow
= 𝐶𝐶 𝐶 𝐶𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 tube radius resulted in
an increase in flow rate, which increased the
In total the cardiovascular system maintains blood pump rate.
pressure by altering: heart rate, stroke volume
and resistance 13. Which chamber should be present in the flow
pattern of the experiment, given that the vessels
Questions and valves surrounding it are present (are present
(the chamber was omitted from the experiment for
1. The heart is resting during simplicity)?
ventricular diastole. Left atrium
REVIEW
2. The right side of the heart pumps blood
to the lungs. 1. Explain the effect of increasing the right flow
tube radius on the flow rate, resistance, and pump
3. The layer of the blood vessel that is stimulated rate.
by the autonomic nervous system is - increase right flow tube, increases blood
smooth muscle. flow rate.
- increase right flow tube, decreases
4. In the experiment, the pump simulates resistance
the left ventricle of the heart. - increase right flow tube, increases pump
rate
5. If the right beaker simulates the flow of blood to
the systemic circuit of the body, what do the right 2. Describe what left and right beakers in the
valve and flow tube represent? experiment correspond to in the human heart.
aortic valve and aorta - Left beaker: blood coming from the
lungs
6. When the piston of the pump reaches its lowest - Right beaker: blood traveling to
point, the volume remaining in the pump is the systemic circuit
end systolic volume.
3. Briefly describe how the human heart could
7. If you increase the right flow tube radius, what compensate for flow rate changes to maintain
will happen to resistance and flow rate? blood pressure.
Flow rate will increase and resistance will - Increased flow rate, heart pumps faster
decrease to maintain blood pressure
.
At rest, cardiac muscles are at less than
optimum overlap length for maximum tension.
Activity 6 - This means that when the heart
In normal individuals 60% of the blood in the experiences an increase in stretch with an
heart is ejected during ventricular systole, 40% is increase in venous return and EDV - the
thus left behind. response is an increase in contraction
force and stroke volume
Stroke Volume = EDV - ESV
- difference bet. the end diastolic volume and the Afterload
end systolic volume - the back pressure generated by the blood in the
- it is the blood ejected by the heart aorta and the pulmonary trunk
- the threshold that must be overcome for the
Factors that affect stroke volume aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves to open
- preload, contractility, and afterload - referred to as afterload because load is placed
after the contraction of the ventricle starts
Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
- when more blood than the normal volume of is High Blood individuals suffer contractions against
returned to the heart by the venous system, the greater pressures and thus have less stroke volume
heart muscle will be stretched, resulting in a more
forceful contraction of the ventricles. The effect is Cardiac Output
that more blood is ejected, or the stroke volume - total blood flow is proportional to cardiac output
increases (amount of blood the heart is able to pump per
minute)
Preload ↓ stroke volume = must ↑ heart rate to maintain
- degree to w/c the ventricles are stretched by the cardiac output
EDV
- results from the amount of ventricular filling bet. ↑ stroke volume = must ↓ heart rate to maintain
strokes or the magnitude of the EDV.
- factors such as severe blood loss and dehydration cardiac output
venous return and EDV
Questions
Ventricular filling may increase when the heart 1. Which of the following variables directly
rate is slow (more time to fill) contributes to preload?
venous return
Contractility
- strength of the cardiac muscle contraction 2. Which of the following would not increase end
(usually the ventricles) and its ability to generate diastolic volume?
force Dehydration
- extrinsic factors like the nervous system and
hormones control the force of cardiac contractility 3. Increased contractility of the heart results in all
but which of the following?
Focus however are INTRINSIC FACTORS increased end systolic volume
(within the heart)
4. Which of the following does not affect stroke
↑ EDV = cardiac muscle fibers of the ventricles volume?
All of these affect stroke volume.
stretch and lengthen = ↑ force of contraction
5. Which of the following is not equivalent to the
Cardiac muscle exhibit length-tension others?
relationship like skeletal muscles end diastolic volume
6. Why did changing the ending pump volume
(ESV) automatically change the stroke volume?
The heart intrinsically alters stroke volume to Activity 7
accommodate changes in preload.
Aortic Valve Stenosis
7. The flow has stayed constant with each trial - a partial blockage of the aortic semilunar valve,
because increasing resistance to blood flow and left
cardiac output is equivalent to blood flow. ventricular afterload
8. How does the heart provide for an increase in - The heart compensates by increasing
stroke volume? contractility thus increasing cardiac output
by increasing contractility and stroke volume
- To do this, the heart myocardium becomes
9. What do you think would happen when stroke thicker (cardiovascular conditioning) both
volume is decreased? in athletes and diseased hearts
Pump rate would increase. - The difference is that diseased heart
chamber volumes DECREASE while that
10. Why might an athlete's resting heart rate be of healthy athletes increase
lower than that of the average person?
Stroke volume and contractility have increased. Valves in the heart are important because they
make sure blood flows in one direction only
11. In this activity, which of the following stayed
constant? Artherosclerosis pertains to a complication where
flow rate there are plaques in the arteries, decreasing the
flow rate.
12. Which of the following is true?
ESV = EDV - SV It is a type of ARTERIOSCLEROSIS in which
the arteries have lost elasticity
REVIEW
1. Describe the Frank-Starling law in the heart. Questions
1. Which of the following could cause an increase
2. Explain what happened to the pump rate when in peripheral resistance in the blood vessel?
you increase the stroke volume. Why do you think Atherosclerosis
this occurred? How well did the results compare
with your prediction? 2. Which structures in the heart ensure that one-
way flow occurs?
- increased stroke volume, decreases pump valves
rate 3. Which of the following might be seen in both
- to maintain blood flow: decreased heart the diseased heart and the athlete's heart?
rate, increases stroke volume thicker myocardium
- constant rate: increased cardiac output,
increases stroke volume 4. The type of resistance increased in aortic valve
stenosis is
3. Describe how the heart alters stroke volume. increased left-ventricular afterload
- increased stroke volume alters .
contractibility 5. Narrowing of the right flow tube radius
simulates
4. Describe the intrinsic factors that control stroke aortic valve stenosis.
volume
- preload, contractibility 6. What does increasing the pump pressure
correspond to in the human heart?
increasing the force of contraction Exercise 6: Cardiovascular Physiology
• Cardiac muscles contract spontaneously -
7. What does decreasing the right (destination) Autorhythmicity
beaker correspond to in the human heart?
- It occurs because pacemaker cell
decreasing afterload
membranes have reduced permeability to
8. Which of the following compensatory potassium, but allow calcium and sodium
mechanisms was not tested? ions to leak into them (f-channels)
decreasing the pressure in the left (source) - This leakage creates a slow creep to
beaker depolarization, followed by the opening of
L-type calcium channels and a subsequent
9. In an actual heart, what is the most logical way
influx of extracellular Ca.
to compensate for a decrease in flow tube radius?
adjust the force of contraction of the heart
The continuous depolarization-repolarization
10. Without a difference in pressure between the rhythm creates cardiac action potentials
pump and the destination beaker
the valve will not open. There are 5 phases of membrane polarization in a
cardiac action potential
11. Athletes experience an overall __________ in
peripheral resistance, so the heart generates
__________ pressure to deliver the same amount Phase 0
of blood. An athlete's arterial pressure would - Depolarization, opening of Na channels,
likely be __________ than that in a non-athlete. membrane potential increases
decrease, less, lower
Phase 1
REVIEW
- Na channels begin to deactivate,
1. Explain how the heart could compensate for
changes in peripheral resistance. membrane potential falls slightly, voltage
- increase contractility gated Ca channels open, voltage gated K
channels close
2. Which mechanism has the greatest - The increase in Ca and decrease in K
compensatory effect? How well did the results removal compensates for the inactivation
compare with your prediction? of Na channels
- decreased pressure, decreases afterload
In total the refractory period of a cardiac 9. Given the function of the heart, why is it
muscle is 200-250 milliseconds (almost the important that cardiac muscle cannot reach
same as a contraction) tetanus?
The ventricles must contract and relax fully
Questions with each beat to pump blood.
10. An extrasystole corresponds to Parasympathetic decreases rate w/out changing
an extra ventricular contraction. contraction force
4. Explain why wave summation and tetanus are 2. The branch of the autonomic nervous system
not possible in cardiac muscle tissue. How well that dominates during exercise is
did the results compare with your prediction? the sympathetic branch.
- Because they’re action potentials, twitches
and refractory periods are longer 3. Parasympathetic stimulation reaches the heart
through
vagus nerves, which are cranial nerves.
4. What do you think would happen to the heart 3. The electrolytes in a Ringer's solution are
rate if the vagus nerve was cut? required to
- It would allow only the sympathetic provide for autorhythmicity.
system to regulate heart rate, and so heart
rate will increase. 4. An internal body temperature that is above the
normal range is
Hyperthermic.
4. The __________ receptor binds norepinephrine 3. Describe the benefits of administering digitalis.
and epinephrine. - Digitalis are helpful in bolstering weak
ß-1 adrenergic heart in congestive heart failure. People
5. Which of the following is true of epinephrine? with such condition need to have
It increases the heart rate and mimics the maximum time for the venous return and
sympathetic nervous system. increased stroke volume When digitalis is
administered, it will increase force of
6. The final chemical modifier we will look at is contraction and decrease heart rate.
digitalis (also known as digoxin and digitoxin and
derived from the foxglove plant). Individuals with 4. Distinguish between cholinergic and adrenergic
weakened hearts need to allow maximum time for chemical modifiers. Include examples of each in
venous return and increased stroke volume and your discussion.
would therefore most likely benefit from
increased force of contraction and decreased Cholinergics
heart rate - Pilocarpine (Agonist) and Atropine
(Antagonist)
7. Pilocarpine decreased the heart rate. Typical of
cholinergic agonists, it Adrenergics
decreased the frequency of action potentials. - Epinephrine itself (mimics sympathetic
nervous system)
Activity 5 LAB MANUAL
Exercise 6: Physiology of the Respiratory
- AP’s in cardiac muscles are caused by ion System
channel permeability changes • Gas exchange
- Na and Ca are high at the OUTSIDE of = important metabolic process
the cell, K is high in the INSIDE = ensures that the diff. parts of the body are able
to receive the proper amount of O2 and eliminate
Resting membrane potential favors K channels and CO2
is thus the ratio of extracellular and intracellular = gas exchange between air and blood occur in
potassium the alveolar air sacs
= efficiency of gas exchange is dependent on
High blood pressure and abnormal heart rates are ventilation
treated using Ca channel blockers
- This causes depolarization rates and • Respiration
contraction force to reduce = cylindrical breathing pattern known as
Modifiers ventilation
= consists of repeating cycles of inspiration
Chonotropic - affect heart rate (Positive if they followed by expiration
increase; Negative if they decrease) = inspiration –> gas exchange in alveoli –>
Inotropic - affect force of contraction (same as expiration
above)
• Spirometry
2+
Addition of Ca = physiological test that measures how much air
= POSITIVE chronotropy and inotropy an individual inhales or exhales
= increase Ca2+ influs = GREATER contractility = Measurements taken:
= accelerated depolarization = INCREASED heart – Volume
rate – Time
– Flow
Addition of Na+ = allows many components of pulmonary
= NEGATIVE chronotropy and inotropy function to be visualized, measured, and
= increase in Na+ influx = decrease in Ca2+ influx calculated
= DECREASED cardiac contractility
= increased peak of depolarization due to Na+ =
decreased heart rate
Addition of K+
= NEGATIVE chronotropy and inotropy
= increase extracellular K= slow impulse
conduction = decreased heart rate
= slow impulse conduction = shortened action
potential = decreased cardiac contractility
• Flow • In normal ventilation, the breathing frequency (f
= commonly measured by breathing into a bell ) is approximately 15 respiratory cycles per minute
spirometer = the value varies with the level of activity
= F = dV
dt • Expired Minute Volume (VE)
= more conveniently measured using a = product of f and VT
pneumotachometer = also changes according to the level of activity
– also with the use of PowerLab
– flow head contains a fine mesh • Vital Capacity (VC)
~air breathed through it gives rise to a small = amount of air that the lungs can release after
pressure difference proportional to flow rate having been filled up completely
- 2 plastic tubes transmit the pressure diff. = essential in spirometry, as it can tell the extent
to the Spirometer Pod –> transducer to which a person can change the volume of
converts pressure signal into a changing their lunds
voltage recorded by PowerLab and = can be used to determine one's Residual
displayed via LabChart Volume (RV) and Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
– V = ∫ F dt RV = VC x 0.25
~this integration represents a summation TLC = RV + VC
over time
~the integral ( ∫ ) is initialized to 0 every
time a recording is started
– complications in the volume measurement is
caused by the difference in air temp between
the Spirometer Pod (at ambient temp) and the
air exhaled from the lungs (at body temp)
– the volume of gas expands with warming
~therefore the air volume expired from the
lungs will be slightly greater than that
inspired
– a volume trace (as calculated by integration • Inspiratory Pressure
of flow) drifts in the expiratory direction = The pressure generated when an individual
~to reduce the drift, the flow has to be inhales or breathes in air
integrated separately during inspiration and = During inhalation, inspiratory muscles
expiration (diaphragm and external intercostals) contract
- the inspiratory volume being corrected
pulling downwards and forwards
by a factor related to the BTPS factor = The effect is an increase in the size of the
(body temp, atmospheric pressure, thoracic cavity and the expansion of the lungs
saturated with water vapor) = The volume of air that enters increases
accompanied by a decrease intrapulmonary
• Tidal Volume (VT) pressure compared to that of the atmospheric or
= volume of air that is drawn into and then ambient pressure
expired out of the lungs
= The blue line shows the relationship between
the transmural pressure across the lung
compared with the organ's volume.
= Transmural pressure is the relative pressure
between the alveoli compared to the pressure in
• Expiratory Pressure the intrapleural space. This curve indicates lung
= Pressure generated during exhalation and is expansion during inspiration.
the opposite of inspiratory pressure = The first plot does not start at zero volume
= Muscles relax and the thoracic cavity – because of the residual volume which is the
compresses air still remaining in the lungs even after
= The lungs collapse and the volume of air expiration
decreases while the intrapulmonary pressure = At low lung volume, the lung is most most
increases above the atmospheric pressure compliant /easiest to expand compared to larger
= Inverse effects in inspiratory and expiratory volumes where greater changes in transmural
pressures are governed by Boyle’s Law pressure are required to achieve the same value
of expansion
= However as lungs expand, their compliance
/ability to expand progressively decreases
– due to the progressive stretching of elastin
fibers to their physical limits as well as
increasing surface tension as alveoli expand
= Chest wall tends to fall outward, it will put the
lung in the negative pressure and that’s when we
inspire and draw air inward and is the reason
why chest wall should not have a negative
• Expected compliance of lung-chest wall system pressure
= When the alveolar pressure, which is always
positive, and the negative chest wall pressure
completely balance each other, the value is zero
and it is called Functional Residual Capacity
(FRC).
– At FCR, the pressure in the airway and the
lungs is equal to atmospheric pressure, it will
neither draw air in or out.
– EXPANSION ABOVE FRC:
~Results of the change into the individual
compliances of the lung and chest wall.
~As lung volume expands above FRC,
elastic recoil of the lungs generates
progressively greater recoiling forces.
~As chest wall volume expands about FRC, used for cell metabolism; carbon dioxide diffuses
outward springing force of the chest wall into the blood) -> returns to the heart
declines and at a very high volumes inverts
to a recoiling force. Ventilation
- result of skeletal muscle contraction
– CONTRACTION BELOW FRC: - must be regulated at all times to maintain oxygen
~The lung volume contracts below FRC in arterial blood and carbon dioxide in venous
when elastic recoil of the lungs declines and blood in normal levels (normal partial pressures)
thus generates smaller collapsing forces. Partial Pressure -
~As the chest wall volume contracts below the proportion of pressure that the gas exerts in a
the FRC, outward springing force of the mixture
chest wall rapidly increases, generating
*Diaphragm – dome shaped muscle that divides
progressively greater expanding forces. the thoracic and abdominal cavities
REVIEW:
Questions 1.What would be an example of an everyday
1. Which of the following statements describing respiratory event the ERV button simulates?
the mechanics of breathing is false? - The ERV button simulates a forced expiration.
Ventilation relies exclusively on contracting
skeletal muscles. 2. What additional skeletal muscles are utilized in
an ERV activity?
2. The contraction of which of the following - In forced expiration, abdominal-wall muscles
muscles will increase the thoracic cavity volume and the internal intercostal muscles contract.
during inspiration? 3. What was the FEV1 (%) at the initial radius of
the external intercostals 5.00 mm?
3. At the beginning of inspiration, the - The FEV1 (%) at a radius of 5 mm is 73.9%
thoracic cavity volume increases. (3541/4791 100%).
4. At the beginning of expiration, the 4. What happened to the FEV1 (%) as the radius
pressure in the thoracic cavity increases of the airways decreased? How well did the results
compare with your prediction?
5. A tidal volume refers to the - The FEV1 (%) decreased proportionally as the
amount of air inspired and then expired with radius decreased.
each breath under resting conditions.
5. Explain why the results from the experiment
6. Which muscles contract during quiet suggest that there is an obstructive, rather than a
expiration? restrictive, pulmonary problem.
None of these muscles contract during quiet - The FEV1 (%) decreased proportionally as the
expiration. radius decreased which is characteristic of an
obstructive pulmonary problem.
7. To calculate a person's vital capacity, you need
to know the TV, ERV, and
IRV.
Activity 2
8. Measuring a person's FVC means that you are Spirometer
measuring - device that measures the volume of air inspired
the amount of air that can be expelled when the and expired by the lungs over a specified period of
subject takes the deepest possible inspiration time
and then forcefully expires as completely and
rapidly as possible. Emphysema Breathing
- there is a significant loss of elastic recoil in the
9. Measuring a person's FEV1 means that you are lung tissue
measuring - FVC and FEV1 decreases
- occurs as the disease destroys the wall of the ● heavy exercise: rate of breathing and the tidal
alveoli volume increases to their maximum tolerable
- airways is increased as the lung tissue in general limits
becomes flimsy and exerts less anchoring on the
surrounding airways = the lung becomes overly Questions
compliant and expands easily 1. A normal resting tidal volume is expected to be
- great effort is required to expire because the around
lungs can no longer passively recoil and deflate 500 mL
- each respiration requires a noticeable and
exhausting muscular effort – a person with 2. Which respiratory process is impaired the most
emphysema expires slowly by emphysema?
Expiration
Acute Asthma Attack Breathing
- bronchiole smooth muscle spasms, and thus the
airways become constricted (that is, reduced in 3. During an asthma attack
diameter) inspiration and expiration are impaired.
- FVC and FEV1 decreases
- they become clogged with thick mucus secretion 4. During moderate aerobic exercise,
= lead to significantly increased airway resistance which respiratory variable increases the
- airway inflammatory response brought on by most?
triggers such as allergens, extreme temperatures tidal volume
changes, and even exercise
- like emphysema, the airways collapse and pinch 5. Inhaler medications for an asthma
closed before a forced expiration is completed = patient are designed to
volumes and peak flow rates are significantly dilate the patient's bronchioles.
reduced during an asthma attack; unlike
emphysema, the elastic recoil is not diminished in 6. When obstructive lung disease
an acute asthma attack develops, what happens to the FEV1 (%)?
- during acute asthma attack: many people seek to
It decreases.
relieve symptoms with an inhaler that atomizes the
medication and allows for direct application onto 7. Compared with the normal patient, what
the afflicted airways; medication includes a happened to the FVC in this patient?
smooth muscle relaxant (β2 agonist or It decreased.
acetylcholine antagonist) that relieves the
bronchospasms and induces bronchiole dilation; it
also includes an anti-inflammatory agents, such as 8. Compared with the normal patient, what
corticosteroid, that suppresses the inflammatory happened to the FEV1 in this patient?
response It decreased.
- the use of inhaler reduces airway resistance
9. Compared with the normal patient, what
using inhaler: happened to the FVC in this patient?
- all values except IRV, RV, FVC and FEV1 have
returned to normal It decreased.
13. Which of the following respiratory values 4. How is having an acute asthma attack similar to
represents a decreased flow rate during the having emphysema? How is it different?
obstructive lung disease(s)? - Both are similar because they are obstructive
FEV1 diseases characterized by increased airway
resistance. It is more difficult to exhale with
14. Calculate the ERV of an individual with the emphysema than with asthma.
following respiratory volumes: TLC = 6000 ml,
FVC = 4800 ml, RV = 1200ml, IRV = 2900 ml, 5. Describe the effect that the inhaler medication
TV = 500 ml. had on the asthmatic patient. Did all the spirogram
1400 ml values return to “normal”? Why do you think
some values did not return all the way to normal?
15. Calculate the FVC of an individual with the How well did the results compare with your
following respiratory volumes: RV = 1000 ml, prediction?
IRV = 3000 ml, TV = 500 ml, ERV = 1500 ml. - The values that returned to normal were TV,
5000 ml ERV, FEV1 (%). The smooth muscles in the
bronchioles didn’t return to normal plus mucus
16. What is the largest volume for the normal still blocks the airway.
patient?
IRV 6. How much of an increase in FEV1 do you think
is required for it to be considered significantly
17. What happened to the RV for the emphysema improved by the medication?
patient and the asthmatic patient? - A significant improvement would be at least 10–
It increased for both patients. 15% improvement. Student answers will vary on
Review Questions: this response.
1. What lung values changed (from those of the
normal patient) in the spirogram when the patient 7. With moderate aerobic exercise, which changed
with emphysema was selected? Why did these more from normal breathing, the ERV or the IRV?
values change as they did? How well did the How well did the results compare with your
results compare with your prediction? prediction?
- The values that change for the patient with - The lung value that changed more with moderate
emphysema are ERV, IRV, RV, FVC, FEV1 and exercise was IRV.
the FEV1 (%). These changes are due to the loss
of elastic recoil. 8. Compare the breathing rates during normal
breathing, moderate exercise, and heavy exercise.
2. Which of these two parameters changed more - The breathing rate increased with moderate and
for the patient with emphysema, the FVC or the heavy exercise. A greater increase in breathing
FEV1? rate was seen with heavy exercise.
- The FEV1 decreased significantly more than the
FVC for the patient with emphysema.
Activity 3
Surface Tension
- resists any force that tends to increase surface are Surface tension acts to increase the size of the
of the gas-liquid boundary; alveoli within the lungs.
- acts to decrease the size of hollow spaces, such
as the alveoli, or microscopic air spaces within the 2. Which of the following statements about
lungs surfactant is false?
Surfactant Surfactant works by increasing the attraction
- a detergent-like mixture of lipids and proteins of water molecules to each other.
that decreases surface tension by reducing the
attraction of water molecules to each other 3. Just before an inspiration begins, the pressure
- reduces the amount of work required to inflate within the intrapleural cavity
the lung is less than the pressure within the alveoli.
- the sequential additions of surfactant decreases
the surface tension 4. The respiratory condition of pneumothorax
- premature infants have low surfactant in their refers to
lungs = difficulty in breathing any opening that equalizes the intrapleural
pressure with the atmospheric pressure.
Intrapleural Pressure
- the pressure in the pleural cavity 5. A pneumothorax can lead to
- less than the pressure in the alveoli between Atelectasis.
breaths 6. The addition of surfactant to the lung interior
increased airflow.
Two forces cause this negative condition:
1. The tendency of the lung to recoil because of its 7. Opening the valve in the side of the glass bell
elastic properties and the surface tension of the jar
alveolar fluid. simulated pneumothorax.
2. The tendency of the compressed chest wall to
recoil and expand outward 8. In this activity a pneumothorax is automatically
followed by
= These two forces pull the lungs away from the Atelectasis.
thoracic wall, creating a partial vacuum in the
pleural cavity. 9. The best way to rapidly reinflate a person's
collapsed lung is to
*Because the pressure in the intrapleural space is pump air out of the intrapleural space to
lower than atmospheric pressure, any opening recreate negative pressure.
created in the pleural membranes equalizes the
intrapleural pressure with atmospheric pressure by 10. Why did the sequential additions of surfactant
allowing air to enter the pleural cavity, a condition change this lung system?
called pneumothorax. Surface tension was sequentially decreased.
3. Cellulose and starch are both 2. Describe the result in tube 3. How well did the
polymers of glucose and polysaccharides. results compare with your prediction?
- Amylase cannot digest cellulose, so tube #3 is
4. Proteins and peptides are formed by joining not positive for Benedict’s test.
amino acids with a special type of covalent bond
called a 3. Describe the usual substrate for peptidase.
peptide bond. - A protein (BAPNA in this experiment).
7. Which two tubes validated the results of the triglyceride → monoglyceride + two fatty acids
experiment?
tubes 3 and 4 Lipase
- hydrolyzes each triglyceride to a monoglyceride 1. Explain why you can’t fully test the lipase
and two fatty acids activity in tube 5.
- activity may be monitored using the solution’s - Measurement of lipase activity uses a decrease in
pH pH. Because the pH in Tube #5 is already very
- low pH: sol’n containing fatty acids liberated by low, it is hard to tell if fatty acids are released.
lipase activity
- pH measures: both lipase activity and fatty acid 2. Which tube had the highest lipase activity? How
release well did the results compare with your prediction?
● Pancreatic Lipase – secreted in the small Discuss possible reasons why it may or may not
intestine; active in the mouth and pancreas have matched.
● Lingual Lipase and Gastric Lipase – - Test tube #1 should have the highest activity
secreted in the small intestine because the pH is closest to that of the small
intestine.
Questions
1. Which of the following is/are true of bile? 3. Explain why pancreatic lipase would be active
It works by a physical process. in both the mouth and the intestine.
2. - Pancreatic lipase is most active at pH 7.0 The pH
The substrate used in this simulation is vegetable of the mouth is 7.0 & the pH of the small intestine
oil . is close to 8.0 so the enzyme would function in
3. both places.
When fatty acids are liberated by lipase, the pH
Decreases. 4. Describe the process of bile emulsification of
4. lipids and how it improves lipase activity.
One of the products of the chemical digestion of - Fat globules are separated into droplets by bile
lipids is salts through an emulsification process which is
fatty acids. physical not chemical, which promote lipase
activity.
5.What does the pH measure?
both lipase activity and fatty acid release
6. PHYSIO EX
Why is it difficult to detect whether lipase is active
Exercise 9: Renal System Physiology
in tube 5?
The pH is already very low, so a decrease in pH • Kidney
might be difficult to detect. - both an excretory and regulatory organ
7. - filter water and solutes in the blood (afferent →
What is the product of lipase hydrolysis? glomerular capillary → Bowman’s capsule)
fatty acids - regulate plasma osmolarity (the concentration of
8. a solution expressed as osmoles of solute per liter
From your results, which pH is ideal for pancreatic of solvent), plasma volume, the body’s acid-base
lipase digestion? balance, and the body’s electrolyte balance
pH 7.0 - right kidney is slightly lower than the left
9.
Which tube confirms that there is no lipase in bile • Nephrons
salts or vegetable oil? - functional unit of the kidney
tube 4
10. From your results, where (in theory) would • Renal Corpuscle – consists of a ball of
pancreatic lipase be active? capillaries called glomerulus enclosed by
mouth and pancreas Bowman’s capsule
4. Which arteriole radius adjustment was more Peritubular capillaries arise from efferent
effective at compensating for the effect of low arteriole exiting the glomerulus and empties into a
blood pressure on the glomerular filtration rate? renal vein
Explain why you think this difference occurs.
The afferent arteriole dilation was the most Questions
effective compensatory mechanism for the 1. As filtrate passes through the nephron, the renal
effect of low blood pressure. This mechanism process of reabsorption describes
brought the glomerular filtration rate back to the movement of water and solutes from the
the baseline values where the blood pressure tubule lumen, into the interstitial space, and,
was normal. finally, into the peritubular capillaries
5. In the body, how does a nephron maintain a 2. The maximum solute concentration refers to the
near-constant glomerular filtration rate despite a amount of solutes
constantly fluctuating blood pressure? in the interstitial space.
It may be caused by extrinsic or intrinsic
regulatory mechanism. There can also be a 3. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) affects the
stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, permeability of
which may constrict the afferent arteriole as a the collecting duct.
response to an increase in blood pressure.
4. ADH aids the reabsorption of
Water.
2. What types of transport are utilized during This alongside the effects of ADH causes more
glucose reabsorption and where do they occur? water to be reabsorbed, resulting in an increase in
First the glucose enter the apical membrane by blood pressure.
GLUT 2 transport carrier by secondary active
transport and leaves through the basolateral A decrease in blood pressure is detected by cells in
membrane by the GLUT 1 transport protein by the afferent arteriole and this causes the release of
facilitated diffusion. Renin
PHYSIO EX
= Hyperventilation then normal breathing
- min. PCO2 decreased to 35.3 (still normal)
- min. pH decreased to 7.38 (still normal) and
max. pH increased to 7.47 (alkalosis)
- brief plateau before returning to the normal
breathing pattern corresponds to a short pause
in breathing
~necessary in order to retain some CO2,
which is normally lost during
hyperventilation
Review Questions:
1) What is the fastest compensatory mechanism
= Normal breathing for maintaining pH homeostasis in the human
- PCO2 & pH are constant (both normal) body?
- Chemical buffering system
5) Hypoventilation results in
- an accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood
• Renal compensation
6) What happens when there is an increase in = body's primary method of compensating for
hydrogen concentration? conditions of respiratory acidosis/alkalosis
- pH decreases = kidneys regulate acid-base balance by altering
the amount of H+ and HCO3- excreted in the
7) Respiratory acidosis CANNOT be caused by urine
- an anxiety attack = can partially compensate for pH imbalances
with a respiratory cause
8) Describe what happened to the pH and the – kidneys cannot fully compensate if
carbon dioxide levels during rebreathing. respirations have not returned to normal
- The pH level decreased while the carbon dioxide because CO2 levels will still be abnormal
level increased. • Respiratory acidosis
= generally caused by accumulation of CO2 in
9) Describe some possible causes of respiratory the blood from hypoventilation
acidosis. = can also be caused by rebreathing
Possible causes of respiratory acidosis include = pH is below normal level
lung diseases, an obstructed airway, • Respiratory alkalosis
hypoventilation, emphysema, and drug overdose. = caused by a depletion of CO2, often results
from hyperventilation
Activity 3: Renal Responses to Respiratory = elevated blood pH
Acidosis and Respiratory Alkalosis • Nephron
= functional unit of the kidney for adjusting – kidneys can also excrete hydrogen directly
plasma composition through the hydrogen pumps in the collecting
• Equipment used: tubules
= source beaker for blood • The body’s response to primary respiratory
= drain beaker for blood alkalosis is to utilize body buffers, followed by
= simulated nephron (filtrate forms in Bowman's decreased renal acid excretion
capsule –> flows through renal tubule –> = most of the buffering in primary respiratory
empties into collecting duct –> drains into alkalosis occurs intracellularly
urinary bladder) = Alkalemia promotes intracellular production
– nephron tank of lactic acid and helps in releasing hydrogen
– glomerulus - "ball" of capillaries that forms = chloride ions leave the red blood cells in
part of the filtration membrane exchange for bicarbonate to decrease the plasma
– glomerular (Bowman's) capsule - forms part bicarbonate (metabolic acidosis)
of the filtration membrane and a capsular = In a chronic respiratory alkalosis, renal acid
space where the filtrate initially forms excretion of H+ decreases to decrease
– proximal convoluted tubule ammoniagenesis and promote acidity
– loop of Henle
– distal convoluted tubule Review Questions:
– collecting duct 1) Respiratory alkalosis is characterized by
= drain beaker for filtrate – simulates urinary - pH greater than 7.45 and PCO2 less than 35 mm
bladder Hg
• Results
2) How does the kidney compensate for
respiratory alkalosis?
- It retains H+ and excretes bicarbonate ions
Review Questions:
1) An increase in metabolic rate (without
compensation) would result in
- more carbon dioxide in the blood