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Chapter-2

Vapor Power
Cycles
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Content
Chapter 1 Vapor Power Cycles

1.1. The Carnot Cycle

1.2. The Rankine Cycle

1.3. Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized

Ones

1.4. The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

1.5. The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

1.6. Types of Feed-Water Heaters


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POWER PLANT CYCLE ANALYSIS
 Steam power plants are the major sources of power generation.

• Fossil Fuels( Coal, • Shaft Work


Energy Natural Gas, Oil) (Expansion,
Steam Turbine) Energy Electricity
Stored • Fissile Fuels
(Uranium, Thorium) • Other

Combustion Chamber Boiler steam turbine Condenser

• Chemical Energy to • Thermal Energy • Expansion(low


Heat Energy • water to Steam (high Pressure)
• condensed into
pressure & • Shaft Work
water
temperature)

𝑸𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝑵𝒆𝒕
𝒅𝑬 = 𝟎 𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄
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POWER PLANT CYCLE ANALYSIS
standard steam power plant cycles
1

 The considered in this chapter include:


 Rankine cycle
 Reheat cycle
 Regenerative cycle
 Regenerative-Reheat cycle
 Binary vapor cycle
 Terms like
 Thermal efficiency (ƞthe) ,
 Work ratio (WR),
 Specific steam consumption (SSC), and
 Heat rate (HR)
• Nuclear energy has enlarged the world’s power resources,
The energy released by 1kg of uranium ≈4500 kg of high grade coal.

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POWER PLANT CYCLE ANALYSIS
. Process
1

Irreversible
Reversible Real Processes
Ideal Cycle Sources of
Models of Real processes a. Friction
Reversed without leaving any trace on either Mechanical work dissipate into heating effect, ex. Shaft
system or surroundings rotating in a bearing
A. They are easy to analyze (since system passes Fluid friction- turbine undergoes internal friction-does
through a series of equilibrium states) less work and high temperature (enthalpy).
B. They serve as limits (idealized models) to b. Heat Transfer
which the actual processes can be compared. c. Throttling- uncontrolled expansion and compression
1. Very slowly ex. Leakage from a steam pipe or the flow through a
2. Without any resisting force valve
3. Without any space limitation d. Mixing- they cannot separate without external aid.
everything happens in a highly organized way (it 1. External- across the boundaries of the system-source
is not physically possible -it is an idealization (Heat Transfer and mechanical friction) ex. Turbine,
compressors, pumps, and generators
2. Internal- with in the boundary- source ( fluid friction)
ex. Turbine, compressors, and pumps.
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Fossil Fueled vapor power plant

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Pressurized Water reactor nuclear vapor power plant

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Concentrating Solar Thermal Vapor Power Plant

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Geothermal Power Plant

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POWER PLANT CYCLE ANALYSIS
The Rankine Cycle
 The steam power cycle, it is possible to assume a hypothetical or ideal process
and
 Does not produce any extraneous effect (like heat loss and pressure loss).
 When all these four processes are ideal, the cycle is an ideal cycle (a cycle
without internal irreversibilities), called a Rankine cycle.

1-2 Isentropic compression in a


pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat
addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a
turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat
rejection in a condenser

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POWER PLANT CYCLE ANALYSIS
The Rankine Cycle

Typical assumptions
1. Steady flow in all components
2. Steady state in all components
3. Usually ignore kinetic and potential energy changes in all
components
4. Pressure losses are considered negligible in boiler and
condenser
5. Power components are isentropic for ideal cycle

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POWER PLANT CYCLE ANALYSIS
0  Q pump  WP ump  m(h 1  h 2  KE  P E)
Pump
Boiler Turbine Condenser
• Adiabatic
• No work done • Adiabatic • No work done
• Reversible
• Heat Exchanger • Reversible • Heat Exchanger
• Isentropic
2
• Heat Supply • Isentropic • Heat Loss
WP = vdP = h2 − h1 0  Q pump + m(h 2  h 3 ) Wt = h3 − h4 Q C = h4 − h1
1
h1 ≅ hf@p1 Specific steam consumption (s.s.c.)
v1 ≅ vf@p1 • The steam flow rate in kg/hr required to develop 1 kW of power output.
3600 m
• The lower the s.c.c the more compact the steam plant. wnet
=sss =w
net
Performance of Steam Plant
Work ratio (wr)
Isentropic efficiency ( ηis) • The ratio of the net work produced by the plant to the work produced by
• The actual expansion and pumping processes the turbine,
are adiabatic but not reversible.

Back work ratio Thermal efficiency ( ηth)


• The ratio of the work supplied to the feed-water • The ratio of net work produced by the plant to the amount of heat
pump to the work produced by the turbine added to the working fluid in the boiler

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑡 − 𝑤𝑝 𝑇1 Mean temperature Tm at which heat


η𝑡ℎ = = η𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑖 𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑖 𝑇𝑚 is supplied to the working substance

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The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle
• There are certain deviations from the assumption
made in the analysis of Rankine cycle.
• Thermal Irreversibility in Steam Generation
– Heat is Added to feed water in three
stages(Economizer-Evaporator-Superheater )
A. Mean Temperature of the heat supply - the
total heat supplied in the steam Generator.
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝐸𝑐𝑜 + 𝑄𝐸𝑣𝑎 + 𝑄𝑆ℎ
=ℎ1 − ℎ4
= 𝑇𝑚 𝑆1 − 𝑆4
• T2 = temperature of heat rejection=depends upon
condenser pressure but cannot be less than the
temperature of surrounding.
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑓 𝑇𝑚 only
B. Pinch Points- the minimum temperature
differences are C-5 and 1-a b/n the two fluids. Q out T2
– A small pinch point causes increase in surface ηth = 1 − =1−
Q in Tm
area and expensive steam generator .
– large pinch point results in lower plant
efficiency due to large thermal irreversibility.
• The most economical pinch point temperature
difference is obtained by –
 Optimization to ensure minimum cost of steam
generator
 Minimum operating cost

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The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle
 Improvement in the basic Rankin Cycle.
 Steam temperature at inlet to the turbine is
increases at boiler, thus increasing the
mean temperature of heat addition.
 Increase the cycle efficiency.
 Steam exits the turbine is more dry, i.e., the
dryness fraction, x of the steam increases.
 Specific steam consumption drops.
 the maximum possible temperature of
steam in a thermal power plant is restricted
by the strength of the available materials
for boiler tubes or turbine blades.

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The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle
• There are certain deviations from the
assumption made in the analysis of Rankine
cycle.
• Thermal Irreversibility in Condenser
 e-f - Cooling water temperature rise in
condenser
• f-2 – pinch point- controls
1. The condenser pressure which should be as low
as possible
2. The size and cost of condenser and pumping cost
will increase with the decrease of f-2.

• There is a limit, however, to the minimum


pressure in the condenser.
• The lowest condenser pressure that can be
reached ideally will be the saturation
pressure corresponding to the lowest
available temperature of cooling water.

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The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle
• There are certain deviations from the assumption made in
the analysis of Rankine cycle.
• Friction Losses in steam turbine and feed pump.
 The flow rates in turbine and pump are large and the
process may be considered adiabatic.
 Fluid friction- the entropy of fluid will increase in both
cases. This is called internal irreversibility and can be
expressed by isentropic efficiency.

• The irreversibility in a real Rankine cycle is the result of


irreversibility in the following areas:
I. Friction in bearings, etc.
II. Pressure drop in steam and water piping, heat
exchangers, bends and valves, etc.
III. Friction in turbine blading and pump resulting in
increase in entropy in both
IV. Windage loss in turbine

• The turbine produces less work and pump consumes more


work due to irreversibility.

• The isentropic efficiency of compression and expansion is given by:

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The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle
• There are certain deviations from the assumption made in
the analysis of Rankine cycle.
• Pressure Losses
P1 = pressure at turbine inlet
P5 = pressure at boiler outlet P1 = P4 = P5
P4 = pressure t pump outlet
• (P’4) greater than P1-Due to friction in the boiler heat
exchangers, feed water heaters, pipes, bend, valves etc

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Internally Irreversible Rankine Cycle
 Water fed to the boiler is converted to
steam at its exit, receiving thermal
energy from the burning fuel.
 The efficiency of a boiler ƞboiler is the
ratio of the quantity of heat received by
steam to the energy released by the
combustion of the fuel.

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Example
• Steam at 50 bar and 500 °C flowing at the rate of 5000 kg/h expands
in a steam turbine to a condenser pressure of 10 kPa with an
isentropic efficiency of 85%, Determine:
(a) the net power output
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle

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Exercise
• The steam power plant in Example 1 is modified to take in a continuous supply of steam
from a geothermal energy source at 2 bar, 90% quality and a flow rate of 2500 kg/h. The
superheated steam leaving the boiler expands in a high pressure (HPJ turbine to 2 bar
with an isentropic efficiency of 85% and mixes adiabatically with the steam from the
geothermal source as shown in Fig.. The mixed steam then expands, with an isentropic
efficiency of 85%, in a low pressure (LP) turbine to the condenser pressure of 0.1
bar. Determine:
a. the net power output,
b. the thermal efficiency of the cycle based on fuel consumption
c. c) the overall thermal efficiency of the plant.

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Improvement of Cycle Efficiency
• The Rankine cycle efficiency increases with the increase of mean temperature of heat supply in
the cycle.
1. Use of high steam parameters, i.e. high temperature and pressure of superheat stea
2. Reheating of partially expanded steam
3. Regenerative heating of boiler feedwater
High Steam Parameters
• If the temperature of the superheated steam is increased keeping the pressure constant, it has
double advantage
A. Improvement of cycle efficiency due to increase of mean temperature of heat supply
B. Final wetness in steam is less which avoids blade erosion(12%).
• The turbine inlet temperature is limited due to metallurgical consideration.

• The superheater, piping, valves, steam chest and inlet


turbine blades are made from ferrite steels for which
temperature limit is 5500C.
• Austenitic steel= above this temperature which are alloy
steels and four times costlier.
• For a temperature of 550C and 12% exhaust wetness, the
initial steam pressure would be about 150 bar.

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The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
In the ideal Rankine cycle,
 On large turbines, it becomes economical to increase the cycle efficiency by using reheat,
which is a way of partially overcoming the temperature limitations.
 An equivalent gain in the average temperature during the heat input process may be
accomplished by raising the boiler pressure.
 For a given maximum cycle temperature, an increase in the boiler pressure results in a
decrease in the quality of the steam leaving the turbine.
 To avoid the erosion problem and still take advantage of the higher temperatures made
available by increasing the boiler pressure, the Reheat cycle has been developed.
 Reheating is necessarily practiced in high pressure plants.
 Reheating is adopted for large turbines above 100 MW.

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The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

 The cost of extra pipes and controls that make Reheat cycle more
expensive than the Rankine cycle are limitations of this cycle.

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The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
Example
Superheated steam leaves the boiler of a reheat cycle at 5 MPa and 500
°C. Steam is withdrawn from the first stage turbine at a pressure of 0.2
MPa and reheated to 350 °C and finally expanded to the condenser
pressure of 10 kPa. If the isentropic efficiency of both the HP and
LP turbines is 85%, determine:
a) the work ratio,
b) the specific steam consumption,
c) the thermal efficiency, and
d) the heat rate of the cycle.

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The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
 The intermediate pressure at
which steam is reheated affects
the cycle efficiency.
 A reheat pressure too close to the
initial pressure results in little
improvement in the thermal
efficiency of the cycle because only
a small quantity of heat (as
reheat) is added at high
temperature.
 The thermal efficiency improves as
the reheat pressure is lowered and
reaches a peak at a pressure ratio
of about 0.1.
 The thermal efficiency of the plant
also improves as the reheat
pressure is lowered. However,
lowering the reheat pressure
further causes the efficiency to
decrease again
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The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
 The quality of steam leaving the
low-pressure turbine, as a
function of pressure ratio.
 Too low pressure ratio may even
result in superheated exhaust
steam, an unfavorable situation
for condenser operation.
 For any particular reheat cycle,
there exists an intermediate
pressure at which the maximum
thermal efficiency of the cycle
and minimum specific steam
consumption are acquired.

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The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
 To increase the mean temperature at which heat is supplied and reduce the
external thermal irreversibility, attention was so far confined to increasing the
amount of heat supplied at high temperatures, such as
 increasing superheat,
 higher pressure and temperature of steam
 reheat.
 The mean temperature at which heat is supplied can also be increased by
reducing the amount of heat added at low temperatures, i.e., in the liquid phase
of the steam generation process.
 In the regenerative cycle, the mean temperature at which heat is added is
increased by raising the temperature of the feed-water entering the boiler.

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The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

 The thermal efficiency of the regenerative cycle is then given by:

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The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
 The efficiency increases as the number of feedwater heaters is increased.
 Many large plants in operation today use as many as eight feedwater
heaters.
 The optimum number of feedwater heaters is determined from economical
considerations.
 The use of an additional feedwater is justified if it saves more from the fuel
costs than its own cost.

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Open Feedwater Heaters

 An open (or direct-contact)


feedwater heater is basically
a mixing chamber, where the
steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the
feedwater exiting the pump.
 Ideally, the mixture leaves the
heater as a saturated liquid at
the heater pressure.

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Closed Feedwater Heaters
 Heat is transferred from the extracted  In actual power plants, the
steam to the feedwater without any feedwater leaves the heater
mixing taking place. below the exit temperature of the
 The two streams can be at different extracted steam because a
pressures, since they do not mix. temperature difference of at least
 In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the a few degrees is required for any
feedwater is heated to the exit effective heat transfer to take
temperature of the extracted steam( place.
which ideally leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the extraction
pressure.)

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Closed Feedwater Heaters

Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed feedwater Heaters

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An Ideal Cogeneration Plant
 The production of more than one useful
form of energy (such as process heat and
electric power) from the same energy source
is called cogeneration.

 Cogeneration plants produce electric power


while meeting the process heat requirements
of certain industrial processes. This way,
more of the energy transferred to the fluid in
the boiler is utilized for a useful purpose.

 The fraction of energy that is used for either


process heat or power generation is called
the utilization factor of the cogeneration
plant.

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More Ways to Increase Power plant Thermal Efficiency
 The overall thermal efficiency of a power
plant can be increased by using binary cycles
or combined cycles.
 A binary cycle is composed of two separate
cycles, one at high temperatures (topping
cycle) and the other at relatively low
temperatures.
 The most common combined cycle is the gas-
steam combined cycle where a gas-turbine
cycle operates at the high-temperature range
and a steam-turbine cycle at the low-
temperature range.
 Steam is heated by the high-temperature
exhaust gases leaving the gas turbine.
 Combined cycles have a higher thermal
efficiency than the steam- or gas-turbine
cycles operating alone.

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Combined Gas-Steam Power Plant

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Example
Consider an ideal steam regenerative Rankine cycle with two feed water heaters, one
closed and one open. Steam enters the turbine at 12.5 MPa and 550 0C and exhausts
to the condenser at 10 kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at 0.8 MPa for the
closed feed water heater and at 0.3 MPa for the open one. The feed water heater is
heated to the condensation temperature of the extracted steam in the closed feed water
heater. The extracted steam leaves the closed feed water heater as a saturated liquid,
which is subsequently throttled to the open feed water heater.
(a) Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines,
(b) the mass flow rate of steam through the boiler for a net power output of 250
MW,
(c) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

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