MAAE 4102 - Strength and Fracture

CARLETON UNIVERSITY

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

MAAE 4012 - Strength and Fracture

Stress Life

1. A method used to present mean stress fatigue data is to generate a family of curves on an
S-N plot, with each curve representing a different stress ratio, R. Generate the curves for
R values of -1, 0 and 0.5 for a steel with an ultimate strength of 100 ksi. For this
example, use the Gerber relationship to generate these curves. Use Eqn. 1 to estimate the
fully reversed (R = -1) fatigue behaviour between 103 and 106 cycles.

(1)

Solution:

The Gerber relationship in general form is

The alternating stress level can be obtained using equation 1 above

Case 1 R = -1
This case is the same as fully reversed (ó = 0) R = -1

@ N = 103 SN = óa = 90 ksi
@ N = 104 SN = óa = 74 ksi
@ N = 105 SN = óa = 61 ksi
@ N = 106 SN = óa = 50 ksi

Case 2 R=0
This case is the same as maximum loading where óa = óm . Substituting into the Gerber
equation

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If values of SN are substituted the equation can be solved for óa

R = -1 R= 0
@ N = 103 SN = 90 ksi óa = 58.8 ksi
@ N = 104 SN = 74 ksi óa = 53.1 ksi
@ N = 105 SN = 61 ksi óa = 47.3 ksi
6
@ N = 10 SN = 50 ksi óa = 41.4 ksi

Case 3 R = 0.5
From the definition of stress ratio ómin = 0.5 ómax
This gives the following relationships:

Therefore óa = 3 óm Substituting in the Gerber equation and solving for óa

R= -1 R = 0.5
@ N = 103 SN = 90 ksi óa = 27.7 ksi
@ N = 104 SN = 74 ksi óa = 26.7 ksi
@ N = 105 SN = 61 ksi óa = 25.4 ksi
6
@ N = 10 SN = 50 ksi óa = 24.0 ksi

The óa values for various R cases can be plotted on an S - N curve.

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2. Another method used to present mean stress fatigue data is to generate a family of curves
on an S-N plot, with each curve representing a different mean stress value, óm. Generate
the curves for mean stress values of 0, 20 and 40 ksi for a steel with an ultimate strength
of 100 ksi. For this example, use the goodman relationship to generate these curves.
Again use eqn. (1) to estimate the fully reversed (ómean = 0) fatigue behaviour.

SOLUTION

The Goodman relationship is:

The alternating stress level for a given life can be determined from:

Case 1 óm = 0 (same as fully reversed loading) R = -1

@ N = 103 SN = óa = 90 ksi
@ N = 104 SN = óa = 74 ksi
@ N = 105 SN = óa = 61 ksi
@ N = 106 SN = óa = 50 ksi

Case 2 óm = 20 ksi

Substituting this value of óm into the Goodman equation for different value of SN gives:

R = -1 óm = 20 ksi
@ N = 103 SN = 90 ksi óa = 72 ksi
@ N = 104 SN = 74 ksi óa = 59 ksi
@ N = 105 SN = 61 ksi óa = 49 ksi
@ N = 106 SN = 50 ksi óa = 40 ksi

Case 3 óm = 40 ksi

Substituting this value of óm into the Goodman equation for different value of SN gives:

R = -1 óm = 40 ksi
3
@ N = 10 SN = 90 ksi óa = 54 ksi
@ N = 104 SN = 74 ksi óa = 44 ksi
@ N = 105 SN = 61 ksi óa = 37 ksi
@ N = 106 SN = 50 ksi óa = 30 ksi

The óa for various óm can now be plotted on a S-N curve

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3. Given a material with an ultimate strength of 70 ksi, an endurance limit of 33 ksi, and a
true fracture strength of 115 ksi, determine the allowable zero to maximum (R = 0) stress
which can be applied for 103, 104, 105 and 106 cycles. Make predictions using the
Goodman, Gerber and Morrow relationships.

SOLUTION:
For R = 0 and óm = óa the mean stress equations can be written as:

Goodman:

Gerber:

Morrow:

When Su = 70 ksi and óf = 115 ksi

Find SN from

Given Se = 33 ksi and using S1000 = 0.9 Su = 63 ksi

ˆ C = 2.08 b = -0.094

Substituting in this equation for each value of cycles and then in the Goodman, Gerber and
Morrow equations for the effect of mean stress we get them following values:

Note: at R = 0 ómax = 2 óa
i.e at 103

Goodman Gives óa = 33 ksi

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R=0 103 cycles 104 cycles 105 cycles 106 cycles

óa ómax óa ómax óa ómax óa ómax
(ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi (ksi) (ksi (ksi) (ksi
Goodman 33 66 29.4 58.8 25.8 51.6 22.4 44.8
Gerber 41.2 82.4 36.7 73.4 32.2 64.4 27.8 55.6
Morrow 40.7 81.4 35.1 70.2 30.1 60.2 25.6 51.2

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4. A component undergoes a cyclic stress with a maximum value of 75 ksi and a minimum
value of -5 ksi. Determine the mean stress, stress range, stress amplitude, stress ratio and
amplitude ratio. If the component is made from a steel with an ultimate strength of 100
ksi, estimate its life using the Goodman relationship.

SOLUTION:

ómax = 75 ksi ómin = - 5 ksi

Mean Stress

Alternating Stress

Stress ratio

Amplitude ratio

Using the Goodman relationship

Given óa = 40 ksi óm = 35 ksi and Su = 100 ksi

Solving for SN SN = 61.5 ksi

Estimating Se as 0.5 Su , S1000 as 0.9 Su and substituting in

N = 8.9 x 104 cycles

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5. A switching device consists of a rectangular cross-section metal cantilever 200 mm in

length and 30 mm in width. The required operating displacement at the free end is ±2.7
mm and the service life is to be 100,000 cycles. To allow for scatter in life performance a
factor of 5 is employed on endurance. Using the fatigue curves given in Figure,
determine the required thickness of the cantilever if made in (a) mild steel, (b) aluminum
alloy. Esteel = 208 GN/m2, E Aluminum = 79 GN/m2.

SOLUTION

For a cantilever

Factored endurance = 5 x 100,000 = 5 x 105 cycles

from figure for mild steel

For Aluminum

for steel

for aluminum

(x) Aluminum Alloy 24S-T3 reversed axial stress

(C) Mild Steel reversed axial stress

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6. A pressure vessel support bracket is to be designed so that it can withstand a tensile

loading cycle of 0-500 MN/m2 once every day for 25 years. Which of the following steels
would have the greater tolerance to intrinsic defects in this application: (i) a maraging
steel (KIC = 82 MN m -(3/2), C = 0.15 x 10-11, m = 4.1), or (ii) a medium-strength steel (KIC
= 50 MN m-(3/2), C = 0.24 x 10-11, m = 3.3)? For the loading situation a geometry factor of
1.12 may be assumed.

SOLUTION

The number of cycles in 25 years = Nf = 1 x 365 x 25 = 9125

( i)

(ii) In a similar way for medium strength steel

Which is more damage tolerant ?

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MAAE 4012 - Strength and Fracture

7. A series of crack growth tests on a moulding grade of polymethyl methacrylate gave the
following results:

da/dN (m/cycle) 2.25 x 10-7 4 x 10-7 6.2 x 10-7 17 x 10-7 29 x 10-7

ÄK(MN m-3/2) 0.42 0.53 0.63 0.94 1.17

If the material has a critical stress

intensity factor of 1.8 MN m-3/2
and it is known that the moulding
process produces defects 40 ìm
long, (2a), estimate the maximum
repeated tensile stress which
could be applied to this material
for at least 106 cycles without
causing fatigue failure.

From the graph:

so c = 2 x 10-6 m = 2.513

ó = 2.13 MN/m2

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8. A series of tensile fatigue tests on stainless steel strips containing a central through hole
gave the following values for the fatigue endurance of the steel. If the steel strips were
100 mm wide, comment on the notch sensitivity of the steel.

Hole diameter (mm) No hole 5 10 20 25

Fatigue endurance (MN/m2) 600 250 270 320 370

Solution:
The Kt values for a strip with a central hole may be obtained from Peterson ( see figure):

The un-notched fatigue endurance is 600

MN/m2

For the 5mm hole -

Kt = 2.84
Also Kf = 600/250 = 2.4

Therefore

Similarly for other holes:

d Kt Kf q
(mm)
5 2.84 2.4 0.76
10 2.74 2.22 0.7
20 2.5 1.875 0.58
25 2.44 1.622 0.43

The high values of q indicate that the steel is notch sensitive.

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9. The fatigue endurances from the S-N curve for a certain steel are:

Stress (MN/m2) Fatigue endurance (cycles)

350 2,000,000
380 500,000
410 125,000

If a component manufactured from this steel is subjected to 600,000 cycles at 350 MN/m2
and 150,000 cycles at 380 MN/m2, how many cycles can the material be expected to
withstand at 410 MN/m2 before fatigue failure occurs, assuming that Miner’s cumulative
damage theory applies?

Solution:

Using cumulative damage theory

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MAAE 4012 - Strength and Fracture

Strain Life

1. It has been determined that a certain steel (E = 30 x 103 ksi) follows the following true
stress, ó, true plastic strain, åp, relation:

The true plastic strain at fracture was found to be 0.48. Determine:

a) True fracture strength, óf
b) Total true strain at fracture
c) Strength coefficient, K
d) Strain hardening exponent, n
e) Strength at 0.2% offset, Sy
f) Percent reduction in area, % RA
g) True fracture ductility, åf

SOLUTION

(a) True fracture strength, óf

b) Total true strain at fracture

c) Strength coefficient, K

K = 360 ksi

d) Strain hardening exponent, n

n = 0.11

e) Strength at 0.2% offset, Sy

This is the stress corresponding to a plastic strain of 0.002

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f) Percent reduction in area, % RA

RA = 0.381 or 38 %

g) True fracture ductility, åf

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2. The following stress-strain and strain-life properties are given for a steel:

E = 30 x 10 ksi KN = 137 ksi nN = 0.22

b = -0.11
c = -0.64
SOLUTION
a)

Elastic strain-life

intercept at 2Nf = 1 of

Plastic strain-life

intercept at 2Nf = 1 of

Determine the transition life (2Nt). From graph 2Nt = 30,000 reversals

using equation

2Nt = 30,366 reversals

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b) Draw the hysteresis loops corresponding to strain amplitude (Äå/2) values of 0.05,
0.00125 and 0.0007. Determine the fatigue life in reversals at these three strain levels.

by iteration
Äå/2 = 0.05 Äó/2 = 70.1 ksi 2Nf = 100
Äå/2 = 0.0125 Äó/2 = 24.18 ksi 2Nf = 3 x 105
Äå/2 = 0.0007 Äó/2 = 18 ksi 2Nf = 1 x 107

For Äå/2 = 0.05

For Äå/2 = 0.0125

The hysteresis loop for 0.0007 is almost a straight line

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MAAE 4012 - Strength and Fracture

Using the computer program the life can be calculated

Modulus of Elasticity = 30000

Fatigue Strength Coefficient = 120.0
Fatigue Strength Exponent = -0.11
Fatigue Ductility Coefficient = 0.95
Fatigue Ductility Exponent = -0.64
Cyclic Strength Coefficient (K) = 137.0 input
Cyclic Strain Hardening Exp. (N) = 0.22 input
_______________________________________________________

Strain Mean Max. Life In Reversals

Amplitude Stress Stress _____________________________

Morrow Man-Hal SWT

________________________________________________________

.05000 0.00 70.1 1.075E+02 1.075E+02 1.109E+02

.00125 0.00 24.8 3.514E+05 3.514E+05 5.992E+05
.00070 0.00 18.0 1.122E+07 1.112E+07 1.775E+07

.00800 0.00 45.2 2.527E+03 2.527E+03 3.024E+03

c) Determine the elastic, plastic and total strain amplitude for a life (2Nf) of 2 x 106
reversals.

= 0.0008111 + 0.0000881
= 0.000899

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d) life (2Nf) of 500 reversals.

= 0.002109 + 0.017798
= 0.019818

e) Determine the cyclic stress amplitude corresponding to fatigue lives of 500 and 2 x 106
reversals.

Basquin Equation

at 2Nf = 500

at 2Nf = 2 x 106

f) From computer program at a strain amplitude of 0.008 the life is 2500 reversals. (See
computer results above) This component will not meet the life requirements.

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MAAE 4012 - Strength and Fracture

3. Smooth aluminum specimens are subjected to two series of cyclic load-controlled tests.
The first test (level A) varies between a maximum stress value, ómax, of 21.3 ksi and a
minimum value, ómin, of -30.1 ksi. The second test (level B) varies between 61.5 and 10.1
ksi. Predict the life to failure, in reversals, at the two levels. Use the Morrow, Manson-
Halford and Smith-Watson-Topper relationships for the predictions. Assume that there is
no mean stress relaxation. The material properties for the aluminum are

E = 10.6 x 103 ksi KN = 95 ksi nN = 0.065

óNf = 160 ksi b = -0.124

åNf = 0.22 c = -0.59

Listed below are actual test results at the two levels. Three tests were run at each of the
levels. Compare the predictions to these values.

Level Test Results: Lives in Reversals, 2Nf

A 5.4 x 105 5.5 x 105 7.2 x 105

B 5.6 x 104 6.4 X 104 6.9 X 104

SOLUTION

Using the following equations:

Mean Stress

Stress Range

Stress Amplitude

The strain amplitude can be determined using:

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Therefore:
óMAX óMIN óo Äó/2 Äå/2
Case A 21.3 - 30.1 - 4.4 25.7 0.002425
Case B 61.5 10.1 35.8 25.7 0.002425

The results from the life prediction program

Modulus of Elasticity = 10600

Fatigue Strength Coefficient = 160.0
Fatigue Strength Exponent = -0.124
Fatigue Ductility Coefficient = 0.22
Fatigue Ductility Exponent = -0.59
Cyclic Strength Coefficient (K) = 59.0 input
Cyclic Strain Hardening Exp. (N) = 0.065 input
_______________________________________________________

Strain Mean Max. Life In Reversals

Amplitude Stress Stress _____________________________

Morrow Man-Hal SWT

________________________________________________________

.002425 -4.4 21.3 3.498E+06 3.545E+06 5.646E+06

.002425 35.8 61.5 4.626E+05 3.694E+05 9.842E+04

Comparing these predictions with measured result, note that all three methods give non-
conservative estimates.

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Fracture Mechanics

1. A large plate made of AISI 4340 steel contains an edge crack and is subjected to a tensile
stress of 40 ksi. The material has an ultimate strength of 260 ksi and a Kc value of 45 ksi
%in. Assume that the crack is much smaller than the width of the plate. Determine the
critical crack size.

SOLUTION:
Since the ratio of crack length to plate width, a /b is very small the SIF is given by:

For a KC = 45 ksi/in and a stress ó = 40 ksi

aC = 0.32 in

2. A large cylindrical bar made of 4140 steel (óy = 90 ksi) contains an embedded circular
(penny shaped) crack with a 0.1 in. diameter. Assume that the crack radius, á is much
smaller than the radius of the bar, R, so that the bar may be considered infinitely large
compared to the crack. the bar is subjected to a tensile stress of 50 ksi. Determine the
plastic zone size at the crack tip. Are the basic LEFM assumptions violated?

SOLUTION:
Since the crack size is much small than the radius of the bar, the SIF for a circular
embedded crack in an infinite body, can be used.

Therefore:

Since the crack is embedded in a large cylindrical bar plane strain conditions are
developed and the plastic zone size is given by:

Since rY is very much smaller than a the LEFM assumptions are not violated

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3. A very wide late made from Al 7075-T651 (KIc = 27 ksi %in., óy = 80 ksi) contains an
edge crack. Plot the allowable nominal stress (ksi) as a function of crack size, á (in
inches), if the design requirements specify a factor of safety of 2 on the critical stress
intensity factor. If the plate specifications were changed so that Al 7050-T73651 was
used (KIc = 35 ksi %in., óy = 70 ksi), re-plot the curve. For a nominal stress of one-half the
yield stress, determine the increase in allowable flaw size by changing from the Al 7075
alloy to the Al 7050 alloy.

SOLUTION:
For a very wide edge cracked plate the SIF is given by:

For the 7075 -T651 Al alloy the material yields at a stress of 80 ksi. Therefore the
smallest crack that can occur while the material remains nominally elastic is:

a = 0.007 in

For the 7050-T73651 Al alloy the smallest crack that can occur while the material
remains nominally elastic is:

a = 0.016 in
The allowable crack size as a function of crack size is shown below:

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For a nominal stress of ½ the yield stress the allowable flaw size for

7075 alloy

a = 0.029 in

7050 alloy

a = 0.063 in

The 12.5% reduction in yield strength is overshadowed by the 117% increase in allowable
flaw size.

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4. Design a pressure vessel that is capable of withstanding a static pressure of 1000 psi and
that will “leak-before-burst.” The required material has a fracture toughness of 60 ksi
%in. and a yield strength of 85 ksi. The diameter of the vessel is specified to be 4 ft. A
crack with surface length of 1 in. can reliably be detected. Since the cost of the vessel is
related directly to the amount of material used, optimize the design so that the cost is
minimized.

SOLUTION:
The stress intensity factor for a 1 inch crack must be less than the fracture toughness for
the vessel to leak before break, KI < KIC

The stress intensity factor for a semi-elliptical crack is

The shape parameter Q is found from the graph.

Given: KIC = 60 ksi/in

óY = 85 ksi
dia = 48 in
pressure = 1000 psi
The stress due to the pressure is:

The ratio ó / óY is:

To leak before break, the crack dimension, a is equal to the wall thickness, t.

The SIF is:

Using the figure solve this equation iteratively

t ó / óY Q KI

0.35 0.81 1.6 63.67 too large

0.4 0.71 1.85 55.39
The optimum design results in a wall thickness of 0.37 in
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5. A component made from 7005-T53 aluminum contains a semi-circular surface crack (a/c
= 1) and is subjected to R = 0.1 loading with a stress range, Äó, of 250 MPa. (Refer to
Example 1 for an expression for the stress intensity range, ÄK.) the following crack
growth data were obtained in laboratory air environment. Using these data:

a) Plot crack length, á (mm), versus cycles, N

b) Plot da/dN versus ÄK. Identify the three regions of crack growth.
c) Determine the Paris law constants, C and m, for the linear region of crack growth.
________________________________________________________
N (cycles) a (mm) da/dN (mm)
_________________________________________________________
95,000 0.244
100,000 0.246 7.00 x 10-7
105,000 0.251 3.920 x 10-6
110,000 0.285 9.665 x 10-6
115,000 0.347 1.053 x 10-5
125,000 0.414 1.230 x 10-5
130,000 0.490 2.063 x 10-5
135,000 0.621 4.661 x 10-5
140,000 0.956 9.565 x 10-5
145,000 1.577 3.964 x 10-4
147,000 2.588 1.105 x 10-3
147,400 3.078 1.554 x 10-3
147,500 3.241 8.758 x 10-3
147,500 3.445
__________________________________________________________

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SOLUTION:

The SIF for a semi-elliptical crack is:

for a semi-circular crack /Q is ð/2 therefore

For a = 0.244 mm

N (cycles) a (mm) ÄK da/dN (mm) Log(ÄK) Log(da/dN)

(MPa/m)
95000 0.244 4.93
100000 0.246 4.95 7.00 x 10-7 0.695 -6.155
105000 0.251 5 3.920 x 10-6 0.699 -5.406
110000 0.285 5.33 9.665 x 10-6 0.727 -5.015
115000 0.347 5.89 1.053 x 10-5 0.77 -4.977
125000 0.414 6.43 1.230 x 10-5 0.808 -4.91
130000 0.49 6.99 2.063 x 10-5 0.845 -4.686
135000 0.621 7.87 4.661 x 10-5 0.896 -4.332
140000 0.956 9.77 9.565 x 10-5 0.99 -4.019
145000 1.577 12.55 3.964 x 10-4 1.099 -3.402
147000 2.588 16.07 1.105 x 10-3 1.206 -2.957
147400 3.078 17.53 1.554 x 10-3 1.244 -2.808
147500 3.241 17.99 8.758 x 10-3 1.255 -2.058
147500 3.445 18.54

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The a vs N curve is:

The da/dN plot is:

For all points:

Neglecting points 1to 3 and point11

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6. Calculate the critical defect size for each of the following steels assuming they are each
subjected to a stress of 0.5óy. Comment on the results obtained.

Steel Yield Strength óy Fracture Toughness

(MN/m2) (MN-3/2)
Mild Steel 207 200
Low-alloy Steel 500 160
Medium Carbon Steel 1000 280
High-carbon Steel 1450 70
18% Ni (Maraging) 1900 75
Steel
Tool Steel 1750 30

SOLUTION

Critical defect size

For mild steel

Critical Defect Size 2c = 2 x 1.189 = 2.38 m

Steel Yield Fracture ac Critical Defect

Strength óy Toughness (mm) Size 2ac
(MN/m2) (MN-3/2) (mm)

Mild Steel 207 200 1189 2378

Low-alloy Steel 500 160 130. 260
Medium Carbon Steel 1000 280 100 200
High-carbon Steel 1450 70 2.97 5.9
18% Ni (Maraging) Steel 1900 75 1.98 4.0
Tool Steel 1750 30 0.374 0.75

LEFM can be applied to high strength steels because critical defect size is small, however
materials such as mils steel would require very large specimens in order to achieve this critical
defect size

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7. A sheet of glass 0.5 m wide and 18 mm thick is found to contain a number of surface
cracks 3 mm deep and 10 mm long. If the glass is placed horizontally on two suports,
calculate the maximum spacing of the supports to avoid the fracture of the glass due to its
own weight. For glass KIC = 0.3 (MN-3/2) and density = 2600 kg/m3.

SOLUTION

The worst case is when the defect is midway between the supports on the bottom of the plate

The aspect ratio of the defect = a / 2c = 3/10 = 0.3

For a semi-elliptical flaw

Using the Flaw Shape Parameter graph of Question 5 and assuming that ó /óYS = 0
The Shape Parameter Q = 1.62

óc = 3.52 MN / m2

From beam theory the stress at the crack is

where

weight per unit length w = 2600 x 0.5 x 0.018 x 9.81 = 230 N /m

L = 1.82 m

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8. The accident report on a steel pressure vessel which fractured in a brittle manner when the
internal pressure of 19 MN/m2 had been applied to it shows that the vessel had a
longitudinal crack 8 mm long and 3.2 mm deep. A subsequent fracture mechanics test on
a sample of the steel showed that it had a KIC value of 75 MN-3/2 . If the vessel diameter
was 1 m and the thickness was 10 mm, determine whether the data reported are consistent
with the observed failure.

The aspect ratio of the defect = a / 2c = 3.2 / 8 = 0.4

For a semi-elliptical flaw

Using the Flaw Shape Parameter graph of Question 5 and assuming that ó /óYS = 0
The Shape Parameter Q = 2.0

For a thin walled cylinder

Hence LEFM predicts quite accurately the observed fracture pressure of 10 MN/m2

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9. An aluminum alloy plate with a yield stress of 450 MN/m2 fails in service at a stress of
110 MN/m2 . The conditions are plane stress and there is some indication of ductility at
the fracture. If a surface crack of 20 mm long is observed at the fracture plane calculate
the size of the plastic zone at the crack tip. Calculate also the percentage error likely if
LEFM was used to obtain the fracture toughness of this material.

SOLUTION

(i) Using LEFM

(ii) Using the plastic zone correction

Hence the % error in using LEFM would be 1.5%

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