Research Methods

Cofidential Document.
Research Methods
Dr. Ali Ahsan
All Rights Reserved by Dr. Ali Ahsan
• Dr. Ali Ahsan uniquely specializes in field of management of ‘Information and

Communication Technology’ (ICT) based organizations in Pakistan. Essentially a core
software engineer, Dr. Ahsan earned his Masters and Doctorate degree in the field of
‘Engineering Management’ with focus on ‘Software Engineering and related fields’,
‘Technology Management’, ‘TQM’, ‘Productivity Enhancement’, ‘Strategic
Management’, ‘Project / Product Management’, ‘Industrial Psychology’, ‘HRM’ and
‘OD’; all in relation to ICT industry.
• Dr. Ahsan has extensive managerial and technical experience. Over the years; Dr. Ahsan
had the opportunity of working for both the academia and the industry. He had the
opportunity of enjoying core strategic positions within ICT sector of Pakistan. He is one
of the few researchers who are continually working for the betterment of ICT sector of
Pakistan, with specific focus on soft issues.
• Dr. Ahsan is a consultant to many ICT based organizations within and outside Pakistan.
He has research publication in various national and international conferences and
journals. He is member of IEEE (USA), SEI (USA) and IIIS (USA). Dr. Ahsan has
implemented and completed major ICT based projects in Pakistan. His major
contributions include his Doctorate thesis that focuses on revitalization of ICT sector of
Pakistan using OD as an improvement technique, PTCL Billing and Customer Care
project, CMMI certification of various ICT based organizations in Pakistan, human
resource development for ICT sector of Pakistan, completion of some critical ICT based
projects and various research outputs addressing applied issues concerning ICT industry
of Pakistan.
• Dr. Ahsan is a gold medalist and has represented Pakistan and many ICT organizations at
many national and international forums. He is currently the CEO of The WISSEN
GROUP.
All rights reserved by Dr. Ali Ahsan 1

Welcome!
• Limitations to Today’s Presentation
– The World
– Time
• Your Introduction
• Your Interests In Research
• Why Are You Here?
• What do you think research is?
• What are the problems that you face when doing research?
• What are you planning on in life?
• Your research area background?
Welcome!
• Today’s goals!
• Today’s objectives!
• What is my purpose today?
• What I intend to do?
• What I will not be able to do?
• How did I prepare today’s lecture?
• The scope is a huge limitation…

Agenda
• Session 1: Introduction to Research
Methods
• Session 2: Group Case Study
• Session 3: Publishing Research Papers
(Conference + Journal)
• Session 4: PhD and Masters Level Research
• Session 5: Research Ethics
Agenda
Methods Go side by side

Agenda
Methods
Opening…..Research????
• The systematic study of materials and
sources in order to establish facts abd reach
new conclusions.
– OXFORD

Brain and Research

• Logical, analytical, systematic, formal,
factual, linear ………research
• Organized, disciplined and even pedantic
(sophistic)……..researcher
What should you research?

• What you do?
• What you think like?
• Where you feel is a problem?
• What are your strengths?

• The world ble, predictable,

single truth
– K no wledgea
– To ultiple truth
s, variable and m
sitivist
– A m bi guou
f research
• he nature o xperimental), reductionist
T
– Empirical (e
– To
Post po
le), intuitive
– Holistic (who
er
• The researchexpert
– Objective,
t …….
– To d collaborative
Subj ectiv e, participatory an
–
ethodology oducible
• M es is driven , re liable and repr
hypoth
– Deductive,
is
– To and auditable
y, dependable
Positiv
iv e, expl orator
– Induct
• Findings e, statistical, genera
lizable
– Q uantita tiv
– To erable
valuable, transf
– Qualitative,
Research and Construct

• World
• Nature of work
• Researcher
• Method
• Findings
• Positivists (everything has an answer) and
post positivists (endless)

Broadly what will you understand at

the end of this session?
d research?
• Science an
types?
• Research
dimensions?
• Research
on to theory? arch designs?
• Introducti d qualitative rese
tiv e an
• Quantita
logy?
• Methodo
review?
• Literature
ents?
• Measurem imental research?
ex per
• What is ?
su rvey research
• What is sis?
y analy
• Secondar
• Sampli n g?
?
tive research
• Non reac
arch?
• Field rese
ative research?
• Compar
• Other…..
Research?
• Production of knowledge….
• More structured, organized, systematic
process
• Alternatives give us knowledge too
• Accuracy is better in case of research

Opening…
• Learning about research is a lot like learning about
anything else.
• To start, you need to learn the jargon people use,
the big controversies they fight over, and the
different factions that define the major players.
• We'll start by considering few really big multi-
syllable words that researchers sometimes use to
describe what they do.
Authority guides knowledge

• What are your sources of knowledge
– Society
– Books
– What else
• You accept knowledge as true when some one in authority
says that it is so like this
• Halo Effect:
– The halo effect refers to a cognitive bias whereby the perception
of a particular trait is influenced by the perception of the former
traits in a sequence of interpretations.
• A cognitive bias is the human tendency to draw incorrect
conclusions in certain circumstances based on cognitive
factors rather than evidence.

What Else Guides Knowledge?

• Tradition
• Myths
• Common sense
• Experiences
– Overgeneralization is a problem though
– Belief based on selective observation is also a
problem
What is Science ?
z Science is a way to produce knowledge.
z The subject matter of a science determines the
techniques or instruments used by it.
z Human social life is fluid, difficult to observe, and hard
to measure precisely.
z Science grew from a major shift in thinking from the
Age of Darkness to the Age of Reason and
Enlightenment from 1600-1800s.
z The new thinking included a faith in logical reasoning,
emphasis on experiences in the material world, a belief
in human progress, questioning of religious belief.
z Separation of religion from science.

Definition and Purpose

• Research is a process of systematic targeted, enquiry and
investigation.
• Systematic study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and read new conclusions.
• It is systematic and methodical – exact and organized.
• It is the process followed, according to which new
knowledge is generated
• Then this new knowledge is added to the existing body of
knowledge
• A number of techniques and methods are used to collect
and analyze data.
• The subject matter of a science determines the techniques,
instruments used by it to measure and collect data and
analyze it.
Many many new things

• Anthropology
• Psychology
• Political science
• Etc….

What do we mean by social theory?

• Social theories are theoretical frameworks which
are used to study and interpret social phenomena
within a particular school of thought.
• An essential tool used by social scientists, theories
relate to historical debates over the most valid and
reliable methodologies (e.g. positivism and
antipositivism), as well as the primacy of either
structure or agency.
• Certain social theories attempt to remain strictly
scientific, descriptive, and objective.
Junk Science
• Junk science is a term used in U.S. political
and legal disputes that brands an advocate's
claims about scientific data, research, or
analyses as spurious (lacking authenticity).
The term may convey a pejorative (become
even worse) connotation that the advocate is
driven by political, ideological, financial, or
other unscientific motives.

What does it mean by scientific

method?
• Ideas, tools, techniques etc that scientific
community uses…..
Norms of the Scientific Community

• Universalism: the research should only be judged
on the basis of scientific merit.
• Organized skepticism: Scientists should challenge
and subject each study to intense scrutiny to
ensure the research question, methods etc can
stand up to close, careful scrutiny.
• Disinterestedness: Scientists have to be neutral,
impartial, receptive and open to unexpected
observations or new ideas. They should accept all
findings based on high quality research.

Cont…
• Communalism. Research has to be made publicly
available in a special form and style so that other
researchers are able to review it.
• Honesty. This is a good cultural norm, which is
especially strong in scientific research. Cheating
in scientific research is a major taboo.
• Acceptance of these norms and their training in
conducting research makes up the scientific
attitude.
Styles (Quantitative Vs Qualitative)

ts
• QT o b j ective fac bles
ure ria
– Meas n research va
so QL
– Focu lity is a key •t C o n struct cess foc
us
l i ab i n t ex – e p ro
– Re d ent of c
o
I
iv
nteract ity
e p e n –
– Ind ca l analysi
s
A uthenti
c
i s ti –
– Stat ed research S ituation
al
c h –
– Deta ective
– Subj tic
a ent
– Them her involvem
arc
– Rese

RESEARCH IS A WHOLE BRAIN

ENDEAVOUR
here phere
• Left Hemisp • Right Hemis
Analytical F
ormal
Intuitive Informal
Linear olistic
Logical Spontaneous H
erbal on-verbal
Temporal V A Temporal N
Sequential F
actual
Random Imaginative
Orderly Concrete Diffuse Metaphoric
Systematic Causal Systematic
VAK and KOLB

• Page 16 by O’Leary

Research Dimensions
• Applied or basic research
• Classified by the outcome of the research.
• Applied research:
– Examining a problem and finding its solution.
– It will probably involve using economic theory i.e applying an
economic law to a specific situation e.g in the policy of taxation
which is the best way to tax small businesses.
• Basic research is new discoveries or research on basic
economic fundamental laws.
• In Pakistan it is rarely conducted, even by our best
scientists.
Types of Applied Researches

• Action Research
– The research that act knowledge as a form of power and eliminate
the line between social and research action is called action
research. Those who are being involved in the research process;
research integrates normal and popular knowledge; it concentrate
on the power with an objective of empowerment; research seeks to
increase awareness; and tied up directly with political action.
– The researchers try to improve conditions by expanding public
awareness. They are not value neutral and explicitly political
because goal is to develop the conditions of research participants,
articles, formal reports and books. It assumes by action researcher
that experience can be developed from knowledge, particularly
about social political action. They also assume that action can be
taken by ordinary people to bring improvement if they become
aware of the conditions.


• Evaluation Research
– Such research is based on the question “Did it work?” it is the
process of establishing value judgment based on the facts about
achievement of the program goals. To measure the effectiveness of
program, policy, or way of doing something, evaluation research
can be used. Evaluation researcher use several research techniques
like field research and surveys and answer many question i.e. Did
it accomplish the target? Did the program work? and many more.
– Evaluation research is sub divided into two types, formative
evaluation and summative evaluation. Formative research is to
monitor and collect continuous feedback on any activity or
program while summative research emphasize on the final
outcomes. Both are usually necessary.
• Social Impact Assessment Research

– The purpose of impact assessment
research is to estimate the expected
consequences of a planned change. It is
used to plan and make choices from
different policies. It is used to assess the
change in environment by establishing a
new Dam or to find the change in housing
after building a new highway.

Deductive and Inductive Research

zDeductive research is when a conceptual
or theoretical structure is developed and
then tested by empirical observations.
zInductive research is a study in which
theory is developed from the observation
of empirical reality. Inferences are made
from particular cases to general cases.
Ref Pg. 51 Neuman
Classification of the Main Types of Research
Types of Basis of Classification

No Research
1 Exploratory, Purpose of the research, why it is done
descriptive,
explanatory
research.
2 Qualitative or Process which is followed in the research,or what
quantitative methodology is followed.
research
3 Deductive or
????????
Logic of the research, how it is done
inductive
research
4 Applied or Outcome of the research, why it is done
basic research

Classification of the Main Types of Research
Types of Basis of Classification

No Research
1 Exploratory, Purpose of the research, why it is done
descriptive,
explanatory
research.
2 Qualitative or Process which is followed in the research,or what
quantitative methodology is followed.
research
3 Deductive or Logic of the research, how it is done
inductive
research
4 Applied or Outcome of the research, why it is done
basic research
Cross-Sectional Study
• A cross-sectional study is where we collect data
only once from each unit of analysis. For example,
if we want to examine the effects of age on
attitude towards abortion, we collect attitude data
from people of all ages, then see if there is a
correlation between age and attitude. This is the
opposite of a longitudinal study, where you take a
set of young people, then measuring their attitude
towards abortion every few years as they get
older.

Longitudinal Study
• A longitudinal study is where we follow the
units of analysis (say, employees) over
time, and measure key variables at different
points in time. For example, we might
measure morale before and after a
promotion.
The Time Dimension

• Cross sectional: observe collection of people at a
time.
• Time Series: observe different people at multiple
times.
• Panel: observe exact same people at two or more
times.
• Cohort: observe people who shared an experience
at two or more times.
• Case Study: observe a small set intensely across
time.
• Ref Pg: 34 Neuman

Data Collection Techniques

• QT:
– Experiments Sampling?
– Surveys Population definition
– Content Analysis: Sampling frame
examining info, such as Probability and nonprobability sampling
counting etc… Sampling methods
– Existing statistics Simple random sampling
– Existing secondary Systematic sampling
researches Stratified sampling
• QL: Probability proportional to size sampling
Cluster sampling
– Field study
Matched random sampling
– Focus Groups Quota sampling
– Interviews Convenience sampling
– Historical / comparative Line-intercept sampling
analysis Panel sampling
» Many ways to Event sampling methodology
implement
Data Analysis Techniques

• QT:
– Regressions
– Statistics
– Mathematics
– Others…..
• QL:
– Anthropology
– Ethnography
» Many ways to implement
» Collis has few answers…..


Qualities of Researcher
• Communication
• IT
• Intellect
• Management
– The 4 functions
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD AND A

BAD PROJECT
z Focused on problem z Unfocussed
z Logical thinking done behind z Poor/uncritical literature review
problem
z Haphazard structure
z Good literature review
z Sound primary research z Purely descriptive
z Logical structure z Theory unsuitable for the
z Analytical, comparing variables, research
key points by means of tables z Little/no conceptual framework
z The theory chosen is suitable for z Little/no integration between
the the topic the different parts of the
z Sound and suitable conceptual research process/write up.
framework z Long-winded, unfocussed
z Integration (good fit) between
methodology, literature, analysis, z No editing done
conclusions etc z Full of grammatical mistakes.
z Neutrality, subjectivity / objectivity, z Careless work in content and
dependability, reliability, validity, English
authenticity, generalizability

Other Research Types

• Applied Research
• Basic Research
• Clinical Research
• Directed Research
• Fundamental Research
• Investigator-Initiated Research
• Outcomes Research
• Population Health Research
• Strategically Focused Research
• Targeted Research
• Translational Research
Theories
• Theories specify how concepts relate to one another.
• They tell us whether or not concepts are related, if so, how are
they related to one another.
• Theories state why or why not the relationship exists.
• A Social theory contains concepts, a relationship among concepts,
and a causal mechanism or reason for the relationship.
• A causal mechanism is a statement of how things work. Reasons
for a relationship are given by logically connected assumptions
and propositions.
• A general explanation of how something works. A theory says
what is related to what and why. A theory is, in part, a
collection of related hypotheses. However, a theory also
contains a sense of process and mechanism -- a sense of
understanding of why and how the variables are related the
way they are. Desirable characteristics of a theory include:
falsifiability, parsimony, truth, fertility, generality, surprise,
and a sense of process or mechanism.

Two Main Approaches to Science

• Or two main models or paradigms.
• These 2 paradigms consist of: (Ref Chap 3, Collis)
– the quantitative or positivistic paradigm and
– the interpretive or qualitative paradigm.
• These approaches represent fundamental differences in
outlook or ways of looking at the world.
• Have alternative assumptions about social science research
as they have different views on what social reality is.
• Consist of two different ways to observe, measure and
understand social reality.
• They are based on different philosophies.
Approaches
• Positivist
• Interpretive
• Feminist
• Critical Social Science
• Post-modern
• Epistemology
• Post-Positivist Ref Pg: 91 Neuman

Causality
• Causality
– While the goal of research is to understand what causes
what, this is a very difficult goal to achieve. Strictly
speaking, it is impossible. In fact, the notion of
causality is just a theory itself. However, on a day-to-
day basis, we assume that causality does exist and that
we can discover it through a combination of inductive
and deductive work. In general, laboratory experiments
are the only way to ascertain causality.
Literature Review
• Sometimes the Literature review will help you to identify research gaps.
– By seeing what others have done, you will be able to identify needed gaps.
– Where do you think you have to look in order to do this?
– In the conclusion generally where you position your findings and point out
what you were able to do and not do. Thus you point out the ‘gaps’ in
your research.
• A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical
points of current knowledge and or methodological approaches on a
particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such,
do not report any new or original experimental work.
• Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as
theses, a literature review usually precedes a research proposal and
results section. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with
current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such
as future research that may be needed in the area.
• A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of
ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate
referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and
comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic.

Types of Literature Review

1. A self study review
2. The historical review
3. The theoretical review
4. The integrative review
5. The methodological review
6. A context review
7. Please note : The meta-analysis is not covered in this
course
A Self Study Review

1. Often done by a student who writes a term
paper to demonstrate familiarity with a
topic.
2. The teacher evaluates the term paper to
test whether the student has a good enough
command over the subject.
3. It also builds up the students confidence.

The Historical Review

1. Traces the development of an idea or
shows how a particular issue or theory has
developed over time.
2. Researchers conduct historical reviews on
the most important ideas in a field.
3. They may show how a single past idea
split into different parts or separate ideas
combined into broad thoughts.
The Theoretical Review

• It presents different theories which explain the
same phenomena and then evaluates how well
each theory explains the phenomena based on
results of previous or current research.
• A theoretical review may compare theories for:
– how sound their assumptions are,
– their logical consistency and breadth of their
explanation.
• Researchers can integrate 2 theories, or extend a
theory to new issues.

The Integrative Review

• The integrative review presents the current
state of knowledge by putting together the
existing research reports on a new or an
existing topic of knowledge.
The Methodological Review

• The methodological review is a specialized
type of the integrative review.
• Instead of focusing on findings of past
studies it focuses on the different methods
used in the studies.
• It shows how different research designs,
samples and measures account for different
results with regard to one subject.

A Context Review
• A literature review for the purpose of creating links
to an existing or developing body of knowledge.
• The context review follows your problem statement
and establishes the importance and meaning of the
research questions, which you want to address in
your research.
• Thus, the researcher shows the way the research he
is going to undertake fits into the existing
knowledge. He points out whether the research
continues to develop a line of thinking which a
number of other researchers have also done.
Where to Find the Research Literature
Before and After Issues?

Literature Review
• How???????
• Example of My PhD Thesis
• Ethics in research
• What to review????????
• What is a review????
Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
• A basic conceptual structure organized around a theory

• Abstract as compared to other theory
• What is the difference between theoretical framework and
literature review?
• The theoretical framework is supposed to help the reader make
logical sense of the relationships of the variables and factors that
have been deemed relevant/important to the problem. It provides
definition of relationships between all the variables so the reader
can understand the theorized relationships between them. Or,
• A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts,
like a theory but not necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical
framework guides your research, determining what things you
will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for.

Not The END
Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research

Qualitative Quantitative
• "All research ultimately has • "There's no such thing as qualitative data.
a qualitative grounding" Everything is either 1 or 0"
- Donald Campbell - Fred Kerlinger
• The aim is to classify features, count them, and
• The aim is a complete, detailed description. construct statistical models in an attempt to explain
what is observed.
• Researcher may only know roughly in advance what • Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is
he/she is looking for. looking for.
• Recommended during earlier phases of research • Recommended during latter phases of research
projects. projects.
• All aspects of the study are carefully designed
• The design emerges as the study unfolds.
before data is collected.
• Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or
• Researcher is the data gathering instrument.
equipment to collect numerical data.
• Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects. • Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
• Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is • Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis
important ,e.g., uses participant observation, in- of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys,
depth interviews etc. questionnaires etc.
• Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and • Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test
less able to be generalized. hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
• Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed • Researcher tends to remain objectively separated
in the subject matter. from the subject matter.
Selecting Research Topics

Research Questions
Hypothesis
The Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a statement which asserts a
relationship between 2 concepts.
• We have already seen what a concept is: a
concept is an idea which represents something,
(a phenomenon, an idea, event or occurrence, or
an object ) a class of things, or a general
categorization of an impression of something.
• Watching chess, I describe my impressions of it,
to myself and others as an “intellectual activity”.
• Concepts are categories or common descriptions
of the world which:
– we use to name features of our world and experience, in
order to make sense of them to ourselves and others.

Key Features of a Hypothesis

• It asserts that 2 concepts are related in a specific
way.
• Usual form is: concept X causes concept Y
• OR concept X is related to concept Y
• X can affect Y positively or
• X can affect Y negatively
• Thus a hypothesis states that there is a relationship
between 2 concepts and specifies the direction of
that relationship.
• This is explained with reference to the above
example.
The Usual Form of a Hypothesis
X Y
Causes or is related to
+ Academic
Amount of Study Performance
• 2 concepts: amount of study and academic performance are
related in such a way that more study leads to more
academic performance

Verification and Validity
Difference Between Method and

Methodology
Few Other Terms

• Deadlines
• Ethics
• Supervision
• Documentation / writing
• Originality
• Resources
• Balanced life
• Motivation
• Organization

SNAPSHOT
• Abstract, purpose, research questions, objectives,
hypothesis (if any<<<<<why????), scope,
research methodology, data collection method,
data analysis method, limitations, list of
abbreviations, list of acronyms, conclusions,
findings, recommendations, references (end notes
and bibliography and one annotated reference
from journal), list of tables, list of illustrations, list
of annex and list of keywords.<<<<<LINKING
THESE
• Intellectual contribution.
Agenda
Methods

Agenda
Methods
Agenda
Methods

TYPICAL STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH REPORT
Problem Statement and

Definition, Abstract
Literature review
Methodology
Results
Analysis and
Discussion
Cont….
Conclusions
References
Appendix

Agenda
Methods
Few Terms
• Citations?
• References?
– What can we not reference???
• Annotated References?
• Bibliography?
• What is plagiarism?
• Exploitation
• Others…..
• What is happening in Pakistan?
• Secrecy of data?
• Attribution?
• False results…..

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Cofidential Document.

Dr. Ali Ahsan

All Rights Reserved by Dr. Ali Ahsan

• Dr. Ali Ahsan uniquely specializes in field of management of ‘Information and

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Brain and Research

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What should you research?

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• The world ble, predictable,

Research and Construct

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Broadly what will you understand at

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Authority guides knowledge

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What Else Guides Knowledge?

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Definition and Purpose

Many many new things

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What do we mean by social theory?

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What does it mean by scientific

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Norms of the Scientific Community

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Styles (Quantitative Vs Qualitative)

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RESEARCH IS A WHOLE BRAIN

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VAK and KOLB

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Types of Applied Researches

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Types of Applied Researches

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Types of Applied Researches

• Social Impact Assessment Research