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INTRODUCTION
1
Thin substrates with higher dielectric constants are desirable for microwave
circuitry because they require tightly bound fields to minimize undesired radiation and
coupling, and lead to smaller element sizes, however, because of their greater losses;
they are less efficient and have relatively smaller bandwidths. Since microstrip
antennas are often integrated with other microwave circuitry, a compromise has to be
reached between good antenna performance and circuit design. Often microstrip
antennas are also referred to as patch antennas. The radiating elements and the feed
lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. The radiating patch may be
square, rectangular, thin strip (dipole), circular, elliptical, triangular, or any other
configuration. Square, rectangular, dipole (strip), and circular are the most common
because of ease of analysis and fabrication, and their attractive radiation
characteristics, especially low cross-polarization radiation. Microstrip dipoles are
attractive because they inherently possess a large bandwidth and occupy less space,
which makes them attractive for arrays. Linear and circular polarizations can be
achieved with either single elements or arrays of microstrip antennas. Arrays of
microstrip elements, with single or multiple feeds may also be used to introduce
scanning capabilities and achieve greater directivities.
In recent years demand for small antennas on wireless communication has
increased interest in compact microstrip antenna design among microwaves and
wireless engineers. To support the high mobility necessity for a wireless
telecommunication device, a small and light weight antenna is likely to be preferred.
For this purpose Compact Microstrip antenna is one of the most suitable applications.
The development of antenna for wireless communication also requires an antenna
with more than one operating frequency. This is due to many reasons, mainly because
there are various wireless communication systems and many telecommunication
operators using various frequencies. Therefore one antenna that has multiband
characteristic is more desirable than having one antenna for each frequency band. To
reduce the size of the antenna one of the effective techniques is cutting slot in proper
position on the microstrip patch. Compact microstrip antenna is a topic of intensive
research in recent years because of increasing demand for small antennas used in
various types of communications including mobile communication. The size of the
antenna may be effectively reduced by cutting rectangular slots on printed antennas.
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1.1 PTFE SUBSTRATE
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1.3.2 Antenna Radiation
In order to know how an antenna radiates, let us first consider how radiation
occurs. A conducting wire radiates mainly because of time-varying current or an
acceleration (or deceleration) of charge.
An antenna radiates by changing the flow of current inside a conduction wire.
There are two ways to do this.
1. By time-varying (change of velocity, acceleration and/or de-acceleration) the
current in a straight wire, the current will create a flow making the antenna radiate. If
there is no motion of flow or if the flow of current is uniform, the straight wire will
not radiate.
2. If we bend the wire, even with uniform velocity, the curve along the wire will
create acceleration in the current flow and the wire will therefore radiate.
If the charge is oscillating with time, the radiation will also occur even along a
straight wire.The radiation from an antenna can be explained with the help of Figure
1.1 which shows a voltage source connected to a two conductor transmission line.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied across the transmission line, an electric field is
created which is sinusoidal in nature and this result in the creation of electric lines of
force which are tangential to the electric field. The magnitude of the electric field is
indicated by the bunching of the electric lines of force.
1.4.1Transmission Line
As we can see from the equation above the characteristic impedance changes as
frequency changes.
When sending power from the source to the load, I want as much power to be
absorbed by the load (in this case the load is my antenna), and as little power to be
reflected back to my source. This can be ensured by setting ZL = Z0, which says that
the transmission line is matched.
6
If the system is totally mismatched the whole power could be reflected back
and eventually end up damaging the source. It is therefore very important to match
your system correctly.
To see how much is reflected back to the source I can calculate the reflection
coefficient Γ.
Z Z
Γ= L− S
Z L + ZS
The reflection coefficient is a complex number (a+jb). If the imaginary part is 0, then
if:
Γ = -1, the line is short-circuited (maximum negative reflection (phase shift of 180°
(or Π)).
Γ = 0, the line is perfectly matched (no reflection).
Γ = 1, the line is open-circuited (maximum positive reflection).
Because the reflection coefficient is complex, it changes with frequency. Instead of
calculating the reflection coefficient a number of times a Smith chart is used for a
graphical expression of the reflection coefficient.
Usually the impedance of the load and source do not match. To ensure a
matched system an additional circuit of lumped components is required. The circuitry
will not be described in this project.
1.4.3 VSWR
7
When the system is matched the reflection coefficient approaches 0, while
VSWR approaches to 1.
Return loss is the power of the reflected signal in a transmission line. It can be
calculated by the following equation and is given in dB.
1.4.5 S-parameters
8
Table 1.1: S-parameters
Sr Description
S11 The input ports voltage reflection coefficient.
S12 The reverse voltage gain.
9
A wavelength is measured in meters by dividing speed of light over the operating
frequency.
1.5.1 Near Field
The near field is divided into two fields: the reactive near field and the
radiative near field. The reactive near field region covers from R1=0 to R1=/2 or
0.159 x , while the radiative near field covers the remainder from R2=/2 to R2=.
To understand how far the radius is, I will calculate the radiative near field
radius as I know the operating frequency of my Wi-Fi antenna:
It is obvious to understand that I cannot place a computer 0.2 m away from the base
station. Therefore it is important to understand the far field.
• Reactive near-field region: In this region, the reactive field dominates. The
reactive energy oscillates towards and away from the antenna, thus appearing as
reactance. In this region, energy is only stored and no energy is dissipated. The
outermost boundary for this region is at a distance
1.5.2 Far Field:
The far field is said to start from 2λ to infinity. What happens between 1λ and
2λ is called the transition zone. The transition zone has parameters of both the near
field and the far field. Here follows the calculation for 2λ.
The far field generally falls off in amplitude by 1/r. As the sphere is
proportional to r2 the amplitude is therefore the total energy per unit area is
proportional to 1 / r2 in free space. Free space means without interference from other
signals or attenuation from the surroundings of the world. This is the particular pattern
for far field.
It is also called Fraunhofer region. The region beyond R2=2D2/λ is the far
field region. In this region, the reactive fields are absent and only the radiation fields
exist. The angular field distribution is not dependent on the distance from the antenna
in this region and the power density varies as the inverse square of the radial distance
in this region.
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It is worthy of note that the sphere radiation is a rough calculation as you
typically have different radiation pattern, based on the type of antenna used. Therefore
the sphere is often used as a “rule of thumb”.
1.6 FAR FIELD RADIATION FROM WIRES
The far field radiation from a Hertzian dipole can be conveniently explained
with the help of the spherical co-ordinate system shown in Figure 1.8. The z axis is
taken to be the vertical direction and the xy plane is horizontal. denotes the
elevation angle and φ denotes the azimuth angle.
11
2 3
For far field radiation, terms in r and r can be neglected; hence we can
modify the above equations to write:
In all the above equations, the phase term e jωt has been dropped and it is
assumed that all the fields are sinusoid ally varying with time. It is seen from the
above equations that the only non-zero fields are θ E and φ H, and that they are
transverse to each other. The ratio Eθ / Hφ = η, such that the wave impedance is 120π
and the fields are in phase and inversely proportional to r. The directions of E, H and
r form a right handed set such that the Pointing vector is in the r direction and it
indicates the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave. Hence the time
average pointing vector given by us can be written as:
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1.7 ANTENNA PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
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A more practical type is the directional antenna which radiates more
power in some directions and less power in other directions. A special case of the
directional antenna is the omni directional antenna whose radiation pattern may be
constant in one plane (e.g. E-plane) and varies in an orthogonal plane (e.g. H-plane).
The radiation pattern plot of a generic directional antenna is shown in Figure 1.9.
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1.7.2 Beam width
The beam width is the angle between the half-power (-3dB) of the peak
effective radiated power. It is usually expressed in degrees and is shown in the
horizontal plane by being displayed in a polar diagram. Figure 2.11 shows a beam
width in a polar diagram.
By a simpler description it can be said that the received signal can be reached
within a beam width-margin of the pointed direction. It can be calculated by the
following equation.
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1.7.3 Directivity
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The imaginary part, Xin of the input impedance represents the power stored in
the near field of the antenna. The resistive part, Rin of the input impedance consists of
two components, the radiation resistance Rr and the loss resistance RL. The power
associated with the radiation resistance is the power actually radiated by the antenna,
while the power dissipated in the loss resistance is lost as heat in the antenna itself due
to dielectric or conducting losses.
Rin of the input impedance of an antenna can be divided into radiation and loss
resistances.
Rin =Rr +RL
Where,
Rr is the radiation resistance.
RL is the loss resistance.
Figure 1.10 shows an equivalent circuit of an antenna.
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1.7.5 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
If the condition for matching is not satisfied, then some of the power maybe
reflected back and this leads to the creation of standing waves, which can be
characterized by a parameter called as the Voltage St anding Wave Ratio (VSWR).
The VSWR is given by Makarov [6] as:
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The VSWR is basically a measure of the impedance mismatch between the
transmitter and the antenna. The higher the VSWR, the greater is the mismatch. The
minimum VSWR which corresponds to a perfect match is unity. A practical antenna
design should have an input impedance of either 50 Ω or 75 Ω since most radio
equipment is built for this impedance.
The Return Loss (RL) is a parameter which indicates the amount of power that
is “lost” to the load and does not return as a reflection. As explained in the preceding
section, waves are reflected leading to the formation of standing waves, when the
transmitter and antenna impedance do not match. Hence the RL is a parameter similar
to the VSWR to indicate how well the matching between the transmitter and antenna
has taken place.
The RL is given as:
(1.21)
For perfect matching between the transmitter and the antenna, Γ = 0 and RL = ∞
which means no power would be reflected back, whereas a Γ = 1 has a RL = 0 dB,
which implies that all incident power is reflected. For practical applications, a VSWR
of 2 is acceptable, since this corresponds to a RL of -9.54 dB.
The antenna efficiency is a parameter which takes into account the amount of
losses at the terminals of the antenna and within the structure of the antenna. These
losses are given by [5] as:
• Reflections because of mismatch between the transmitter and the antenna.
• I 2R losses (conduction and dielectric)
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1.7.8 Antenna Gain
1.7.9 Polarization
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Figure 1.14: Measuring bandwidth from the plot of the reflection coefficient
22
As we already know my operating frequencies we can therefore calculate my
desired bandwidth and compare it the measured result to see if the bandwidth in the
antenna is being obtained.
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1.8 TYPES OF ANTENNAS
The length of this antenna is equal to half of its wavelength as the name itself
suggests. Dipoles can be shorter or longer than half the wavelength, but a tradeoff
exists in the performance and hence the half wavelength dipole is widely used.
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1.8.2 Monopole Antenna
The monopole antenna, shown in Figure 1.17, results from applying the image
theory to the dipole. According to this theory, if a conducting plane is placed below a
single element of length L / 2 carrying a current, then the combination of the element
and its image acts identically to a dipole of length L except that the radiation occurs
only in the space above the plane as discussed by Saunders [8].
The loop antenna is a conductor bent into the shape of a closed curve such as a
circle or a square with a gap in the conductor to form the terminals as shown in
Figure 1.19. There are two types of loop antennas-electrically small loop antennas
and electrically large loop antennas.
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If the total loop circumference is very small as compared to the wavelength
(L <<< λ), then the loop antenna is said to be electrically small. An electrically large
loop antenna typically has its circumference close to a wavelength. The far-field
radiation patterns of the small loop antenna are insensitive to shape.
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Figure 1.20: Radiation Pattern of Small and Large Loop Antenna
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In the normal mode of operation, the antenna field is maximum in a plane
normal to the helix axis and minimum along its axis. This mode provides low
bandwidth and is generally used for hand-portable mobile applications.
In the axial mode of operation, the antenna radiates as an end fire radiator with
a single beam along the helix axis. This mode provides better gain (up to 15dB) and
high bandwidth ratio (1.78:1) as compared to the normal mode of operation. For this
mode of operation, the beam becomes narrower as the number of turns on the helix is
increased. Due to its broadband nature of operation, the antenna in
Horn antennas are used typically in the microwave region (gigahertz range)
where waveguides are the standard feed method, since horn antennas essentially
consist of a waveguide whose end walls are flared outwards to form a megaphone like
structure. Horns provide high gain, low VSWR, relatively wide bandwidth, low
weight, and are easy to construct [4]. The aperture of the horn can be rectangular,
circular or elliptical. However, rectangular horns are widely used. The three basic
types of horn antennas that utilize a rectangular geometry are shown in Figure 1.23.
These horns are fed by a rectangular waveguide which have a broad horizontal well
as shown in the figure. For dominant waveguide mode excitation, the E-plane is
vertical and H-plane horizontal. If the broad wall dimension of the horn is flared with
the narrow wall of the waveguide being left as it is, then it is called an H-plane
sectoral horn antenna as shown in the figure.
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If the flaring occurs only in the E-plane dimension, it is called an E-plane
sectoral horn antenna. A pyramidal horn antenna is obtained when flaring occurs
along both the dimensions. The horn basically acts as a transition from the
waveguide mode to the free-space mode and this transition reduces the reflected
waves and emphasizes the traveling waves which lead to low VSWR and wide
bandwidth [4]. The horn is widely used as a feed element for large radio astronomy,
satellite tracking, and communication dishes.
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Figure 1.24: Various Shapes of Horn Antenna
30
That design along with other phased arrays have electrical connections on
each element, whereas the Yagi-Uda design operates on the basis of electromagnetic
interaction between the "parasitic" elements and the one driven (dipole) element.
In the above sections, several antennas have been discussed. Another
commonly used antenna is the Microstrip patch antenna. The aim of this thesis is to
design a compact microstrip patch antenna to be used in wireless communication and
this antenna is explained in the next chapter.
In the last 15-20 years compact micro strip antenna research has progressed
considerably. Some works based on micro strip antenna are discussed below:
➢ Lotfollah L. Shafai, Walid A. Chamma, Mohamed Barakat, Peter C.
Strickland, and Guy Seguin investigated Dual-Band Dual-Polarized Perforated
Microstrip Antennas for SAR Applications in the year 2000. For dual-band dual-
polarized synthetic aperture radar (SAR) applications a compact low-profile design is
investigated by the authors. Stacked-patch configurations were used to meet up the
bandwidth requirements, especially in the L-band.
➢ Sean C.Ortiz, Tony Ivanov, and Amir Mortazawi designed Quasi-Optical
Amplifier Array with the help of CPW-Fed Microstrip Patch in the year 2000. A
quasi-optical power-combining amplifier array based on coplanar waveguide (CPW)-
fed microstrip patch antennas was designed by them. Both the transmit and receive
antennas employ CPW-fed patches.
➢ In the year 2007, R. Nilavalan, I.J. Craddock, A. Preece, J. Leendertz and R.
Benjamin designed wideband microstrip patch antenna for breast cancer tumour
detection. A patch antenna is presented which has been designed to radiate
frequencies in the range 4–9.5 GHz into human breast tissue. The antenna is shown by
means of previously unpublished simulation and practical measurements to possess
wide input bandwidth, radiation patterns that remain largely consistent over the band
of interest and a good front-to-back ratio.
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CHAPTER-2
BASICS OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS
In its most basic form, a Microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on
one side of a dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on the other side as shown in
Figure 2.1.The patch is generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold
and can take any possible shape. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo
etched on the dielectric substrate.
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In electromagnetic radiation λ is often given instead of λ0 as the speed of light in
vacuum is very close to the speed of light in air.
Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields
between the patch edge and the ground plane. For good antenna performance, a thick
dielectric substrate having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better
efficiency, larger bandwidth and better radiation. However, such a configuration leads to
a larger antenna size. In order to design a compact Microstrip patch antenna, higher
dielectric constants must be used which are less efficient and result in narrower
bandwidth. Hence a compromise must be reached between antenna dimensions and
antenna performance.
2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
Microstrip patch antennas are increasing in popularity for use in wireless applications
due to their low-profile structure. Therefore they are extremely compatible for embedded
antennas in handheld wireless devices such as cellular phones, pagers etc... The
telemetry and communication antennas on missiles need to be thin and conformal and
are often Microstrip patch antennas. Another area where they have been used
successfully is in Satellite communication. Some of their principal advantages discussed
by Kumar and Ray are given below:
➢ Light weight and low volume.
➢ Low profile planar configuration which can be easily made conformal to host
surface.
➢ Low fabrication cost, hence can be manufactured in large quantities.
➢ Supports both, linear as well as circular polarization.
➢ Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
➢ Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
➢ Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.
Microstrip patch antennas suffer from a number of disadvantages as compared to
conventional antennas.
Some of their major disadvantages discussed by Garg et al are given below:
➢ Narrow bandwidth
➢ Low efficiency
➢ Low Gain
➢ Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions
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➢ Poor end fire radiator except tapered slot antennas
➢ Low power handling capacity.
➢ Surface wave excitation
Microstrip patch antennas have a very high antenna quality factor (Q). Q
represents the losses associated with the antenna and a large Q leads to narrow
bandwidth and low efficiency. Q can be reduced by increasing the thickness of the
dielectric substrate. But as the thickness increases, an increasing fraction of the total
power delivered by the source goes into a surface wave. This surface wave contribution
can be counted as an unwanted power loss since it is ultimately scattered at the dielectric
bends and causes degradation of the antenna characteristics. However, surface waves can
be minimized by use of photonic band gap structures as discussed by Qian et al. Other
problems such as lower gain and lower power handling capacity can be overcome by
using an array configuration for the elements.
2.1.2 Q Factor
Microstrip antennas have a very high antenna Q (quality factor). Q represents the
losses in the antenna[2], where a large Q leads to narrow bandwidth and low efficiency.
Q can be reduced in the antenna by increasing the dielectric substrate thickness, but this
will cause less power delivered from the source because of power loss in the dielectric
substrate and making surface waves, as the power is scattered by the dielectric bends.
2.2 FEED TECHNIQUES
Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. These methods can
be classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting[9]. In the contacting
method, the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting element
such as a microstrip line. In the non-contacting scheme, electromagnetic field coupling is
done to transfer power between the microstrip line and the radiating patch. The four most
popular feed techniques used are the microstrip line, coaxial probe (both contacting
schemes), aperture coupling and proximity coupling (both non-contacting schemes).
2.2.1 Microstrip Feed Line
In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected directly to the edge
of the microstrip patch as shown in Figure 2.3. The conducting strip is smaller in width
as compared to the patch and this kind of feed arrangement has the advantage that the
feed can be etched on the same substrate to provide a planar structure.
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Figure 2.3: Microstrip Line Feed
The purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed
line to the patch without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved
by properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy feeding scheme, since it
provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance matching.
However as the thickness of the dielectric substrate being used, increases, surface waves
and spurious feed radiation also increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna.
The feed radiation also leads to undesired cross polarized radiation.When designing the
feed line, this must be along the side of the length, as the current flow is along the
direction of the feed wire and at the length is where the maximum radiation of the patch
is created.
2.2.2 Coaxial Feed
The Coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for feeding
Microstrip patch antennas. As seen from Figure 2.4, the inner conductor of the coaxial
connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch, while the
outer conductor is connected to the ground plane.
The main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the feed can be placed
at any desired location inside the patch in order to match with its input impedance. This
feed method is easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation.
However, its major disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth and is
difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled in the substrate and the connector
protrudes outside the ground plane, thus not making it completely planar for thick
substrates ( h >0.02λo ). Also, for thicker substrates, the increased probe length makes
the input impedance more inductive, leading to matching problems.
35
It is seen above that for a thick dielectric substrate, which provides broad
bandwidth, the microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed suffer from numerous
disadvantages. The non-contacting feed techniques which have been discussed below,
solve these problems.
We chose to use the feed line method as this is the most popular and as this
seems more straightforward when seen from a simulation perspective. Next will follow a
description on how to define the size of the patch and the line feed dimensions.
In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip feed lines are
separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure 2.5. Coupling between the patch and
the feed line is made through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane.
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The major disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate
due to multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness. This feeding scheme
also provides narrow bandwidth.
2.2.4 Proximity Coupled Feed
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2.3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The most popular models for the analysis of Microstrip patch antennas are the
transmission line model, cavity model, and full wave model (which include primarily
integral equations/Moment Method)[9]. The transmission line model is the simplest of
all and it gives good physical insight but it is less accurate. The cavity model is more
accurate and gives good physical insight but is complex in nature. The full wave models
are extremely accurate, versatile and can treat single elements, finite and infinite arrays,
stacked elements, arbitrary shaped elements and coupling. These give less insight as
compared to the two models mentioned above and are far more complex in nature.
2.3.1 Transmission Line Model (Microstrip Feed Line)
This model represents the microstrip antenna by two slots of width Wand height
h, separated by a transmission line of length L. The microstrip is essentially a no
homogeneous line of two dielectrics, typically the substrate and air shown in fig 2.7.
𝟏
𝜺𝒓 + 𝟏 𝜺𝒓 −𝟏 𝒉 −𝟐
εreff = + [𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐 𝒘] ………………………………….(2.1)
𝟐 𝟐
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εr = Dielectric constant of substrate
h = Height of the dielectric substrate
w = Width of the patch
Consider Figure 2.9 below, which shows a rectangular microstrip patch antenna
of length L, width W resting on a substrate of height h. The co-ordinate axis is selected
such that the length is along the x direction, width is along the y direction and the height
is along the z direction. In order to operate in the fundamental 10 TM mode, the length of
the patch must be slightly less than λ / 2 where λ is the wavelength in the dielectric
medium and is equal to λo/ εreff where λ0 is the free space wavelength. The 10 TM
modes imply that the field varies one λ / 2 cycles along the length, and there is no
variation along the width of the patch. Where is defined as:
39
Figure 2.10: Top View of Antenna Figure 2.11: Side View of Antenna
It is seen from Figure 2.11 that the normal components of the electric field at the
two edges along the width are in opposite directions and thus out of phase since the
patch is λ/2long and hence they cancel each other in the broadside direction. The
tangential components(seen in Figure 2.11), which are in phase, means that the resulting
fields combine to give maximum radiated field normal to the surface of the structure.
Hence the edges along the width can be represented as two radiating slots, which are λ/2
apart and excited in phase and radiating in the half space above the ground plane. The
fringing fields along the width can be modeled as radiating slots and electrically the
patch of the microstrip antenna looks greater than its physical dimensions. The
dimensions of the patch along its length have now been extended on each end by a
distance ΔL, which is given empirically by Hammerstad [7]as:
𝑾
(𝜺𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒇 + 𝟎.𝟑)( + 𝟎.𝟐𝟔𝟒)
∆L = 0.412𝒉 𝒉
𝑾 …………………….…… (2.2)
(𝜺𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒇 − 𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟖)( + 𝟎.𝟖)
𝒉
For a rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna, the resonant frequency for any TMmn mode
is given by James and Hall [8] as:
𝟏
𝑪 𝒎 𝟐 𝒏 𝟐 𝟐
f0 =
𝟐√𝜺𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒇
[( 𝑳 ) + (𝑾) ] ……………………... (2.5)
40
𝑪
W= ……………………………………………………….... (2.6)
(𝜺 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝒇𝟎 √ 𝒓
𝟐
Where,
c= the speed of light.
fc= the resonance frequency.
r= the dielectric constant of the substrate.
Leff= effective length.
L= actual length.
2.3.2Ground Planes
41
CHAPTER-3
In this chapter, the basic concept of radio frequency and microwave frequency
are discussed, and their advantage, disadvantage, application are explained.
Particularly microwave frequency band are explained.
3.1 MICROWAVES
42
The boundaries between far infrared light, terahertz radiation, microwaves,
and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously
between different fields of study.
The term "microwaves" seems to have first appeared in writing in a 1932
paper by Nello Carrara in the first issue of Alta Frequenza. The Italian word is
microonde. The term gained acceptance during the Second World War to describe
wavelengths less than about 30 cm. These waves were much shorter than those
normally used for communications (at that time), but were being used in RADAR.
A 30 centimeter wavelength is equivalent to 1 GHz (to convert from
frequency to wavelength, just divide the speed of light 300,000,000 meters per second
by the frequency in cycles per second to get meters of wavelength).
3.1.1 Radio Waves and Radio Frequency
43
Although radio frequency is a rate of oscillation, the term "radio frequency" or
its acronym "RF" are also used as a synonym for radio – i.e. to describe the use of
wireless communication, as opposed to communication via electric wires.
3.2 USE OF MICROWAVES?
44
The author does not know of any other word to describe the particulate nature
of a propagating RF energy field except "photon". When the interaction with matter
converts the energy into a mechanical form, we sometimes refer to the energy packets
as "phonons". This is not a propagating Electro-Magnetic (EM) field, but rather a
sound wave, and at the most minute level, even mechanical energy is quantized.
In most antenna, transmission line, waveguide, and quasi-optic formulations,
the EM field is described according to its wave-like nature. When dealing with the
interaction between a microwave field and a molecule of Oxygen (for instance), in
order to understand just why there are specific resonant frequencies of the molecule, a
quantized nature re-appears, and the notion of the field expressed as photons can
make sense.
3.2.2 Microwave Sources
45
Figure 3.2: Microwave Communication Link Transmitter and Receiver Section
3.3.1 Construction
• Antenna: Mostly a parabolic refractor types of antenna are used which is used
to transmit and receive the signal.
• Circulator: A circulator is used to isolate transmitter with the receiver input
and to couple transmitter to antenna and antenna to receiver input.
• Protection Circuitry: It provides safety to the mixer from overloads.
• Mixer (Receiver): It has two outputs. One is the incoming signal and other is
the signal from lower band pass filter (BPF).The mixer gives an IF signal of
70 MHz
• Band pass filter (BPF): It provides the necessary selectivity to the receiver
and it prevents the interference.
• IF amplifier and AGC: It amplifies the signal up to a intermediate frequency
of 70Mhz. and its gain is controlled through AGC (automatic gain control)
46
• Amplitude limiter: As the signal is frequency modulated one so as amplitude
limiter is used to avoid unwanted amplitude variations.
• Mixer (Transmitter): It is used to convert IF frequency to transmitting
microwave frequency band to pass through it and hence prevent interference.
• POWER AMPLIFIER: This amplifier amplifies the transmitted power from
a repeater section in the range of 0.2W to 10W.
• MICROWAVE SOURCE: Klystron & Gunn Oscillators were used as
microwave source. Now, V H F transistor crystal oscillators are used for
microwave source.
• POWER SPLITTER: It divides the output power from a microwave source
and feeds a large portion to the transmitter mixer, which converts it into
transmitting microwave frequency.
• SHIFT OSCILATOR: It provides one of the inputs to the balanced mixer so
that it produces 70MHz IF at the output of receiver mixer.
This microwave link communicates with 600 to 2700 channels per carrier.
Thus the number of carriers in each direction can be four to twelve.
➢ Advantages:
• No cables needed
• Multiple channels available
➢ Disadvantages:
47
• Wireless communications
• Remote sensing
• Industrial and home applications
48
Microwaves in the Electromagnetic Spectrum (300 MHz - 300 GHz)
49
This is typically done via a resonator – in its simplest form, a circuit with a
capacitor and an inductor forming a tuned circuit. The resonator amplifies oscillations
within a particular frequency band, while reducing oscillations at other frequencies
outside the band. The radio frequency bands designation are given below-
Frequency
Designation Frequency Wavelength Typical Service
Band
Extremely Military
ELF Low 3-30 Hz 104-105 Km communications
Frequency
3 kHz - 30
Very Low
VLF kHz 10-100 Km Navigation, sonar
Frequency
30 kHz -
Radio beacons,
LF Low Frequency 300 kHz 1-10 Km
navigational aids
AM broadcasting,
300 kHz -
Medium 100m-1 marintime radio, Coast
MF 3 MHz
Frequency Km Guard communication,
direction finding
Telephone, telegraph,
and facsimile; shortwave
international
3 MHz -
High broadcasting; amature
HF 30 MHz 10-100m
Frequency radio; citizen's band;
ship-to-coast and ship-
to-aircraft
communication
Television, FM
broadcast, air-traffic
Very High 30 MHz -
VHF 1-10m control, police, taxicab
Frequency 300 MHz
mobil radio, navigational
aids
50
Ultra High Television, satellite
300 MHz -
Frequency communication,
UHF 3 GHz 10cm-1m
(decimeter radiosonde, surveillance
waves) radar, navigational aids
Airborne radar,
Super High
3 GHz - microwave links,
Frequency
SHF 30 GHz 1-10cm common- carrier land
(centimeter
mobile communication,
waves)
satellite communication
Extremely High
30 GHz -
Frequency
EHF 300 GHz 1mm-1cm Radar, experimental
(millimeter
waves)
Tremendously
300 GHz - 0.1 mm - 1
THF High
3000 GHz mm
Frequency
51
Frequency Old band designation New band designation
1-2 GHz L D
2-3 GHz S E
3-4 GHz S F
4-6 GHz C G
6-8 GHz C H
8-10 GHz X I
10-12.4 GHz X J
12.4-18 GHz Ku J
18-20 GHz K J
20-26.5 GHz K K
26.5-40 GHz Ka K
Different authors have used different frequency boundary for letter designation of the
microwave bands. These of those are shown below here.
52
Table 3.5: Different Frequency Boundary for Letter Designation
53
CHAPTER-4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this brief tutorial, we use IE3D to simulate a KU (12-18 GHz) band for
microstrip patch antenna. In this tutorial we are not concerned about the design of
this antenna and we will focus our attention on using IE3D to simulate the structure
and obtain its parameters. The tutorial is organized in a number of steps, which must
be followed in sequence to obtain best results.
1) Run Zeland Program Manager. You will see a layout similar to that shown in
Figure 3.1.
56
7) First, we will draw a rectangle with the length of 10 mm and width of 6 mm. We
can draw the layout manually or use the available scripts to draw them. In this case,
we will draw them using the scripts. Click on the rectangle script button shown in
Figure 4.6. ( ). Enter 10 for Length and 6 for width as shown in Figure 4.6. and
click OK. Now your layout should look like Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.5: Layout View of the Problem after the Definition of the Dielectric Layers
57
Figure 4.7: Rectangular patch
58
8) The next step is to draw the rest of the structure. And also show the picture wide
screen or wide structure, and also short identification “W”. Your screen should look
like Figure 4.8.
9) Suppose draw any vertex in above rectangular entity, than Press Shift+R. The
“Keyboard Input Relative Location” menu pops up. Now that you have entered the
absolute location of the first vertex, you can use that as a reference point and enter the
location of additional vertices relative to the one entered previously.
10) Press the “Select Polygon” button shown in ( ). The shape of mouse cursor
changes from the cross “+” to the ordinary mouse cursor.
11) Press, Ctrl+C to copy the object and Ctrl+V to paste it.The outline of the object to
be pasted is drawn and as you move the mouse, it will move as well. You can move
the cursor to the paste point coordinates and click on the left button. You can also
click anywhere on the screen. The “Copy Object Offset to Original” menu pops up. In
this menu, you can enter the coordinates of the paste location.
12.) Figure 4.10 showing the rectanglization.
13) Figure 4.11 showing the basic parameters to be defined and Figure 4.13 shows the
editing of substrate layers.
14) Figure 4.14 showing the save the main picture or main figure, for microstrip patch
antenna.
59
Figure 4.10: Rectanglization
60
Figure 4.12: Defining the basic parameters
61
Figure 4.14: Saving main figure
15) Figure 4.14 showing the simulation the frequency, before or after also create the
meshing frequency.
16) Here you can specify the simulation frequency points as well as the basic
parameters of the mesh. Click on Enter button in the Frequency parameters field.
Enter 1 in the “Start Freq (GHz)” field, 2 at the “End Freq (GHz)” field, 20 and 500 in
the “Number of Freq” field and click OK. Figure 4.15 shows.
62
17) In this menu, you have to specify the highest frequency that the structure will be
simulated at. Enter 20 in the “Highest Frequency” field. In this case, the operating
frequency is 2.4 GHz. Therefore choosing 3 GHz as the maximum frequency should
be OK. Enter 30 in the “Cells per Wavelength” field. The number of cells/wave length
determines the density of the mesh. In method of moment simulations, you should not
use fewer than 10 cells per wavelength. The higher the number of cells per
wavelength, the higher the accuracy of the simulation. However, increasing the
number of cells increases the total simulation time and the memory required for
simulating the structure. In many simulations using 20 to 30 cells per wavelength
should provide enough accuracy. However, this cannot usually be generalized and is
different in each problem; press OK, a new window pops up that shows the statistics
of the mesh; press OK again and the structure will be meshed.
18) Press OK and the structure will be simulated. The simulation progress window
shows the progress of the simulation. It will only take a couple of seconds for the
simulation to finish. After the simulation is completed.
63
Figure 4.15(c): Process Of Simulation
19) Now we have been see the frequency vs. dB graph. And also marked “marker
selection check box, marker” and show the frequency points in Figure 4.17.
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Enter the frequency of simulation in the “Frequency Parameters” field. Enter
this new number in the “Meshing Parameters” field, as shown in Figure 4.19. Make
sure that the “Current Distribution File” check box is checked and uncheck the
“Adaptive Intelli-Fit” Check Box. Also make sure that the “Radiation Pattern File”
check box is not checked. If you check this box, IE3D calculates the radiation pattern
of the structure. However, we will first examine the current distribution on the surface
of the antenna and then we will calculate the radiation patterns of the structure from
the calculated current distribution of the antenna. Your simulation setup window
should look like the one presented in Figure4.19.
22) Press OK to simulate the structure. Note that it will take a considerably longer
time to simulate the structure.
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Figure 4.18: Meshing parameters & frequency parameters
66
Figure 4.20: 3D Pattern View
23) After simulation we see the pattern view showing in the Figure 4.19. Next the 2D
pattern, 3D pattern, Polar plot, Cartesian plot are show using this pattern view.
24) Figure 4.20 show the, how remain 3D pattern view.
67
CHAPTER -5
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA DESIGN RESULTS
68
In planar slot antennas, the slot width and feed structure affect the impedance
bandwidth of the antenna. The wider slot gives more bandwidth, and the optimum
feed structure gives good impedance matching. The CPW feed line with various
possible patch shapes available in the literature such as `T', cross, fork like, volcano
and square are used to give wideband width. The simulation software used for this
analysis is IE3D. In this chapter, a compact size microstrip patch antenna is proposed
with dielectric substrate as r=4.4 and dimensions are base on resonant frequency.
Various attempts are made to adjust the dimensions of the patch to improve the
parameters like return loss, VSWR, gain, directions, radiation pattern in 2-D and 3-
D, axial ratio, E and H Field Distributions, Current Distributions using Zeland
Software Inc. IE3D.
5.2 ANTENNA DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
The configuration of the conventional printed antenna is shown in Figure 5.1
with L=6 mm, W=10 mm, substrate (PTFE) thickness h = 1.6 mm, dielectric constant
εr = 4.4.
The three essential parameters for the design of a rectangular Microstrip Patch
Antenna are:
• Frequency of operation (f0): The resonant frequency of the antenna must be
selected appropriately. The Personal Communication System (PCS) uses the
frequency range from 1850-1990 MHz. Hence the antenna designed must be able
to operate in this frequency range. The resonant frequency selected for my design
are f1=1.086GHz and f2=10GHz.
• Dielectric constant of the substrate (r): The dielectric material selected for my
design is Silicon which has a dielectric constant of 4.4. A substrate with a high
dielectric constant has been selected since it reduces the dimensions of the
antenna.
• Height of dielectric substrate (h): For the microstrip patch antenna to be used in
cellular phones, it is essential that the antenna is not bulky. Hence, the height of
the dielectric substrate is selected as 1.6 mm.
Hence, the essential parameters required for the design of slotted antenna are:
• f1= 1.086 GHz and f2=10 GHz
• r = 4.4
• h = 1.6 mm
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5.3 ANTENNA STRUCTURE
The structure of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig.5.1. Also the structure
of proposed antenna 2 is shown in fig. 5.2. In this study, a dielectric substance (FR4)
with thickness of 1.6mm and a relative permittivity of 4.4 is chosen as substrate. The
CPW feed is designed for 50 Ω characteristic impedance. Both the antenna structures
are same but the only difference is that there is a change in feeding techniques. In
proposed antenna we use a transmission line feed and proposed antenna we use a
CPW feed.
The proposed antenna produces ultra wide bandwidth with omni-directional
radiation pattern. The wide bandwidth and impedance matching with reduced size of
the antenna is achieved due to resultant of different surface magnetic currents.
70
Figure 5.3: 3-D Side View of Proposed Antenna
71
Figure 5.5: Current Distribution Pattern of Side View For Proposed Antenna
5.4 SIMULATION SETUP AND RESULTS
The software used to model and simulate the microstrip patch antenna is Zeland
Inc’s IE3D software. IE3D is a full-wave electromagnetic simulator based on the
method of moments. It analyzes 3D and multilayer structures of general shapes. It has
been widely used in the design of MICs, RFICs, patch antennas, wire antennas, and
other RF/wireless antennas. It can be used to calculate and plot the S11 parameters,
VSWR, current distributions as well as the radiation patterns. An evaluation version
of the software was used to obtain the results for this thesis.
5.5 SIMULATED RETURN LOSS
The center frequency is selected as the one at which the return loss is
minimum. In this section, various parametric analyses of the antenna which are
inevitable for any UWB antennas are carried out and presented. The analysis and
optimization were performed for the best impedance bandwidth. The simulated return
loss of the proposed antenna 1 is shown in Figure 5.5(a), Figure 5.5(b) where as the
return loss of proposed antenna 2 is shown in Figure 5.6. The return loss of proposed
antenna 1 with parasitic element is shown in fig 5.7 From fig. 5.8, it is clearly
indicates that the impedance bandwidth of the antenna 2 is 812.75 MHz (6.70 GHz-
7.51GHz) for a return loss (S11) less than -10dB, whereas antenna 1 gives the better
result for any microwave communication.
Simulated (using IE3D [10]) results of return loss in simulated antenna
structures are shown in below figures also showing the calculated value given below.
For proposed antenna 1, we achieve a band-width of 10 GHz is much higher than the
proposed antenna 2 and acts as a UWB antenna.
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Figure 5.6 (a): Return loss of antenna structure
73
5.6 SIMULATED VSWR(VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO)
For the entire range of frequency achieved in designed antenna 1 are within
the range of VSWR. So we are achieved 2:1 VSWR for the entire frequency and we
show the VSWR in figure 5.7
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5.7.1 2D Radiation Patterns
Figure 5.8: E-Plane 2-D radiation pattern Figure 5.9:E-plane radiation pattern with
with transmission line feed at f=1 GHz transmission line feed at f=3.66GHz
75
Figure 5.12: E-Plane 2-D radiation Figure 5.13: E-Plane 2-D radiation
pattern with transmission line feed at pattern with Transmission line feed at
f=5.63 GHz f=8.19GHz.
76
Figure 5.16: H-Plane 2-D radiation Figure 5.17: H-Plane 2-D radiation
pattern with transmission line feed at f=1 pattern with transmission line feed at
GHz f=3.36 GHz
77
Figure 5.20: H-Plane 2-D radiation Figure 5.21: H-Plane 2-D radiation
pattern with transmission line feed at pattern with Transmission line feed at
f=5.63 GHz f=8.19GHz.
Figure 5.22: H-Plane 2-D radiation Figure 5.23: H-Plane 2-D radiation
pattern with transmission line feed at pattern with transmission line feed at
f=8.36GHz f=10GHz
78
5.8.2 3D Radiation Patterns
Figure 5.24: 3-D radiation pattern Figure 5.25: 3-D radiation pattern
with transmission line feed at f=1 with transmission line feed at f=3.66
GHz GHz
Figure 5.26: 3-D radiation pattern Figure 5.27: 3-D radiation pattern
with transmission line feed at f=4.93 with transmission line feed at f=4.98
GHz GHz
79
Figure 5.28: 3-D radiation pattern with Figure 5.29: 3-D radiation pattern with
transmission line feed at f= 5.36GHz transmission line feed at f=8.19GHz
Figure 5.30: 3-D radiation pattern with Figure 5.31: 3-D radiation pattern with
transmission line feed at f= 8.36GHz transmission line feed at f= 10GHz
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5.8 DESIGN & SIMULATED PARAMETERS
All the simulated results based on return loss and radiation pattern are summarized in
Table 5.1 : Simulated results for proposed antenna with respect to return loss (All feeds are
active)
Table 5.2: Simulated results for proposed antenna with respect to return loss (one feed active and
others parasitic patch)
Table 5.3 Simulated results for proposed antenna with respect to VSWR (All feeds are
active)
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Table 5.4 Simulated results for proposed antenna with respect to radiation pattern (Allfeeds
are active)
Table 5.5 Simulated results for proposed antenna with respect to radiation pattern (one feed
active and others parasitic patch)
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
6.1 CONCLUSION
Theoretical investigations of a dual layer single feed miniaturized micro strip
printed antennas have been carried out using Method of Moment based software
IE3D. Introducing slots at the edge of the left and right side of patch with adding slot
from top layer and cutting slots from the bottom layer, we achieved a maximum
return loss of about -32.37 at 5.63 GHz with a wide bandwidth of 2.66 GHz. Also we
achieved maximum 3dB beam-width of the radiation pattern is 281.360 which is
sufficiently broad beam for the applications for which it is intended. So lastly we
conclude that the proposed antenna is good when all the feeds are active at same time
rather one feed is active and others acts as a parasitic patch. Also it is require
mentioning that we achieved the proposed antenna VSWR within 2:1 range. So, the
proposed antenna is a good candidate for the application of mobile communication,
satellite communication, S-Band and C-band communication.
6.2 FUTURE SCOPE OF WORKS
In future microstrip antennas for applications like RFID and several bio-
medical uses are expected to be researched. Different types of microstrip antennas
have been designed in this thesis. In future planar microstrip antennas on curved
surface with variable radii of curvature may be investigated. They may be compared
with the planar antennas. Successful design of curved surface MSA (Micro-Strip
Antenna) may be helpful in Body-mounted applications.
Now fabrication of the microstrip antennas using paper based materials is
attempted. This new type of fabrication process is in a developing stage. Antennas
fabricated in the thesis may be fabricated by paper materials using proposed new
technique in future. It may be helpful in bio-medical application.
Researchers are also trying to develop microstrip antenna using semiconductor
substrates.
83
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