Chapter 5: Current, Resistance & Electromotive Force

5.1 Current

 Materials can be classified in terms of their ability to conduct electricity, as insulator,

conductor or semiconductor.
Table 5.1
Material Description
Insulator  Materials that do not conduct electricity.
 Electric field cannot supply energy to free the electrons.
Conductor  Materials that have good electrical conductivity.
 Electrons are free and can be moved in the material.
 If no electric field is applied, the electrons in conductors move
randomly at high speed but their average velocity is zero.
 Electrons will flow in one direction to produce a current when
connected to an electrical source
Semiconductor  Materials that have electrical properties in between insulators
and conductors.
 Materials that are widely used for making electronic components
such as diodes, transistors and integrated circuits.

 Mechanism of electric conduction in metals:

Figure 5.1

o At room temperature, free electrons in a conductor move randomly with thermal

energy.
o Without electric fields, the average velocity of the electrons is zero; thus no net
transport of charge.
o In a uniform electric field, the electrons still move in random directions but the
electric force makes them move on average a little faster in the direction of the
force than the opposite direction.
o The electrons drift in the direction of the electric force with an average velocity
called drift velocity, v .
o Electric current is defined as the rate of charge flow through a particular point in a
conductor.

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 dQ
 The current, I  , where dQ is the amount of charge that passes the point in a time
dt
interval dt .
 If the number of electrons passing through is N , then charge flow is Q  Ne , and the
Ne
current, I   ne , where n is the number of electron passing through per unit time.
t
 The SI unit of current is ampere, A .
 The direction of an electric current (conventional current) is defined as the direction in
which positive charges move from a position of high potential to one of low potential.
 The direction of conventional current is the opposite of the direction of the motion of
electrons.

Example 1:
A constant current of 0.6 A is maintained in a wire for 3 minutes. Find the number of
electrons that have crossed a particular point in the wire during that time.
Solution:
Charge in the wire:
Q  It
Q  0.6  3  60  108C
If n is the number of electron carrying this charge, then
ne  108C
108
n 19
 6.75  10 20
1.6  10

Example 2:
An amount of charge equal to 45C moves past a point in a circuit in 1 second, what is the
current in the circuit?
Q
I
t
45C
I
1s
I  45Cs 1
I  45 A

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 Example 3:
If the time taken for a 3  10 8 C charge to flow through cross section X is 5  10 4 s , find
the current that flow through the cable.

Figure 5.2
8
Q 3  10 C
I  4
 6  10 5 A
t 5  10

5.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s Law

5.2.1 Resistivity
 The resistance of a conductor depends on the length and cross-sectional area of the
conductor.
 The resistance of the conductor is proportional to its length, L but is inversely proportional
to its cross-sectional area, A .
L
R
A
L
or R   where  is the resistivity
A
 Resistivity is the measure of the material’s ability to oppose the flow of an electric current.
 Materials with relatively small resistivity values, such as metals have small resistance and
make a good electrical conductor.
 Materials with large values of resistivity, usually non-metals, have large resistances and are
poor electric conductors.
 Conductivity of a material is the reciprocal of the resistivity,
1 L
 or  
 AR
5.2.2 Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s Law states that the potential difference across a conductor, V is proportional to the
current, I flowing through it, if its physical conditions and temperature are constant.
 The ratio of V to I is known as resistance
V
R or V  IR
I
 Materials that obey Ohm’s Law have a constant resistance over a wide range of voltage are
called ohmic conductor, example pure metals.
 Materials that do not obey the Ohm’s Law are known as non-ohmic conductors, example
junction diode.
 Conductance, G is the reciprocal of resistance, that is
1
Conductance, G 
R
 The unit for conductance (G ) is per ohm ( 1 ) .  1  V 1 A .

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 Table 5.2
Symbol and SI unit Equation
Resistance R , ohm (  ) L
R
A
Resistivity  , ohm meter ( m ) AR

L
Conductance G , per ohm ( 1 ) G
1
R
Conductivity  (  1m 1 ) 1
  or  
L
 AR

5.3 Electromotive Force (e.m.f), Internal Resistance and Potential Difference

5.3.1 Electromotive Force (e.m.f)
 Electromotive force, e.m.f is the electrical energy per unit charge generated by a source so
that charges can flow from a terminal to another terminal of the source through a circuit.
 The e.m.f of a device is defined as the ratio of the electrical power, P which it generates to
the current, I flowing through it
P

I
 Device that increases the potential energy of charges circulating in a circuit sources of e.m.f.
examples of sources of e.m.f are batteries, generators, solar cells and fuel cells.
 An e.m.f is the potential difference of a source when no current is being drawn from or
delivered to it.

5.3.2 Internal Resistance

 When there is a current, the potential difference across the terminals is always less than the
e.m.f source, this is because the resistance to the flow of current within the source itself.
The resistance is called the internal resistance of the source.
 The internal resistance, r of the battery acts as if it is a resistor in series with the battery.
 When a current, I in a circuit, there is a potential drop, Ir across the internal resistance. The
e.m.f of the source
  IR  Ir
  V  Ir
Potential difference of the source
V    Ir

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  The differences between electromotive force and potential difference:
Table 5.3
Electromotive Force (emf) Potential Difference (pd)
Force which drives the electrons. The difference in electric potential energy
per coulomb of charge.
The amount of work done to rotate a unit The amount of work done when a unit
positive (+ve) charge in a given circuit. charge is brought from infinity to a given
point in electric field.
emf is always greater than pd pd is always smaller than emf
emf is the pd between the two terminals of pd is the potential difference between the
the source when it is in open circuit terminal when source is in use, for example,
in closed circuit.

Example 4:
A direct-current generator has an emf of 120V . At an output of 25 A the terminal potential
is 115V .
a) What is the internal resistance of the generator?
Solution:
Terminal voltage = emf – voltage drop in internal resistance
V    Ir
115  120  (25)r
120  115
r  0.2
25
b) Hence, find the terminal voltage at an output of 35 A ?
Solution:
V    Ir
V  120  (35  0.2)  113V

5.4 Electric Energy and Power

 A small quantity of charge, dQ in a circuit, when placed between a potential difference V will
gain energy, VdQ and moves through the potential difference supply.
 The charge loses its energy gained from the potential difference supply during collisions with
atoms in the resistor.
 The rate at which it loses its energy can be written as
dQ
V  VI
dt
where I is the current in the resistor and V is the potential difference across it.
 Rate at which the charge loses energy equals to the power dissipated in the resistor
P  IV
 From Ohm’s Law, the potential difference across the resistor is V  IR , therefore P  IV
can be written as
V2
P  I ( IR)  I 2 R 
R
 Power is dissipated from a resistor in the form of heat. The dissipation of power as heat in a
conductor/ resistor is called joule heating.

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 Terminology Definition Formula Unit
Power Rate of energy consumption V2 Watt (W )
P  IV  I 2 R 
R
Energy Power at the amount of time E  VIt Joule (J )
being supplied

Example 5:
A 750W heater operates from a 120V line.
Find
a) its resistance,
V2
P
R
120 2
750 
R
R  20
b) the current that it draws,
V 120
I   6A
R 20
c) the power of the heater if the line voltage drops to 110V .
V 2 110 2
P   605W
R 20