2.

3 COMPLEX ARGUMENTATIVE PASSAGES

A complex argument is a set of arguments with either overlapping premises or conclusions (or
both). Complex arguments are very common because many issues and debates are complicated
and involve extended reasoning. To understand complex arguments, we need to analyze the
logical structure of the reasoning involved. Drawing a diagram can be very helpful.

Analyzing passages in which several arguments are interwoven, with some propositions serving
as both premises and subconclusions while other propositions serve only as premises, and still
others are repeated in different words, can be a challenge.1

In order to analyze simple and complex arguments, we will find it useful to construct a diagram
of the structure of the argument that details the relations among the various premises and
conclusions.

A. A conclusion of one argument can become a premise for another argument. Thus, a
statement can be the conclusion of one argument and a premise for another argument just
as a daughter in one family can become a mother in another family.

B. The number of arguments in a passage is conventionally established by the number of

conclusions in that passage.

C. In analyzing the structure of an argument, whether simple or complex, the all-important

first step is to find the conclusion. Here are some specific suggestions as to how to find
the conclusion.2

When working with complex arguments, it is often helpful to reconstruct the argument
backwards from the conclusion.3 To anyalyze fairly, we must strive to understand the flow of the
author’s reasoning, and to identify the role of each element in the passage as part of that flow.
Only after that is done, when we have identified the arguments within a passage and the relations
of those arguments, can we go about deciding whether the conclusions do indeed follow the
premises affirmed.4

The step by step process in evaluating a complex argument are as follows:

1. Identify the issue at hand,

2. Identify the conclusion of the main argument.
3. Consider the burden of proof of the conclusion of the main argument.
4. Identify the premises of the main argument.
5. Conduct an evaluative analysis of the inference expressed in the main argument and the
relevance of the main argument to the issue at hand.
6. Repeat steps 1 through 5 of each of the subsidiary arguments that lend support to the
main premises.
7. Make a final evaluation.5

1
I. Copi, C. Cohen, and K. McMahon, Introduction to Logic, p. 51, 14 th Edition
2
Introduction to Logic available at http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/diagram.html (last visited January 28, 2018)
3
Introduction to Logic available at http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/diagram.html (last visited January 28, 2018)
4
I. Copi, C. Cohen, and K. McMahon, Introduction to Logic, p. 51, 14 th Edition
5
T. Crews-Anderson, Critical Thinking and Informal Logic, Humanities-Ebooks, available at
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=H_K1euwlfoMC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=complex+argumentative+passa
ges&source=bl&ots=GGKl8pGn8o&sig=aXM-gU7ewsO6fQY09sBtQpVOTAc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj02-Cf-
PnYAhUDm5QKHSnfDC8Q6AEIVDAI#v=onepage&q=complex%20argumentative%20passages&f=false (last visited
January 28, 2018)
The structure of the argument (and, of course, the conclusion, as well) might be inferred by the
following kinds of indicators.

a. Premise indicators are words which often indicate the presence of reasons. Common
premise indicators include the following:

for
since
as
because
for the reason
follows from
after all
in light of the fact
*for the reason

b. Conclusion indicators are words which often indicate the statement which logically
follows from the reasons given. Common conclusion indicators include the following:

thus
therefore
consequently
hence
so
it follows that
proves that
indicates that
*accordingly
implies that
*for this reason

c. Conjunctives (including conjunctive adverbs) often indicate equal status for clauses or
sentences. Noticing these conjuncts is especially helpful for argument analysis if one of
the elements has already been identified.

Indicators of clauses of equal status include:

and
but
yet
however
moreover
in addition
nevertheless
(and also the semicolon ";")6

Repetition complicates the task of analysis. Individual propositions are sometimes repeated
within an argument in differently worded sentences, sometimes for emphasis and at other times

6
Introduction to Logic available at http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/diagram.html (last visited January 28, 2018)
by oversight.7 The aim and special province of logic is the evaluation of arguments, but
successful evaluation presupposes a clear grasp of the structure of the argument in question.8

1. Thing cannot come to the party.

2. Thing’s car is broken.
3. Human Torch cannot come to the party.
4. Human Torch’s fire burned his suit.
5. I did not invite the other Fantastic 4 members.
6. No Fantastic 4 member will come up to the party.

2 4

1 3 5

Exercises:
a. This phone can think. So it is conscious. Since we should not kill any conscious being,
we should not switch it off.

b. Marriage is becoming unfashionable. Annulment cases are at an all-time high, and

cohabitation is increasingly presented in a positive manner in the media. Movies are full
of characters who live together and unwilling to commit to a lifelong partnership. Even
newspaper columnists recommend people to live together for an extended period before
marriage in order to test their compatibility.

c. All law students should study critical thinking. After all, critical thinking is necessary for
surviving in law school as we need to adapt to rapid changes, and make critical use of
information in making decisions. Also, critical thinking can help us reflect on our values
and purposes in life. Finally, critical thinking helps us improve our study skills.\

2.4 PROBLEMS IN REASONING

One type of reasoning problem is the common brainteaser in which, using only the clues
provided, we must determine the names or other facts about certain specified characters. To
solve such problems we look first for the sphere in which we have enough information to reach
some conclusions going beyond what is given in the premises.

7
I. Copi, C. Cohen, and K. McMahon, Introduction to Logic, p. 52, 14 th Edition
8
I. Copi, C. Cohen, and K. McMahon, Introduction to Logic, p. 54, 14 th Edition
A consecutive reporting was tasked to 4 law students which would take place from Monday to
Thursday. Jerry was scheduled to report on Monday but he traded with Jeremiah, who was
originally scheduled to report on Wednesday. Roma traded with Joy, who was originally
scheduled to report on Thursday. After all the switching was done, who reported on Tuesday?

Answer: Joy

When problems of this type become more complex, it is useful to construct a graphic display of
the alternatives, called a matrix, which we fill in as we accumulate new information.9

Exercise:
Abe and four of her college friends have a specific major, enjoy a favorite sport, and participate in a
specific extracurricular activity. From the clues which follow, find out which sport each student enjoys,
what major each student has, and in which extracurricular activity each student participates. No two
students share the same major, sport, or extra-curricular activity.

Clues:

1. One student enjoys badminton, one student is majoring in physics, and one student participates in the
Concert Band as an extracurricular activity. These are not necessarily three different students mentioned
in this clue.

2. Last Friday, while Jacob and the student who is majoring in history went out to eat, the student whose
favorite sport is soccer studied with the student whose extracurricular activity is acting in theater
productions, and Audrey played cards with her roommates.

3. Paul, who is majoring in philosophy, enjoys watching football.

4. Audrey is on the yearbook staff.

5. The art major did not play cards last Friday.

6. The mathematics major, who is not Audrey, enjoys watching basketball.

7. Jacob did not spend any part of last Friday with Todd nor does Jacob work on the student newspaper.
8. The student whose extracurricular activity is a volunteer fire person enjoys volleyball.

In the real world, we are often called upon to reason from some present state of affairs to its
cause, from what is to what was. Retrograde analysis is reasoning that seeks to explain how
things must have developed from what went before.10

9
I. Copi, C. Cohen, and K. McMahon, Introduction to Logic, p. 57, 14th Edition
10
I. Copi, C. Cohen, and K. McMahon, Introduction to Logic, p. 59, 14 th Edition
Each side has made exactly four moves. How?
But in 4 moves the solution is unique : 1.e4 e6 2.Bb5 Ke7! 3.Bxd7 c6
4.Be8 Kxe8 diagram.