Studies and reports in hydrology 43

Recent titles in this series:

5 . Discharge of selected rivers of the world (English/French/Spanish/Russian). Volume III (Part IV): Mean
monthly and extreme discharges (1976-1979). 1985.
30. Aquifer contamination and protection. 1980. (Also published in French and Arabic.)
31. Methods of computation of the water balance of large lakes and reservoirs. Volume I: Methodology. 1981.
Volume I I : Case studies. 1984.
32. Application of results from representative and experimental basins. 1982.
33. Ground water in hard rocks. 1984.
34. Ground-water models. Volume I : Concepts, problems and methods of analysis with examples of their
application. 1982.
35. Sedimentation problems in river basins. 1982. (Also published in French.)
36. Methods of computation of low stream Bow. 1982.
31. Proceedings of the Leningrad Symposium on specific aspects of hydrological computations for water
projects. 1981. (Russian only.)
38. Methods of hydrological computations for water projects. 1982. (Also published in French.)
39. Hydrological aspects of drought. 1985.
40. Guidebook to studies of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal. 1984.
41. Guide to the hydrology of carbonate rocks. 1984.
42. Water and energy: demand and effects. 1985.
43. Manual on drainage in urbanized areas (2 volumes). (Volume II to be published.)
44. The process of water resources project planning: a systems approach. 1981.
45. Ground water problem$ in coastal areas. 1981.
46. The role of water in socio-economic development. (To be published.)
41. Communication strategiesfor heightening awareness of water. 1981.
48. Casebook of methods for computing hydrological parametersfor water projects. 1981.
Manual on drainage
in urbanized areas
Volume I
Planning and design of drainage systems
A contribution to
the International Hydrological
Programme
Prepared by
the Working Group,
Project A 2.9
Edited by:
W. F. Geiger
J. Marsalek
W. J. Rawls
F. C . Zuidema, Chairman

Unesco
The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part'of Unesco
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Published in 1987 by the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by Bietlot, Fleurus, Belgium

ISBN 92-3- 102416-7

O Unesco 1987
Printed in Belgium
 Preface

. Although the total amount o f water o n earth i s generally assumed t o have remained virtually constant, the rapid
growth o f population, together w i t h the extension o f irrigated agriculture and industrial development, are stressing the
quantity and quality aspects o f the natural system. Because o f the increasing problems, man has begun t o realize that he
can n o longer follow a “use and discard” philosophy - either with water resources or any other natural resources. As a
result, the need for a consistent policy o f rational management o f water resources has become evident.
Rational water management, however, should be founded upon a thorough understanding o f water availability and
movement. Thus, as a contribution t o the solution o f the world’s water problems, Unesco, in 1965, began the first
world-wide programme of studies o f the hydrological cycle - the International Hydrological Decade (IHD). The research
programme was complemented by a major effort in the field o f hydrological education and training. The activities
undertaken during the Decade proved t o be o f great interest and value t o Member States. B y the end-of that period,
a majority o f Unesco’s Member States had formed IHD National Committees t o carry out relevant national activities
and t o participate in regional and international co-operation within the IHD programme. The knowledge o f the world’s
water resources had substantially improved. Hydrology became widely recognized as an independent professional
option and facilities for the training o f hydrologists had been developed.
Conscious o f the need t o expand upon the efforts initiated during the International Hydrological Decade and,
following the recommendations o f Member States, Unesco, in 1975, launched a new long-term intergovernmental
programme, the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), t o follow the Decade.
Although the IHP i s basically a scientific and. educational programme, Unesco has been aware from the beginning
o f a need t o direct i t s activities toward the practical solutions o f the world’s very real water resources problems.
Accordingly, and in line with the recommendations o f the 1977 United Nations Water Conference, the objectives of the
International Hydrological Programme have been gradually expanded in order t o cover n o t only hydrological processes
considered in interrelationship with the environment and human activities, but also the scientific aspects of multi-
purpose utilization and conservation o f water resources t o meet the needs o f economic and social development. Thus,
while maintaining IHP’s scientific concept, the objectives have shifted perceptibly towards a multidisciplinary approach
to the assessment, planning, and rational management o f water resources.
As part o f Unesco’s contribution t o the objectives o f the IHP, two publication series are issued: “Studies and
Reports in Hydrology” and “Technical Papers in Hydrology.’’ In addition t o these publications, and in order t o ex-
pedite exchange o f information in the areas in which i t i s most needed, works o f a preliminary nature are issued in the
form o f Technical Documents.
The purpose.of the continuing series “Studies and Reports in Hydrology” t o which this volume belongs, i s t o pre-
sent data collected and the main results o f hydrological studies, as well as t o provide information o n hydrological
research techniques. The proceedings o f symposia are also sometimes included. I t i s hoped that these volumes w i l l
furnish material o f b o t h practical and theoretical interest t o water resources scientists and also t o those involved in
water resources assessments and the planning for rational water resources management.
Contents

Page

1 INTRODUCTION .................................... 1

1.1 URBANIZATION AND THE HYDROLOGICAL REGIME ..................... 1

1.1.1 Urbanization and population growth .................... 1

1.2
1.1.2
URBAN DRAINAGE
1.2.1
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
E f f e c t s o f urbanization on catchment hydrc.logy
.urban
Need f o r drainage systems
2
4
4
1.2.2 Drainage concepts and practices...................... 5

1.3
1.2.3 Urban drainagewithin
DESIGN OF URBAN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS:
urban
the system . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
OBJECTIVES AND TOOLS
6
7
1.3.1 . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Planning o b j e c t i v e s 7
1.3.2
1.3.3
Comprehensive planning
in
Use o f models .
planning. . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
8
8
1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE MANUAL .............................. 10

2 BASIC APPROACHES TO URBAN DRAINAGE ......................... 13

2.1 URBAN WASTES AND STORM RUNOFF

2.1.1
. . .......... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Sanitation o f urban areas
13
13

2.2
2.1.2
2.1.3 . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .................... ... ... ... ............... . .
Development and transport o f storm r u n o f f
Runoff q u a l i t y
APPROACHES TO URBAN DRAINAGE
13
14
16
2.2.1
2.2.2
and
Options f o r excreta . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
sullage disposal
Storm drainage by separate and combined systems
16
17
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
open
Advanced drainage schemes . . . . ...............................................................
channels and closed conduits

Wastewater and stormwater reuse

19
19
20
2.3 MASTER DRAINAGE PLANS
2.3.1
...............................
The planning horizon . . . . . . .................................... .. .. .. 20
20
2.3.2 Major and minor drainage s y s t e m 21
2.3.3
2.3.4
Development and components o f master drainage plans
Example o f master drainage p l a n contents . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 22
22
2.4
. . . . . . . . . .. ................. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ......
CONDITIONS AFFECTING URBAN DRAINAGE DESIGN
2.4.1 Physical conditions
24
24
2.4.2
2.4.3
Socio-economic aspects . . . . . . .......................... .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
F i n a n c i a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l aspects
25
26
2.4.4 Operation and maintenance ......................... 27

3 ELEMENTS OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS ............................ 29

3.1
3.2 CONVEYANCE ELEMENTS
3.2.1
. . . . ...... .. .. ................................................ ... ... ... ... ... ......
DIVERSITY OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Open-channel drains
29
29
29
3.2.2 Underground conduit drains ........................ 30
3.5 APPURTENANCES
3.3.1
. . ..
Manholes and junction s t r u c t u r e s
6

. . . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . . . .
6 6 3)
31
3.3.2 Inlets . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...................... 31

. . . .. ... .. .. ............ ... ... ... ........................................................

3.3.3 Catch basins 34
3.3.4 Drop s t r u c t u r e s 35
3.3.5 Siphons 35
3.4 OVERFLOWSTRUCTURES
3.4.1
i

O v e r f l o w s w i t h e t a t i s controld .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35
38

3.5
3.4.2
RUNOFFCONTROIA
3.5.1
. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
O v e r f l o w s with dynamic c o n t r o l s

Source c o n t r o l s
38
38
41
3.5.2
3.5.3
storage f a c i l i t i e s . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
O u t l e t s for s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s
41
43
3.6 PUMPINO STATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 47
4 DESIGNPARAME’PERS .. .. . a . 6 . . . . * 49

4.1
4.2
BACKGROUND
PLANNINGHORIZON
. .. . .. . . . .. 49
49
4.3
4.4
DESIGN PERIOD FOR DRAINAGE PROJECTS
CATCHMENTPHYSICALPARAMETERS
.
......................... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6 49
50
4.5 PROCESS PARAMETERS
4.5.1 Infiltration
. . . .
rates
. .
. .. .. ........... .. .. .. .. .. .. ........... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 52
52
4.5.2
4.5.3
Depression s t o r a g e
Roughness of transport
. elements ........................................... 53
53
4.6 RAINFALL DATA FOR DRAINAGE DESIGN . . . .
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ................ 53
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
sources
Point v s . areal
of r a i n f a l l data

Frequency a n a l y s i s of
rainfall .
point r a i n f a l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
55
55

4.7
4.6.4
4.6.5 D e s i g n storms
WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS
. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ... ...... .. ... .. ... .. ............ . ..
Example o f i n t e n s i t y - d u r a t i o n - f r e q u e n c y analysis 56
58
63
4.7.1
4.7.2
Stormwater q u a l i t y
Quality of combined
. . . . . . . . ...................... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
6

sewer o v e r f l o w s
63
66
4.7.3
4.7.4
Dry weather - quantity
flow
I n f i l t r a t i o n and i n f l o w i n t o sewers . . ....... .. .. .. ......... .. .. .. ...... . .
and q u a l i t y 66
68
5 QUANTITY OF STORMWATER ............................... 71

5.1 STORMWATERANALYSIS
5.1.1 scope of
. . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...............................
stormwatei a n a l y s i s
71
71

5.2
5.1.2 Phases of runoff development
RAINFALL MCESS AND ABSTRACTIONS
5.2.1
. . .. .. .............................. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r a i n f a l ï excess
72
73
73
5.2.2
5.2.3
Rainfall
Lumped
abstractions
rainfall
. . . . ........................................ .. .. ..
abstractions
76
80
5.3 SEPARATE CALCULATIONS OF RUNOFF VOLUME AND PEAK
5.3.1 Application of separate calculations . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
. 6 83
83
5.3.2
5.3.3
R u n o f f volume e s t i m a t i o n methods
Peak runoff e s t i m a t i o n methods . . .. ....... .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. ......... . . .
. 83
84
5.3.4
5.3.5
Peak runoff calculation by the
S u b s t i t u t i o n hydrographs
rational method
derived by the r a t i o n a l
method
. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 84
86
5.4 HYDROGRAPH CALCULATION BY HYDROLajIC MTI’HODS
5.4.1 Application o f hydrologic methade. . rn

. . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 86
86
5.4.2
5.4.3
Conceptual
Analytical
models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
derivation of the transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........ 87
88
5.4.4 Synthesis o f the function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
transfer 90
of conceptual d e l e . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
5.4.5 Detexmination of parameters 93
5.5 HYDROGRAPH CALCULATIONS BY nMlRODYNAMfC AND SIMPLIFIED HYDRODYNAMIC METHODS 94
5.5.1 Application o f hydrodynamic methods 94
5.5.2 Hydrodynamic e q u a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... .. .. .. .. ......... . . .
S i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the hydrodynamic e q u a t i o n s
95

5.6
5.5.3
5.5.4 S o l u t i o n methods for the hydrodynamic equations
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS RUNOJ?F COMPOTATION APPROACHES .. .
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 95
98
98
 Page

6 HYDRAULICS OF CONDUITS AND OPEN CHANNELS ...................... 101

6.1
6.2 HYDRAULICFUNDAMENTALS
6.2.1 T y p e s o f flow
.. .. . . . . .......................................... .. .. .. ..
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
6
101
101
101
6.2.2
6.2.3
Basic principles
Flow friction formulae
. . . .................................................... 102
102

6.3
6.4
6.2.4
PRESSURE FLOW . . . .. .. .. .......................................................................................
Form l o s s e s

OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW DESIGN

106
108
110
6.5
6.6
VELOCITY CONSIDERATIONS
NONUNIFORM FLOW PROBLEMS
. .. . .. . . . ... . . . . . . ... . . ... .. . .. . . . . . . 111
112
6.6.1
6.6.2
critical . . . . . . . . .................. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ............
flow
Drawdown and b a c k w a t e r c u r v e s
O

112
113
6.6.3 H y d r a u l i c jump .............................. 115

7 DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS . 117

7.1 INTERFA- BETWEEN HYDROLOGIC AND HYDRAULIC DESIGNS

. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ......... .. .. .. .. .... . . 117
7.2 PRACTICAL DESIGN OF CONVEYANCE ELEMENTS
7.2.1
7.2.2
S i z i n g o f conveyance e l e m e n t s
Self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.
117
117
120
7.3
7.4
7.5
DROP STRUCTURES . . . . . ............................. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
MANHOLESANDCATCHBASINS

PRINCIPLES OF INLET DESIGN

122
124
124
7.6
7.7
7.8
CULVERTS . . . . . ...... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ........................ .. .. ... .. .. .. ...........
OVERFLOW STRUCTURES

OUTLETSOFSEWERSANDCULVERTS
124
130
134
7.9
7.10 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS . . . . . . ............ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
DESIGN OF STORAGE F A C I L I T I E S 134
137

8 NETWORKDESIGNMETHODS ............................... 139

8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . ... . . . . . . .. .. . . ... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . 139

. . . . . ...... ... .. .. ........... .. .. ... .. ........ . .

8.2 PRELIMINARYANALYSIS 139
8.3 >METHODS YIELDING PEAK FLOW FOR SINGLE EVENTS I40
8.3.1 General e m p i r i c a l formulae 140
8.3.2 R a t i o n a l method and i t s m o d i f i c a t i o n s 141
8.4 SEWER DESIGN USING HYDROGRAPH mDELS
. . . . ... . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . .
6 146
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
Design s t o m modelling
R a i n f a l l abstractions . . .. ......... .. .. .. .. ......... .. .. .. .. ........ . . . .
R a i n f a l l - r u n o f f modelling
147
147
148
8.4.4
8.4.5
8.4.6
. . . . ... .. .. ......... ... ... ............. ... .. .. ..
H y d r a u l i c routing through sewers and s p e c i a l s t r u c t w e s
R u n o f f quality m o d e l l i n g a s p e c t s
Network d e s i g n u s i n g comprehensive models
148
149
149

9 ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF URBAN DRAINAGE PROJECTS . . .. 6 155

9.1
9.2
9.3
DRAINAGE AS PART OF THE URBAN WATER SYSTEM
PLANNING AND ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ASPECTS
. . . . .. . 155
155
160
9.4 EFFECTIVE URBAN WATER ORGANIZATIONS ....................... 164

REFERENCES APPEARING I N THE TEXT

APPENDIX A .
INTERNATIONAL L I S T OF URBAN TEST CATCHMENTS
. . . . . . . .. . . . 165
179
.
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
RATIONAL METHOD CALCULATIONS FOR THE WATERSHED SHOWN I N FIGURE 8.1
.
RATIONAL METHOD CALCULATIONS FOR THE SEWER SYSTEM SHOWN I N FIGURE 8.2 .. 199
201
Foreword

Large concentration o f people i n r e l a t i v e l y small areas i s recognized as an i n e v i t a b l e h i s t o r i c

process of urbanization. This process i s continuing and predictions i n d i c a t e t h a t by the end
of t h i s century, about one h a l f o f the t o t a l world population w i l l l i v e i n urban areas. High
concentrations of population change the landscape and hydrological cycle o f the affected area
and increase demands on such services as water supply, flood protection and drainage, waste-
water disposal, and water-based recreation. Even though the importance o f i n d i v i d u a l services
g r e a t l y varies, they are o f t e n i n t e r a c t i v e and a l l need t o be considered i n successful manage-
ment of water resources. From perilous events, such as flooding, h e a l t h hazards, and l o s s o f
human l i f e , and the concomitant economic losses, we have learned t h a t urban development and i t s
water systems have t o be planned i n an orderly manner.
The planning and design of drainage systems i n urban areas i s strongly affected by c l i -
matic, physiographic and socio-economic conditions, and i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements. Conse-
quently, the planning o f drainage systems i n urbanized areas varies considerably among
countries, or even regions. Nevertheless, a common technically-sound and cost-effective
approach t o drainage planning and design can be i d e n t i f i e d together with many appropriate
existing design methods. Besides the general need f o r drainage planning, t h e r e i s an increas-
ing need t o base the technical drainage design and the r e l a t e d p o l i t i c a l decisions on good
supporting data, t h e i r c a r e f u l analysis and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and on analysis of design alterna-
tives. I t i s expected t h a t new technology f o r data c o l l e c t i o n and analysis w i l l bring about
further progress i n t h i s area.
Since 1971, Unesco has paid special a t t e n t i o n t o urban hydrology under the I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Hydrological Decade and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Hydrological Programme (IHP). aS p a r t i c u l a r , Unesco
has sponsored many a c t i v i t i e s i n t h i s f i e l d including symposia and workshops on the e f f e c t s o f
urbanization and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n on water resources and t h e i r management. Recognizing the
importance o f drainage f o r the well-being o f urban population, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n less economic-
a l l y developed countries, and a t the same time recognizing the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f expertise on
drainage planning and design, Unesco i n i t i a t e d Project A.2.9 on urban hydrology under t h e
IHP-II. To conduct t h i s project, Unesco established a Working Group and charged i t w i t h
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o develop a manual f o r planning and design o f drainage i n urban areas. This
Working Group comprised eight i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y recognized experts on urban drainage and was
further assisted by several observers and the Unesco s t a f f . The members o f t h e Working Group
prepared w r i t t e n materials f o r the manual i n t h e i r respective areas of expertise. Such
materials were reviewed and expanded by the E d i t o r i a l Board and eventually integrated i n t o a
u n i f i e d comprehensive document. The members of the Working Group and the E d i t o r i a l Board are
l i s t e d below i n the acknowledgement.
Although there are numerous national urban drainage manuals available, the Unesco manual
i s unique by being the most comprehensive document i n t h i s category, by r e f l e c t i n g the most
advanced approaches from many countries, and by paying special a t t e n t i o n t o t h e conditions i n
economically less developed countries. The manual's comprehensiveness consists i n addressing
not only the problems o f conventional drainage, but also modern methods o f stormwater manage-
ment and the c o l l e c t i o n and analysis o f supporting data. The manual i s divided i n t o two
volumes which are f a i r l y independent. While the f i r s t volume deals w i t h the planning and
design of drainage systems, the second one deals with the c o l l e c t i o n and analysis o f data
required i n drainage design. The manual consequently combines design and data c o l l e c t i o n
aspects by many cross-references between the various chapters o f both volumes.
 The main objectives o f the manual are t o advance the understanding o f complex interactions
between urban drainage and other facets o f urban water resources, t o increase the awareness o f
various planning a l t e r n a t i v e s , t o a i d i n the selection of appropriate calculation procedures,
t o demonstrate the importance of input and supporting data, t o guide the decision-makers and
designers i n implementation o f urban drainage projects, and t o increase awareness of p i t f a l l s
o f drainage planning. Although the manual i s meant p r i m a r i l y f o r designers, engineers and
planners, other professions, such as researchers and decision-makers, should f i n d i t also o f
interest.
The f i r s t volume describes the urban drainage system, various approaches t o urban drain-
age, s t r u c t u r a l elements o f drainage systems, design parameters and computational procedures
for runoff calculations, hydraulic design of drainage systems and t h e i r components, network
design methods, and organization and administration o f urban drainage projects.
The second volume describes the methods of c o l l e c t i o n and analysis of meteorological,
hydrological, a n c i l l a r y and water q u a l i t y data used i n drainage design, the handling o f such
data, and organization of data c o l l e c t i o n programmes. Although both volumes are more or less
independent documents, i n order t o obtain f u l l benefits o f t h i s manual, i t i s desirable t o work
j o i n t l y w i t h both volumes.
Further a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o the Unesco urban drainage manual are expected under I H P - I I I
and IHP-IV. Such a c t i v i t i e s w i l l concentrate on technology transfer i n the form of meetings
and t r a i n i n g courses.

Acknowledgement

The Unesco drainage manual i s a r e s u l t of an intensive i n t e r n a t i o n a l e f f o r t involving many

individuals and i n s t i t u t i o n s . For b r e v i t y , only the key contributors t o t h i s e f f o r t can be
acknowledged here. I n t h i s connection, the members of the Unesco I H P - I I , Project A.2.9 Working
Group on Urban Hydrology are l i s t e d below i n the alphabetical order. Footnotes i d e n t i f y the
members o f the E d i t o r i a l Board and the Chairman of the Group.

M r . M. Lksborde ( France)
M r . W.F. Geiger
f (Federal Republic o f Germany)
M r . V.V. Kupria ov (U.S.S.R.)
Mr. J. Marsalek
f ( Canada)
M r . M. Melanen (Finland, also representing IAHS)
1
M r . W . J . Rawls (United States 1
M r . P. E. Wisner (Canada
2
Mr. F.C. Zuidema (The Netherlands)

The members o f the Working Group would l i k e t o g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge the assistance o f

Mr. J.P. Lahaye (Comite I n t e r a f r i c a i n d'Etudes Hydrauliques, Burkina Faso) who attended, as an
observer, most o f the Working Group meetings and contributed h i s extensive experience i n
hydraulic and hydrologic design i n many Africari countries. The Working Group also g r a t e f u l l y
acknowledges the help received from M r . A.J. Askew, W O , who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s project as an
observer and reviewed meteorological aspects o f the manual. Additional help was received from
M r . van de Van, The Netherlands, who contributed some w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l t o Volume II of the
manual. The support o f the respective national IHP committees rendered t o the Working Group
members i s also acknowledged.
Special thanks are due t o the Unesco o f f i c e r i n charge of t h i s project, M r . J.S.
Gladwell. His continued support, encouragement, technical expertise and manuscript reviews
g r e a t l y contributed t o the successful completion of t h i s project.
F i n a l l y , M r . J. Marsalek and Mr. W.J. Rawls, with f u l l support o f t h e i r organizations,
Environment Canada, National Water Research I n s t i t u t e , Burlington, Ontario, Canada and
A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, B e l t s v i l l e , Md., U.S.A.,
respectively, undertook the f i n a l manual e d i t i n g and produced the camera-ready manuscripts o f
Volumes I and II of the manual, respectively. Their e f f o r t s and contributions o f t h e i r
supporting organizations are g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

Member o f the E d i t o r i a l Board

Chairman of the Working Group and the E d i t o r i a l Board
1 Introduction

1.1 URBANIZATION AND THE HYDROLOGICAL REGIME

Evaluation o f the e f f e c t s of urban and i n d u s t r i a l development on the hydrological cycle and

water q u a l i t y i s one of the most important yet l e a s t understood problems of s c i e n t i f i c and
applied hydrology. This follows from the f a c t t h a t solutions o f such problems as water supplies
f o r municipal and i n d u s t r i a l needs, drainage, and protection against floodings and r i s e o f
groundwater l e v e l s were considered as purely engineering problems t o be solved according t o
a v a i l a b i l i t y o r special features o f l o c a l water resources. I n the course o f time, however, i t
has become evident t h a t the hydrological cycle and i t s i n d i v i d u a l components are subject t o
great changes i n urbanized areas and these changes then demonstrate themselves according t o
physiographic features and water use.
A t present, the development and implementation o f systems f o r the monitoring of urban
water resources and implementation o f environmental protection measures are impossible without
a c a r e f u l consideration o f changes of the hydrological cycle r e s u l t i n g from urbanization. The
importance o f problems o f urban water resources i s s t e a d i l y increasing, because urbanization i s
an i n e v i t a b l e continuing process leading t o dramatic changes i n land use, and water regime and
resources.

..
1 1 1 Urbanization and population growth

The increasing population and the movement o f people from r u r a l t o urban areas on a l l
continents lead t o changes i n land use. The data on population trends i n d i f f e r e n t parts o f
the world are useful f o r examining the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s o c i a l and economical factors and
urban water characteristics i n the development planning. The data i n Table 1.1 elucidate the
trends i n the expansion and concentration o f population.
While i n 1800 only one per cent of the world population l i v e d i n c i t i e s , i t appears from
Table 1.1 t h a t , i n 1970, 37 per cent o f the e n t i r e world population were urban and by the year
2000, the urban population i s expected t o reach 51 per cent of the t o t a l . Moreover, i t was
predicted t h a t the combined urban population o f the world would increase almost t w o and a h a l f
times during the period from 1970 t o 2000. I t i s important t o note t h a t the urban population
grows d i f f e r e n t l y i n various parts o f the world. I f we look a t the projected trends i n more
developed countries, we f i n d t h a t the urban population may grow from 717 m i l l i o n i n 1970 t o
1174 m i l l i o n i n the year 2000. This corresponds t o an increase o f 457 m i l l i o n or 54 percent.
I n contrast, the urban population i n less developed areas may increase from 635 m i l l i o n i n 1970
t o 2155 m i l l i o n i n the year 2000. Table 1.1 also shows t h a t , during the same period, t h e
percentage o f t o t a l population i n urban areas may r i s e from 66 t o 81 per cent i n the more
developed regions whereas there may be an increase from 25 t o 43 per cent i n the l e e s developed
countries. Comparisons of projected population o f some areas f o r the year 2000 and the urban
populations i n 1970, shown as r a t i o s i n Table 1.2, demonstrate such increases.
I n 1971, f o r instance, the urban population i n I n d i a was 13 per cent o f the t o t a l poula-
t i o n , a smaller percentage than i n more developed countries. The number o f towns w i t h a
population of more than 20000, however, has increased from 536 i n 1951 t o 957 i n 1971. Most
migration from r u r a l areas was, however, i n t o towns w i t h a population o f 50000 and mor@
(Rameshan and Sarma, 1978). Considering urban areas of more than 1 m i l l i o n inhabitants such a
trend becomes even more obvious. I n 1820, London was the only c i t y i n the world w i t h 1 m i l l i o n
people. I n 1910 there were 11 c i t i e s w i t h more than 1 m i l l i o n o f inhabitants, s i x of which
were i n Europe. Only 50 years l a t e r t h i s number increased t o 75 c i t i e s , 24 o f which were
located i n less developed countries. For 1985, 270 urban areas o f such s i z e were predicted,
140 of which would be located i n l e s s developed countries.

1
 Table 1.1 Urban and Rural Populations, 1965 t o 2000 (Unesco, 1979)

Year

1965 1970 1980 1990 2000

Urban Population ( m i l l i o n s )

world t o t a l 1158 1352 1854 2517 3329

More developed regions 651 717 864 1021 1174
Less developed regions. 507 635 990 1496 2155

Rural Population ( m i l l i o n s )

World t o t a l 2131 2284 2614 2939 3186

More developed regions 386 374 347 316 280
Less developed regions 1745 1910 2267 2623 2906

Percentage of Urban Population

World t o t a l 35,2 37,2 41,5 56,l 51,l

More developed regions 62,8 65,7 71,4 76,4 80,2
Less developed regions 22,5 25,O 30,4 36,3 42,6

Table 1.2 Ratio of Urban Population i n the Year 2000 t o t h a t i n 1970

(Unesco, 1979)

Europe 1,5 E a s t Asia 2,7

North America 1,7 L a t i n America 3,1
U.S.S.R. 1,8 South Asia 3,3
Oceanic 1,9 Africa 4,2

1.1.2 Effects o f urbanization on catchment hydrology

The combined e f f e c t s of population growth, urbanization and i n d u s t r i a l i z q i o n change adversely

the hydrological response of the affected area and cause various environmental impacts. The
n a t u r a l environment i s changed t o a man-made one, with concomitant quantitative and q u a l i t a t i v e
changes of the water cycle. Urban drainage i s p a r t of t h i s cycle and i s r e l a t e d t o the urban
hydrological system i n a very complex way. Therefore, the planning of urban drainage systems
should not only evaluate the linkages t o other urban planning e f f o r t s , but i t should also be
integrated with the planning of other aspects of urban water resources, such as, water supply,
wastewater treatment and use of the receiving waters.
When urbanization and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n reach a c e r t a i n degree of development, changes of
the environment become i n e v i t a b l e . Because water forms a substantial basis f o r l i f e , i t i s
necessary t o deal with the mechanism of the hydrological cycle and the consequences of i t s
changes. The changes imposed by urbanization may a f f e c t the hydrological cycle w e l l beyond t h e
boundaries of the urban area. Although such e f f e c t s o f t e n are i n d i r e c t , t h e i r consideration i s
pertinent. The implications o f urbanization f o r urban water resources are also discussed i n
Chapter 1 o f Volume II of t h i s manual (Unesco, 1 9 8 7 ) .
Water needed i n urban areas for domestic and i n d u s t r i a l purposes v a s t l y exceeds the amount
needed i n r u r a l areas of comparable size. Intensive groundwater withdrawals f o r human needs
may lead t o land subsidence and saltwater intrusion i n coastal areas. Natural water resources
o f urban areas are quickly depleted and i t becomes necessary t o import water from both adjacent
and remote areas, thus a f f e c t i n g t h e i r water budgets. Consequently, l a r g e quantities o f waste-
water are discharged i n t o r i v e r s , lakes or coastal waters, thus transporting p o l l u t i o n t o both
adjacent and remote areas and endangering t h e i r ecosystems.
Urban land use i t s e l f has a great impact on water quantity and q u a l i t y aspects of the
hydrological regime. Basic aspects of t h i s impact are discussed below.

2
Increase i n the incidence of floods

Fast concentration of runoff on impervious surfaces and hydraulic improvements i n the form of
gutters, storm sewers and drains r e s u l t i n quickly-peaking high runoff r a t e s . T h i s tendency i s
supported by the straightening, deepening and l i n i n g o f n a t u r a l r i v e r beds and channels within
urban areas. Ra0 e t a l . ( 1972) found t h a t an increase i n the area imperviousness from O t o
40 per cent would approximately halve the time t o peak discharge and increase i t s magnitude by
90 per cent. The increase i n surface runoff from urban areas may cause l o c a l flooding as w e l l
as flooding i n downstream r u r a l or urban areas, thus causing threats t o human l i f e and wild-
l i f e , disrupting ecosystems and human a c t i v i t i e s , and damaging houses and other properties.

Reduction of base flows and groundwater recharge

The impregnation of the catchment surface by impervious elements such as rooftops, s t r e e t s ,

sidewalks and parking l o t s , and intensive use o f s o i l s and t h e i r consolidation i n pervious
areas g r e a t l y reduce r a i n f a l l abstractions i n urban areas. Sych abstractions include i n t e r -
ception by vegetation, depression storage and i n f i l t r a t i o n . This then r e s u l t s i n an imnediate
surface runoff and reduction i n groundwater recharge which i n turn contributes t o the lowering
o f groundwater tables. Furthermore, the water which does i n f i l t r a t e i s polluted and con-
t r i b u t e s t o increased groundwater p o l l u t i o n . The changes of runoff processes caused by urbani-
zation not only a f f e c t the water budget of the urban area, but they also a f f e c t water budgets
of downstream areas. Progressing urbanization o f r i v e r basins leads t o diminishing stream base
flows and thereby aggravates background p o l l u t i o n . Calculations f o r a catchment i n C a l i f o r n i a
indicated t h a t complete urbanization increased runoff volumes 2,3 times compared t o the pre-
development state, while the stream base flow f e l l t o 0,7 of i t s n a t u r a l magnitude (James,
1965).

Increase i n downstream p o l l u t i o n

All construction a c t i v i t i e s increase s o i l erosion and discharge of suspended solids i n t o

receiving waters. K e l l e r (1962) observed t h a t erosion of lands undergoing a t r a n s i t i o n from
r u r a l t o urban use i n the v i c i n i t y o f Washington, D C. increased the suspended sediment loads
discharged i n t o l o c a l streams by about 6,6 t o n s / h /year.
1 D a l l a i r e (1976) estimated erosion
rates for disturbed urban areas as 28 tons/ha/year and 0,2 tons/ha/year f o r well-established
urban areas. Furthermore, concentrated human a c t i v i t i e s lead t o deposition of dust, d i r t , and
various pollutants on the catchment surface. Such materials are eventually washed o f f by storm
runoff and contribute t o the p o l l u t i o n of receiving waters. Sartor e t a l . (1974) found about
400 kg of t o t a l solids, 27 kg o f COD, 0,3 kg o f phosphate, and 0,6 kg o f Kjeldahl nitrogen per
one curb-kilometre o f s t r e e t surface. O t h e r substances present i n urban dust and d i r t include
heavy metals, pesticides and bacteria. The above accumulation r a t e s are dependent on the
degree of urbanization and l o c a l climatological conditions, especially precipitation.
Increased flow v e l o c i t i e s during storm runoff enhance the transport of suspended solids and
pollutants from the catchment surface t o receiving waters and lead t o increased erosion and
scouring of r i v e r and channel beds. Although many of the transported materials are of n a t u r a l
o r i g i n and r e l a t i v e l y harmless when deposited on land, they become water pollutants i n receiv-
ing waters and contribute t o the degradation o f water q u a l i t y .
Large urban areas a f f e c t the l o c a l climate through increases i n a i r temperatures, reduced
humidity, higher incidence of fog, and increased p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Air temperatures i n urban
areas are conanonly higher than i n t h e i r environs. This i s caused by a much smaller l a t e n t heat
f l u x i n c i t i e s ; d i f f e r e n t physical properties and structures of the urban o r i n d u s t r i a l area:
the energy generated by house heating and a i r conditioning, factories and automobiles; and the
p a l l of dust and carbon dioxide t h a t reduces the amount o f solar r a d i a t i o n and the net.outgoing
longwave radiation. The urban heat islands vary i n s i z e and temperature d i f f e r e n t i a l depending
on t h e i r geographical location, s i z e and other s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The wind v e l o c i t y i s
smaller i n urban areas than i n r u r a l areas because of the obstacles caused by houses and
buildings which change the n a t u r a l flow and turbulence o f the a i r . The humidity of the a i r i s
smaller i n urban areas than i n r u r a l areas because the rainwater i s quickly removed from imper-
vious areas and drainage systems. The frequency o f fog i s higher i n a polluted urban area than
i n the environs o f the c i t y , because of an increased amount of condensation nuclei. Finally,
increased p r e c i p i t a t i o n amounts have been ObseNed on the downwind sides o f l a r g e metropolitan
areas (Unesco, 1980).
The above l i s t e d impacts of urbanization do not cover a l l aspects o f the complex problems
caused by urbanization. The i n t e n t was simply t o provide some background information before
proceeding with further discussion. Additional information on changes i n the hydrological
cycle caused by urbanization i s given i n Chapter 1 of Volume II (Unesco, 1987).

3
 The conventional hydrology addressed hydrological processes i n r u r a l areas. Because many
problems and solutions i n urban areas are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , a new branch o f hydrology, r e f e r r e d
t o as urban hydrology, has evolved. Urban hydrology deals with hydrological behaviour of urban
catchments. I t covers both n a t u r a l processes, such as formation of runoff, and processes con-
t r o l l e d by man's a c t i v i t i e s , such as water supply and wastewater disposal. One of the impor-
tant problems addressed by urban hydrology i s the e f f e c t o f urbanization on catchment hydro-
l o g i c a l response and water q u a l i t y . Many such adverse e f f e c t s can be abated by properly plan-
ned, designed and operated urban drainage f a c i l i t i e s as discussed i n the following sections.

1.2 URBAN DRAINAGE

1.2.1 Need f o r urban drainage systems

I n the context o f t h i s manual, urban areas are considered as l a r g e densely populated areas w i t h
a characteristic infrastructure. I n some urban areas, the population density may be as low as
30 inhabitants per ha, while i n other areas, as many as 300 or more people l i v e on one hectare.
usually the population density i n an urban area i s not uniform, but may g r e a t l y vary. Besides
public and o f f i c e buildings, commercial and i n d u s t r i a l zones, urban areas may also include
playgrounds, parks and cemeteries.
Drainage serves f o r removal o f excess water from an area by surface or subsurface means.
Excess water i n urban areas may be domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastewater or storm runoff. The
need f o r urban drainage systems seems t o be obvious considering the number of people l i v i n g i n
urban areas and the e f f e c t s of wastewaters on health or the t h r e a t of stormwater flooding.
Appropriate disposal o f wastewater and storm runoff contributes t o human well-being and t o the
proper functioning of urban communities.
I n some less developed countries, the methods o f excreta disposal which the majority o f
people use are deposition on surface o f ground i n surrounding bush, the bucket l a t r i n e and the
p i t latrine. Only a very small percentage o f people use f l u s h t o i l e t s connected t o a septic
tank or a sewer system. Health hazards o f depositing excreta on the surface of the ground i n
bush and open f i e l d s around houses are grave. The spread o f diseases l i k e typhoid, cholera,
s h i g e l l a and amoebic dysentries i s enhanced, as shown i n many publications (Moore e t a l . , 1965;
Schliessmann, 1959; Kourany and Vasquez, 1969; and Cvjetanovic, 1 9 7 1 ) . These diseases a r e
s t i l l causing epidemics i n many developing countries. Other worm diseases l i k e ascariasis,
hookworm, t r i c h u r i s and schistosomiasis are also very common i n communities where feces a r e
disposed i n an insanitary manner (Sanders and Watford, 1974; Schliessman e t a l . , 1958).
Sanitary conditions i n many developing countries may be visualized by considering t h e
s i t u a t i o n i n Nigeria, a very urbanized country with a population of about 70 m i l l i o n . I n 1975
there was not a single town o r c i t y with a c e n t r a l sewage system though there were many types
o f modern sewage treatment plants serving i n s t i t u t i o n s , housing estates and army barracks.
Even i n main c i t i e s and towns, the majority o f people d i d not have a water carriage t o i l e t
system. I n smaller towns and r u r a l areas where more than 80 per cent of the e n t i r e population
l i v e d , the f l u s h t o i l e t was almost t o t a l l y absent (Oluwande, 1979).
Some countries also set t h e i r p r i o r i t i e s i n such an order t h a t prestigeous projects which
are "eye catching" and "vote winning" are undertaken i n place o f simple schemes which would
b e n e f i t the majority of population. The o l d popular saying t h a t "there are no votes i n sewage"
i s s t i l l very appropriate i n some developing countries, with the r e s u l t t h a t up t o 90 per cent
of the diseases which doctors see i n hospitals and c l i n i c s are caused by poor, inadequate or
nonexisting sanitary conditions (Oluwande, 1 9 7 9 ) . European c i t i e s such as London and Munich
faced s i m i l a r problems i n the 19th century, when they were plagued by epidemics of cholera and
typhoid. Obviously t h i s had been caused by the lack of sewerage systems a t t h a t time.
I n urban areas numerous cases of flooding caused by urbanization and r e s u l t i n g i n loss of
l i v e s and immense damages were reported i n almost a l l countries. Such problems emphasize t h e
need f o r appropriate urban drainage which would provide f o r dispasal of wastewater and storm
runoff without increasing runoff peaks t o a c r i t i c a l l e v e l a t which downstream flooding would
occur and without creating l o c a l flooding and health hazards w i t h i n urban areas.
As a current example of drainage problems aggravated by flooding, drainage problems i n a
South P a c i f i c island town are mentioned. Nuku'alofa, a town of 22000 inhabitants ( i n 19781, i s
located on the north coast o f Tongatapu Island i n the Ringdom o f Tonga. During heavy rain-
f a l l s , heavy runoff i s generated throughout the town and runoff drains i n t o a v a l l e y i n the
centre o f the town, Consequently, during and following r a i n y periods, parts o f the town are
flooded and the accumulated water o f t e n remains on the surface f o r days or weeks. There i s no
sewage c o l l e c t i o n network and properties r e l y on i n d i v i d u a l wastewater disposal f a c i l i t i e s .
Sanitation consists of septic tanks and p i t l a t r i n e s , and many properties have no l a t r i n e a t
all. When storm runoff passes through the town, i t become$ polluted with overflow from septic
tanks and p i t l a t r i n e s . As a r e s u l t of such overflows, f i l a r i a s i s i s endemic and there are

4
 '

a l s o some occurrences o f elephantiasis. Although f i l a r i a s i s can be cured, i t i s a serious

disease which i n t h i s case i s spread by surface water (Evans, 1 9 7 9 ) . Thus, improvements i n
surface water drainage would lead d i r e c t l y t o improvements i n h e a l t h conditions.
Since urban r u n o f f i s a s i g n i f i c a n t source o f p o l l u t i o n , the design o f urban drainage
systems cannot be done any longer on a q u a n t i t a t i v e basis only, but must consider water q u a l i t y
aspects as w e l l . Comprehensive planning i n t e g r a t e d w i t h planning f o r wastewater treatment i s
o f utmost importance.

1.2.2 Drainage concepts and p r a c t i c e s

Drainage problems i n many areas o f developing countries are s i m i l a r t o those i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e

above examples. O n the other hand, t h e r e are r e l a t i v e l y problem-free areas w i t h f l u s h t o i l e t s
and appropriate storm drainage. I n t h i s context a t t e n t i o n i s drawn t o equally e f f e c t i v e low-
cost s a n i t a t i o n measures, f u r t h e r explained i n Chapter 2 , which do n o t r e q u i r e water f o r trans-
p o r t o f wastes. Such a l t e r n a t i v e s are e s p e c i a l l y valuable when water i s scarce.
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , waste management was r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e technical, organizational, and
economic aspects o f waste handling. Thus, most o f the a c t i v i t i e s and f i n a n c i a l investments
concentrated on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f treatment f a c i l i t i e s . This so-called end-of-pipe approach
was successful i n s o f a r as the environmental s i t u a t i o n would have d e t e r i o r a t e d even f u r t h e r
without p r o v i d i n g such treatment. However, evaluations o f c o s t / b e n e f i t r a t i o s were n o t c a r r i e d
o u t f o r a l t e r n a t i v e approaches t o waste management (Wasmer, 1 9 7 9 ) . This has been e s p e c i a l l y
t r u e f o r urban drainage planning i n r e l a t i o n t o environmental design. U n t i l now, t h e planning
o f urban drainage systems has been conducted by means o f l e s s sophisticated methods than t h e
planning a t the watershed l e v e l . For most drainage p r o j e c t s , the r a t i o n a l method has been
applied, although i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o l a r g e r areas may be inadequate and may c o n t r i b u t e t o
f l o o d i n g o f downstream areas (see Chapter 5 ) .
The planning o f urban drainage systems which t r a d i t i o n a l l y focussed on i n d i v i d u a l aspects
cannot be generally b e n e f i c i a l f o r t h e system on t h e whole and i t may even r e s u l t i n damages
exceeding the o r i g i n a l l y perceived b e n e f i t s . For example, t h e l a c k o f s o l i d waste d i s p o s a l
f a c i l i t i e s may lead t o the conditions shown i n Figures 1.1 and 1 . 2 . E s p e c i a l l y when open
channels are used f o r wastewater drainage, i n h a b i t a n t s are i n c l i n e d t o dispose s o l i d wastes i n
such channels. This c o n t r i b u t e s t o h e a l t h hazards, p a r t i c u l a r l y during flooding, and f u r t h e r
d e t e r i o r a t e s t h e urban environmental conditions. W i t h storm r u n o f f , wastes are flushed i n t o
t h e r e c e i v i n g waters, thus d e t e r i o r a t i n g t h e i r q u a l i t y and l i m i t i n g t h e i r use. Obviously, a
successful operation of an open drainage system also depends on p r o v i d i n g an e f f e c t i v e s o l i d
waste disposal system.

Figure 1.1 Road-side d i t c h i n Douala (Cameroon)

F u r t h e m r e , the proper maintenance and cleanliness o f t h e e n t i r e urban area can have a

s i g n i f i c a n t impact on the q u a n t i t y o f p o l l u t a n t s washed o f f by stormwater. Cleanliness o f an
urban area s t a r t s w i t h c o n t r o l o f l i t t e r , debris, de-icing agents, and a g r i c u l t u r a l chemicals,
such as p e s t i c i d e s and f e r t i l i z e r s . Regular s t r e e t r e p a i r can f u r t h e r minimize t h e q u a n t i t y o f
p o l l u t a n t s picked up by stormwater r u n o f f . S t r e e t sweeping, i n c i d e n t a l l y , removes o n l y t h e

5
coarse m a t e r i a l and i t s effectiveness depends l a r g e l y on the methods applied. The proper use
and maintenance o f both catch basins and the c o l l e c t i o n system can maximize c o n t r o l o f
p o l l u t a n t s by d i r e c t i n g them t o treatment o r disposal f a c i l i t i e s .
There are t w o b a s i c types o f urban drainage system:
- Separate systems conveying separately domestic/industrial wastewaters and stormwater,
thus a l l o w i n g f o r good handling o f domestic wastewaters w i t h low-cost s a n i t a t i o n
schemes, and
- combined systems conveying domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters and stormwater together
i n a s i n g l e system o f pipes and channels.

Figure 1.2 I l l i c i t s o l i d waste disposal i n an urban

drainage channel i n Douala (Cameroon)

Advantages, disadvantages and modifications o f these t w o basic types are discussed i n

Chapter 2 .
I n Europe and North America, urban drainage p r a c t i c e i s i n a t r a n s i t i o n stage. Although
t r a d i t i o n a l methods continue t o be applied on a l a r g e scale, there are many attempts t o apply
new concepts such as various types o f r u n o f f storage, r u n o f f c o n t r o l and standard analysis o f
sewage systems on t h e whole, i n c l u d i n g treatment operations and e f f l u e n t c r i t e r i a . New simula-
t i o n methods are also i n c r e a s i n g l y applied instead o f t h e r a t i o n a l method (see Chapters 5 and
8).
I n the United Kingdom, f o r instance, i t has been estimated t h a t i n 1979/80 p r i c e s some
100 m i l l i o n U.S. d o l l a r s are spent every year by p u b l i c sector a u t h o r i t i e s on the removal o f
stormwater by urban drainage systems. This amount excludes any considerations o f the removal
and treatment o f s a n i t a r y sewage, and also excludes a l a r g e expenditure i n t h e p r i v a t e sector
on the drainage o f small estates and other p r i v a t e developments (Colyer, 1 9 8 2 ) . The magnitude
o f such expenditures emphasizes the need f o r e f f i c i e n t basin-wide planning t o prevent piece-
meal drainage c o n s t r u c t i o n which a t a l a t e r date may be found incompatible.

1.2.3 Urban drainage w i t h i n t h e urban system

The previous sections showed t h a t urban drainage systems are not self-contained, but are
influenced by and do a f f e c t other aspects of urban planning. There are indeed strong
i n t e r a c t i o n s between urban and i n d u s t r i a l development and water resources planning. Urban
water resources planning deals w i t h preparation and weighting o f a l t e r n a t i v e s on the basis o f
t e c h n i c a l requirements as w e l l as socio-economic and environmental constraints. The former
includes urban drainage, f l o o d c o n t r o l , water reuse, and water supply, and t h e l a t t e r comprises
l i v i n g conditions, i n d u s t r i a l development and q u a l i t y o f l i f e . Figure 1.3 shows a s i m p l i f i e d
diagram o f t h e urban planning process showing the i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f water resources investiga-
t i o n s and urban planning.
The socio-economic considerations o f urban drainage systems have been addressed by Unesco
(Lindh, 1 9 7 9 ) . The basic conclusions o f t h i s r e p o r t are sunmiarized below.

6
 I

-
7 I
I POPULATION AND LAND USE INVENTOW analysis APPRAISAL OF integmtion of I
I PRO J E C T IONS *PROBLEMSAND '
I
I
~

I OF GROWTH AND LAND-USE NEEDS OPPORTUNITIES

I
1 I A
IDEN TI FlCAT ION
OF PROBLEMS

1
- - PLANNING
AND
MANAGEMENT
AiTE RNATIVES
IMPROVED
URBAN
DEVELOPMEN1

-
1 b 1 -
I
I BA SIC DATA AND
WATER - -
I p r o b l e m - o r i e n t e d a n a l y s i s ~ ~ mtranslation
~~~~ , c
I
l
TECHNICAL INFORMAION and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n APPR~SAL to planning
I I
I - I
I l

Figure 1.3 S i m p l i f i d flow: diagram. o f the urban planning process showing the
i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f water resources investigations and urban planning
( a f t e r Schneider e t a l . , 1973).

The main b e n e f i t s from sewerage schemes, such as the a l l e v i a t i o n o f h e a l t h hazards,

reduced inconvenience and improved aesthetic conditions, are mostly i n t a n g i b l e . Fundamentally,
i t i s the service i t s e l f t h a t i s desirable. This service does have a value, but the value
cannot be determined by using the t r a d i t i o n a l cost-benefit analysis and i s usually set arbi-
t r a r i l y by, or on behalf o f , the community i n the form of normative c r i t e r i a .
Wastewater i n sewers consists o f water which has been supplied and passed through a
p o l l u t i n g process. Thus, where a cost-recovery basis i s adopted f o r financing the works, the
p r i c i n g structure f o r a sewer service o f t e n imitates t h a t f o r water service. O n the other
hand, i n many countries sewer services are not separately levied. Moreover, the number of
water users without access t o public sewer systems i s very l a r g e i n c e r t a i n regions. I n order
t o reduce p o t e n t i a l health hazards, i t i s necessary t h a t the provision, or extension, of sewer
services t o high-density, low-income urban areas should have a substantially high s o c i a l
priority.
There i s a two-directional linkage between urban f r i n g e growth and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
sewers. For example, i n some North American c i t i e s , wastewater sewers (and water mains) are
not approved f o r construction when they do not s a t i s f y growth p o l i c y . On the other hand,
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f such services i s recognized as a stimulus t o growth.
Furthermore, various aspects o f resource conservation, p o l l u t i o n control and environment
cannot be considered out of context. The complex i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n the materials cycle, the
d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n between energy and minerals production, the e f f e c t s on industry and t h e
consumer, and the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of national and i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s a l l need t o be
taken i n t o account f o r the formulation o f objectives (Wasmer, 1979).

1.3 DESIGN OF URBAN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS: OBJECTIVES AND TOOLS

1.3.1 Planning objectives

Planning i s the process o f deciding what resources t o a l l o c a t e , over time and space, t o achieve
a set of specified objectives (McPherson, 1978). Planning and design o f drainage systems f o r
urbanized areas may be done f o r a number o f objectives, such as
-
health and hygienic reasons,
-
prevention of flooding,
-
improvement of l i v i n g conditions and human well-being,
-
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f urban areas,
-
protection of environment, and
-
aesthetic reasons.
However, i t has t o be checked i f urban drainage i s the r i g h t and best t o o l t o achieve
these objectives. Sometimes t h i s might r e q u i r e a combined e f f o r t l i n k i n g water supply, urban
drainage and s o l i d waste disposal schemes.
Sizing a drainage system f o r domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters involves estimates o f
population growth, commercial or i n d u s t r i a l development, and water consumption. Designing a

7
storm or combined sewer system requires r e l i a b l e data on r a i n f a l l characteristics, surface/soil
characteristics, and adequate methods f o r runoff computations.
Computerization of calculation methods outlined i n Chapter 8 makes i t possible t o investi-
gate various planning a l t e r n a t i v e s . To take f u l l advantage o f t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , various l e v e l s
o f planning have been suggested i n order t o l i m i t the planning costs (U.S.-EPA, 1974; U.S.-EPA,
1977). Such planning l e v e l s are b r i e f l y characterized below.
-
Providing a f i r s t estimate of the magnitude of urban runoff quantity and q u a l i t y
problems, p r i o r t o investment of time i n t o more d e t a i l e d planning.
-
Providing an o v e r a l l assessment of urban runoff problems and estimates of the effective-
ness and costs o f d i f f e r e n t abatement procedures. Trade-off among various control
options has t o be demonstrated on a macroscale p r i o r t o the decision f o r the design of a
s p e c i f i c sewer system layout.
-
Designing the o v e r a l l system and sizing the i n d i v i d u a l components of the chosen layout
o f the drainage system.
-
Providing the f i n a l layout of the i n d i v i d u a l components of the drainage system and
providing the necessary drawings f o r construction.
-
Planning of operational measures and controls for the implemented system.

1.3.2 Comprehensive planning

U n t i l recently, urban storm drainage design served only t o devise measures t o protect urban
development from stormwater. I t usually consisted of evaluating the peak runoff r a t e and
designing a network of sewers and ditches t o c o l l e c t and convey the stormwater downstream, j u s t
away from the urbanized area. Stream flood plains and sewered drainage systems were considered
separately, and urban runoff was regarded as merely an adjunct consideration i n land use
planning. The urban development and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of recent years yielded new public
demands and p o l i c i e s which require the use o f true comprehensive planning including integrated
land and water management. Greater emphasis has t o be placed upon the t o t a l impact of projects
and the o v e r a l l optimal solution as opposed t o optimizing individual devices for presumed sets
of c r i t e r i a .
A review of a number of l o c a l government planning projects i n the United States has
revealed a commonality of s i x discrete steps, which might be regarded as the framework of the
standard planning process (McPherson, 1 9 7 8 ) :
- Define problems, establish goals and i d e n t i f y constraints,
- assemble data and r e f i n e d e f i n i t i o n s of problems,
- formulate a l t e r n a t i v e s ,
- analyze a l t e r n a t i v e s ,
- i d e n t i f y more promising a l t e r n a t i v e s , and
- evaluate the trade-offs among selected alternatives.
Embracing the above s i x parts of the basic planning process, Figure 1.4 i s a block diagram
depicting the urban runoff control planning concept, which attempts t o accommodate d i f f e r e n t
situations o f land already developed and projected f o r development, considering also the impact
of urban drainage on receiving waters.
Comprehensive planning i s done f o r integrated management including flood protection,
p o l l u t i o n abatement, erosion control, and water conservation and i s usually conducted by metro-
p o l i t a n planning agencies. So-called master drainage plans are comprehensive i n scope, but
l o c a l l y confined and prepared by l o c a l agencies. Chapter 9 elaborates on these matters and
provides examples.
The lack of hydrological data and i n s t i t u t i o n a l shortcomings are found t o be the major
handicap t o promotion, successful planning and e f f i c i e n t operation of a l l water development
projects; i n most cases f a i l u r e i s caused by the lack of proper water development authorities,
c o n f l i c t s between m u l t i p l e agencies having divided authority and working under c o n f l i c t i n g
p o l i c i e s , and the absence of up-to-date water l e g i s l a t i o n . The i n s t i t u t i o n a l background for
study, development and implementation of urban drainage i s discussed i n Chapter 9 .

1.3.3 Use o f models i n planning

A l 1 but a small f r a c t i o n o f storm sewers i n the world have been sized by means of f u l l y em-
p i r i c a l methods. Given the lack of evidence of superior methods, these overly simplistic
procedures proved adequate when the primary purpose o f storm sewers was t o d r a i n the land and
transport quickly surface runoff t o receiving waters. Out of sight, out o f mind. Once
r e s t r a i n t o r containment o f flows and t h e i r p o l l u t a n t burdens become added primary objectives,
t r a d i t i o n a l procedures of analysis are no longer adequate because of added system complexities
f o r which conventional t o o l s are unsuited (McPherson, 1 9 7 8 ) .

8
.
1~~~~~~ 1 I
INVENT O RY OF

SYSTEMS
PREI PITAT ION -
I
S PEClFY
FORESEEABLE
FLOW AND
QUALITY
POSTULATE
ALTERNATE
S O LUT1ON S
- SPECIFY
EXPECTED
TIME ,MONEY
AND POLICY
CONSTRAINTS -
. P
ACHIEVE ASSEMBLE ACQUIRE
CALIBRATE ACC EPTA BLE SIMULATE AUX ILIA R Y
I PERFORMANCE I-
LONG -TERM
I S I M ULAT ION
MODELS
.-) HISTORICAL
SI MUL AT ION
H I STOR ICA L
RAINFALL DATA
PERFORMANCE
ALTERNATIVES
FLOW AND
QUALITY

v)
W
I
f
DEVELOP EVALUATE A
CR ITER I A SUPPLY FFETIVENESS SUPPLY W

ECONOMIC
FLOOD
DAMAGE
PERFORMANCE
AND CORS OF
-
D
3
COSTS (3
ANALYSIS PARA METERS ALTERNATIVES
(3
f
DETERMINE z
z
ATTA INAB LE SCREEN a
TREATMENT ALTERNATE LOCATIONS -I
FACILITY a
APPRO ACHES
FFiCiENClES TREATMENT
a
O
A
w
w
w
UPDATED SELECT Q
IOBJECTIVES
i-4 BASIC WATER I
APPROACH RESCURCE
CONST RAlNTS CONSIDERATIONS

DETER M I N E
POLITICAL
FEASIBILITY
OF LAND-USE
REGULATIONS
-
c
REPORT
flNDiNGS TO
E LECT ED
OFFICIALS
4
NEGOTIATE
ALTERNAT IV ES
WITH
REGULA TOR Y
i AGENCIES

REVIEW
AND
UPDATE
PLAN

Figure 1.4 Block diagram o f urban runoff control master planning concept (McPherson, 1978)

9
 Along with the growing understanding of the complexity of optimal planning of urban drain-
age systems, many nations have reported an obvious recent change i n design of urban drainage
systems by an increased use of mathematical runoff models and computerized methods (Unesco,
1977; Unesco, 1978; McPherson, 1 9 7 9 ) . A runoff model i s defined here as a computational proce-
dure which mathematically simulates runoff processes i n time and space. To choose the r i g h t
calculation procedure f o r a given design problem has become q u i t e d i f f i c u l t . For larger and
more complex systems, application of a simulation model i s a necessity, especially because the
climbing costs o f drainage construction and the increasing awareness of the environmental
impacts o f runoff require a broader and more c a r e f u l approach for drainage f a c i l i t y develop-
ment. While mathematical simulation i s undoubtedly an e f f e c t i v e means f o r analyzing alterna-
t i v e urban runoff control strategies, i t s most important use can be i n the assessment of
expected systems performance (McPherson, 1978).
Larger c i t i e s usually have s u f f i c i e n t resources t o operate t h e i r own planning groups and
eventually t o develop t h e i r own methodologies f o r the planning o f t h e i r urban drainage systems.
Medium s i z e communities usually can a f f o r d only a l i m i t e d amount of planning e f f o r t and do not
have the resources t o develop t h e i r own expertise and methodologies. To assist these numerous
medium s i z e communities, i t i s desirable t o have a number o f models for the planning and design
of drainage systems t h a t are not specific t o a p a r t i c u l a r location but are "transferrable".
This class of models comprises urban runoff models which are generally applicable t o a large
number of communities i n a broad geographical area. Examples of such models are given i n
Chapter 8.
Emphasized i s t h a t simulation techniques adopted should not exceed the l e v e l o f mastery o f
such tools by the user and t h a t tools should be selected on the basis o f t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y for
solving defined problems (McPherson, 1 9 7 8 ) . Models do not make decisions but provide q u a l i f i e d
q u a n t i t a t i v e information t o serve as one input i n t o the decision-making process. To ensure the
v a l i d i t y o f planning models, t h e i r v e r i f i c a t i o n against l o c a l f i e l d data or data from catch-
ments with similar geographical, climatological and hydrological characteristics i s recommen-
ded. Some urban catchments which served f o r the c o l l e c t i o n of f i e l d data i n numerous countries
are l i s t e d i n Appendix A.

1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE MANUAL

The .manual consists of t w o volumes. Volume I t h a t follows deals with the planning and design
of urban drainage systems and Volume II (Unesco, 1987) deals with data c o l l e c t i o n and analysis
f o r drainage design. Each chapter of both manuals not only provides general information on the
subject matter, but i t also discusses p r a c t i c a l applications. For example, f o r calculation
formulae, the sources of input data are indicated together with the p r a c t i c a l range of values
of various parameters, or t h e i r d e f a u l t values. As f a r as p r a c t i c a l , a l l basic information was
included i n the manual. Whenever necessary, references t o publications with additional
d e t a i l e d information are made. A n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i s t o f urban t e s t catchments i s provided i n
t h e Appendix. This l i s t includes basic characteristics of the catchments documented and the
sources of collected data. As d e t a i l e d below, Volume I i s divided i n t o nine chapters and three
appendices.
Chapter 1, Introduction, gives some background information on the e f f e c t s of urbanization
on the hydrological cycle, explains the need for drainage systems i n urbanized areas, shows the
r o l e o f drainage i n catchment hydrology, and discusses the need f o r comprehensive planning.
Chapter 2, Basic approaches t o urban drainage, provides the information necessary for the
selection o f a suitable drainage concept. I n t h i s context, various drainage concepts, t h e i r
construction and operational costs, and t h e i r e f f e c t s on the human well-being and the environ-
ment are discussed.
Chapter 3, Elements of drainage systems, b r i e f l y describes common s t r u c t u r a l elements of
drainage systems. I t also provides examples o f t y p i c a l layouts of various drainage structures.
Chapter 4, Design parameters, discusses various design parameters for urban drainage.
Design procedures incorporating step-by-step planning, regular updating, and considerations o f
possible changes i n the planning horizon are discussed. For i n d i v i d u a l design parameters, data
sources and l i n k s t o data c o l l e c t i o n described i n Volume II are given.
Chapter 5, Quantity of stormwater, explains the basic principles of various methods for
calculation of storm runoff, including the input data requirements. I t also describes the
c a l c u l a t i o n procedures necessary for drainage network design.
Chapter 6, Hydraulics of conduits and open channels, presents the basic principles f o r
hydraulic design of conduits and open channels.
Chapter 7 , Design of components of drainage systems, describes the basic hydraulics o f
special drainage structures and various procedures of t h e i r sizing.
Chapter 8, Network design methods, describes the methods of network design, which a r e
l a r g e l y based on the information given i n Chapters 4 t o 7. Simple common methods are discussed

10
i n detail. For comprehensive models, frequent references t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e are made. Limita-
t i o n s o f various network design methods are a l s o discussed.
Chapter 9 , Organization and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f urban drainge projects, presents economic,
f i n a n c i a l , i n s t i t u t i o n a l and managerial considerations and t h e i r interdependencies i n design o f
drainage systems i n urbanized areas.
Volume I f u r t h e r contains three appendices t i t l e d Summary o f urban h y d r o l o g i c a l t e s t
catchments, Rational method c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r the example given i n Figure 7.1, and Rational
method c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r the example given i n Figure 7.2.
Volume I Ii s d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t chapters and three appendices.
Chapter 1, Needs and o b j e c t i v e s o f urban drainage, contains general i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e
development o f urbanization i n t h e world and i t s e f f e c t s on the h y d r o l o g i c a l regime and water
quality. Special a t t e n t i o n i s given t o data c o l l e c t i o n needs f o r urban drainage design.
Chapter 2, Meteorological data, provides the i n f o r m a t i o n necessary f o r c o l l e c t i n g meteoro-
l o g i c a l data. The p r i n c i p l e s o f organizing a network o f observation stations, measuring equip-
ment, and data processing and v e r i f i c a t i o n are described.
Chapter 3, Hydrologicaï data w i t h emphasis on r u n o f f , i d e n t i f i e s the hydrological
parameters t o be measured i n urban drainage studies. Recommendations f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t e s t
catchments, data processing, and data q u a l i t y c o n t r o l are given.
Chapter 4, A n c i l l a r y data, l i s t s t h e a n c i l l a r y data also r e q u i r e d i n t h e design o f urban
drainage systems and t h e means o f o b t a i n i n g such data. The data discussed include physio-
graphic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the area, land use, and demographic data.
Chapter 5 , Special problems o f water q u a l i t y analysis, describes t h e problems encountered
i n the determination o f water q u a l i t y . Recommendations are given f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f water
q u a l i t y parameters t o be studied, and t h e types o f l a b o r a t o r y analyses and equipment t o be
used.
Chapter 6 , Data handling, recommends procedures f o r data handling, storage, and q u a l i t y
control.
Chapter 7, S t a t i s t i c a l analysis o f data, presents s t a t i s t i c a l analyses o f data which a r e
used i n h y d r o l o g i c a l applications.
Chapter 8 , Organization and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f data c o l l e c t i o n programs, discusses t h e
importance o f a good organization o f urban data c o l l e c t i o n programs. Various aspects o f finan-
c i n g and catchment instrumentation are also discussed.
Volume I I f u r t h e r contains t h r e e appendices e n t i t l e d Operation and maintenance o f a
standard non-recording r a i n gauge, Operation and maintenance o f a pluviograph w i t h a 0,04 m2
collector, and Operation and maintenance o f a ground-level r a i n gauge.

11
2 Basic approaches to urban drainage

2.1 URBAN WASTES AND STORM RUNOFF

2.1.1 Sanitation o f urban areas

Sanitation o f urban areas comprises disposal o f s o l i d waste, excreta and sullage, and storm
drainage flows. While the "production" of waste depends mainly on the standard of l i v i n g ,
population density, t r a d i t i o n a l ways of l i f e , and the l e v e l o f water-supply services, storm
runoff depends mostly on climatological, meteorological, and geological conditions. Conse-
quently, sanitation problems cannot be solved by a general standard solution. Instead, i n d i -
vidual approaches, taking i n t o account l o c a l conditions, have t o be developed for s a n i t a t i o n o f
specific urban areas.
I n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries, a frequent solution for sanitary disposal of human excreta i s
the waterborne sewerage. I n t h i s context, users and operators o f such systems o f t e n consider
the flush t o i l e t as the absolutely essential p a r t of any adequate solution t o the problem of
excreta disposal. This approach, however, has been developed t o maximize users' convenience
rather than health benefits. While such an objective may be important i n developed countries,
i t has much lower p r i o r i t y i n developing countries (Kalbermatten e t a l . , 1982). Waterborne
sewerage has evolved over decades and centuries from the p i t l a t r i n e t o the flush t o i l e t and
the present standard o f convenience has been achieved a t substantial economic and environmental
costs.
I n developing countries high expectations o f t e n are contradicated by l i m i t e d resources.
Decision makers i n these countries are asked t o achieve the standards of convenience seen i n
the highly i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries. Given the backlog i n providing various services, t h e
massive size of required sewerage investments, and the demands on f i n a n c i a l resources by other
sectors, they do not have the funds t o r e a l i z e t h i s goal. Sewerage could be provided f o r r e l a -
t i v e l y few,but a t the expense o f the vast majority of the population. As a consequence, many
developing countries have taken no steps a t a l l towards improving sanitation. The very magni-
tude o f the task has e f f e c t i v e l y discouraged any action (Kalbermatten e t a l . , 1982.).
A t present, the f i r s t p r i o r i t y o f excreta disposal programmes f o r urban areas i n
developing countries should be the protection of human h e a l t h by accomplishing a s i g n i f i c a n t
reduction i n the transmission of excreta-related diseases. This h e a l t h objective can be
achieved by s a n i t a t i o n technologies t h a t are much less costly than waterborne sewerage. Some
flooding and h e a l t h hazards, however, may be caused by inadequate s o l i d waste disposal.
Figures 1.1 and 1.2 i n Chapter 1 show situations where storm runoff may inundate urban areas
and spread diseases as a r e s u l t of s o l i d waste deposits. Thus, the general goal o f water
management i n urban areas should be t o provide as many people as possible w i t h safe potable
water and s a n i t a t i o n using technologies which can achieve these objectives w i t h the resources
available.

2.1.2 Development and transport o f storm runoff

To control storm runoff and t o provide adequate storm drainage, i t i s necessary t o recognize
and understand various facets o f the runoff process. Storm runoff i s caused by r a i n f a l l and,
therefore, occurs randomly. When the same amount of r a i n f a l l s on two d i f f e r e n t areas, the
r e s u l t i n g runoff may be d i f f e r e n t because o f d i f f e r e n t hydrologic and meteorologic conditions,
surface covers, and layouts of the drainage system. Temperature, humidity and wind determine
the amount of evaporation from wetted surfaces. Voids and depressions i n the surface a r e
f i l l e d and emptied according t o the permeability of the top l a y e r of the ground. Only a f t e r
the i n f i l t r a t i o n capacities have been exceeded and the depressions f i l l e d , runoff s t a r t s with
'

13
water following the surface slopes. Water may flow i n sheets ( l a y e r s ) or i n small r i v u l e t s .
I t then c o l l e c t s i n ditches and channels draining t o creeks, r i v e r s or impoundments. I f the
capacities of the c o l l e c t i n g system are exceeded or the pathways are blocked ( i . e . , by s o l i d
wastes), smaller or l a r g e r areas may become flooded. Runoff flow paths, discharges and compo-
s i t i o n on the catchment surface continuously change, p a r t l y as a r e s u l t of ongoing deposition
and wash-off o f matters during the runoff process. I n the case o f snow-covered catchments, the
runoff process i s delayed u n t i l snowmelt takes place. I f the catchment i s drained by a sewer
system, runoff may be accelerated with concomitant increases i n peak flows.
The physical mechanisms o f the runoff processes on the catchment and surface transport i n
ditches, channels or sewer systems are linked, especially when backwater conditions occur.
Although runoff i s a continuous unsteady process involving and l i n k i n g many parts of an urban
area, f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f flows t h i s process often i s subdivided i n t o the phases of runoff
generation, flow concentration, and runoff transport i n the system of channels or sewers.
There are t w o basic types of sewerage systems. I n the combined sewer system, a l l waste-
waters and storm runoff are collected and transported together i n common combined sewers. In
the separate system, t w o separate sewer pipe subsystems are employed. Sanitary sewers t r a n s -
p o r t wastewaters and storm sewers transport storm runoff. More d e t a i l s on both sewerage
systems and t h e i r variants are presented i n Section 2 . 2 .
While most of the existing urban drainage systems comprise overland flow systems and a
transport network of channels and sewers, which r a p i d l y convey the f l o w t o the receiving
waters, future urban drainage systems w i l l increasingly u t i l i z e such concepts as enhanced
i n f i l t r a t i o n of stormwater i n t o the ground, surface and subsurface flow detention using the
sewer network storage capacity, the prolongation of the time of concentration by increasing the
t r a v e l l i n g time o f the water t o the i n l e t s o f the c o l l e c t i n g system, provision and d e f i n i t i o n
o f flooding areas, and storage and use of stormwater for i n d u s t r i a l or i r r i g a t i o n purposes.
Reuse o f urban storm runoff as drinking water i s r a r e l y feasible because of i t s polluted
character and need for costly treatment. Some of the above l i s t e d new runoff management
concepts are further described i n Chapter 3 .

2.1.3 Runoff q u a l i t y

Numerous studies of stormwater runoff composition demonstrated t h a t runoff may carry r e l a t i v e l y

high loads of such pollutants as solids, substances exerting oxygen demand, t o x i c substances,
b a c t e r i a , and n u t r i e n t s (Torno e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ) . I n s p i t e o f t h i s f a c t , i t has been rather d i f f i -
c u l t t o evaluate urban runoff as a source o f pollution, because such an evaluation inherently
depends on the type of p o l l u t a n t , loadings carried by runoff i n r e l a t i o n t o those from other
sources, and the receiving waters. With regard t o the receiving waters, both t h e i r self-puri-
f i c a t i o n capacity and water use are important. I f the l e v e l o f p o l l u t a n t loadings discharged
i n t o the receiving waters exceeds t h e i r s e l f - p u r i f i c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l , the receiving water eco-
system i s endangered.
Stormwater q u a l i t y may be described by such conventional parameters as t o t a l suspended
solids, s e t t l e a b l e solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), t o t a l
organic carbon (TOC), t o t a l nitrogen, t o t a l phosphorus, and indicator bacteria. The s i g n i f i -
cance of these parameters i s b r i e f l y explained below. For d e t a i l s of analyses of such para-
meters, reference i s made t o Chapter 5 of Volume II of t h i s manual (Unesco, 1987).
Stormwater c a r r i e s l a r g e quantities of both inorganic and organic solids i n e i t h e r par-
t i c u l a t e or c o l l o i d a l form. From the environmental point of view, the suspended solids frac-
t i o n i s p a r t i c u a r l y important because of induced t u r b i d i t y , p o l l u t a n t adsorption, substrate
smothering, and benthal accumulation. To estimate the f r a c t i o n of the suspended load consist-
ing of organic matter, the v o l a t i l e f r a c t i o n of t o t a l suspended solids i s determined. Where
g r a v i t y separation of solids i s of i n t e r e s t , s e t t l e a b l e solids are also determined (Alley,
1977).
Primary organic indicators include BOD, COD, and TOC. The aforementioned t e s t s are not
substitutes, but rather independent measurements. BOD i s a measure o f dissolved oxygen deple-
t i o n by b i o l o g i c a l and chemical reactions over a standard time period, such as f i v e days. In
the case of stormwater, BOD values may be e r r a t i c because o f i n h i b i t o r y e f f e c t s of commonly
present t o x i c metals. Chemical oxygen demand i s a measure of inorganic and organic oxidizable
materials, including materials which cannot be u t i l i z e d by microorganisms. Total, dissolved,
and/or suspended carbon measurements are sometimes used i n l i e u of BOD and COD. Such tests are
w e l l applicable t o small concentrations of organic matter and, l i k e COD, i n d i c a t e more than
j u s t the easily-degradable organic load ( A l l e y , 1 9 7 7 ) .
Both nitrogen (N) and phosphorus ( P l are measured i n stormwater, i n order t o evaluate i t s
impact on the eutrophication of lakes and impoundments and on the productivity of r i v e r s and
estuaries. For such purposes, i t i s desirable t o measure various forms of N and P as described
i n Chapter 5 o f Volume II (Unesco, 1 9 8 7 ) .

14
 Because pathogens i n stormwater and overflows are of numerous types, few i n number per
type, and d i f f i c u l t t o i s o l a t e , indicator organisms are used instead ( A l l e y , 1 9 7 7 ) . Typically,
the t o t a l coliform, or i t s portion associated w i t h the faeces of warm-blooded animals, f e c a l
coliform, are studied.
Besides the general parameters, storm runoff q u a l i t y i s also described by concentrations
of various t o x i c substances. Heavy metals, such as lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury, copper,
n i c k e l and chromium are of primary i n t e r e s t . Recent studies indicate t h a t many organic
p r i o r i t y pollutants are also present i n storm runoff i n s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s (Marsalek,
1986).
The sources o f pollutants i n storm runoff are q u i t e numerous. Pollutants enter i n t o
runoff through the scavenging of the atmosphere by r a i n and through wash-off o f materials
deposited on the catchment surface. The scavenging process may be p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n
i n d u s t r i a l areas with high a i r pollution. The wash-off of materials by runoff i s strongly
affected by the amount o f accumulated material. Such accumulations are i n t u r n affected by t h e
cleanliness of the area and methods o f s o l i d waste disposal. Water running o f f the urban
catchment surf ace washes o f f the accumulated dust and d i r t , deposits from automobile exhausts,
o i l and other materials a r i s i n g from operation of automobiles, and a l l other materials o f
anthropogenic o r i g i n . For example, waste paper, c i g a r e t t e butts, and f r u i t and vegetable
wastes contribute t o organic matter loads i n stormwater. Animal and human excreta add t o the
organic loads and also contribute t o the b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l p o l l u t i o n of runoff. T r a f f i c by-
products and i n d u s t r i a l operations are the main sources of t o x i c substances. Such substances
may be also produced by decomposition o f other materials. F i n a l l y , s o i l erosion on bare s o i l
surfaces i s a primary source of solids i n stormwater.
Depending on runoff flow discharges and v e l o c i t i e s , the materials deposited on the catch-
ment surfaces may be picked up and transported i n suspended or dissolved form. In this
process, some p a r t i c l e s are transported continuously through the drainage system, others a r e
transported over a l i m i t e d distance. Therefore, the transport o f pollutants through urban
drainage systems i s a highly v a r i a b l e process which depends on many factors. I t has t o be
recognized, however, t h a t the p o l l u t i o n a l loads i n stormwater are influenced by urban popula-
tion. This i s further i l l u s t r a t e d by examples given i n Figures 1.1 and 1.2 i n Chapter 1.
As a r e s u l t of random occurrence of storms and widely varying accumulation of p o l l u t i n g
materials on the catchment surface and i n the transport network, storm runoff p o l l u t i o n i s
highly variable and strongly dependent on l o c a l conditions. Table 2.1 gives concentrations of
various p o l l u t i o n parameters measured i n both separate and combined sewer systems i n some
i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries. The techniques, methodologies, and goals varied from study t o study,
but the tabled r e s u l t s present a good i n d i c a t i o n o f concentrations o f p o l l u t a n t s t h a t can be
expected i n urban runoff. These data were collected i n various catchments w i t h diverse land
use, during d i f f e r e n t annual seasons, and during various types o f r a i n f a l l events. The ranges
of pollutant concentrations shown i n Table 2.1 i n d i c a t e wide v a r i a t i o n s i n concentrations. The
data presented were derived mainly from European and North American studies and may be even
exceeded under some conditions. I t should be emphasized t h a t stormwater sometimes creates
p o l l u t i o n a l problems only i f i t c o l l e c t s pollutants during transport or i f i t i s mixed w i t h
domestic, commercial or i n d u s t r i a l sewage.

Table 2.1 Ranges of Pollutant Concentrations i n Combined

Sewer Overflows (CSO's) and Stormwater Runoff

Land Use Residential Commercial Industrial

source CSO'S St o r mwate r CSO ' s Stormwater CSO'S Stormwater

Units mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L

BOD5 2 - 600 1 - 145 4 - 600 0,s - 173 82 - 685 0,s - 88

(23 - 114) (8 - 55) (46 - 95) (17 - 38) (86 - 153) (9 - 28)
COD 33 - 1762 4 - 1740 41 - 626 3 - 610 0,7 - 6 0 5
(138 - 209) (28 - 213) (138 - 145) (46 - 170) (86 - 343)
Settleable 0,l - 656 0,l - 4500 0,l - 440 0,l - 1270
Solids (165 - 238) (50 - 435) (76 - 160) (151 - 374)
Total 24 - 1260 1 - 12000 20 - 1800 1 - 4803 124 - 1000 1 - 11900
Suspended (177 - 271) (28 - 736) (90 - 391) (56 - 275) 274 - 637) (114 - 1220)
Solids

F i r s t l i n e = minimum and maximum values o f data from a l l studies.

Second l i n e ( i n parentheses) = range of average concentrations found i n d i f f e r e n t studies.

15
 While the domestic sewage containing excreta and sullage i s polluted mostly by organic
matter, commercial and i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters may convey high inorganic p o l l u t a n t loads depend-
i n g on t h e i r o r i g i n . The composition of domestic, i n d u s t r i a l and commercial wastewaters can be
determined r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y by sampling during the periods o f dry weather. The p o l l u t a n t
loads c a r r i e d by such wastewaters contribute t o loads i n combined sewer overflows as further
discussed i n Chapter 4 . Attention i s drawn t o Appendix A which l i s t s urban t e s t catchments
where runoff q u a l i t y has been monitored.

2.2 APPROACHES TO URBAN DRAINAGE

2.2.1 Options f o r excreta and sullage disposal

Excreta disposal i n European and North American countries went through many stages o f develop-
ment before i t reached the current l e v e l of waterborne sewerage. Improvements were implemented
over a long period o f time, whenever the old system was no longer satisfactory and funds for
improvements became a v a i l a b l e . Sewerage was not a grand design implemented i n one giant step,
but rather the end r e s u l t of a long series of measures w i t h progressively increasing techno-
l o g i c a l sophistication. For example, the c o l l e c t i o n of night s o i l from bucket l a t r i n e s i n
London i n the eighteenth century was a step toward reducing the o v e r a l l urban pollution. This
was followed by piped water supplies, the development o f combined sewerage, then separate
sanitary sewerage, and eventually sewage treatment p r i o r t o discharge i n t o the r i v e r . This
p a r t i c u l a r series o f improvements spanned over 100 years, a time frame necessitated by h i s t o r i -
c a l constraints i n science, technology, and resources. The present l e v e l of knowledge of sani-
t a t i o n techniques makes i t possible f o r planners t o select from a wide range of sanitation
options and t o design a sequence of incremental sanitation improvements (Kalbermatten e t a l . ,
1982).
The population pressures and the requirements for improved health i n developing countries
w i l l require a much more rapid and extensive implementation o f e f f e c t i v e waste disposal than
t h a t which- took place i n European and North American countries i n the past. It i s unlikely
t h a t the systems t h a t were appropriate for rather small populations o f the r e l a t i v e l y wealthy
countries o f Northern Europe i n the 19th century w i l l be successfull i n solving the formidable
problems o f l e s s a f f l u e n t and more populous developing countries (Rybaczynski e t a l . , 1982). A
World Health Organization survey (WHO, 1976) indicates t h a t while i n 1970, 27% of the urban
population i n developing countries had sewerage connections, by 1975 t h i s f r a c t i o n had a c t u a l l y
declined t o 25%. Even more serious i s the f a c t t h a t another 25% o f urban population had no
access t o sanitary f a c i l i t i e s a t a l l .
I t i s recognized t h a t the problems of excreta and sullage disposal and the storm drainage
problems should not be solved by a single common approach applied i n various c l i m a t i c regions.
For disposal of excreta and sullage, Kalbermatten e t a l . (1982) and Mara ( 1 9 8 2 ) o f f e r a v a r i e t y
o f approaches shown i n Table 2.2 The selection of the most appropriate approach i s affected,
among other factors, by the water supply service and water consumption.

Table 2.2 Water Supply Service Levels and Associated Options for
Excreta and Sullage Disposal i n Urban Areas (Mara, 1982)

Typical, Water
Water Supply Consumption Options for E x t r e t a Options for Sullage
1 1
Service Level L/cap./day Disposai Disposal

Stand-pipes 20 - 402 P i t latrines

3
Soakage p i t s
Pour-flush t o i l e t s
Vault t o i l e t s

Yard taps 50 - 100 P i t latrines

3
Soakage p i t s
Pour-flush t o i l e t s Stormwater drains
Vault t o i l e t s Sewered pour-flush t o i l e t s
Sewered pour-flush t o i l e t s Septic tanks
Septic tanks
~~~ ~

M u l t i p l e tap >loo Sewered pour-flush t o i l e t s Sewered pour-flush t o i l e t s

in-house Septic tanks Septic tanks
connections Conventional sewerage Conventional sewerage

The options are not l i s t e d i n any order of preference.

Consumption depends on stand-pipe density.
Feasible only i f s u f f i c i e n t water c a r r i e d home for flushing.

16
2.2.2 Storm drainage by separate and combined systems

Although the primary objectives i n developing countries are water supply and domestic
sanitation, these aspects are closely l i n k e d t o stormwater drainage i n urban areas as indicated
i n Chapter 1. Short-circuiting between water supplies and urban drainage discharges has t o be
avoided.
There are several d i f f e r e n t concepts for urban drainage:
- Storm drainage by ditches and channels discharging t o the nearest water course and on-
s i t e and o f f - s i t e sanitation.
- Separate sewer systems, conveying separately domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters and
stormwater ; and,
- Combined sewer systems which convey domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastewater and stormwater i n
the same pipes or channels.
The discharge o f stormwater i n t o the nearest water course and on-site o r o f f - s i t e sanita-
t i o n , i f applied adequately, may represent an acceptable method o f runoff and wastewater
disposal i n some urban areas with lower population d e n s i t i t e s .
Another approach t o the drainage of urban areas i s through the use of the separate sewer
system which comprises storm and sanitary sewers. Storm sewers convey stormwater discharges
d i r e c t l y i n t o receiving waters and sanitary sewers carry sanitary sewage t o the sewage t r e a t -
ment plant. Disadvantages of t h i s system include the costs o f providing and maintaining t w o
p a r a l l e l sewer systems and p o l l u t i o n of receiving waters by untreated storm runoff.
A sewer system which drains together domestic wastewater, i n d u s t r i a l wastewater and storm
runoff i s c a l l e d a combined sewer system. Thus, combined sewage i s a mixture of dry weather
flow ( i . e . , domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters) and storm runoff. All dry weather flows o r ,
during wet weather, combined flows, should be transported t o a sewage treatment plant f o r
treatment. During heavy r a i n storms, however, the combined sewage i n f l o w i n t o the system
exceeds i t s capacity and t h a t of the treatment f a c i l i t y . Therefore, the excess flow has t o be
allowed t o escape the c o l l e c t i o n system and be discharged t o the receiving waters as combined
sewer overflows. Such overflows are polluted and the overflow p o l l u t a n t loadings t o the
receiving waters comprise pollutants from domestic sewage, i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters, surface run-
o f f and materials scoured from depositions i n sewers. When such pollutants are discharged
d i r e c t l y i n t o the receiving water body, i t s water q u a l i t y may be severely downgraded. Direct
discharges of surface runoff i n t o the receiving waters also reduce the recharge of groundwater
aquifers. On the other hand, blockages i n combined sewer systems may cause flooding and,
because of the polluted character of such flows, they represent a r e a l h e a l t h hazard t o the
population. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show basic layouts o f separate and combined sewer systems.
The separate system with t w o underground pipe systems requires much more resources f o r con-
struction and operation. Therefore, i t may be desirable t o place only the sanitary sewers
underground and operate the storm drainage system as a system o f open channels (see
Section 2.2.3). Such an arrangement may be p a r t i c u l a r l y acceptable i n urban areas with low
housing densities.

a. Separate sewer system b. Combined sewer system

Fig. 2.1 Plan view o f separate and combined sewer systems

17
 a. Separate sewer system with underground storm sewers

b. Combined sewer system

telephone cable Isewer s e r v i c e

I
[combined sewer

Fig. 2.2 Cross-sections o f separate and combined sewer connections

( a f t e r Bischofsberger, 1 9 8 2 )

There are, of course, many other variations o f the f u l l y separate or combined systems,
some o f which are further discussed i n Section 2 . 2 . 4 . I n p r i n c i p a l , any sewer system comprises
interconnected components which serve for:
- drainage o f buildings, properties and public grounds u t i l i z i n g detention measures, such
as surface or roof-top ponding,
- c o l l e c t i o n and transport of stormwater i n sewers or channels u t i l i z i n g i n - l i n e and
o f f - l i n e storage,

18
 - treatment i n sewage treatment plants and s e t t l i n g tanks, and
- discharge o f e f f l u e n t s t o receiving waters.
The f i r s t t w o components represent the urban drainage systems aiming t o r m v e wastewater
and storm runoff from built-up areas i n such a way t h a t flooding and p o l l u t i o n o f receiving
waters can be prevented.
Advantages and disadvantages o f combined and separate systems are s t i l l under discussion.
Although combined systems dominated the sewerage p r a c t i c e i n the past, the separate systems
became f a i r l y popular during the l a s t t h i r t y years. I n s p i t e o f t h i s popularity, the effec-
tiveness of separate systems without stormwater treatment f o r p o l l u t i o n control i s questioned.
I n many countries, the d i s t i n c t i o n between combined and separate systems i s rather academic
because the e x i s t i n g networks, combined or separate, are generally used f o r disposal of a l l
kinds of urban wastes, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the case o f open channels. Furthermore, c l i m a t i c condi-
t i o n s are o f t e n unfavourable f o r successful operation of sewer networks. Very long dry weather
periods lead t o consolidation o f depositions which prevents self-cleansing of sewers during
wet-weather periods. Under such circumstances, even separate storm sewers may cause similar
p o l l u t i o n problems as combined systems do.

2.2.3 Open channels and closed conduits

Drainage channels are n a t u r a l or man-made channels used f o r transport of stormwater. Such

transport may be done i n the form of an open-channel flow with a f r e e water surface. Other
means for stormwater transport are closed conduits which can operate e i t h e r with pressure o r
f r e e flow. The choice between open channels and closed conduits depends strongly on l o c a l
conditions. Open channels are used more frequently i n less developed countries or i n smaller
communities. Closed conduits are preferable for hygienic and aesthetic reasons. They provide
b e t t e r safety, reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y o f i l l i c i t discharges o f wastes and, therefore, provide a
b e t t e r operation o f the sewerage system. The use of closed conduits i n drainage design i s
l i m i t e d by the l o c a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of the appropriate pipe materials. Because the transport o f
solids i s more important i n open channels and the weed growth i n such channels o f t e n cannot be
avoided, the maintenance of open channels must be much more frequent than t h a t o f closed
conduits. However, control and cleaning o f open channels i s much easier and does not r e q u i r e
special equipment or trained s t a f f as i s the case o f maintenance o f closed conduits. On the
other hand, self-cleansing of closed conduits which i s l a r g e l y given by t h e i r proper shape and
slope i s much b e t t e r than i n open channels. Because of construction costs and maintenance
reasons, open channels are frequently favoured i n s p i t e of the b e n e f i t s of closed conduits.
Open channels and ditches, however, require additional land and, consequently, are not always
feasible i n built-up areas.
A compromise solution i s t o cover open channels and gutters with concrete slabs, thus
reducing the r i s k of accidents and i l l i c i t disposal of s o l i d wastes, yet s t i l l allowing f o r
maintenance by l e s s s k i l l e d labour. The use of concrete slabs has some disadvantages because
they break e a s i l y and must be o f t e n replaced. Also, the handling of l a r g e slabs may be d i f f i -
c u l t when conducting channel maintenance.
The frequent misuse o f open drainage channels for s o l i d waste disposal shows t h a t the
choice between open channels and closed conduits i s very important. I n many urban areas i t
would be s u f f i c i e n t i f only a few town d i s t r i c t s were drained by closed conduit networks, while
for cost reasons r e s i d e n t i a l areas were drained by open channels and gutters. Such drainage
systems, however, can be operated successfully only, i f a t the same time, s u f f i c i e n t services
for s o l i d waste removal are provided. Furthermore, public information and education programmes
explaining advantages of these systems and disadvantages of t h e i r misuse should lead t o the
acceptance of these new approaches and guarantee t h e i r f e a s i b i l i t y . Participation of local
residents i n the control and maintenance work i s considered very h e l p f u l . Where domestic and
i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters are collected by sewers, closed conduit systems should be adopted.
Pressurized flows require polyethylene or s t e e l pipes, which are very costly. Furthermore,
pressurized systems generally require expensive pumping stations. Therefore, pressurized sewer
systems w i t h high c a p i t a l and maintenance costs should be avoided whenever possible.

2.2.4 Advanced drainage schemes

When the drawbacks of combined and separate sewer systems became evident, water s c i e n t i s t s and
engineers, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Europe and North America, began t o search f o r b e t t e r solutions.
What emerged was a new drainage concept advocating a minimum interference o f stormwater control
measures with the e x i s t i n g hydrological regime. A c e n t r a l feature o f t h i s concept i s t h a t , i f
feasible, the runoff should be retained i n the urban area, rather than being diverted out of
the catchment. I n order t o i n t e r f e r e minimally w i t h the hydrological regime, storm runoff
should be i n f i l t r a t e d i n t o urban s o i l s wherever possible. I t must be kept i n mind, however,

19
t h a t the i n f i l t r a t i o n of polluted storm runoff i n a groundwater recharge area i s not without
hazards. Once an aquifer has been contaminated, the removal o f pollutants from the aquifer i s
physically and economically unfeasible. Thus, treatment of stormwater, i n special treatment
f a c i l i t i e s or sewage treatment plants, p r i o r t o i n f i l t r a t i o n or discharge i n t o receiving
waters, i s o f t e n advisable.
Other r e c e n t l y proposed runoff control techniques include temporary runoff storage on t h e
catchment surface. The areas used for t h i s purpose may include such public areas as parking
l o t s , streets, playgrounds, public gardens, parks and special flood plains whose surface cover
and i n s t a l l a t i o n s can withstand flooding. Such measures, however, require additional construc-
t i o n costs i n the design of the surface structures. Open storage f a c i l i t i e s i n urban areas
should be designed so t h a t they flood only under severe storm conditions. The water retained
i s released slowly a f t e r the storm, or i n f i l t r a t e d i n t o the ground. I n addition, d i r e c t i n f i l -
t r a t i o n of runoff from impervious areas such as roofs, paved streets, or sidewalks may be
enhanced, especially i n r e s i d e n t i a l areas. Even the use o f porous road and parking l o t pave-
ments has been considered. I f the runoff from streets and parking l o t s i s expected t o be
h e a v i l y polluted, i t s i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o the ground should be avoided.
Another technique for runoff detention or r e t e n t i o n consists i n increasing the runoff time
o f t r a v e l t o the sewer i n l e t s . This can be achieved by l i m i t i n g the density o f gutters and
i n l e t s , or by designing the gutters and connecting sewers w i t h minimal slopes.
Storage i s a common runoff control measure frequently used i n existing densely built-up
areas. Storage may be provided within the sewer system i t s e l f , or o f f - l i n e , i n the form of
storage basins or storage channels. Advanced control measures include real-time flow regula-
t i o n within a sewer network as demonstrated for example i n Hamburg, FRG, Seine Saint Dennis
County, France, and S e a t t l e , U.S.A. Under appropriate climatological conditions, runoff
storage and reuse o f stormwater for i r r i g a t i o n or other subpotable water supply should be also
considered among drainage a l t e r n a t i v e s . A l l of the aforementioned measures reduce the runoff
peak s i g n i f i c a n t l y and, thereby, avoid possible downstream flooding. Although the idea of
advanced drainage schemes i s a t t r a c t i v e , sanitary problems are best solved by standard on-site
o r o f f - s i t e measures or, i f unavoidable, by waterborne sewerage using simple network design.
I t i s very important t o r e a l i z e t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e drainage concepts can be designed most
e f f e c t i v e l y p r i o r t o the area development. To incorporate such a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t o existing
urban areas i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t and costly.
I t should be also r e a l i z e d t h a t the above l i s t e d advanced drainage schemes, which have
been developed f o r European and North American c i t i e s , may warrant consideration only i n
densely populated areas of less developed countries. I n smaller towns and v i l l a g e s , stormwater
may be s t i l l discharged i n t o l o c a l receiving waters. Groundwater and surface waters from such
areas cannot be used for water supply without treatment.

2.2.5 Wastewater and stormwater reuse

Increasing water demands may exceed the t o t a l available water supply i n c e r t a i n areas. Under
such circumstances, i t i s necessary t o examine the means o f augmenting water supply by such
measures as wastewater and stormwater reclamation. The information available on t h i s subject
indicates t h a t the reuse of municipal wastewater e f f l u e n t and stormwater for such purposes as
i n d u s t r i a l cooling, non-potable domestic water supply, and i r r i g a t i o n i s technically and
economically f e a s i b l e . The reclamation of stormwater i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e because i t
also yields secondary benefits i n the form of reduced p o l l u t a n t discharges, drainage control,
groundwater recharge, and improvement and preservation of ecology i n the urban area. There i s
a documented case of reuse of treated stormwater from ponds i n a r e s i d e n t i a l area for potable
water supply i n Singapore (Tay and Chan, 1 9 8 4 ) . I t can be expected t h a t the technology f o r
wastewater and stormwater reclamation w i l l further evolve as water demands w i l l exceed supplies
i n the future.

2.3 MASTER DRAINAGE PLANS

A master plan o f an urban drainage system i s a general technical layout plan o f the s a n i t a t i o n
and storm drainage system for the e n t i r e urban area. Such a plan indicates the e x i s t i n g condi-
tions as w e l l as d i f f e r e n t future development and implementation stages up t o the planning
horizon .
2.3.1 The planning horizon

The planning o f drainage projects requires several types of information on the physical system,
development trends, j u r i s d i c t i o n divisions, and f i n a n c i a l arrangements. A l l these factors

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a f f e c t the planning process and t h e s e l e c t i o n o f system components. Various design parameters
employed i n planning are discussed i n Chapter 4.
The planning i t s e l f i s undertaken a t two l e v e l s - t h e short-term and long-term planning.
I n the short-term plan, drainage f a c i l i t i e s are planned on t h e basis o f t h e proposed develop-
ment plans f o r a p e r i o d from f i v e t o t e n years. Such short-term plans must be compatible w i t h
the long-term plan. I f needed, provisions are made f o r f u t u r e expansion and e x t e n t i o n o f
proposed drainage f a c i l i t e s . The long-term planning r e f l e c t s the u l t i m a t e development o f the
watershed and i s based on a longer planning p e r i o d which may be as long as 25 t o 50 years. To
reduce u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n the long-term plan, i t i s r e g u l a r l y updated, about every f i v e years, t o
account f o r the a c t u a l development t a k i n g place and t o r e f l e c t changes i n technology and
engineering practices.
While t h e planning horizon r e f l e c t s the envisaged l a n d use projected f o r a c e r t a i n nmnber
o f years, the design period of drainage s t r u c t u r e s i n d i c a t e s the expected l e v e l o f p r o t e c t i o n
against such phenomena as flooding, h e a l t h hazards, o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f q u a l i t y i n t h e r e c e i v -
i n g waters. Besides t h e desired l e v e l o f protection, t h e design period depends on c o n s t r u c t i o n
costs and damage losses r e s u l t i n g from system f a i l u r e s . The planning horizon may be linked t o
t h e longest design l i f e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s under design. While there i s only one planning
horizon f o r the drainage area, t h e design periods may d i f f e r f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l system
components. Both planning horizon and design p e r i o d are f u r t h e r discussed i n Chapter 4 o f t h i s
volume.

2.3.2 Major and minor drainage systems

Urban drainage planning i s obviously l i n k e d t o t h e capacity o f the r e c e i v i n g water system.

Therefore, a master drainage plan should be part o f a watershed p l a n and p r e f e r a b l y be prepared
a t an e a r l y stage o f the watershed development. Consideration o f overland f l o w , f l o o d p l a i n
management and f l o o d c o n t r o l i n conjunction w i t h urban drainage i s probably one o f t h e greatest
achievements i n urban hydrology. Severe f l o o d i n g o f t e n i s caused by t h e l a c k o f overland
routes, the l a c k o f capacity o f creeks o r main channels, and backwater e f f e c t s i n t h e sewer
system.
A master drainage plan incorporates the whole urban drainage system i n c l u d i n g t h e connec-
t i o n s and i n t e r r e l a t i o n between t h e so-called minor and major system components. The minor
drainage system comprises swales, s t r e e t gutters, catch basins, storm sewers, and surface and
subsurface d e t e n t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . It conveys r u n o f f from frequent storms w i t h r e t u r n periods up
t o the design period, namely from one t o t e n years. The minor system p r i m a r i l y reduces the
frequency o f inconvenience, caused by stormwater ponding, t o both pedestrians and motorists.
The consequences o f t h e f a i l u r e o f the minor drainage system, except f o r p o s s i b l e h e a l t h
hazards, are o f t e n i n s i g n i f i c a n t , provided t h a t there i s a p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n i n g major drainage
system. Therefore, t h e design periods f o r the minor system are r e l a t i v e l y short. The shorter
periods apply t o r e s i d e n t i a l areas, t h e longer periods apply t o commercial and i n d u s t r i a l areas
and transport f a c i l i t i e s where drainage f a i l u r e s could cause l a r g e damage. The minor drainage
system has t o be p r o p e r l y i n t e r f a c e d w i t h t h e major system t o avoid overloading o f minor
drainage elements.
The major drainage system comprises n a t u r a l streams and v a l l e y s as w e l l as main man-made
drainage elements such as swales, channels, and ponds. The system should accommodate r u n o f f
f r o m infrequent storms w i t h long r e t u r n periods, up t o 100 years, o r other c r i t i c a l r e g i o n a l
events. A p r o p e r l y designed, constructed, and maintained major system g r e a t l y reduces t h e r i s k
o f loss o f l i f e and property damage caused by f l o o d i n g o f urban areas. I t should be emphasized
t h a t the major drainage system e x i s t s i n the nature regardless o f whether i t i s i d e n t i f i e d as
such and preserved during the urban development. It i s t h e r o u t e which i s followed by water
d u r i n g severe storms. Consequences o f the major drainage system f a i l u r e are q u i t e severe and
may include appreciable f l o o d damages and even t h e l o s s o f l i f e . Therefore, major drainage
systems are designed a t l e a s t f o r a 50-year storm and o f t e n f o r a 100-year storm o r a r e g i o n a l
c r i t i c a l storm defined by the l o c a l drainage a u t h o r i t y .
A master drainage plan o f an urban area comprises t h e minor drainage system components,
the l i n k s t o t h e major drainage system, and sometimes p a r t s o f t h e major drainage system w i t h i n
t h e urban area. It should be emphasized t h a t an i d e n t i c a l design period does n o t have t o be
maintained throughout the drainage system. Some p a r t s o f the system, whose f a i l u r e would be
p a r t i c u l a r l y c o s t l y , may be designed f o r longer design r e t u r n periods than others. Further-
more, the choice o f the r e t u r n p e r i o d f o r the minor system may have some i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e
design o f t h e major system. By reducing the minor system design p e r i o d and capacity, i n f l o w s
t o t h e major system w i l l be reduced, thus reducing t h e costs o f t h e major system.

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2.3.3 Development and components o f master drainage plans

L o g i c a l l y , the s a n i t a t i o n and storm drainage master plans assemble a l l actions t o be taken i n

an urban area under t h e e x i s t i n g and f u t u r e conditions. The master p l a n must d e f i n e t h e tech-
n i c a l requirements and l a y o u t o f the system considering the e x i s t i n g o r proposed r e g u l a t i o n s
and i n s t i t u t i o n a l concepts. The p l a n must present t e c h n i c a l measures t o be taken i n a chrono-
l o g i c a l order d e f i n i n g r e a l i s t i c emergency programmes as the f i r s t l e v e l t o be implemented
w i t h i n a short-term period.
The preparation o f master drainage plans s t a r t s w i t h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f drainage r e l a t e d
problems and d e f i n i t i o n o f study objectives. These o b j e c t i v e s generally i n c l u d e t h e abatement
o f l o c a l f l o o d i n g and inconvenience, abatement o f downstream f l o o d damages and t h r e a t t o human
l i f e , p r o t e c t i o n o f water supplies, and p r o t e c t i o n o f water q u a l i t y i n r e c e i v i n g waters which
depends on various water uses. Study o b j e c t i v e s are assigned various p r i o r i t i e s and need t o be
accomplished under a given set o f c o n s t r a i n t s wich includes natural, p o l i c y , r e g u l a t i o n and
cost constraints. The d e f i n i t i o n o f o b j e c t i v e s requires t h e assessment o f the e x i s t i n g condi-
t i o n s and a forecast o f t h e f u t u r e development. Obviously, t h i s forecast forms a v i t a l basis
f o r the design o f drainage system components.
I n t h e development stage o f the planning horizon, t h e necessary system components must be
defined i n c l u d i n g a l l q u a n t i t i e s and magnitudes necessary f o r design which are also c a l l e d
design parameters (see Chapter 4 ) . Examples o f such input q u a n t i t i e s are design r a i n f a l l data,
water consumption and unit costs. Obviously, the various options a v a i l a b l e i n urban drainage,
as discussed i n Section 2.2, y i e l d a number o f non-structural and s t r u c t u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r
any s p e c i f i c condition. Non-structural measures include land use p o l i c i e s or p r o h i b i t i o n o f
f l o o d p l a i n occupancy. S t r u c t u r a l measures include various surface pavements, drainage conduit
and channel configurations, storage and d i v e r s i o n structures, channelization and dikes. For
each configuration, t h e o v e r a l l system outputs are provided i n the form o f f l o o d hydrographs
and costs o f various a l t e r n a t i v e s . These outputs are produced by means o f the computational
procedures which are discussed i n Chapter 5. A l l drainage a l t e r n a t i v e s are screened, compared
and the best a l t e r n a t i v e i s selected on the basis o f d e c i s i o n and evaluation c r i t e r i a . It i s
one o f t h e major concerns o f the master plan t o explore p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s and substantiate
t h e s e l e c t i o n o f the proposed system. When developing and evaluating various a l t e r n a t i v e s ,
f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s f o r t h e implementation o f the system, t h e assignment o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
t o one o r more a u t h o r i t i e s , and r e l i a b i l i t y and financing o f maintenance operations must be
considered. Regarding the design parameters and the c a l c u l a t i o n methods employed, t h e i r
a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o l o c a l conditions must be checked c a r e f u l l y .
Once the most s u i t a b l e system l a y o u t i s selected, a l l p o s s i b l e p r o p r i e t a r y r i g h t s o r con-
s t r a i n t s , which may hinder plan implementation, must be checked. The next step i s t o d e f i n e
the sequence o f implementation stages i n such a way t h a t t h e monies invested f o r each step
c o n t r i b u t e maximum b e n e f i t s towards reaching the selected objectives. The f i n a l design o f
i n d i v i d u a l system components follows and i t must accommodate various implementation stages.
For example, a p a r t i c u l a r stage f a c i l i t y w i t h i n the drainage system may be designed i n such a
way t h a t i t can be enlarged a t some l a t e r time according t o t h e ongoing development. Such a
procedure considers t h e dynamics o f urban development and changes i n drainage technology.
Therefore, the master drainage plan should be r e g u l a r l y updated and modified, about once every
f i v e years. A t the same time, the e f f i c i e n c y o f already constructed system components may be
checked a l l o w i n g f o r i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f improvements i n planning updates. The f i n a l i z a t i o n o f a
master drainage plan, which depends on the a v a i l a b i l i t y of data and the s i z e o f the drainage
area, may r e q u i r e from one t o f i v e years. During the same period, maintenance and operational
crews must be t r a i n e d and, i f necessary, t h e responsible a u t h o r i t i e s organized i n such a way
t h a t e f f e c t i v e operation and c o n t r o l o f the system w i l l be guaranteed. Furthermore, p u b l i c
i n f o r m a t i o n programmes should be undertaken.

2.3.4 Example o f master drainage p l a n contents

The f o l l o w i n g captions may guide the development o f a master drainage plan and t h e preparation
o f a study r e p o r t :
- Purpose and background o f the study
need
l e g a l background
r e g u l a t o r y background (health, f l o o d i n g and p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l c r i t e r i a )
possible updates and r e g u l a t i o n s
i n s t i t u t i o n a l background
- I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f drainage r e l a t e d problems
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the drainage area (topographic and s o i l conditions, e x i s t i n g drainage
f a c i l i t i e s , land use)

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 extent o f the study area
assessment of e x i s t i n g conditions
planning horizon
forecast of f u t u r e development (population, land use, i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n )
expected drainage problems f o r the planning horizon and intermediate development
stages
- D e f i n i t i o n of study objectives
human needs
h e a l t h requirements
environmental concerns
socio-economic aspects
n a t u r a l constraints
p o l i c y constraints
f i n a n c i a l constraints
the l i s t o f a t t a i n a b l e objectives
p r i o r i t i e s o f objectives
scope of work
- Data base f o r planning
p r o g r m e f o r c o l l e c t i o n of f i e l d data
preliminary basic system layout
design periods f o r conduits and i n d i v i d u a l structures
r a i n f a l l data as a design basis
dry-weather flow quantity and q u a l i t y
stormwater or combined sewage q u a l i t y
i n f i l t r a t i o n and inflow
u n i t costs
- hiethods f o r planning and design
choice o f analysis procedures
procedures t o be used
check f o r l o c a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y
possible comparison with f i e l d data for existing conditions
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f input data
- I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and investigation of drainage a l t e r n a t i v e s
performance O € existing systems
optimization o f e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s
non-structural measures (land use p o l i c i e s , zoning, p r o h i b i t i o n of flood p l a i n occu-
pancy, maintenance o f streets, s o l i d waste disposal)
minimal s t r u c t u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e (open channels, surface ponding)
structurally-intensive a l t e r n a t i v e s ( i n f i l t r a t i o n ponds, diversion structures, surface
and subsurface detention f a c i l i t e s , pumping stations, channels)
operational measures (maintenance, flow control)
performance o f a l t e r n a t i v e s
implementation and operational costs
screening f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s y i e l d i n g an optimum solution w i t h respect t o t e c h n i c a l
f e a s i b i l i t y , environmental impact, p o l i t i c a l acceptance, costs and f i n a n c i a l r e a l i t y
selection o f the f i n a l drainage scheme
- Impact o f the future drainage system
proof t h a t objectives are met
environmental impact
acceptance by the public
control and operational requirements of the selected scheme
check o f proprietary r i g h t s
other constraints
o v e r a l l financing
- F i n a l design o f i n d i v i d u a l structures
l o c a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of construction materials
a v a i l a b i l i t y of s k i l l e d labour
layout and design o f a l l components
specifications for future operation and maintenance
- Implementation
stages o f implementation
time frame
financing of the i n d i v i d u a l stages
i n d i c a t i o n t h a t objectives are met a t the i n d i v i d u a l stages o f implementation

23
 i n t e r i m b e n e f i t s f o r the urban population, and
schedules and requirements f o r planning updates.
N a t u r a l l y , n o t a l l o f the subjects l i s t e d apply t o every study. On t h e other hand, s p e c i a l
problems encountered may r e q u i r e some a d d i t i o n a l considerations n o t l i s t e d . It i s important
t h a t maps and c o n s t r u c t i o n drawings are prepared and incorporated i n t h e report. Major calcu-
l a t i o n s must be attached as appendices. Besides the d e t a i l e d r e p o r t w i t h a l l t e c h n i c a l and
f i n a n c i a l aspects, executive summaries should be prepared f o r p o l i t i c i a n s and the p u b l i c .
Information o f t h e p u b l i c and preparation and t r a i n i n g f o r c o n t r o l , operation, and maintenance
o f t h e planned system are v i t a l f o r t h e success o f t h e w e r a l l e f f o r t .

2.4 CONDITIONS AFFECTING URBAN DRAINAGE DESIGN

2.4.1 Physical c o n d i t i o n s

The major p h y s i c a l conditions a f f e c t i n g urban drainage design include the climate, topography,
geology, geohydrology, land use, area size, r e c e i v i n g waters and e x i s t i n g drainage systems.
The major i n p u t t o any drainage design i s the r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y and i t s v a r i a t i o n over an
area. O t h e r c l i m a t i c f a c t o r s of i n t e r e s t are a i r temperature, w i n d v e l o c i t y and solar r a d i a -
tion. These f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e evaporation, snowfall and snowmelt. While i n the equator zone
r a i n f a l l occurs throughout the year i n conjunction w i t h h i g h temperatures and evaporation
p o t e n t i a l s smaller than the r a i n f a l l depth, n o r t h and south o f t h e equator zone t h e r a i n f a l l
occurrence i s dependent on t h e movement o f t h e sun. Rainy seasons are followed by d r y s p e l l s .
During the r a i n y seasons, the evaporation p o t e n t i a l i s smaller than t h e r a i n f a l l depth and
during t h e d r y seasons the evaporation p o t e n t i a l exceeds t h e r a i n f a l l . Thus, humid conditions
a r e followed by a r i d conditions i n a t y p i c a l seasonal cycle. A r i d and desert zones f o l l o w t o
the n o r t h and south o f the t r o p i c a l zone. These zones are characterized by the evaporation
p o t e n t i a l greater than the r a i n f a l l depth. Further on towards the poles, there are zones w i t h
a mediterranean c l i m a t e and these are followed by the temperate climate zones. Precipitation
i n temperate zones i s a f f e c t e d by t h e distance from t h e sea, c o n t i n e n t a l l o c a t i o n s and
mountains.
Drainage systems are designed f o r r a i n f a l l s o f short duration. I n t e n s i t i e s of t r o p i c a l
r a i n f a l l s are extremely high. The i n t e n s i t y o f t r o p i c a l r a i n f a l l s w i t h a d u r a t i o n o f
15 minutes and a frequency o f once per year i s 2.5 t o 4 times higher than t h a t o f r a i n f a l l s o f
s i m i l a r d u r a t i o n and frequency i n Western Europe. For a 60-minute r a i n f a l l , t h e above f a c t o r
i s even higher, from 3 t o 6. Consequently, combined sewers c o l l e c t i n g domestic and i n d u s t r i a l
wastewaters, and stormwater are i m p r a c t i c a l i n t r o p i c a l areas, because such sewers would have
t o be very l a r g e and be l a i d w i t h r e l a t i v e l y steep slopes t o maintain self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s
during t h e periods o f d r y weather. Thus i n t r o p i c a l climates as w e l l as i n a r i d o r semi-arid
climates w i t h few r a i n storms per year, separate sewer systems preventing p e t r i f a c t i o n o f the
sewer sediment d u r i n g d r y weather should be used. I n other c l i m a t o l o g i c a l zones, both separate
and combined sewer systems may be equally w e l l applicable.
Concerning t h e topography, t h e surface slope and cover, p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o i l s
i n the top and underlying layers, vegetation cover and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f paved areas a f f e c t the
choice o f a sewer system. I n areas w i t h abundant water courses and channels, stormwater may be
discharged d i r e c t l y t o the nearest water body. This favours t h e use o f separate systems, i f
domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters have t o be also collected. I n areas without s u i t a b l e
r e c e i v i n g waters and i n h i l l s i d e areas, long sewer l i n e s are required and, under such condi-
t i o n s , the combined system may be preferred. I n any case, pumping o f stormwater from f l a t o r
low-lying areas should be avoided whenever possible. This recommendation may also favour the
use o f separate storm sewers which can be l a i d a t smaller depth and milder slopes than t h e
combined o r s a n i t a r y sewers. The remaining factors, i n c l u d i n g s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , vegetation
cover and paved areas s t r o n g l y a f f e c t storm r u n o f f and stormwater i n f i l t r a t i o n . The r a t e s o f
r u n o f f may then i n f l u e n c e t h e choice o f the sewerage system, because r e l a t i v e l y low r u n o f f
flows may favour t h e use o f a combined system.
Erosion i s a very important geological f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g drainage design. Particularly i n
mountainous areas, l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f various types o f sediments enter t h e drainage system.
Such sediments are then deposited i n sewer sections w i t h low v e l o c i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y during
the periods o f low flows. Sediment deposits may then r e s t r i c t t h e sewer f l o w and thereby cause
flooding. To avoid such flooding, sewers susceptible t o sediment deposition have t o be regu-
l a r l y maintained a t f a i r l y h i g h costs. The problems o f f l o o d i n g and c o s t l y maintenance can be
avoided by i n s t a l l i n g sewers on slopes equal t o o r greater than the minimum slope required t o
achieve t h e self-cleansing flow v e l o c i t y which allows a continuous t r a n s p o r t of sediments.
Experience i n d i c a t e s t h a t t o e s t a b l i s h the self-cleansing v e l o c i t y , t h e sediment s i z e needs t o
be considered only f o r p a r t i c l e diameters greater than 0,5 mm. Further information on s e l f -
cleansing sewer v e l o c i t i e s i s given i n Chapter 6. I t should be emphasized t h a t the best way t o

24
solve the problems of sediment deposition i n sewers i s by source controls - minimizing s o i l
erosion through the use o f common s o i l conservation practices.
Urban drainage operation i s also interconnected w i t h hydrogeological conditions of the
area drained. Limited water supplies and increasing water demands may lead t o over-
e x p l o i t a t i o n of groundwater and land subsidence i n the affected areas (Lindh, 1985). The
lowering of the groundwater t a b l e i s further aggravated by reduced groundwater recharge because
of provision of urban drainage comprising numerous impervious elements.
Urban areas with high or medium density o f development have t o be o f t e n serviced by a
conventional waterborne sewage system, i f there are no opportunities for low-cost sanitation
systems and d i r e c t disposal o f stormwater. Flooding o f these areas may create serious h e a l t h
hazards caused by wash-out of the content of p i t l a t r i n e s . Furthermore, the implementation o f
a f u l l y adequate drainage system may be hindered by l i m i t e d access and space, because o f the
proprietary r i g h t s , or e x i s t i n g or planned i n s t a l l a t i o n s of streets, water mains, e l e c t r i c i t y
and gas supply l i n e s , and drains.
The hydraulic and s e l f - p u r i f i c a t i o n capacities of receiving waters and water l e v e l varia-
tions also a f f e c t the sewer design. I n some developing countries, the hygienic conditions o f
surface waters are considered t o be the most important water q u a l i t y c r i t e r i o n . Surface water
from r i v e r s and drains i s o f t e n used f o r household purposes because o f the lack of public water
supply or water wells. Tropical surface waters have c e r t a i n general characteristics which make
them d i f f e r e n t from most surface waters i n temperate zones i n respect t o t h e i r capacity f o r
handling waste discharges. Owing t o the nature o f t r o p i c a l r a i n f a l l , streams usually have very
high r a t i o s of the maximum t o minimum discharge and l o w flows occur f o r extended periods.
Because d i l u t i o n i s o f major importance i n waste assimilation, long periods o f low stream flows
reduce the stream a b i l i t y t o accept continuously heavy waste loads without damage. Low stream-
flows, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l a t d e l t a areas, where many major c i t i e s are located, produce l i t t l e
turbulence, which i n t u r n reduces oxygen d i f f u s i o n a t the surface. Surface d i f f u s i o n normally
provides the greatest source of oxygen for b i o l o g i c a l breakdown of organic matters discharged
t o surface waters. I n addition, high temperatures not only reduce the amount of oxygen which
can dissolve i n water, thereby minimizing the oxygen supply a v a i l a b l e t o microorganisms, but
also the r a t e a t which oxygen i s u t i l i z e d by microorganisms (Pescod, 1982).

2.4.2 Socio-economic aspects

Socio-cultural aspects have a s i g n i f i c a n t influence on the acceptance and, consequently, t h e

maintenance of any sanitation system. Aside from the educational l e v e l , the c u l t u r a l behaviour
and customs have a strong influence on the demand f o r and maintenance o f a drainage system.
For the planning engineer, who may be a foreign expert unfamiliar w i t h the t r a d i t i o n s and
customs of the population, the actual willingness t o change customs and t r a d i t i o n s i s extremely
d i f f i c u l t t o judge. As a h e l p f u l indicator o f the readiness t o accept the drainage system, the
payment of p r o j e c t fees i s regarded. If there are delays i n payments o f appropriate fees, the
drainage project under consideration i s l i k e l y t o f a i l .
For a minimum standard o f l i v i n g a t l e a s t the basic human needs i n respect t o water con-
sumption should be s a t i s f i e d . Sanitation systems must s a t i s f y a c e r t a i n l e v e l of safety a t
which health hazards are prevented and minimum aesthetics i s provided. Desired service
standards should be c a r e f u l l y reviewed, because of the f a i l u r e of past practices which attemp-
ted t o transfer conventional views o f water use and drainage from developed countries t o
developing countries w i t h l i t t l e modification. There were "Water and Sewerage BOards" estab-
lished i n countries or regions with no sewers. I n several c i t i e s , money was spent on master
sewerage plans, l a t e r superseded by other master plans, without building any sewers. And where
sewers were constructed, they o f t e n benefitted only a more fortunate minority o f the popula-
tion. Such approaches are completely inappropriate. The planning o f drainage works should
consider the c i t y on the whole and should s t a r t i n areas where most people w i l l b e n e f i t from
such systems.
I n the past, economic development was regarded t o be closely dependent on the i n f r a s t r u c -
t u r e of water supply and wastewater disposal. This i s not necessarily t r u e . I t i s now recog-
nized t h a t investments i n the f i e l d o f water supply and wastewater disposal are r e l a t i v e l y
small i n comparison with investments for the i n d u s t r i a l development and energy supply. Never-
theless, aside from providing employment, the improvement o f drainage system s t i l l has a
p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on the economic development. Furthermore, the a v a i l a b i l i t y of construction
materials f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s and maintenance i s o f t e n a guiding factor f o r the construction o f
the drainage works. Note also that the a f f o r d a b i l i t y o f house or property connections t o an
urban drainage network depends on the income o f the population.

25
2.4.3 F i n a n c i a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l aspects

I n developing countries, urban drainage design u s u a l l y deals w i t h t h e planning o f new systems.

Therefore, t h e r e i s a l a c k o f l o c a l experience and proper i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n addition t o the
design task, i t may be necessary t o provide funds f o r t r a i n i n g o f construction and maintenance
crews as w e l l as funds f o r a p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n programme. I n t h e long run, t h i s w i l l h e l p t o
e s t a b l i s h p u b l i c services. Chapter 9 f u r t h e r elaborates on i n s t i t u t i o n a l aspects.
The amount o f money spent on urban drainage i n the past was small i n comparison t o other
sectors. As an example, t h e resources required t o provide adequate drainage and s o l i d waste
disposal i n f i v e Asian countries are l i s t e d i n Table 2.3. The countries selected are n e i t h e r
extremely poor nor p a r t i c u l a r l y representative f o r t h e i r region. They were selected more o r
l e s s because o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f homogeneous and nearly-complete data. Table 2.3 separates
t h e resources required f o r urban and r u r a l areas. I n r u r a l areas, the measures t o be taken
include t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f d r y t o i l e t s , p i t l a t r i n e s and proper storm drainage. I n urban
areas, t h e measures may reach up t o the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f separate o r even combined sewer
systems. The necessary per c a p i t a expenditures reach i n some cases t h e magnitude o f the gross
n a t i o n a l product (GNP). This means t h a t the financing o f such systems by these countries alone
i s simply impossible. I t a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t low-cost s a n i t a t i o n systems have t o be used i n
,
countries w i t h l i m i t e d f i n a n c i a l resources although the h i g h density o f t h e i r urban develop-
ments would j u s t i f y a waterborne sewerage system. The drainage water has t o be c o l l e c t e d by a
system o f open channels and ditches. Obviously, there w i l l be a l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n the use o f
low-cost s a n i t a t i o n systems i n those urbanized areas where p u b l i c funds are a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e
p r o v i s i o n o f sewerage systems. O n t h e other hand, many developing countries have t o cope w i t h
serious f l o o d i n g problems i n urbanized areas and, consequently, the p r i o r i t y i s given t o f l o o d
c o n t r o l measures. Because o f l i m i t e d f i n a n c i a l resources, t h e implementation o f new construc-
t i o n programmes and the improvement o f e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s can o n l y be c a r r i e d out step by
step.

Table 2.3 Estimates o f Resources Needed f o r Wastewater and S o l i d Waste Disposal (Hahn, 1 9 8 2 )

Urban Areas Rural Areas

GNP
i n U.S. $ Per Capita Deficit Per Capita Deficit
Country (1978) Range ( i n U.S. $1 % Range ( i n U.S. $1 %

Bangladesh 90 18,6 - 155 62 19,8 - 247,s 99

India 180 15,9 - 132,s 53 19,6 - 245 98

Malaysia 1O90 7,2 - 60 24 7,4 - 92,s 37

Philippines 510 20,4 - 170 68 14,6 - 182,s 73

Thailand 490 6p6 - 55 22 15 - 187,5 75

Average GNP i n 8000

industrialized
countries

For a c q u i s i t i o n o f p r o j e c t funds, the maintenance costs and any other follow-up costs have
t o be included i n the budget. A new f i n a n c i a l management system may need t o be developed which
would i n c l u d e these expenses and a l s o secure some f i n a n c i a l r e t u r n on reserved funds.
I n many countries, water laws are r e l a t i v e l y few and simple, and water i s generally per-
ceived as a g i f t r a t h e r than a resource t o be managed. P r i v a t e water uses are o f t e n uncon-
t r o l l e d or c o n t r o l l e d by ambiguous l e g i s l a t i o n which allows widespread overuse and misuse o f
water resources. Water p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l l e g i s l a t i o n i s o n l y now being introduced i n many
countries. The e x i s t i n g l e g i s l a t i o n has not been e f f e c t i v e l y enforced because o f the p r i o r i t y
assigned t o i n d u s t r i a l development as a major c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e n a t i o n a l economic growth.
Water q u a l i t y i s yet t o receive s i g n i f i c a n t a t t e n t i o n i n the development planning, although
water resources development p r o j e c t s are generally given h i g h p r i o r i t y i n n a t i o n a l plans.

26
There i s a p r o l i f e r a t i o n of government agencies responsible for d i f f e r e n t aspects of water use
and p o l l u t i o n control but l i t t l e co-ordination among them (Pescod, 1 9 8 2 ) .
The lack of public investment i n urban s a n i t a t i o n contributed t o the r i s e i n p r i v a t e
sector management o f domestic wastes i n on-site disposal systems. poorly designed and con-
structed i n s t a l l a t i o n s and inadequate regulations governing waste disposal have o f t e n caused
contamination of groundwater and surface waters by p o l l u t e d r u n o f f . O f f i c i a l ignorance of the
widespread p o l l u t i o n of urban surface waters by domestic sources has made industry adopt an
irresponsible a t t i t u d e towards the p o l l u t i o n impacts o f i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t discharges. Poor
enforcement of inadequate p o l l u t i o n control l e g i s l a t i o n has caused the industry t o be generally
unco-operative i n regulating i t s wastewater releases. Mistrust on both sides leads t o wrong
decisions i n formulating water q u a l i t y objectives and i n planning t o meet them (Pescod, 1982).
There i s an obvious need for greater co-operation between the government and industry.
Management of water resources, however, must be for the public good rather than for p r i v a t e
i n t e r e s t s , although the t w o might be compatible i f a f l e x i b l e o f f i c i a l p o l i c y i s adopted. In
view of the increasing a t t e n t i o n being paid t o urban drainage i n developing countries, i t i s
l i k e l y t h a t investments i n urban sanitation and i n d u s t r i a l wastewater treatment w i l l expand
r a p i d l y i n the future. I t i s essential t h a t sensible water q u a l i t y objectives are established
and r a t i o n a l management approaches adopted t o minimize the required investments i n both the
public and p r i v a t e sectors and t o achieve least-cost solutions t o l o c a l problems (Pescod,
1982).
To implement an urban drainage programme, i t i s essential t o have an i n s t i t u t i o n a l struc-
ture which allows the adoption o f a practicable approach. Although one regional water
authority with r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for water management i n an e n t i r e r i v e r basin would be an e f f i -
cient i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangement, i n r e a l i t y , a l a r g e number o f a u t h o r i t i e s are t y p i c a l l y
concerned with water i n developing countries. Nevertheless, governments must attempt t o co-
ordinate the a c t i v i t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t agencies t o achieve desirable water q u a l i t y management
objectives and t o work towards a consolidation of authority i n fewer agencies over time
(Pescod, 1982).
A regional water authority, properly funded and s t a f f e d w i t h q u a l i f i e d engineers and
s c i e n t i s t s , w i l l be i n the best position t o take advantage o f the wide range o f a l t e r n a t i v e s
a v a i l a b l e i n urban drainage design. The d i v i s i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y among several agencies
belonging t o d i f f e r e n t government m i n i s t r i e s w i l l i n h i b i t the application o f a h o l i s t i c
approach. However, even a regional water authority must be empowered by the law t o carry out
i t s functions. Regulations can be formulated i n such a manner t h a t various strategies can be
applied t o s u i t the needs of d i f f e r e n t situations. Controlling a u t h o r i t i e s should be prepared
t o enforce regulations and must be equipped with s u f f i c i e n t s t a f f and resources t o monitor the
situation. Government policy should be made public and regular discussions should be held
between water agencies and water users i n a s p e c i f i c area. The p r i o r i t i e s have t o be set a t
t h e national, regional and l o c a l l e v e l s (Pescod, 1 9 8 2 ) .

2.4.4 Operation and maintenance

Many developing countries suffer from the lack of s k i l l e d labour for the maintenance o f water-
borne sewerage systems. For maintenance o f drainage systems, i t i s not only necessary t o t r a i n
personnel on the job, but also t o ensure t h a t the t r a i n e d personnel does not leave t o accept
other positions. This problem i s further aggravated by the low image o f wastewater disposal i n
many countries. When choosing the appropriate technology, these aspects also have t o be
considered.
Simple techniques for the cleaning of sewers and drains and the operation of pumping
stations w i l l have t o be applied. Sewer cleaning may be c a r r i e d out manually, which requires
short distances between sewer manholes. Sewers are subject t o i n f i l t r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f
they are l a i d a t great depths below the groundwater t a b l e . I n general, i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o
construct watertight conduits under such conditions. The lack of suitable materials may
further aggravate t h i s problem and -lead t o maintenance problems, because continuously flooded
sewers and drains cannot be properly maintained.
Another aspect hampering sewer maintenance i s the l o c a t i o n of drains on p r i v a t e property,
p a r t i c u l a r l y where underground drains have been constructed under buildings. As a minimum
l e v e l o f service, open storm drains are recommended f o r urbanized areas with unpaved roads, t o
f a c i l i t a t e easy maintenance of the system. However, measures have t o be taken t o prevent the
misuse of the open channels f o r s o l i d waste disposal. Siphons and sewera without s e l f -
cleansing characteristics should be avoided and the number o f pumping stations has t o be l i m i -
ted as much as possible. I n general, i t i s necessary t h a t the user o f the drainage system
understands i t s purpose. The construction of channels or conduits should be done i n such a way
t h a t the c i t i z e n s can r e p a i r and maintain the system, i n the worst case, themselves. There-
fore, l o c a l materials should be used and inexpensive and easy maintenance and operation should

27
be ensured. Despite using simple methods and materials, the operational safety must be
ensured.
As explained above, the measures taken i n the planning and construction of drainage must
consider the l o c a l ecological, sociological, and f i n a n c i a l conditions. I t follows t h a t i n
every case appropriate technologies have t o be applied for successful planning. I n most cases,
the appropriate technologies are not mere transfers of the technologies o f highly i n d u s t r i a l -
i z e d countries, but modified technologies which depend on the a v a i l a b l e labour s k i l l s , and
commercial and i n d u s t r i a l services.

28
3 Elements o f drainage systems

3.1 DIVERSITY OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Implementation and d e t a i l e d design o f drainage systems have t o account not only f o r hydrologic
but also f o r s t r u c t u r a l , geotechnical, operational, maintenance, economic and other considera-
tions. Although urban hydrologists contribute s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o the analysis o f design alterna-
t i v e s , the u l t i m a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the selection o f the best a l t e r n a t i v e r e s t s with munici-
p a l engineers.
Successful application o f new urban hydrologic concepts requires a good co-operation
between hydrologists and municipal engineers. The former should get f a m i l i a r with the e x i s t i n g
drainage systems, which have been implemented Over a long period of time and have, therefore,
components based on d i f f e r e n t design p r i n c i p l e s . Although implementation o f new methods i s
obviously easier i n new communities, such methods may also apply t o some of the older drainage
systems.
The chapter t h a t follows presents, therefore, descriptions o f both recent and older f a c i l -
i t i e s and r e f e r s mainly t o those aspects which are o f i n t e r e s t t o the urban hydrologist.
Structural aspects are not included i n the discussion.
Detailed design aspects are frequently presented i n drainage c r i t e r i a developed by munici-
p a l i t i e s or other agencies. Cormnon designs for such elements as conduits, appurtenances and
culverts vary not only from one country t o another, but q u i t e o f t e n they are not the same even
f o r neighbouring municipalities. The same d i v e r s i t y applies t o various runoff control measures
which were b r i e f l y discussed i n Section 2 . 2 . 4 . Most o f these structures and measures can be
incorporated i n both separate and combined sewer systems which were described i n Section 2.2.2
and whose layouts were shown i n Figures 2.1 and 2.2.

3.2 CONVEYANCE ELEMENTS

Drainage flows are transported by conveyance elements which comprise underground conduits
and/or open-channel drains. Advantages and disadvantages o f both types of elements are dis-
cussed i n Section 2.2.3 and summarized i n Table 3.1 below.

3.2.1 Open-channel drains

I n s p i t e o f some disadvantages l i s t e d i n Table 3.1, open-channel drains are o f t e n used f o r

economic reasons and they are p r e f e r e n t i a l l y used i n areas subject t o s o i l s e t t l i n g or land
subsidence (ATV, 1982a). Basic considerations i n p r a c t i c a l design o f such channels include the
channel shape, bottom slope, s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o erosion, and maintenance of flow v e l o c i t i e s
required t o prevent the s e t t l i n g o f solids and concomitant odour problems. Regarding t h e
channel shape, common shapes include t r i a n g u l a r , trapezoidal, rectangular, semi-circular and
composite-shape channels. The composite channels represent various shapes with cunettes. The
selection o f the channel shape depends on s o i l properties, minimization o f excavation, the need
f o r l i n i n g and hydraulic considerations. Among the l i n i n g s , i n - s i t u poured concrete o r pre-
fabricated concrete slabs are most p p u l a r . The basic hydraulic design of open channels i s
given i n Chapter 6 and p r a c t i c a l design aspects are explained i n Chapter 7.
Natural channels i n drained areas may be used as elements of the major drainage system.
This may require an improvement of t h e i r conveyance and considerations o f such aspects as
extent o f flood plains, provisions o f adequate depth f o r c o l l e c t i o n o f runoff, evaluations of
p o t e n t i a l erosion and loss o f embanlanent s t a b i l i t y , e f f e c t s o f road crossings, and proper
design of culverts or bridge openings of adequate flow capacity.

29
 Table 3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages o f Underground Conduit and Open-Channel Drains

Drainage
Type Advantages Disadvantages

Underground Convenience Higher construction costs. I f poorly

conduit drains Safety designed and/or constructed, high
Aesthetics maintenance costs requiring special
No land required equipment and skilled labour.
Good control of inflows Requirements on construction
Easy maintenance, i f self- materials.
cleansing

Open-channel Low construction costs Poor control of inflows and waste dis-
drains Easy maintenance w i t h posal. Reduced safety and hygiene.
unskilled labour Land requirements. More frequent
maintenance.

T r a d i t i o n a l drainage practice used channelization extensively by deepening natural chan-

nels or replacing them w i t h l i n e d canals. Such p r a c t i c e r e s u l t s i n reduction of time of
concentration, p o t e n t i a l increase of downstream flooding and i s not acceptable for recreational
or aesthetic purposes. I n some new developments i n North America, regulations require preser-
vation of n a t u r a l creeks and do not allow development i n the area within flood l i n e s corres-
ponding t o a selected storm r e t u r n period. I n a less r e s t r i c t i v e approach r e f e r r e d t o as the
"two-zone concept", some r e s t r i c t e d development i s allowed i n flood fringes while floodways
have t o be maintained without any encroachment. Another solution may be provided by using
a e s t h e t i c a l l y pleasant channels.

3.2.2 Underground conduit drains

Most drainage systems i n European and North American countries are of the underground type.
This preference applies t o both combined and separate sewer systems. The design and construc-
t i o n of underground systems requires more considerations than i n the case of open-channel
drains. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t involves the use o f numerous special appurtenances and, therefore,
t h i s chapter deals mainly with underground systems.
The i n t e r f a c e between the drainage w i t h i n the p r i v a t e property and the public drainage
system i s shown i n Figure 3.1. I t i s seen t h a t where buildings have basements, flooding
problems may occur a t t h i s i n t e r f a c e .
I n countries w i t h p o t e n t i a l freezing, a minimum depth of cover of about 1,5 t o 2,O m i s
required. I n warmer climates, smaller minimum depths of cover, i . e . 0,8 m, are acceptable.
The p r o f i l e of the conduits i s defined by using the minimum cover a t the upper end and adjust-
ing the p r o f i l e slopes according t o the c r i t e r i a mentioned above. I f v e l o c i t i e s increase above
an acceptable l i m i t of about 6 m/s, or i f there are sudden changes i n the ground' slope, drop
structures may be required. The maximum and minimum flow v e l o c i t i e s are further discussed i n
Section 6 . 5 .
Depth o f storm sewers i s also r e l a t e d t o the p r a c t i c e regarding foundation drains and use
o f basements (Figure 3 . 1 ) . I f there are no basements, surcharge of storm sewers does not cause
a problem. I n some cases, basements are used as dwelling space and foundation drains are
connected t o storm sewers. Consequently, storm sewers may have t o be located under the base-
ment l e v e l and special measures may be required t o l i m i t surcharge occurrences. Connections of
foundation drains t o sanitary or combined sewers should be avoided because the r e s u l t i n g t r e a t -
ment of increased d i l u t e d volumes of sewage i s costly. Therefore, the problems of basement
flooding should also be considered when choosing between combined and separate sewer systems.
I n the past, many d i f f e r e n t conduit cross-sections have been used (e.g., various egg
shapes), whose purpose was t o achieve s u f f i c i e n t l y high v e l o c i t i e s a t low flows. I n modern
practice, prefabricated c i r c u l a r conduits are used as much as possible f o r economic reasons.
Common sizes of prefabricated c i r c u l a r pipes vary from a minimum of about 250 mm t o about
2000 mm. However, even larger pipes are sometimes prefabricated. For exceptionally l a r g e
conduits, rectangular or similar cross-sections with cunettes and an i n - s i t u monolithic con-
struction are used.
The choice of pipe material i s affected by the l o c a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of various materials,
aggressivity o f conveyed flows and s t r u c t u r a l considerations. Typical materials include clay,
concrete, asbestos cement, corrugated s t e e l , cast i r o n and p l a s t i c s (WCF, 1970a).

30
 ROOF CONNECTION

HOUSE ORAIN

Fig. 3.1 Schematic o f house connections

D e t a i l s o f network layout, f i n a l design and construction of sewers can be found in

standard handbooks (WPCF, 1970a; ATV, 1982a; ATV, 1982b; Lautrich, 1980).

3.3 APPURTENANCES

The appurtenances discussed i n t h i s section include manholes, junctions, i n l e t s , catch basins,

drop structures and siphons. Such structures can be b u i l t using i n - s i t u poured concrete, or by
p a r t i a l or f u l l prefabrication using various materials.

3.3.1 Manholes and junction structures

Manholes are designed t o provide convenient access t o sewers for operation and maintenance.
They should cause minimum interference with the sewer flow. Figure 3.2 shows some t y p i c a l
manhole layouts. Other manhole designs can be found i n common handbooks (WPCF, 1970a; ATV,
1978).
The spacing of manholes i n a sewer network i s o f t e n defined by l o c a l regulations. For
v e n t i l a t i o n and maintenance, the recommended manhole spacings range from 5 0 m t o 80 m. I n the
case of storm sewers l a r g e enough t o p e r m i t the passage of a man, even larger spacings may be
used.
Most manholes are c i r c u l a r w i t h inside dimensions s u f f i c i e n t t o perform inspection and
cleaning operations without d i f f i c u l t y . Manhole covers must take i n t o account adequate
strength t o support superimposed loads, good f i t between the cover and frame t o avoid r a t t l i n g
i n t r a f f i c , and provision for opening and reasonably t i g h t closure. Manholes are also located
a t sewer junctions, locations where sewer grade or alignment change (except i n curved sewers),
and a t s t r e e t intersections. An example o f a sewer junction manhole layout i s shown i n
Figure 3.3. Other similar examples can be found i n c o m n handbooks (WPCF, 1970a; ATV, 1 9 7 8 ) .

3.3.2 Inlets

I n l e t design has received increased a t t e n t i o n i n recent years, because i n l e t s control the quan-
t i t y of flow entering the sewer system. The capacity and spacing of i n l e t s determine the
d i v i s i o n of the flow between the underground sewers and s t r e e t gutters. I f the captured flow
i s greater than the sewer capacity, the sewer w i l l surcharge and t h i s may lead t o flooding o f
basements. Hence, the i n l e t design has t o meet the following t w o c r i t e r i a :

31
 o.Manhole preferably used up to 0.5 m in diameter

A A

4.- -9

Section A-A Section 0-E

b. Manhole preferably used for manhole diameters larger than 0.5 m

roe
I

*.-
A

I
+e
Plan
Section A-A Section 0-0

c. Manhole w i t h side entry

with side platform with sidewalk

Fig. 3.2 Examples o f manholes (ATV, 1978)

32
a. Junction manhole up to 0.5m in diameter
(other lateral angles may be used)

Plan Section A-A

b. Junction manhole for manhole diameters larger than 0.5 m with L5' lateral sewer
(other lateral angles may be used)

Plan Section A-A

Fig. 3.3 Sewer junction manhole layout (ATV, 1978)

33
 (a) For storms generating peak flows equal t o or less than the flow capacity of the
designed sewer, i n l e t s should be sized t o capture as much of the overland s t r e e t flow
as possible.
(b) For storms generating flows greater than the capacity o f the sewers, i n l e t capacity
should be controlled. Excess flow should be conveyed t o the surrounding major system
t o avoid surcharge o f the sewer network. Spacing o f i n l e t s should hence be determined
by a r a t i o n a l analysis of these governing factors.
The choice o f the i n l e t and grate types should not be based on the capacity alone. Inlet
clogging by debris and b i c y c l e safety o f grate i n l e t s have t o be also considered. Some of the
options o f i n l e t design comprise the choice o f curb i n l e t s , g r a t e i n l e t s and combination i n l e t s
which are a composite of the t w o preceding ones (see Figure 3 . 4 ) . Curb opening i n l e t s are very
e f f e c t i v e i n sags and f o r flows carrying f l o a t i n g debris. As the gutter grade steepens, t h e i r
interception capacity decreases. The capacity of grate i n l e t s i s less affected by the gutter
grade, but t h e i r p r i n c i p a l disadvantage i s t h e i r clogging by debris. Combination i n l e t s pro-
vide both a curb opening and a grate. They are high-capacity i n l e t s which combine many advan-
tages o f both kinds of openings. Sometimes, the curb opening i s placed upstream of the grate
i n l e t ( t h e so-called sweeper) (APWA, 1 9 8 1 ) .

GUTTER INLETS

Undepressed Depressed

CURB INLETS
I
Undepressed Depressed with Deflectors

COMBINATION INLETS MULTIPLE INLET

. c

Fig. 3.4 Examples o f i n l e t s

3.3.3 Catch basins

Catch basins are chambers or wells, usually b u i l t under i n l e t gratings or openings, which are
located e i t h e r under the gutter or just back o f the curb. A major function of catch basins i s
t o prevent s o l i d matter from the s t r e e t from entering the sewers. The r e t e n t i o n of, solids i s
achieved by providing a sump or s e t t l i n g basin i n which the heavy solids s e t t l e t o the bottom
while the l i g h t matter f l o a t s on top. Sometimes, catch basins are provided with a bucket
s t r a i n f o r separation of various s o l i d materials. Such buckets manufactured by various com-
panies provide easy and rapid cleaning by maintenance crews (Figure 3 . 5 ) . Removable bags made
o f special permeable materials have also been proposed t o capture solids and reduce p o l l u t a n t
loading. Catch basins with sumps are used mainly for extremely f l a t pipe gradients. I n this
case, flow v e l o c i t i e s lower than self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s may r e s u l t i n accumulation of debris
i n pipes and reduction of the pipe capacity.

34
 (a) Inlet with Bucket ( b ) Inlet with Side (c) Inlet with Catch
Strain Inflow and bucket Basin ( Atlanta Design)
Strain

Fig. 3.5 Examples o f catch basins (Figures ( a ) and (b) are a f t e r ATV, 1982b)

Because the primary purpose of a catch basin i s t o t r a p solids t h a t would otherwise enter
the sewer and form deposits causing stoppages or impeding the flow, i t i s obvious t h a t the
trapped m a t e r i a l has t o be r e g u l a r l y removed.
I n the case o f combined sewers, catch basins have t o be designed t o t r a p sewer gases using
various types of water seals.

3.3.4 Drop structures

Drop structures are used only when i t i s economically unfeasible t o steepen the incoming sewer.
I n general, the use o f these structures f o r drops o f l e s s than 0,6 m should be avoided.
Figure 3.6 i l l u s t r a t e s the common types of drop structures. For the type shown i n Figure 3.6b,
flow v e l o c i t i e s are sometimes reduced by means o f a series of steps. For higher drops, drop
shafts of various types are used. D e t a i l s of such designs may be found i n design handbooks
(ATV, 1982b; WPCF, 1970a).

3.3.5 Siphons

Whenever i t i s required t o carry flow under an obstruction, such as a stream o r a depressed

highway, and regain as much head as possible downstream of the obstruction, siphons are used.
A common p r a c t i c e i s t o use m u l t i p l e b a r r e l siphons, a t l e a s t when dealing w i t h l a r g e r sewers
(Figure 3 . 7 ) . This helps t o f a c i l i t a t e self-cleaning of i n d i v i d u a l b a r r e l s by allowing a flow
v e l o c i t y greater than 0,s m/s a t l e a s t once per day. I n any case, siphons r e q u i r e more
frequent cleaning than g r a v i t y sewers. I n general, i t i s recommended t h a t siphon layouts
should have only smooth curves w i t h an adequately l a r g e radius. The r i s i n g l e g should not be
too steep i n order t o f a c i l i t a t e cleaning. Changes i n the siphon pipe diameter should be
avoided since t h i s would make cleaning operations more d i f f i c u l t . Additional information on
siphon design can be found i n conmon handbooks (WPCF, 1970a: ATV, 1982b).

3.4 OVERFLOW STRUCTURES

Overflow structures are provided i n combined and p a r t i a l l y - s e p a r a t e sewerage systems t o

r e s t r i c t the through-flow t o the treatment p l a n t t o a specified maximum and t o d i v e r t the
surplus flow d i r e c t l y t o the nearest water course. Older overflow structures were designed t o
overflow when the flow exceeded a specified discharge without any considerations o f the compo-
s i t i o n of the retained and escaping flows. Recent designs consider not only the hydraulic
performance, but also the quantity o f pollutants reaching the receiving water body. Overflow
structures may be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t w o categories -
overflows with s t a t i c and dynamic controls.

35
 a . Drop structure with underflow

A
4.-

Section B-B

b.

Section A-A

-----

Plon

Fig. 3.6 Examples o f drop structures (ATV, 1982333

36
 4 0
3 e.-
c
-
C
ea
vi
37
3.4.1 Overflows w i t h s t a t i c controls

There are many types o f overflows with s t a t i c regulators, such as weirs, t h r o t t l e pipes, and
fixed-setting gates.
The simplest type of storm overflow i s an o u t f a l l pipe, b u i l t i n t o the side wall of a
manhole, which comes i n t o operation when the water l e v e l i n the manhole exceeds a selected
threshold. This a l t e r n a t i v e gives a poor hydraulic control of the flow passing forward f o r
treatment because the water l e v e l i n chamber r i s e s with increasing runoff. Furthermore, t h i s
design does not control the q u a l i t y of e f f l u e n t being discharged through the overflow pipe.
The above design can be improved by using a low side weir as an overflow regulator (Ackers,
1957). The overflow may be allowed along one or two sides of the channel, as shown i n
Figure 3.8a. Although t h i s type of overflow regulator r e t a i n s g r i t and coarse solids only t o
some extent, i t may also r e t a i n f l o a t i n g debris, i f scum boards are provided. Further
improvements .can be achieved by r a i s i n g the weir crest almost t o the crown l e v e l o f the
incoming pipe (high side weir r e g u l a t o r ) . Other s i m i l a r designs w i t h curved overflow crowns
are also used (Ackers e t a l . , 1967).
Another simple overflow design i s the so-called leaping weir which provides an opening i n
the sewer i n v e r t . The dimensions o f t h i s opening control the intercepted flow which f a l l s
through the opening. The overflow leaps or passes over the opening and continues t o the out-
l e t (see Figure 3.8b).
Reductions i n p o l l u t a n t loadings i n overflows can be achieved i n specially designed over-
flow chambers. The f i r s t of such designs discussed here i s the vortex overflow which comprises
a c i r c u l a r overflow weir, a c i r c u l a r chamber with a s p i r a l b a f f l e and a scum b a f f l e . The
underflow i s directed towards an o u t l e t pipe o f a selected capacity (Smisson, 1967). Another
design i n t h i s category i s the overflow w i t h a s t i l l i n g pond whose outflow i s controlled by a
t h r o t t l e pipe. The pond has t o be designed so t h a t f l o a t i n g debris remains i n quiescent zones
a t the surface near the upstream corners of the chamber. Retained flowing debris may be
forwarded f o r treatment with other suspended material a f t e r the peak runoff passed (Sharpe and
Kirkbride, 1 9 5 9 ) . Another method t o improve hydraulic control of t h i s design i s t o replace the
side weir overflow with air-regulated siphons (Frederick and Markland, 1 9 6 7 ) .

3.4.2 Overflows w i t h dynamic control

Operation of major overflow structures can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y improved by using dynamically-

operated regulators. Such regulators are generally activated by sewage l e v e l s i n the trunk or
intercepting sewers. I n the former case, they l i m i t the intercepted quantity t o a selected
maximum amount and, i n the l a t t e r case, the amount diverted increases u n t i l the intercepted
sewer flow reaches a desired depth and i s then t h r o t t l e d .
Review of operation of older s t a t i c regulators indicated t h a t t h e i r performance i s q u i t e
o f t e n unsatisfactory. I n comparison t o s t a t i c regulators, properly designed dynamic regulators
may further reduce the frequency and volume of overflows. Studies have been conducted i n many
l a r g e c i t i e s t o f i n d the best solution for modernization of combined sewer systems. I t was
found t h a t the number o f overflow structures can be reduced by replacing the o l d s t a t i c regula-
t o r s with fewer dynamic regulators. This may involve the use of remote control and optimal
operation based on real-time forecast. Such measures attempt t o minimize the t o t a l p o l l u t i o n
load discharged i n t o the receiving waters. An example of a remotely controlled overflow regu-
l a t o r i s shown i n Figure 3.9. I n recent studies, the analysis o f overflows and the selection
of control a l t e r n a t i v e s have been based on simulations of p o l l u t i o n loadings and t h e i r e f f e c t s
on the receiving water body. D i f f e r e n t interception capacities and storage options can be
analyzed using such models as the Stormwater Management Model of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (see Chapter 8 ) .
I n the cases o f t i d a l o u t f a l l s , or l a r g e variations of the water l e v e l i n the receiving
water body, overflows should prevent backflow by means of a t i d a l gate controlled by a motor, a
mechanical device, o r both (see Figure 3.10).

3.5 RUNOFF CONTROL

Runoff controls comprise measures taken t o reduce the volume o f surface runoff entering t h e
sewer system and measures involving control by storage and treatment of the collected flow.
The former group o f controls i s r e f e r r e d t o as source controls, and the l a t t e r group represents
c o l l e c t i o n system or o f f - l i n e controls. Both groups are discussed below.

38
 a . Side weir with overflows on both sides

g r Solely roiiing

Section A-A Section 8-0

A A
4.- -9
lnllow Oulltow

Plan I
LDC
- //
O4
Section C-c

b . Leaping weir with straight overflow pipes

i0

A
4.-
Vcniiloti

! g
8 4

Pion Section A-A Section B-B

Fig. 3.8 Overflow structures (ATV, 1978)

39
 Underground Equipment Vault -
Power Operated Gate
Inf latable Dam

to River
" \to Interceptor
Fig. 3.9 Overflow regulator w i t h remote c o n t r o l

yinrtoiiolion p l o h

Section A-A

Plan

Fig. 3.10 T i d a l gate s t r u c t u r e w i t h gate and f l a p (ATV, 1978)

40
3.5.1 Source controls

The most cost-effective methods f o r reduction of runoff i n urban areas are source controls
( M i n i s t e r i e van verkeer en waterstaat, 1 9 8 5 ) . Some simple source control measures are shown i n
Figure 3 . 1 1 . Explanatory comments on such measures follow.
Figures 3.11a and 3.11b depict discharges from rainwater leaders, f i t t e d with splash pads
or extension pipes, onto grassed areas instead o f d i r e c t l y i n t o storm sewers. Such an arrange-
ment increases rainwater i n f i l t r a t i o n and hence reduces r u n o f f . Where n a t i v e s o i l s are f a i r l y
pervious, the rainwater leaders may discharge i n t o soak-away p i t s located some distance from
the basement w a l l (see Figure 3.11d). Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s t o discharge flows from rainwater
leaders i n t o a c i s t e r n which may be used t o store water f o r garden watering, p a r t i c u l a r l y by
root-feeding pipes (Figure 3 . 1 l c )
a seepage trench.
. The l a s t source control measure, shown i n Figure 3.1 l e , i s
I t i s a s t o n e - f i l l e d trench used t o detain runoff temporarily. A controlled
o u t l e t , usually a perforated pipe, drains t o the storm sewer and assures eventual emptying of
water t o prevent f r o s t heave.
Another source control measure i s porous pavements. Such pavements provide storage and
enhance runoff i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o the ground. Porous asphalt-concrete pavements can be under-
l a i n by a gravel base with l a r g e storage capacity. Experience indicates t h a t porous pavements
can reduce runoff by up t o 838, t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y i s not impaired by heavy loads, and
t h e i r clogging can be r e l i e v e d by flushing ( F i e l d , 1986).
Porous pavements, soak-away p i t s , seepage trenches and grassed swales are b a s i c a l l y
groundwater recharge f a c i l i t i e s which are dispersed throughout the catchment and, therefore,
d i f f i c u l t t o control and maintain. Although source controls are very e f f e c t i v e i n reducing
runoff volumes and peaks, the protection o f groundwater q u a l i t y may r e s t r i c t t h e i r application
t o less polluted stormwater o r i g i n a t i n g on roof-tops, backyards and r e s i d e n t i a l streets.
Centralized groundwater recharge f a c i l i t i e s allow good operational control and mainten-
ance. Such recharge basins generally have s u f f i c i e n t capacity t o contain a l l the runoff from
the area they d r a i n during a storm o f specified frequency. Sometimes, detention ponds or sedi-
mentation basins are used i n conjunction w i t h i n f i l t r a t i o n basins so t h a t suspended solids w i l l
s e t t l e out before the water i s released i n t o the basin (see Figure 3.12). Design o f recharge
storage f a c i l i t i e s should account for the f a c t t h a t l a t e r a l drainage through the basin w a l l i s
generally several times more r a p i d than v e r t i c a l percolation. To prevent some water from stay-
i n g a t low points i n the basin, a control d r a i n should be i n s t a l l e d t o i n f i l t r a t e water i n t o
the s o i l by means of trenches or v e r t i c a l wells. The use o f i n f i l t r a t i o n basins i s particu-
l a r l y popular i n areas where groundwater recharge i s required. Such areas include coastal
areas where urbanization may lead t o saltwater i n t r u s i o n and other areas where groundwater
depletion would cause problems.
Without proper maintenance, storage f a c i l i t i e s accumulate too much debris and become a
community nuisance. On the other hand, w e l l landscaped and maintained basins can be used as a
park or recreation area. Such a p r o j e c t requires plants, t r e e s and f a c i l i t i e s capable of w i t h -
standing temporary inundation. Basin sides should be gently sloped t o give a p a r k - l i k e appear-
ance.

3.5.2 Storage f a c i l i t i e s

Storage i s perhaps the most frequently employed method o f runoff control (APWA, 1981). Storage
controls are implemented i n the form of r e t e n t i o n or detention f a c i l i t i e s which can be designed
as i n - l i n e or o f f - l i n e reservoirs and underground tanks. Underground tanks which obviously
require more resources f o r t h e i r design and construction are used i n densely built-up areas.
Many o f the above storage schemes can be implemented only i n areas w i t h adequate open
space. This applies p a r t i c u l a r l y t o open reservoirs which may require l a r g e space. Several
examples of detention f a c i l i t i e s are shown i n Figure 3.13 which i l l u s t r a t e s schematically o f f -
l i n e detention (Figure 3.13a), on-line detention (Figure 3.13b), and on-line detention i n a
natural water course (Figure 3 . 1 3 ~ ) . By using a system o f storage f a c i l i t i e s , i t i s possible
t o reduce d r a s t i c a l l y peak flows and use older e x i s t i n g systems t o convey runoff from new
developments.
I n densely developed areas, and because of safety reasons and space l i m i t a t i o n s , storm-
water storage f a c i l i t i e s are o f t e n b u i l t underground. Such f a c i l i t i e s include on-line and
o f f - l i n e storage tanks w i t h regulated outlets. Large detention and r e t e n t i o n f a c i l i t i e s are
o f t e n added t o the e x i s t i n g sewer systems, i n order t o reduce p o l l u t a n t loads discharged t o the
receiving waters. The design of such f a c i l i t i e s depends l a r g e l y on l o c a l conditions and sewer
network conditions. Figures 3.14 and 3.15 show examples o f an underground storage f a c i l i t y and
o f a f a c i l i t y which i s a combination o f underground storage with open reservoir.
It i s a good p r a c t i c e t o subdivide larger storage f a c i l i t i e s i n t o a number o f c e l l s . The
e n t i r e f a c i l i t y i s used only for the largest storms and runoff from more frequent storms i s

41
(a) SPLASH PAD (b) PIPE EXTENSION
1
1 I Downspout

- \ \ \
Concrete
\Splash Pad \ from
\
Grade away
Building

( c ) CISTERN

Porch Landing 71 ûownspou t

Overflow

Fauce t for Watering

(d) SOAK-AWAY PIT ( e ) SEEPAGE TRENCH

Downspout

Granular -, Overf low

t let
7 Stone and Sand Fill

Fig. 3 . 1 1 Source control methods

42
 J Storm Sewer
IrStorm Sewer

DETENTION & SEDIMENTATION bp

\\BASIN (about 2,5m deep)
\+
8,

!
I

Fig. 3.12 Recharge basin

stored i n a l i m i t e d number of c e l l s t o reduce maintenance. For example, the storage f a c i l i t y

i n Figure 3.15 i s designed so t h a t runoff from more frequent storms i s captured i n the under-
ground p a r t and additional volumes from less frequent storms are retained i n the open reser-
voir. More information on such f a c i l i t i e s can be found i n the l i t e r a t u r e (ATV, 1982a; ATV,
1982b; Lautrich, 1980).
On-line storage can be provided i n the form of large-diameter sewer sections or by con-
t r o l s maximizing the u t i l i z a t i o n o f storage i n the e x i s t i n g sewer system. The l a t t e r measure
has been adopted i n a number of European and North American c i t i e s ( S c h i l l i n g , 1986).
I n combined sewer systems, the problem o f the f i r s t flush need t o be considred i n t h e
design of layout of storage basins. Such layouts should attempt t o capture the maximum quan-
t i t y o f pollutants which are often c a r r i e d with the f i r s t f l u s h (ATV, 1983b; Geiger, 1 9 8 4 ) .

3.5.3 Outlets for storage f a c i l i t i e s

Outlet structures o f surface detention ponds are designed according t o the function o f t h e
storage f a c i l i t y . I f the storage objective i s “peak shaving” f o r r a r e storms ( i . e . , the r e t u r n
period o f 100 years), a single weir or bottom o u t l e t i s usually s a t i s f a c t o r y . For l a r g e ponds,
t h i s o u t l e t i s combined w i t h an emergency spillway. This solution provides only l i t t l e or no
reduction o f runoff peaks from more frequent, smaller storms. I f the detention pond has as
objective t o reduce peak flows for a range of storms, m u l t i p l e o u t l e t s are required. As an
example, Figure 3.16 shows an o u t l e t design whose lower o r i f i c e controls flows w i t h r e t u r n
periods of 10 years, i n order t o avoid erosion problems i n downstream creeks. The weir i s

43
 ( a ) Overflow Detent ion Basin

LOCAL RUNOFF

DEPRESSED CURB ALLOWS RUNOFF

TO OVERFLOW INTO BASIN

( b ) Pipe Out let Detention

EMERGENCY
OVERFLOW SWALE

PIPE INTO WATERCOURSE

( c ) Watercourse Detent ion

ERG E NCY O UT FA L L

INFLOW VIA
WATERCOURSE /
PIPE OUTFALL II \ \T LOW POINT

Fig. 3.13 Examples o f d e t e n t i o n b a s i n s

44
 City of Frankfurt I Main, FRG
Ly

SECTION A . A P
a

v \Flood Gaie Valve PLAN.

io Receiving Waters i Nidda River)

Fig. 3.14 Underground r e t e n t i o n basin (reproduced by

permission o f Dorsch Consult, Munich, FRG)

Bonn -Witterschlick, Municipality Alfter, FRG

SRB Storm Water Retention Basin

Emergency Overtiow \\
-
C

I-
O
L
SECTION A.A

O@
5
'

Fig. 3.15 Combination o f underground and open reservoir detention basins

(reproduced by permission o f Dorsch Consult, Munich, FRG)

45
designed f o r reduction o f the 100-year flood. For the maximum possible flood, an emergency
spillway must be provided, usually over the embankment. A c e r t a i n minimum s i z e i s required f o r
the lower o r i f i c e i n order t o avoid clogging.
Outlets are also provided w i t h trash racks w i t h a l a r g e cross-section. For example, a New
Jersey (USA) regulation recommends t h a t r e t e n t i o n o u t l e t s should be protected by removable
devices w i t h a surface area o f a t l e a s t 1 m2. Openings i n the trash racks should not exceed
one-half the area of the r e t e n t i o n o u t l e t , i f mesh screens are used, o r one-third o f the
diameter o f the o u t l e t where bar screens are used. A concrete pad surrounding the r e t e n t i o n
o u t l e t i s also recommended t o ensure t h a t a l l water i s evacuated.
Some m u l t i p l e o u t l e t s are designed t o meet a p o l l u t i o n control objective. The lower
r e t e n t i o n o u t l e t provides a detention period by maintaining a small pond for F e t t l i n g of sedi-
ments. I n t h i s case, the smaller s i z e of r e t e n t i o n o u t l e t s makes them more susceptible t o
clogging by debris. A design frequently used i n the U.S.A. consists of a perforated conduit
surrounded by a gravel f i l t e r . The emergency spillway i s formed by r a i s e r s .
Special o r i f i c e o u t l e t s are designed for very small runoff releases, usually required for
underground storage or i n l e t controls. Several i n l e t control a l t e r n a t i v e s are considered t o
avoid or minimize clogging:
( a ) Use of o r i f i c e s o f specific shapes. For example, diamond o r i f i c e s i n v e r t i c a l walls
were found less susceptible t o clogging than c i r c u l a r o r i f i c e s . Flow r e s t r i c t i o n s
based on t h i s finding are used i n several Canadian municipalities (Townsend e t a l . ,
1981). Such r e s t r i c t i o n i s achieved by i n s t a l l i n g special p l a s t i c i n s e r t s a t the
i n l e t o f the conduit connecting the manhole w i t h the main sewer.
( b ) Use o f flow r e s t r i c t o r s based on the vortex p r i n c i p l e . Flow passing through these
devices w i l l create a vortex w i t h an open c e n t r a l a i r core.
Roof-top and parking l o t storage i s p a r t i c u l a r l y useful i n commercial and i n d u s t r i a l
areas, where buildings occupy a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e proportion o f the developed area and building
architecture provides f o r f l a t roof-tops. I n t h i s case, storage can be obtained by i n s t a l l i n g
a control r i n g around the roof d r a i n hopper as d e t a i l e d i n Figure 3.17. The roof storage depth
has t o be compatible with s t r u c t u r a l design of the building. I n general, water depths greater
than 80 mm should be avoided. A l s o , special considerations i n waterproofing techniques are
required. Parking l o t storage requires provision of slopes and special r e s t r i c t e d catch
basins. Since these storage measures are associated with p r i v a t e property, the continued use
o f the roof-tops for storage and prevention of removal of control devices by owners are almost
impossible t o ensure.

Overflow Designed for a Long Return

Period Storm (e.g. 100 years)
7

Outfall Designed for Shorter

Return Period Storms (e.g. 10 years)

Fig. 3.16 Control o u t l e t designed for t w o storm r e t u r n periods

46
 25mm dia. hole
/ Strainer

25mm dia.

Vertical Leader
U
Fig. 3.17 Outlet control f o r roof storage

3.6 PUMPING STATIONS

Pumping stations are used i n separate sewer systems t o d r a i n low-lying areas, i n areas where
t i d a l conditions a t the o u t l e t prevent g r a v i t y flow, or as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o very deep sewers
(see Figure 3.18). They are also frequently used i n combined sewers or interceptors located
below the treatment plant l e v e l .
Thexe i s a wide v a r i e t y of pumping s t a t i o n designs. S t a t i o n layouts depend on the type o f
pumps used. Commonly used pumps include pumps w i t h h o r i z o n t a l or v e r t i c a l shafts, and pumps
located i n wet wells (submerged) or i n dry wells. Suction pipes o f dry w e l l pumps extend i n t o
wet wells, or i n t o enlarged sections o f incoming sewers. Centrifugal pumps driven by e l e c t r i c
motors are p a r t i c u l a r l y popular. I n l a r g e r stations, i t i s a common p r a c t i c e t o i n s t a l l an
emergency d i e s e l engine d r i v e on a t l e a s t one pump f o r protection during possible e l e c t r i c
power f a i l u r e s . Additional information on pumps can be found elsewhere (ATV, 1982b).
Since stormwater inflow may vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y , many pumping stations include some storage
volume i n a suction sump or wet w e l l . A n automatic f l o a t switch i s used t o s t a r t o r stop
various pump u n i t s as water l e v e l r i s e s or f a l l s i n the well. For pumping stations w i t h flows
of less than 100 1/s, t h i s storage should be about equal t o the volume o f i n f l o w over a period
o f about 2 o r 3 minutes. I n large pumping stations, such storage volume i s reduced t o an
equivalent o f 1,5 minutes o f inflow.
Two t y p i c a l layouts of pumping stations are shown i n Figure 3.19. Figure 3.19a shows a
s t a t i o n w i t h the engine above the ground surface. I f t h i s i s not possible, the whole pumping
s t a t i o n can be underground as shown i n Figure 3.19b.
It i s also necessary t o provide protection o f pumps against l a r g e solids by means o f t r a s h
racks a t the end of the i n l e t conduit t o the pump. The flow v e l o c i t y through the t r a s h racks
i s l i m i t e d t o a maximum o f 1 m/s. I t i s also recommended t o i n s t a l l mechanical cleaning
systems a t the i n l e t and hence the design has t o account f o r head losses through the screens.
Pumping stations are also provided w i t h various types of check valves w i t h controlled closure
speed t o avoid water hammer problems. I n some i n s t a l l a t i o n s pumps are located i n l a r g e
c o l l e c t i n g channels.

47
 Energy Gradient
with L i f t Stations
Energy Gradient
without Lift Stations

Fig. 3.18 Use o f l i f t stations t o replace deep sewers

a . Pumping station with a~horizontal centrifugal pump and priming equipment

I
I

-.-.-.-

b . One-stage Archimedes screw pump

F i g . 3.19 Basic sewer pumping s t a t i o n layouts (ATV, 1982b)

48
4 Design parameters

4.1 BACKGROUND

Applications of general concepts and methodologies of drainage design discussed i n Chapter 2

require the establishment of design parameters of the system under design. Such parameters
specify the system performance with regard t o various inputs. While the design concepts and
methodologies are f a i r l y general, the design parameters are s i t e specific. Depending on the
design objectives and the a v a i l a b i l i t y of supporting data, d i f f e r e n t design parameters may
apply t o each region, location, or project. Q u i t e often, the basic drainage design parameters
are established by a drainage authority ( i t can be a municipal, or a higher-level government)
which issues drainage c r i t e r i a and p o l i c i e s as further discussed i n Chapter 9. I n the absence
of drainage c r i t e r i a , the design parameters are established by the designer. For t h i s purpose,
the designer may have t o examine various sources of supporting data, process such data, or even
t o undertake data c o l l e c t i o n programmes which are discussed i n Volume II of t h i s manual
(Unesco, 1987).
The major topics discussed i n t h i s chapter include the planning horizon, the design
period, catchment physical parameters, process parameters, r a i n f a l l data, water q u a l i t y
parameters, and i n f i l t r a t i o n and inflow o f extraneous flows i n t o sewers.

4.2 PLANNING HORIZON

The concept of the planning horizon, which was introduced e a r l i e r i n Chapter 2, r e f l e c t s t h e

need t o plan urban drainage f a c i l i t i e s for the future development of the urban area. Such
planning requires several types of information concerning not only the physical parameters o f
the system, but also the development trends, j u r i s d i c t i o n a l divisions, and f i n a n c i a l arrange-
ments. I n drainage studies, the planning i s best done on the watershed basis. As p a r t of t h e
watershed plan, a master drainage plan i s prepared for the e n t i r e watershed, preferably a t an
e a r l y stage of the watershed development.
Considering the r e l a t i v e l y long design l i f e of drainage structures, i t i s necessary t o
consider development factors i n the watershed being analyzed. Such factors include the popula-
t i o n trends, comprehensive land use and zoning plans, and locations of future roads, a i r p o r t s
and i n d u s t r i a l areas which may a f f e c t the drainage design. Because of l a r g e uncertainties i n
projections o f development trends and the r e s u l t i n g uncertainties i n the need and u t i l i z a t i o n
of physical f a c i l i t i e s , the planning process i s more an a r t than science.
The planning i s undertaken a t two l e v e l s - the short-term and long-term planning. I n the
short-term plan, drainage f a c i l i t i e s are planned on the basis o f the proposed development plans
f o r the period from 5 t o 10 years. Such short-term plans have t o be compatible with the long-
term plan. I f needed, provisions are made f o r future expansion and extension o f proposed
drainage f a c i l i t i e s . The long-term planning r e f l e c t s the ultimate development of the watershed
and i s based on a longer planning period which may be as long as 25 t o 50 years. To reduce
uncertainties i n the long-term plan, i t i s r e g u l a r l y updated, say every f i v e years, t o account
for the actual development taking place and t o r e f l e c t changes i n technology and engineering
practices.

4.3 DESIGN PERIOD EOR DRAINAGE PROJECTS

As discussed e a r l i e r i n Chapter 2, the design period o f drainage systems indicates the expected
l e v e l of protection obtained under the proposed drainage systems. Depending on design objec-
t i v e s , t h i s protection may apply t o both flooding as w e l l as water q u a l i t y .

49
 Sizing of storm sewers and drainage ditches i s almost universally based on the concept o f
the design storm o f a selected r e t u r n period. I n general, the selection of the design event
r e t u r n period i s affected by the design l i f e of structures involved, construction costs, and
damage costs r e s u l t i n g from the system f a i l u r e . Drainage structures are t y p i c a l l y character-
i z e d by long design l i f e and then the i d e a l design period should be the one for which the t o t a l
annual drainage costs, defined as the sum of annual construction and drainage f a i l u r e costs,
are minimal. The procedure which would be used t o select such a least-cost design period i s
schematically shown i n Figure 4 . 1 .
Most drainage projects do not w a r r a n t d e t a i l e d analysis of the construction and f a i l u r e
costs and the selection of the design period i s l a r g e l y based on experience. Even under those
circumstances, the designer should consider the p r o b a b i l i t y of the system f a i l u r e and the
consequences o f the f a i l u r e i n terms of damage costs. The p r o b a b i l i t y P o f a design event w i t h
the r e t u r n period T occuring a t l e a s t once i n N years may be expressed as
1 N
P = l - ( l - - ) (4.1)
T
Theoretical p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e for a given project l i f e and design return period
are shown i n Figure 4 . 2 . Considering the design r e t u r n period equal t o the project l i f e
( T = N ) , the r e s u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e vary from 0,75 t o 0,63, depending on the selec-
ted design period. Depending on the consequences of the drainage f a i l u r e , such l e v e l s of r i s k
may or may not be acceptable. To evaluate the acceptability of such r i s k s , one has t o d i f f e r -
e n t i a t e between the minor and major drainage systems which were b r i e f l y introducted i n
Chapter 2. Further comments on both systems follow.
The minor drainage system p r i m a r i l y reduces the incidence of inconvenience, caused by
stormwater ponding, t o both pedestrians and motorists. The consequences of i t s f a i l u r e are not
s i g n i f i c a n t , provided t h a t there i s a properly functioning major drainage system. Therefore,
the design periods of the minor system are r e l a t i v e l y short, t y p i c a l l y from 1 t o 10 years.
The major drainage system i s designed t o convey runoff from infrequent storms with long
r e t u r n periods (up t o 100 years), or other c r i t i c a l regional events. A properly designed,
constructed, and maintained major drainage system g r e a t l y reduces the r i s k of loss of l i f e and
property damage caused by flooding of urban areas. Consequences of the major drainage system
f a i l u r e are q u i t e severe and may include appreciable flood damages and even the l o s s of l i f e .
Consequently, major drainage systems are designed a t l e a s t for a 50 year storm, or more often,
for a 100 year storm or a regional storm defined by a l o c a l drainage authority.
Two additional points should be made with regard t o the design periods. F i r s t l y , it
should be emphasized t h a t an i d e n t i c a l design period does not have t o be maintained throughout
the drainage system. Some parts of the system, whose f a i l u r e would be p a r t i c u l a r l y costly, may
be designed f o r longer design r e t u r n periods than others. Secondly, the choice of the r e t u r n
period for the minor system may have some implications for the capacity and costs of the major
system.
As an example, a summary of t y p i c a l design return periods which are used i n the Canadian
drainage p r a c t i c e i s given i n Table 4 . 1 (Ministry of the Environment and Environment Canada,
1980). Table 4.1 provides some guidance f o r the selection of design r e t u r n periods. There
are, however, some additional considerations t o be made. I n p a r t i c u l a r , longer design r e t u r n
periods are used for design of combined sewers t o reduce the incidence of basement flooding,
design of special structures (such as pumping stations), and for design o f those parts of the
drainage system which are not amenable t o future r e l i e f .
The r e t u r n periods given i n Table 4.1 f o r storm sewers vary over a f a i r l y wide range (2 t o
10 years). I t should be recognized, however, t h a t the costs of storm sewer systems are l i t t l e
sensitive t o the design r e t u r n period. Several case studies indicated (WPCF, 1970a) t h a t by
doubling the design r e t u r n period from 5 t o 10 years, the costs increased by only 5 t o 11%.
Thus, i t may be possible t o provide a higher l e v e l of protection with a marginal increase i n
costs.
F i n a l l y , i t should be mentioned t h a t , as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o the design event approach, a
risk-based design approach has been proposed for urban drainage. Although such an approach i s
commonly used for design of large hydraulic structures, i t has not gained much acceptance i n
drainage practice. The description of the risk-based design o f storm sewers i s given elsewhere
(Tang e t a ï . , 1975; Yen and Tang, 1976).

4.4 CATCHMENT PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

Physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the catchment are required t o establish drainage patterns i n the

catchment, linkages o f various conveyance elements, and numerical values of process
parameters. Because the computations o f t e n involve comparisons of pre-development and
post-development flows, physical characteristics are needed for both states of the catchment

50
 0 ;
I I I
I
I
I I I
\
1 2 5 10 25 50 1 O
DESIGN RETURN PERIOD (Years)

Fig. 4.1 Hypothetical average annual costs f o r

various design periods

1 2 5 10 25 50 100
EXPECTED PROJECT LIFE N (Years)

Fig. 4.2 P r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e f o r s p e c i f i e d project l i f e

and design r e t u r n period

51
development. The types o f information required include catchment topography, drainage plans,
and s o i l maps, as f u r t h e r discussed below and also i n Chapter 4 o f Volume II (Unesco, 1 9 8 7 ) .

Table 4 . 1 Typical Design Return Periods Used i n the Canadian Drainage P r a c t i c e

( M i n i s t r y of the Environment and Environment Canada, 1980)

Drainage Design Return

Structure system Period ( Years )

Culverts - Driveways 2* - 5
- Local roads (span (6 m ) 10

Storm sewers (no surcharging) Minor

-
Residential areas 2* - 5
-
High-value d i s t r i c t s , commercial areas 5 - 10

Elements o f the major drainage system

(swales, s t r e e t s , channels, e t c . ) Major 1 O0
-
Culverts and bridges 1 O0
~~ ~~ ~~ ~

* Shorter r e t u r n periods (e.g., one year) can be used under special circumstances.

S i t e maps are required showing the e n t i r e watershed and the area under consideration;
d e t a i l s o f topography including contours, watercourses, wooded areas, rock outcrops, and
marshes; d e t a i l s of e x i s t i n g and proposed land use; and, the e x i s t i n g and proposed major drain-
age channels. Using such maps, i t i s possible t o establish the study area drainage boundaries,
general drainage patterns i n the area, surface slopes, and the t o t a l catchment area. The t o t a l
catchment area i s f u r t h e r subdivided i n t o impervious and pervious parts. I n the impervious
p a r t , an impermeable surface cover does not allow i n f i l t r a t i o n of water i n t o the ground.
Typical examples o f impervious elements include paved streets, sidewalks and yards; roofs; and,
rock outcrops. The catchment imperviousness i s usually expressed as the r a t i o of the imper-
vious area t o the t o t a l catchment area.
The impervious area can be further divided i n t o the e f f e c t i v e and noneffective areas. The
former one r e f e r s t o the impervious elements which d r a i n d i r e c t l y i n t o transport elements
(sewers). The l a t t e r areas represent impervious elements which d r a i n onto pervious elements,
o r have no drainage o u t l e t .
The pervious area i s sometimes divided i n t o the contributing and noncontributing parts.
The contributing areas d r a i n i n t o the drainage transport system; the noncontributing p a r t has
no drainage o u t l e t s .
A l l the above l i s t e d areas need t o be delineated and characterized i n terms o f the area,
p l a n geometry, and surface slopes. For various reasons, the catchment studied i s usually sub-
divided i n t o a number o f subcatchments and then the above information needs t o be determined
f o r each of these subcatchments.
A l l the e x i s t i n g drainage channels and conduits i n the catchment need t o be characterized
i n terms of the cross-sections, slopes, lengths, linkages, and i n s t a l l a t i o n s .

4.5 PROCESS PARAMETERS

I n deterministic hydrological calculations, i t i s assumed t h a t the relationships between many

i n t e r a c t i v e factors a f f e c t i n g the water balance can be defined a n a l y t i c a l l y and the numeric
values used t o quantify t h e movement and storage of water are c a l l e d parameters. Although such
parameters can be q u i t e numerous, only a few o f these are used i n t y p i c a l urban runoff computa-
tions. Such parameters include i n f i l t r a t i o n rates, depression storage, flow roughness c o e f f i -
cients, and runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s . Numeric values of these parameters are obtained by f i e l d
measurements, c a l i b r a t i o n s , or most frequently, by transposition from other similar catch-
ments. Examples o f numeric values o f various process parameters, as used i n hydrological
computations, are l i s t e d i n Chapter 5 and further discussed i n Chapter 4 of Volume II (Unesco,
1987). The discussion t h a t follows concentrates on general aspects o f the use o f such data i n
drainage design.

4.5.1 I n f i l t r a t i o n rates

A proper representation o f i n f i l t r a t i o n i n a catchment i s a complex task which o f t e n extends

beyond the scope o f hydrologic concepts and methods employed i n urban drainage design. Most
o f t e n , i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s are evaluated from s o i l physical properties which are obtained from

52
s o i l maps. For t h i s purpose, s o i l s are c l a s s i f i e d according t o t h e i r drainage properties and
the corresponding i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s are selected from the l i t e r a t u r e . I n urban applications
i n North America, the U.S. S o i l Conservation Service (SCS) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s o i l s i n t o four
hydrologic groups A-D i s f a i r l y common (U.S. Department o f Agriculture, 1972). The knowledge
of the hydrologic s o i l group and i n i t i a l s o i l moisture conditions i s s u f f i c i e n t t o estimate the
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s based on the SCS method and t o select the appropriate parameter values f o r
Horton's equation, or t o select a runoff c o e f f i c i e n t f o r pervious areas.
I n physically based approaches, such as those described by the Holtan and Green-Ampt equa-
tions, more information on s o i l s i s required. I n p a r t i c u l a r , the d i v i s i o n o f the s o i l p r o f i l e
i n t o various horizons needs t o be known, together w i t h the s o i l porosity and various types o f
water storage (see Chapter 5 ) .
Simplified approaches t o i n f i l t r a t i o n may be acceptable f o r urban catchments i n which t h e
generation o f runoff i s mainly controlled by impervious elements. I n other cases, t h e most
comprehensive approach which can be supported by the a v a i l a b l e data should be used. Such
approaches are generally physically based and involve continuous simulation o f water storage i n
soils. Detailed l i s t i n g s of i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s are given i n Section 5 . 5 . 2 . 4 .

4.5.2 Depression storage

Depression storage accounts f o r rainwater trapped on the catchment surface i n minute depres-
sions t h a t does not run o f f or i n f i l t r a t e i n t o the s o i l . Generally, i t represents a combina-
t i o n of several hydrologic abstractions. For drainage design, t h e depression storage i s o f
secondary importance. Typical values a r e 1 mm f o r impervious areas and 5 mm f o r pervious
areas. For a complete l i s t i n g o f values, see Section 5 . 5 . 2 . 3 .

4.5.3 Roughness o f transport elements

I n flow routing calculations, the roughness o f i n d i v i d u a l elements needs t o be determined. In

urban applications, t h i s i s estimated most o f t e n by means O€ the Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t ,
n. For concrete conduits, concrete.-lined channels, and impervious overland flow planes, t h e
value of n = 0,013 i s widely used. Manning's n values f o r overland flow on grassed areas vary
from 0,2 t o 0 , 3 5 . Extensive l i s t i n g s o f n-values f o r various conveyance elements can be found
i n Chapter 6.

4.6 RAINFALL DATA FOR DRAINAGE DESIGN

R a i n f a l l data represent the most important input t o runoff computations. Consequently, much
a t t e n t i o n i n drainage design focuses on the selection and processing o f r a i n f a l l data. Various
procedures used f o r t h i s purpose are discussed i n t h i s section. The main topics discussed
include the sources o f r a i n f a l l data, p o i n t vs. a r e a l r a i n f a l l , frequency analysis o f p o i n t
r a i n f a l l , and design storms. The methods of c o l l e c t i o n of r a i n f a l l data are discussed i n
Chapter 2 o f Volume II (Unesco, 1987).

4.6.1 Sources of r a i n f a l l data

R a i n f a l l data a r e t y p i c a l l y collected by n a t i o n a l hydrometeorological agencies (or ,similar

agencies), which have been established i n most countries, i n a network o f stations d i s t r i b u t e d
throughout the country. Where the density o f such a network and t h e locations o f i n d i v i d u a l
stations do not meet the needs of drainage design, the l o c a l drainage a u t h o r i t y may have t o
establish i t s own monitoring network using the information given i n Chapter 2 o f Volume II
(Unesco, 1987). I n f a c t , i t i s q u i t e common i n some countries t h a t l a r g e metropolitan munici-
p a l i t i e s operate t h e i r own network o f r a i n gauges.
R a i n f a l l data are d i s t r i b u t e d i n various forms, most o f t e n as hourly r a i n f a l l depths,
d a i l y r a i n f a l l records, o r depth-duration-frequency curves. For drainage design, hourly r a i n -
f a l l data may be adequate f o r the planning stage. I n d e t a i l e d design, however, short-interval
( 5 t o 15 minutes) data are needed, usually i n the form of r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t i e s (Geiger, 1984).
Such i n t e n s i t i e s are obtained by analysis of r a i n f a l l records using the shorter i n t e r v a l s f o r
s m a l l drainage areas and the longer i n t e r v a l s f o r l a r g e r areas. Some agencies d i s t r i b u t e
processed r a i n f a l l data i n the form of depth-duration-frequency curves, intensity-duration-
frequency curves, or design storm d i s t r i b u t i o n s . For example, the Comite I n t e r a f r i c a i n
d'Etudes Hydrauliques (Puech and Gonni, 1984) produced an a t l a s o f r a i n f a l l depth-duration-
frequency curves f o r 87 urban locations i n 15 countries o f West and Central A f r i c a . An example
o f such curves i s shown i n Figure 4.3.
I n the absence o f l o c a l r a i n f a l l data, desing data may be obtained through transposi-
t i o n o r i n t e r p o l a t i o n from other areas. Although i n d i v i d u a l r a i n gauge records may not be

53
 150-

- I

5 10 15 30 45 60 120 240 720 1440

DURATION (minutes)

Fig. 4 . 3 Depth-duration-frequency f o r Yaounde, Cameroon

( a f t e r Puech and Gonni, 1 9 8 4 )

100,

90

80

70

60
O 200 400 600 800 1000
AREA (km2)

Fig. 4 . 4 Depth-area r a i n f a l l reduction curves ( a f t e r W O , 1974)

54
representative of r a i n f a l l over large areas, the general characteristics of r a i n f a l l are q u i t e
conservative i n space and vary smoothly i n non-mountainous areas (Pugsley, 1 9 8 1 ) . Thus such
parameters as frequency of r a i n f a l l above a given value may be transposed or interpolated t o
nearby areas without data. I d e a l l y , t h i s task i s c a r r i e d out by a n a t i o n a l hydrometeorological
service which d i s t r i b u t e s standardized r a i n f a l l data f o r various c l i m a t i c regions of the
country.
Another important consideration i n the evaluation of existing r a i n f a l l records i s the
record length. Excessive extrapolations of l i m i t e d data, leading t o l a r g e uncertainties,
should be avoided. For example, the Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) undertakes
annual maximum r a i n f a l l analysis only f o r records longer than seven years and the data are
extrapolated for r e t u r n periods up t o twice as long as the record length (Pugsley, 1981).

4.6.2 Point vs. a r e a l r a i n f a l l

I n small-scale drainage projects, one may assume the v a l i d i t y of the point r a i n f a l l for the
e n t i r e drainage area. I t has been suggested t h a t a single gauge be taken as representative o f
the r a i n f a l l over small basins up t o 25 I,,* i n area ( W O , 1 9 7 4 ) . I n urban areas which are
generally characterized by f a s t response, a more stringent c r i t e r i o n may be desirable. For
,
areas larger than 25 I,,' the a r e a l r a i n f a l l w i l l be smaller than the point r a i n f a l l because of
decrease i n r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y w i t h distance from the storm centre. To account f o r t h i s
decrease, reduction factors which depend on the basin area are applied t o the point r a i n f a l l t o
obtain the average a r e a l r a i n f a l l . Reduction factors recommended by WMO (1974) are shown i n
Figure 4.4. These factors depend on l o c a l climatological conditions and, therefore, whenever
possible, should be derived from l o c a l data.

4.6.3 Frequency analysis of point r a i n f a l l

Frequency analysis i s used t o derive r a i n f a l l depth-duration-frequency data from which t h e

Intensity-Duration-Frequency ( IDF) curves are produced. The IDF curves i n d i c a t e the probabi-
l i t y of exceedance of r a i n f a l l of c e r t a i n duration and i n t e n s i t y . I n drainage design, the, IDF
curves represent the most important form of r a i n f a l l data. These curves are used i n computa-
tions of runoff peaks by the r a t i o n a l method, or they can be used t o develop c e r t a i n types o f
design storms for runoff simulations. Because of the importance of the IDF curves, a d e t a i l e d
example of the development of such curves i s given below. S i m i l a r procedures are discussed i n
Chapter 7 of Volume II (UNESCO, 1987) and i n other handbooks (ATV, 1983b; WCF, 1970a).
The preparation of IDF curves consists o f t w o i n t e r r e l a t e d tasks, abstraction of data from
the r a i n f a l l record and the frequency analysis of the abstracted data.
For frequency analysis, t w o types o f r a i n f a l l data series may be used. Preferably, an
annual series consisting of annual r a i n f a l l maxima for various durations, t y p i c a l l y from f i v e
minutes t o 24 hours, i s used. Such an analysis i s expedient ( t h e data series i s r a t h e r
l i m i t e d ) and there i s a t h e o r e t i c a l basis for extrapolation of the annual series beyond the
record length.
The other type of data series i s r e f e r r e d t o as the p a r t i a l duration series and contains
a l l large r a i n f a l l amounts above c e r t a i n thresholds selected f o r i n d i v i d u a l durations. Thus
f o r i n d i v i d u a l years, not only the annual maximum but possibly also other values are included
i n the analysis. The p a r t i a l duration analysis appears t o be preferable f o r short records, o r
where return periods shorter than two years are of i n t e r e s t .
I n the frequency analysis, the abstracted l a r g e r a i n f a l l depths are ranked and assigned
p r o b a b i l i t i e s using various p l o t t i n g position formulas (Chow, 1 9 6 4 ) . For the annual series,
the Weibull's formula i s generally recommended i n the following form:

p = - m (4.2)
N+ 1

where P i s the p r o b a b i l i t y , m i s the rank ( t h e l a r g e s t value corresponds t o m = 1 1 , and N i s

the record length i n years.
For a p a r t i a l duration series, a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n formula i s sometimes used i n the
following form (Chow, 1964):

p = -m (4.3)
N

where N i s the number of years, and only the top N i t e m s are considered. I t should be empha-
sized t h a t both equations 4.2 and 4.3 give almost i d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s i n the middle of the
d i s t r i b u t i o n s but d i f f e r near the t a i l s of the d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

55
 The r e s u l t s o f t h e annual s e r i e s analysis can be modified t o make them compatible t o those
obtained from t h e p a r t i a l d u r a t i o n s e r i e s by using t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s given i n Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Relationship Between Annual and P a r t i a l Series (Pugsley, 1981)

Return Period (years)

2 5 10 >10

( P a r t i a l s e r i e s value)/(Annual s e r i e s value) 1,13 1,O4 1,Ol H 1, O 0

Having established t h e p l o t t i n g positions, the abstracted r a i n f a l l amounts can be p l o t t e d

e i t h e r on t h e Gumbel p r o b a b i l i t y paper ( t h e annual s e r i e s ) , o r on a semi-logarithmic paper
(ATV, 1983a). I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s ( o r t h e r e t u r n periods) are p l o t t e d on t h e
x-axis i n t h e l o g a r i t h m i c scale and t h e r a i n f a l l amounts ( o r i n t e n s i t i e s ) on t h e y-axis i n t h e
l i n e a r scale. F i n a l l y , t h e experimental data are approximated by a s t r a i g h t l i n e which i s used
f o r f u r t h e r e x t r a p o l a t i o n s o r i n t e r p o l a t i o n s . The l i n e f i t t i n g i s accomplished e i t h e r graphic-
a l l y o r mathematically. One o f t h e mathematical f i t t i n g procedures i s demonstrated i n t h e
example given below.

4.6.4 Example o f intensity-duration-frequency analysis

The f o l l o w i n g example o f t h e IDF analysis has been adopted from a r e p o r t o f t h e (Canadian)

Atmospheric Environment Service (Pugsley, 1981). Other agencies may recommend d i f f e r e n t proce-
dures o f equal m e r i t .
Many attempts have been made t o d e r i v e t h e o r e t i c a l o r e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s which would
describe w e l l the p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f h y d r o l o g i c a l variables. Such procedures are
described i n various standard t e x t s on hydrology (Sokolov e t al., 1976). The discussion below
i s l i m i t e d t o t h e asymptotic extrema1 d i s t r i b u t i o n , a l s o known as t h e Fisher-Tippet Type I
d i s t r i b u t i o n , which can be applied using t h e procedure developed by Gumbel (1958).
It can be shown t h a t t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l frequency f u n c t i o n f o r extreme r a i n f a l l can be des-
c r i b e d as

XT = j; K&
-i (4.4)

where x i s t h e mean and Sx i s t h e standard d e v i a t i o n o f t h e sample o f extreme r a i n f a l l , and XT

i s t h e r a i n f a l l amount which i s equalled o r exceeded on an average once i n T years. K i s the
frequency f a c t o r which can be expressed i n terms o f t h e r e t u r n p e r i o d T and t h e number o f years
o f record, N. The values o f K can be obtained from standard tables, such as t h e one reproduced
i n Table 4.3 (Pugsley, 1981).
Equation 4.4 i s used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r a i n f a l l amount XT o f a r e t u r n period T. For t h a t
purpose, t h e mean and standard d e v i a t i o n o f the annual s e r i e s are calculated f i r s t and t h e
value o f K, f o r t h e r e t u r n p e r i o d T and t h e record l e n g t h N, i s read from Table 4.3. I f one
needs t o determine t h e r e t u r n p e r i o d o f a r a i n f a l l value %, Equation-4.4 i s used t o c a l c u l a t e
K, and t h e corresponding T i s read from Table 4.3, i.e., f o r given X, Sx and N. The r e t u r n
p e r i o d T can a l s o be determined from frequency p l o t s on extreme (Gumbel) p r o b a b i l i t y paper. If
t h e p l o t t i n g p o s i t i o n s are calculated from Equation 4.2 then Equation 4.4 p l o t s as a s t r a i g h t
l i n e on t h e Gumbel p r o b a b i l i t y paper.
An example o f t h e computation o f t h e IDF curves i s presented i n Table 4.4 (Pugsley,
1 9 8 1 ) . Further explanations follow.
I n t h e upper p a r t o f Table 4.4, annual maximum r a i n f a l l amounts are l i s t e d f o r nine dura-
t i o n s from f i v e minutes t o 24 hours, and t h e record l e n g t h o f 1 2 years. For each duration, t h e
mean and standard d e v i a t i o n were calculated. Subsequently, t h e r a i n f a l l amounts-for various
durations and r e t u r n periods were c a l c u l a t e d from Equation 4.4 by s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r X, Sx and K.
The values o f K were determined from Table 4.3 f o r N = 12 and r e t u r n periods varying from 2 t o
100 years.
I n t h e bottom p a r t o f the table, r a i n f a l l amounts were converted i n t o i n t e n s i t i e s ( i =
h / k , where i i s t h e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y , h i s the r a i n f a l l amount, and A t i s t h e corresponding
d u r a t i o n i n hours). The c a l c u l a t e d r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t i e s were p l o t t e d i n Figure 4.5 and
approximated by smooth curves. For s i m p l i c i t y , the curves f o r T = 2 and 5 were n o t converted
t o p a r t i a l s e r i e s r e s u l t s (see t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s i n Table 4.2) and, although the record l e n g t h
was adequate o n l y f o r r e t u r n periods up t o 25 years, two IDF curves f o r T = 50 and 100 were
a l s o included.

56
 Table 4.3 K Factors f o r the Gumbel D i s t r i b u t i o n ( A f t e r Pugsley, 1981)

K Factors

Return Period T (years)

N
iyr) 2 5 10 25 50 1O 0

5 -0,116 1,313 2,260 3,456 4,343 5,224

6 -0,122 1,229 2,124 3,254 ,
4 093 4,925
7 -0, 127 1,169 2,026 3,110 3,914 4,712
8 -0,130 1,123 1,953 3,001 3,779 4,551
9 -0 ,133 1,087 1,895 2,916 3,673 4,425

10 -0,136 1,058 1,848 2,847 3,587 4,323

11 -0,138 1,034 1,809 2,789 3,516 4,238
12 -0,139 1,013 1,777 2,741 3,456 4,166
13 -0,141 0.996 1,748 2,699 3,405 4,105
14 -0,142 0,981 1,724 2,663 3,360 4,052
15 -0,143 0,967 1,703 2,632 3,321 4,005
16 -0,144 0,955 1,683 2,603 3,286 3,963
17 -0,145 0,945 1,666 ,
2 578 3,255 3,926
18 -0 ,146 0,935 1,651 2,556 3,227 3,893
19 -0,147 O , 927 1,637 2,535 3,202 ,
3 863

20 -0,148 0,919 1,625 2,517 3,179 3,836

21 -0,148 0,911 1,613 2,500 3,158 3,811
22 -0,149 0,905 1,603 2,484 3,138 3,788
23 -0,150 0,899 1,593 2,470 3,120 3,766
24 -0,150 0,893 1,584 2,457 3,104 3,747
25 -0,151 0.888 1,575 2,444 3,089 3,728
26 -0,151 0,883 1,568 2,433 3,074 3,711
27 -0,151 0,878 1,560 2,422 3,061 3,695
28 -0,152 0,874 1,553 2,412 3,048 3,681
29 -0,152 O , 870 1,547 2,402 3,037 ,
3 667

30 ,
-0 153 0,866 1,541 2,393 3,026 3,653
31 -0,153 0,863 1,535 2,385 3,015 3,641
32 -0,153 0,859 1,530 2,377 3,005 3,629
33 -0,153 0,856 1,525 2,369 2,996 3,618
34 -0,154 0,853 1,520 2,362 2,987 3,608
35 -0,154 0,850 1,515 2,356 2,979 3,598
36 -0,154 0,848 1,511 ,
2 349 2,971 3,588
37 -0,155 O , 845 1,507 2,343 2,963 3,579
38 -0,155 0,843 1,503 2,337 2,956 3,570
39 -0,155 0,840 1,499 2,332 2,949 3,562

40 -0,155 0,838 1,495 2,326 2,943 3,554

41 -0,155 0,836 1,492 2,321 2,936 3,547
42 -0 ,156 0,834 1,489 2,316 2,930 3,539
43 -0,156 0,832 1,485 2,311 2,924 3,533
44 -0,156 0,830 1,482 2,307 2,919 3,526
45 -0,156 0,828 1,479 2,303 2,913 3,519
46 -0,156 0,826 1,477 2,298 2,908 3,513
47 -0,156 0,824 1,474 2,294 2,903 3,507
48 -0,157 ,
O 823 1,471 2,291 2,898 3,502
49 -0,157 0,821 1,469 2,287 2,894 3,496

50 -0,157 ,
O 820 1,466 2,283 2,889 3,491

I f no short-duration r a i n f a l l data are a v a i l a b l e and data t r a n s p o s i t i o n o r i n t e r p o l a t i o n

i s unfeasible, i t i s sometimes possible t o estimate t h e short-duration r a i n f a l l s t a t i s t i c s from
other a v a i l a b l e data. Such data include t h e mean annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n , the mean annual number
o f days w i t h r a i n , and t h e mean annual number o f thunderstorm days. WMO ( 1 9 7 4 ) gives a summary

57
 Table 4.4 Example o f C a l c u l a t i o n o f Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves

Durations

R a i n f a i l Amounts (mm)

Year 5 min 10 m i n 15 m i n 30 m i n 1 hr 2 hr 6 hr 12 hr 24 h

1968 5,6 7,6 7,9 719 9,9 16,s 30,s 36,l 36

1969 5,1 9,1 13,7 15,s 15,5 15,5 34,3 41,l 41
1970 3,s 5,6 6,6 8v4 10,9 19,6 22,6 24,l 31
1971 2.5 3,6 4,8 7,6 11,7 18,8 20,8 21,l 23
1972 7,6 7,9 8.4 9,7 12,2 17,O 25,7 31,O 39
1973 6,9 8,9 10,4 11,7 16,8 23,6 27,9 30,O 36
1974 2,3 3,3 . 4,3 513 6?3 9,l 23n4 29,s 41
1975 6,3 9,7 10,2 10,9 15,s 16,8 28.4 28,4 33
1976 2,8 3,8 5,6 8,4 lop2 13,s 1913 20,3 20
1977 6,3 613 6,3 9,9 14,O 15,s 18,3 33.3 33
1978 14,s 15,6 17,8 24,8 27,3 27,3 27,3 36,3 50
1979 3?9 4,8 514 715 8,l 13,4 15,8 22,2 26

Mean Extreme (N=12) 5,6 7,2 8 ,4 10,6 13,2 17,2 24,s 29,4 34
Standard Deviation 3,2 313 3,9 4?9 5,2 4,6 5,2 6,3 8

Return Period
(yr) R a i n f a l l Amounts (mm)
~ ~~

2 5,2 6,7 7,9 9,9 12,s 16,6 23,8 28,6 33

5 8,8 10,6 12,4 15,6 18,s 21,9 29,8 35,9 42
10 11 ,3 13,l 15,3 19,4 22,4 25,4 33,8 40,7 49
25 14,3 16,3 19,0 24,2 27,s 29,8 38,9 46,8 57
5 O* 16,6 18,7 21,8 27,7 31,2 33,O 42,6 51,3 63
1 oo* 18,8 21 ,O 24,s 31,2 34,9 36,3 46,3 55,8 68

Return Period Rainfall Intensities (m/hr)

2 62,4 40,2 31,6 19,8 12,s 8,3 4,o 2,4 1

5 105,6 63,6 49,6 31,2 18,s 11,0 5,o 3,o 1
10 135,6 78,6 61,2 38,8 2214 1217 5,6 3,4 2
23 171,6 97,8 76,O 48,4 27,s 14,9 6,s 319 2
so* 199,2 112,2 87,2 55,4 31,2 16,s 7,1 413 2
1 oo* 225,6 126,O 98,O 62,4 34,9 18,2 7,7 4?7 2

* Extrapolations t o these long r e t u r n periods are inappropriate but were included f o r demon-
s t r a t i v e purposes.

of such techniques. When applying these techniques, one should be aware o f possible l a r g e
u n c e r t a i n a t i e s i n the r e s u l t s .
IDF curves are comonly determined f o r a l l s t a t i o n s i n the network and mapped. Such maps
a r e then used t o i n t e r p o l a t e the IDF s t a t i s t i c s f o r l o c a t i o n s without data.
IDF curves are used extensively i n urban drainage design. Their primary use i s t o provide
a r a i n f a l l i n p u t f o r the r a t i o n a l method o r s i m i l a r e m p i r i c a l formulae (see Chapter 8 ) . Such
an i n p u t i s t y p i c a l l y a c o n s t a n t - i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l o f a c e r t a i n d u r a t i o n and r e t u r n period.
For example, i f t h e time of concentration i s one hour (= duration), and the design r e t u r n
p e r i o d i s t e n years, one obtains the design r a i n f a l l from Figure 4.5 as i= 22,7 mm/hr. This
design value i s v a l i d only for the l o c a t i o n f o r which the IDF curves i n Figure 4.5 were pro-
duced.

4.6.5 Design storms

The design storm concept was introduced i n t o urban drainage design about 25 years ago t o r e -
place c o n s t a n t - i n t e n s i t y design r a i n f a l l s which were adequate o n l y f o r steady-state computa-
t i o n s of r u n o f f peak flows. As r u n o f f computations progressed from e m p i r i c a l formulae f o r t h e
peak f l o w t o the hydrologic synthesis based on time-varying losses, i t became necessary t o

58
 300

I I I I I I I
5 10 15 30 1 2 6 12 24
minutes hours
DURATION

Fig. 4.5 Intensity-duration-frequency curves

consider time-varying r a i n f a l l inputs r e f e r r e d t o as design storms. such storms a r e t y p i c a l l y

derived by synthesizing general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l a r g e number o f a c t u a l events.
I n the design storm concept, an assumption i s made t h a t the r e t u r n period o f t h e calcula-
ted runoff event i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f the design storm. Although t h i s assumption and some
other aspects of design storms have been c r i t i c i z e d by many researchers (McPherson, 1975;
Marsalek, 1978; Geiger, 19841, the design storm concept i s widely used i n t h e engineering prac-
t i c e and can produce good r e s u l t s w i t h i n i t s domain of a p p l i c a b i l i t y . Design storms can be
developed expediently from l o c a l r a i n f a l l data and used economically i n conjunction w i t h event
runoff models. Common design storms which are discussed below have been found adequate
( A r n e l l , 1982) f o r s i z i n g of storm sewers and drainage ditches. Their application, however,
should not be extended t o more complex design aspects, such as storage design, comparisons o f
pre-development and post-development flows, water q u a l i t y considerations, and real-time opera-
t i o n o f combined sewer systems. For these complex problems, i t may be required t o use a c t u a l
r a i n f a l l data i n conjunction with continuous simulation models, or t o develop special r a i n f a l l
inputs.

59
 Design storms and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o produce design r u n o f f peaks are d i f f i c u l t t o evaluate.
Attempts have been made t o accomplish such evaluations through comparisons o f r u n o f f peak f r e -
quency curves produced from simulations w i t h a c t u a l and design storms (Marsalek, 1978; Arnell,
1982; Geiger, 1 9 8 4 ) . The r e s u l t s o f such studies are n o t f u l l y conclusive and depend on t h e
s i m u l a t i o n model as w e l l as on d e t a i l e d simulation procedures. I t appears, however, t h a t i n
many s i t u a t i o n s b o t h s y n t h e t i c and a c t u a l design storms produce comparable r e s u l t s which are
adequate f o r s i z i n g of sewers ( A r n e l l , 1 9 8 2 ) . These storms are s u f f i c i e n t l y characterized by
t h e t o t a l r a i n f a l l amount, temporal r a i n f a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n and some i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e antecedent
conditions.

4.6.5.1 Design storms f o r sewer s i z i n e

A number o f design storms f o r sewer s i z i n g have been proposed by various i n v e s t i g a t o r s and

reviewed i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e (Marsalek e t al., 1983; A r n e l l e t al., 1984). I n t h e absence of
systematic e v a l u a t i o n of various design storms, no p a r t i c u l a r storm can be recommended as t h e
best one. Consequently, t h e f o l l o w i n g discussion focuses on b a s i c parameters o f design storms
and on approaches t o estimating such parameters. For a selected r e t u r n p e r i o d t h e design
storms discussed i n t h i s s e c t i o n are f u l l y characterized by t h e duration, t h e t o t a l r a i n f a l l
amount, t h e maximum r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y o f a c e r t a i n s h o r t duration, t h e t h i n g o f peak inten-
s i t y , and t h e temporal storm r a i n f a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n . A discussion o f i n d i v i d u a l storm para-
meters follows. Whenever appropriate, reference i s made t o t h e e x i s t i n g design storms.
The storm d u r a t i o n can be taken as a fixed-time p e r i o d (Marsalek and Watt, 1 9 8 4 1 , o r i t
can be d e r i v e d from t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f a c t u a l storms (Desbordes e t al., 19811, o r from
t h e time o f concentration o f t h e area under design ( K e i f e r and Chu, 1 9 5 7 ) . I n t h e l a s t case,
t h e time o f concentration i s defined as t h e t r a v e l time from t h e most h y d r a u l i c a l l y remote
point. The recommended storm durations vary from one ( K e i f e r and Chu, 1957) t o t h r e e times
(Natural Environment Research Council, 1975) t h e time o f concentration. It would appear t h a t
t h e best estimates o f t h e storm d u r a t i o n should consider a c t u a l storm durations as w e l l as t h e
catchment concentration time. The s e l e c t i o n o f the storm d u r a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important
f o r those s y n t h e t i c storms whose peak i n t e n s i t y i s a f f e c t e d by t h e storm d u r a t i o n ( T e r s t r i e p
and S t a l l , 1 9 7 4 ) .
The t o t a l storm r a i n f a l l depth i s determined from IDF curves f o r a selected storm d u r a t i o n
and a r e t u r n period. For example, considering a 6-hour 50-year storm, t h e t o t a l r a i n f a l l i s
read from Figure 4.5 as H = 6 x 7,5 = 45 mm. This r a i n f a l l depth i s then d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e
t o t a l storm duration.
The peak i n t e n s i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r storm hyetograph i s determined f o r a c e r t a i n s h o r t
d u r a t i o n which u s u a l l y coincides w i t h t h e computational time step used i n r u n o f f computations.
T y p i c a l l y , t h i s d u r a t i o n i s equal t o t h e shortest d u r a t i o n used i n IDF curves, f i v e minutes.
The peak i n t e n s i t y i s determined e i t h e r by applying t h e temporal d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e storm
r a i n f a l l ( T e r s t r i e p and S t a l l , 1 9 7 4 ) , o r from the IDF curves ( K e i f e r and Chu, 1 9 5 7 ) . The
l a t t e r approach i s used i n t h e Chicago storm which i s based on an assumption t h a t , f o r a selec-
ted r e t u r n period, a l l maximum i n t e n s i t i e s f o r durations shorter than t h e storm d u r a t i o n are
contained i n t h e design storm. I t i s then possible t o read t h e S-minute peak i n t e n s i t y d i r e c t -
l y from IDF curves. For t h e 50-year storm considered above, t h e peak i n t e n s i t y i s read from
F i g u r e 4.5 as = 190 mm/hr. W i t h other types o f temporal d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
d i f f e r e n t peak i n t e n s i t i e s would be obtained (most o f t e n lower). This would mean t h a t t h e
5-minute peak i n t e n s i t y associated w i t h a 6-hour SO-year storm has a d i f f e r e n t r e t u r n p e r i o d
than 5 0 years.
The t i m i n g o f t h e peak i n t e n s i t y d u r i n g t h e storm i s important €or r u n o f f computations.
Recognizing t h a t l o s s functions considered i n hydrologic synthesis (e.g., depression storage,
i n f i l t r a t i o n ) a t t a i n t h e i r maximum values a t t h e beginning o f t h e storm, advanced storm pro-
f i l e s w i l l produce lower runoff peaks because t h e peak i n t e n s i t y coincides w i t h maximum
losses. O n t h e o t h e r hand, delayed storm p r o f i l e s produce higher r u n o f f peaks, because t h e
peak i n t e n s i t y occurs i n t h e l a t e r p a r t o f t h e storm when losses are low. Various storm pat-
t e r n s a r e shown i n Figure 4.6. The t i m i n g tr o f the peak i n t e n s i t y i s u s u a l l y expressed as

tr =
VT (4.5)

where tp i s t h e time t o t h e peak and T i s t h e t o t a l storm duration. Thus f o r a f u l l y ad-

vanced storm p r o f i l e tr = O, and f o r a f u l l y delayed p r o f i l e tr = 1. Although the t i m i n g
o f t h e peak i n t e n s i t y i s a p r o b a b i l i s t i c factor, i t i s t y p i c a l l y considered as a d e t e r m i n i s t i c
f a c t o r w i t h a constant value. Various approaches t o determining t, have been recommended.
I n some design storms, t h e storm p r o f i l e i s assumed t o be symmetrical w i t h a centered peak
i n t e n s i t y , tr = 0,s ( N a t u r a l Environment Research Council, 1 9 7 5 ) . I n other cases, t h e t i m i n g
tr i s determined by analysis o f a c t u a l l o c a l heavy storms. The t i m i n g i s then taken as t h e

60
 O 20 40 60 80 100
CUMULATIVE STORM DURATION ( O / o )
Fig. 4.6 Cumulative graphs o f various storm p a t t e r n s

125
CHICAGO DESBORDES FLOOD STUDIES
REPORT (p = 50 vol
h
L

f 100
E
Y
E ISWS
>- AES
t
75
5
I-
-
z
J

dz 5c

a
U

i
25

C
O 60 O 60 60 120 O 60 O 60

TIME (minutes)

Fig. 4.7 Design storm hyetographs

61
mean value o f a l l observed timings ( K e i f e r and Chu, 19571, or as a mean value o f timings i n the
predominant group o f storms ( T e r s t r i e p and S t a l l , 1 9 7 4 ) . I n the l a t t e r case, storms are f i r s t
c l a s s i f i e d i n t o groups with advanced, centered and delayed p r o f i l e s . After i d e n t i f y i n g the
group w i t h the l a r g e s t population, the mean value o f peak i n t e n s i t y timings i s determined f o r
t h i s group and adopted f o r the design storm (Huff, 1967).
The temporal d i s t r i b u t i o n o f storm r a i n f a l l completes the d e f i n i t i o n o f the design storm
hyetograph. Again, a number o f approaches are available and some o f these are i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Figure 4.7. I t i s apparent from t h i s f i g u r e t h a t storm p r o f i l e s , derived by d i f f e r e n t methods
from various r a i n f a l l records, vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y and, consequently, i t i s not advisable t o
transpose storm p r o f i l e s among c l i m a t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t regions. Design storm p r o f i l e s are some-
times derived by a n a t i o n a l agency from the actual storms and the temporal d i s t r i b u t i o n i s then
given i n special tables (Natural Environment Council, 1975). The d i s t r i b u t i o n used i n the
I l l i n o i s State Water Survey ( I S W Ç ) storm was derived by preparing graphs of the cumulative
r a i n f a l l versus time (see Figure 4.6) f o r actual heavy storms and adopting the mean d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f t h e predominant group o f storm p r o f i l e s ( T e r s t r i e p and S t a l l , 1 9 7 4 ) . I n the Chicago
storm procedure, the peak i n t e n s i t y timing i s determined f i r s t and i n t e n s i t i e s f o r other dura-
t i o n s a r e positioned around the peak i n t e n s i t y (Keifer and Chu, 1 9 5 7 ) .
The l a t e s t research indicates t h a t design storm d i s t r i b u t i o n s are best determined by
f i t t i n g a selected d i s t r i b u t i o n model t o the recorded r a i n f a l l data and determining the model
parameters by the method o f moments (Marsalek and Watt, 1984). For t h i s purpose, l o c a l r a i n -
f a l l records are d i s c r e t i z e d i n t o i n d i v i d u a l events and only severe storms are retained f o r
d i s t r i b u t i o n analysis. The selection c r i t e r i a can be based on the t o t a l r a i n f a l l depth which
would correspond t o a p a r t i c u l a r r e t u r n period, e.g., two years. The reduced set of events i s
then d i s c r e t i z e d using a c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l and a selected d i s t r i b u t i o n i s f i t t e d t o these data.
I n the absence of comprehensive evaluations and comparisons of various d i s t r i b u t i o n s , i t i s
recommended t o use the simpler ones, such as the t r i a n g u l a r (Yen and Chow, 1980) o r combined
triangular/exponential (Hydrotek, 1985) d i s t r i b u t i o n s . The f i t t i n g of these d i s t r i b u t i o n s i s
done by the method o f moments. The selected d i s t r i b u t i o n i s then applied t o t o t a l r a i n f a l l and
t h e storm hyetograph i s produced. The f i t t e d parameters can then be used i n a regional analy-
s i s f o r interpolations and extrapolations o f data.

4.6.5.2 Other types o f synthetic design storms

A review o f engineering applications revealed t h a t various design storms have been applied (not
always properly) t o many types of drainage design problems, such as sizing of drainage pipes
and ditches, comparisons o f pre-development and post-development runoff peak flows, s i z i n g o f
stormwater storage f a c i l i t i e s , control of water q u a l i t y o f drainage discharge, and real-time
control o f combined sewer systems. I n such applications, the storm characteristics t o be con-
sidered include the t o t a l r a i n f a l l depth; the storm duration; the frequency o f occurrence; the
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r a i n f a l l during the storm and the corresponding peak i n t e n s i t i e s f o r various
durations; the peak i n t e n s i t y timing, and the r a i n f a l l antecedent t o the i n t e n s i t y peak; the
antecedent dry period; inter-event time; storm movement ( t h e d i r e c t i o n and v e l o c i t y ) ; and the
storm development and decay. All these storm characteristics may a f f e c t the r e s u l t s of runoff
quantity and q u a l i t y computations and, consequently, the drainage design. Under such circum-
stances, the development o f design storms i s much more complicated than the procedures given i n
the preceding section. Techniques f o r the development o f complex design storms were proposed
f o r s p e c i f i c projects or locations and lack a more general v e r i f i c a t i o n . Consequently, such
techniques are not included here and the reader i s r e f e r r e d elsewhere (Kidd and Packman, 1980;
Arne11 e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ) .

4.6.5.3 H i s t o r i c a l design storms

The discussion i n the preceding sections indicates some problems with the development and
application o f synthetic design storms. Most o f these problems concern the assignment o f iden-
t i c a l r e t u r n periods t o the storm and runoff event, d e f i n i t i o n of design storm parameters, and
d e f i n i t i o n o f antecedent conditions. To a l l e v i a t e these problems, the use o f actual h i s t o r i c a l
r a i n f a l l data has been proposed (McPherson, 1 9 7 5 ) . I d e a l l y , one should use a s u f f i c i e n t l y long
r a i n f a l l record t o undertake continuous runoff simulation and t o evaluate the drainage system
performance. To reduce costs, continuous simulation i s sometimes approximated by a series of
single-event simulations f o r selected actual storms (Marsalek, 1978; Geiger e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 ) . The
selection of these storms, which e f f e c t i v e l y replace the r a i n f a l l record for a p a r t i c u l a r
purpose, i s based on ranking o f a l l storms according t o a p a r t i c u l a r storm parameter.
Furthermore, one may have t o estimate the i n i t i a l conditions a t the s t a r t of i n d i v i d u a l events
and, i f required, make adjustments t o account for the i n i t i a l conditions (Kidd and Packman,
1980). As an example, runoff peak frequency p l o t s f o r simulations with actual storms on an
urban catchment are given i n Figure 4 . 8 .

62
 U ,lu
I 0 Urbanized catchment, no control
0

A Urbanized catchment, with a

storage faci Iity O

H Non- urbanized catchment

O
O
O
O
O

A A A
A m
A H
H

A A

U
rn U
0,oo $ U .
I I I I I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910 15
AVERAGE RETURN PERIOD (Years)

Fig. 4.0 Runoff peak frequency curves derived from simulations w i t h actual storms

The l i t e r a t u r e on the use o f actual storms i n drainage design i s f a i r l y extensive and

reference i s made t o several additional publications dealing w i t h t h i s topic (Marsalek, 1978;
Arnell, 1982; Voorhees and Wenzel, 1984).

4.7 WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS

when water q u a l i t y considerations are included i n the study objectives, i t i s necessary t o con-
sider the quantity and q u a l i t y o f various inflows t o and outflows from the sewer system. Three
sources o f flow entering the sewer system are considered here -
stormwater, dry weather flow,
and i n f i l t r a t i o n and i n f l o w o f extraneous water i n t o sewers. The uncontrolled outflow from
sewers reaches the receiving waters i n two forms -
e i t h e r as discharges o f stormwater from
storm sewers i n separate sewer systems, or as combined sewer overflows from combined sewer
systems. The following discussion deals w i t h both t h e sources o f p o l l u t i o n i n sewer systems
and the outputs from sewer systems. Additional information on water q u a l i t y parameters and
t h e i r monitoring i s given i n Chapters 3 and 5 o f Volume II (Unesco, 1987).

4.7.1 Stormwater q u a l i t y

It i s generally recognized t h a t urban runoff contributes t o p o l l u t i o n o f surface waters. The

magnitude and r a t e o f p o l l u t a n t emissions i n urban runoff a r e dependent on complex i n t e r a c t i o n s
between c l i m a t i c processes, land use, and transport i n sewer systems. The e f f e c t o f urban
runoff on water q u a l i t y i n receiving waters depends on the magnitude and r a t e o f runoff pollu-
t a n t emission and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and uses o f the r e c e i v i n g waters. I n order t o evaluate
t h e e f f e c t o f urban runoff on receiving waters, i t i s required t o i d e n t i f y both the runoff
p o l l u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and the receiving water c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t o establish a cause and
e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two. This section deals w i t h procedures used t o evaluate urban

63
runoff p o l l u t i o n characteristics. I t must be emphasized here t h a t t h e urban r u n o f f q u a l i t y
processes a r e very complex and n o t y e t f u l l y understood. A t t h e present s t a t e o f knowledge,
t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f a c t u a l water q u a l i t y data i n the f i e l d represents t h e best approach, i f time
and budget c o n s t r a i n t s a l l o w t h i s .
The processes c o n t r o l l i n g q u a l i t y o f stormwater are r a t h e r complex, as shown i n
Figure 4.9. The sources o f p o l l u t i o n are numerous and t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s are d i f f i c u l t t o
quantify. Consequently, t h e research i n t o r u n o f f q u a l i t y processes i s r a t h e r l i m i t e d and more
e f f o r t has been devoted t o f i e l d observations o f stormwater q u a l i t y and c r e a t i o n o f a data
base. Extensive studies o f urban r u n o f f q u a l i t y were reported i n numerous c o u n t r i e s and t h e
sources o f data from these studies are summarized i n Appendix A. Caution i s advised when
transposing r u n o f f q u a l i t y data t o other locations, because t h e sources o f p o l l u t a n t s and t h e i r
s t r e n g t h are l i k e l y t o d i f f e r from place t o place.
T y p i c a l concentrations o f p o l l u t a n t s i n urban r u n o f f and combined sewer overflows were
given e a r l i e r i n Table 2.1 i n Chapter 2. Another way o f r e p o r t i n g r u n o f f q u a l i t y data i s i n
t h e form o f annual unit area loads f o r various land use. Examples o f such loads from B r i t i s h
( E l l i s , 19861, Canadian (Dick and Marsalek, 1970; Marsalek, 1984) and F i n n i s h (Melanen, 1981)
s t u d i e s are given i n Table 4.5. Discussion o f data i n Tables 2.1 and 4.5 follows.

Table 4.5 Annual U n i t P o l l u t a n t Loadings f o r Stormwater and Combined Sewer Overflows

Annual P o l l u t a n t Loadings (kg/ha/yr)

Total
Suspended Total Total
Source solids BOD COD N P

Runoff i n storm sewers 100 - 6300 5 - 170 20 - 1000 2 - 12 0,2 - 2,2

R e s i d e n t i a l area r u n o f f 600 - 2300 5 - 100 20 - 800 2 - 12 0,2 - 2,2
Commercial area r u n o f f 100 - 800 40 - 90 100 - 1000 5 - 12 1,2 - 2,2
I n d u s t r i a l area r u n o f f 400 - 1700 10 - 90 200 - 1000 5 - 10 l,o
-- 2 , l
Highway r u n o f f 120 - 6300 90 - 170 180 - 3900 -
Combined sewer overflows 1200 - 5000 500 - 1300 500 - 3300 15 - 40 4 - 8

The highest loads and concentrations i n stormwater were observed f o r t o t a l suspended

solids. The main sources o f s o l i d s i n c l u d e a i r p o l l u t i o n , s o i l erosion, wear o f s o l i d sur-
faces, and use o f a n t i s k i d materials. Suspended s o l i d s concentrations i n stormwater can be
higher than those i n s a n i t a r y sewage.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) loads and concentrations i n stormwater are about an order
o f magnitude smaller than those i n overflows. This i s caused by low l e v e l s o f biodegradable
organics i n r u n o f f and p o s s i b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f present t o x i c metals w i t h t h i s t e s t . The main
source o f organics i n overflows i s s a n i t a r y sewage and s o l i d s scoured i n sewers during h i g h
flows.
Chemical oxygen demand i n stormwater i s f a i r l y h i g h and exceeds BOD. The COD/BOD r a t i o
f o r stormwater i s g e n e r a l l y much higher than t h a t f o r s a n i t a r y sewage.
T o t a l n i t r o g e n and phosphorus occur i n stormwater i n concentrations much lower than those
i n s a n i t a r y sewage. Over extended time periods, these n u t r i e n t s may c o n t r i b u t e t o eutrophica-
t i o n o f r e c e i v i n g waters. Phosphorus loadings are generally more important, because t h e
r e c e i v i n g waters are t y p i c a l l y phosphorus l i m i t e d . Annual loadings o f N and P i n combined
sewer overflows exceed s i g n i f i c a n t l y those i n stormwater.
T o t a l c o l i f o r m counts i n stormwater reach l e v e l s up t o 10 .
5
Such values are much lower
than those corresponding t o s a n i t a r y sewage ( l o 7 - l o 8 , t h e most probable number/100 m l ) . Main
sources o f c o l i f o r m s are cross-connections between storm and s a n i t a r y sewers, and b i r d and
animal faeces deposited i n urban areas.
Besides t h e above discussed conventional p o l l u t a n t s , many other constituents, some f a i r l y
p e r s i s t e n t and t o x i c , have been found i n stormwater. Among these, heavy metals are most
common w i t h t h e highest concentrations reported f o r lead, zinc and copper (Malmqvist, 1983;
E l l i s , 1986). Other substances found i n small q u a n t i t i e s i n c l u d e hydrocarbons, pesticides, and
many other t o x i c substances (Marsalek, 1 9 8 6 ) .
Although f i e l d observations provide t h e best i n d i c a t i o n o f stormwater q u a l i t y , t h e costs
o f extensive data c o l l e c t i o n may be p r o h i b i t i v e i n many cases. Consequently, f i e l d programmes
a r e t y p i c a l l y used e i t h e r t o produce annual p o l l u t a n t loads f o r t y p i c a l urban catchments, o r t o
c a l i b r a t e stormwater q u a l i t y models. A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f b o t h approaches follows.

64
 REMOTE LOCAL MOTOR PLANT FERTILI-
SOURCES
i
SOURCES
4
VEHICLES
1
MATERIAL
-
ANTI-SKID
ZATION

AND DE- ABRASION SOURCES

AIR POLLUTION EXCREMENTS ICING OF SOLID SPILLS
MATERIALS SURFACES

t v 1 I t v 1 v t --- - - - - -
II DUST AND DIRT ACCUMULATION ON THE CATCHMENT SURFACE
I

v
AIR TRANSPORT
1
OVERLAND FLOW
1
SWEEPING

TRANSPORT
(INCLUDING RAINFALL) PROCESSES
t
SEWER PIPE TRANSPORT

---- --- -

WATER COURSE SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

Fig. 4.9 Sources of pollutants i n stormwater and pollutant pathways

4.7.1.1 Annual unit pollutant loading r a t e s i n stormwater

Annual unit p o l l u t a n t loading rates i n stormwater have been developed i n several countries
(Sullivan e t a l . , 1977; Melanen, 1981; Sullivan e t a l . , 1 9 7 8 ) and can be used for an expedient
evaluation of pollutant emissions i n urban runoff. I n general, the u n i t loading rates are
expressed as a function of land use and some other factors, such as the annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
population density, and s t r e e t cleaning. I n a U.S. study ( S u l l i v a n e t a l . , 19771, the pollu-
tant rates i n stormwater were expressed as

Ms = a ( i , j ) R f(Pd) Y (4.6)

where M, = weight of pollutant ( j ) from land use ( i l w i t h storm sewers or unsewered per u n i t
area per year, a ( i , j ) i s a constant defined for a p a r t i c u l a r (i,j ) , R i s the annual pre-
c i p i t a t i o n , f(Pd) i s a population density function, and Y i s the s t r e e t sweeping effective-
ness ( O < Y ( 1 ). Constants a ( i, j ) are available for BOD, suspended solids, v o l a t i l e solids,
nitrogen and phosphorus. D e t a i l s of application of Equation 4.6 and numerical values of t h e
parameters a ( i , j ) can be found i n the o r i g i n a l references (Heaney e t a l . , 1977; Sullivan
e t a l . , 1977).
Examples of annual u n i t pollutant loads i n stormwater were given e a r l i e r i n Table 4 . 5 as
ranges of values reported i n several countries.

4.7.1.2 Modelling o f stormwater q u a l i t y

The annual u n i t p o l l u t a n t loads which were discussed i n the preceding section are useful for a
preliminary evaluation of the magnitude of p o l l u t i o n i n urban runoff. However, i n d e t a i l e d
analyses of water q u a l i t y i n receiving waters, much shorter time i n t e r v a l s are considered.
Although the selection of such time steps i s not w e l l understood, the time steps reported i n
the practice were as short as f i v e minutes. Short-interval stormwater q u a l i t y data can be
produced by computer models discussed i n t h i s section. A t the present stage of development
such models have t o be calibrated i n order t o obtain r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s .
Various approaches t o the modelling of stormwater q u a l i t y have been proposed i n the l i t e r -
ature. These approaches vary from simple regression models t o physically-based models. The

65
l a t t e r models are preferred i n ' p r a c t i c e , because they are applicable t o various catchments and
r e q u i r e l e s s f i e l d data f o r c a l i b r a t i o n purposes. Among the deterministic models, perhaps the
best known are the Storm Water Management W d e l (SWMM) of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (Huber e t a l . , 1982) and the STORM model (U.S. Army Corps o f Engineers, 1977). Both
models are continuously updated and r e f i n e d and have been applied i n a number of countries. A
b r i e f description o f basic concepts employed i n SWMM and STORM follows.
Both models consider the urban surface, p a r t i c u l a r l y the impervious parts, as the most
important source o f pollutants. During dry weather, dust and d i r t accumulate on the catchment
surface. The r a t e o f accumulation i n time i s e i t h e r l i n e a r o r non-linear, as specified by the
user. The amount o f accumulated dust and d i r t i s reduced by s t r e e t sweeping, which i s assumed
t o be done a t regular i n t e r v a l s and with a c e r t a i n e f f i c i e n c y o f removal. The composition o f
accumulated dust and d i r t i s specified by the user, using seven basic constituents -
suspended
solids, v o l a t i l e suspended solids, BODS, COD, t o t a l coliform, t o t a l nitrogen, and t o t a l phos-
phorus. During a storm, p o l l u t a n t accumulations are washed o f f the catchment surface a t a
r a t e which i s d i r e c t l y proportional t o the p o l l u t a n t amount remaining on the surface. Another
important source o f solids i s urban s o i l erosion. For t h i s purpose, the Universal S o i l Loss
Equation (Wischmeier and Smith, 1958) i s used t o quantify the load o f suspended solids contri-
buted by s o i l erosion. The washed-off p o l l u t a n t s are then routed through sewers.
The success o f stormwater q u a l i t y modelling depends on the extent o f catchment and c a l i -
b r a t i o n data and user's experience. Where only l i m i t e d stormwater q u a l i t y data are a v a i l a b l e ,
such data are probably best u t i l i z e d i n conjunction w i t h a stormwater q u a l i t y model.
A recent state-of-the-art review indicates t h a t there a r e s i x f u l l y operational urban
runoff q u a l i t y models a v a i l a b l e (Huber, 1986). A l 1 these models a r e capable o f simulating
accurately runoff hydrographs and pollutographs, i f adequate c a l i b r a t i o n data are a v a i l a b l e .
The methods of c o l l e c t i o n o f such data are described i n Chapters 3 and 5 of Volume II (Unesco,
1987).

4.7.2 Q u a l i t y o f combined sewer overflows

The composition o f combined sewer overflows i s generally derived from the composition of t h e
dry weather flow, scour o f sewer deposits, and composition of stormwater. Pollutant concentra-
t i o n s i n overflows frequently exceed those i n stormwater and dry weather flow, because o f sewer
sediment scour.
The composition o f combined sewer overflows has been studied extensively i n many coun-
t r i e s , as shown i n Appendix A. As an example of p o l l u t a n t concentrations reported for over-
flows, some data were given e a r l i e r i n Tables 2.1 and 4 . 5 .
I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o compare the composition of overflows t o t h a t of stormwater. With the
exception o f suspended solids, p o l l u t a n t concentrations i n overflows exceed those i n stormwater
several times. The main p o l l u t i o n problems caused by combined sewer overflows are those asso-
c i a t e d w i t h high BOD'S, high content o f n u t r i e n t s , and high b a c t e r i a counts which may pose a
public h e a l t h t h r e a t .
The e a r l i e r discussed techniques f o r evaluation o f stormwater q u a l i t y are applicable t o
combined sewer overlows as well. Annual unit pollutant loads i n overflows may be calculated
from Equation 4.6 by using proper constants a ( i , j ) . Listings o f such constants were published
by Heaney e t a l . (1977).
The modelling concepts f o r stormwater are also employed i n the modelling o f overflows. In
addition t o runoff sources of p o l l u t i o n , dry weather flow i s considered i n q u a n t i t i e s and com-
p o s i t i o n specified by the model user. During low flows, sewage sediment i s allowed t o s e t t l e
i n sewers and may be resuspended during high flows. Pollutant mixing, decay, and routing are
also considered (Huber e t a l . , 1982).

4.7.3 Dry weather flow - quantity and q u a l i t y

Drainage o f many l a r g e metropolitan areas i s provided by combined sewers. During dry weather,
these sewers convey r e l a t i v e l y low flows which are r e f e r r e d t o as dry weather flows. During
wet weather, combined sewers carry dry weather flow as w e l l as surface drainage runoff (storm-
water). Because o f high runoff inflow, the sewer capacity may be exceeded and the excess flow
leaves the sewer system as a combined sewer overflow. I n order t o estimate the composition o f
flows i n combined sewers, one needs t o know characteristics o f both stormwater and dry weather
flow. Stormwater characteristics were discussed i n the preceding section and a b r i e f dis-
cussion o f dry weather flow follows. For a more d e t a i l e d treatment o f t h i s subject, the reader
i s r e f e r r e d t o standard handbooks (WPCF, 1970a; WPCF, 1970b).

66
4.7.3.1 Quantity of dry weather flow

Dry weather flow comprises l i q u i d and water-carried wastes from residences, commercial estab-
lishments, i n d u s t r i a l plants, and i n s t i t u t i o n s , together w i t h minor q u a n t i t i e s o f s t o r m a t e r
and groundwater t h a t are not admitted i n t e n t i o n a l l y .
The best estimates o f dry weather flow quantity a r e obtained by d i r e c t flow measurements
i n the sewer network, or a t a wastewater treatment p l a n t . I n the absence of such measurements,
the quantity o f dry weather flow can be estimated from metered water consumption, o r calculated
on the basis of population serviced w i t h sewerage, population density, land use, t r i b u t a r y area
and standard per c a p i t a sewage flows.
Apart from domestic wastes discussed above, i n d u s t r i a l wastes have t o be considered.
Flows from areas zoned f o r i n d u s t r i a l use w i l l include process flows generated by wet indus-
t r i a l processes and domestic-type wastes from employees. Certain process flows a r e allowed by
municipal ordinance t o be discharged i n t o public sewer systems and can a f f e c t s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e
q u a l i t y and quantity of sewage flows i n these sewer systems. For modelling purposes, i t i s
desirable t o c o l l e c t f i e l d data on i n d u s t r i a l wastes. when c o l l e c t i n g data on t h e nature and
character o f i n d u s t r i a l wastes, the following factors have t o be considered: the volume o f
water, d i s t r i b u t i o n i n time ( t h e p e r i o d i c i t y o f f l o w ) , the operating schedule o f t h e p l a n t , and
the p o l l u t i o n a l strength o f these wastes. Additional d e t a i l s are given i n standard handbooks
(WPCF, 1970b; ATV, 1982a; ATV, 1982331.
I n simulations of flows i n combined sewers, v a r i a t i o n s i n sewage q u a n t i t i e s during the day
and during the week need t o be quantified. I f no l o c a l data on such v a r i a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e ,
one may use d i s t r i b u t i o n s reported i n the l i t e r a t u r e (Auber e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ) . One example o f such
d i s t r i b u t i o n s used i n the North American p r a c t i c e i s given i n Figure 4.10. Such d i s t r i b u t i o n s
a r e used i n conjunction w i t h the l o c a l l y derived mean flow.

4.7.3.2 Q u a l i t y o f dry weather flow

Q u a l i t y of dry weather flow widely varies from municipality t o municipality. I t seems t o be

affected by the population density, the average family income o f residents, t h e use o f garbage
grinders, i n d u s t r i a l wastes and i n f i l t r a t i o n . The best estimates o f dry weather flow q u a l i t y
are obtained by laboratory analysis o f sewage samples, o r from sewage treatment p l a n t records.
I n the absence o f such f i e l d data, estimates of dry weather flow q u a l i t y a r e obtained e i t h e r by
transposition o f data from elsewhere, o r by calculations based on population and average d a i l y
per capita loads. Typical concentrations of various constituents i n municipal sewage, as
reported i n th.e U.S.A., are l i s t e d i n Table 4.6 below (Lager and Smith, 1 9 7 4 ) .

Table 4.6 Pollutant Concentrations i n Municipal Sewage (Lager and Smith, 1974)

Constituent Concentration (mg/l)

Total
Suspended Total Total Coliform
BOD5 COD Solids Nitrogen Phosphorus (MPN/lOO m l ) *

Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range

Concentration 200 100- 500 250- 200 100- 40 - 10 - 5 x lo8 -

i n Municipal 300 750 350
Sewage

* Most probable number/l00 m l .

Q u a l i t y o f domestic sewage can be calculated from population, average d a i l y loads per

capita, and d a i l y per c a p i t a sewage flows. Huber e t a l . (1982) l i s t the following average
d a i l y constituent loads per capita: BOD5 -
0,09 kg/capita/day, suspended solids 0 , l kg/ -
capita/day, and t o t a l coliforms -200 x l o 9 MPN (most probable number)/capita/day. Average
constituent concentrations can be calculated by d i v i d i n g these loads by d a i l y flows per
capita. Additional loads o f constituents are contributed by i n d u s t r i a l wastes.
F i n a l l y , the strength o f dry weather flow i s somewhat d i l u t e d by i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o sewers
which may be p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e i n older sewer systems.

67
 (A) REPRESENTATIVE DAILY FLOW VARIATION
1,lo

1,oo.

3 0,90 I
a,

sun ' mon I tues ' wed ' thur ' fri I sat
8
t
Day of the week
a
a,
E (6)REPRESENTATIVE HOURLY FLOW VARIATION
O
- 1,50-
.-
+ -I I
a
U I
1,oo-
1
0,SO - J
O000 0600 1200 1800 2400
Hour of the day

Fig. 4.10 Hourly and d a i l y v a r i a t i o n s o f domestic sewage f l o w

4.7.4 I n f i l t r a t i o n and i n f l o w i n t o sewers

For t h e purpose o f t h i s manual, t h e following d e f i n i t i o n s o f i n f i l t r a t i o n and i n f l o w have been

adopted (U.S. EPA, 1 9 7 0 ) :
" I n f i l t r a t i o n " covers t h e volume o f groundwater e n t e r i n g sewers and house connections from
t h e s o i l , through d e f e c t i v e j o i n t s , broken o r cracked pipes, improperly made connections, man-
holes, walls, etc.
" I n f l o w " covers t h e volume o f any k i n d o f water discharged i n t o sewer l i n e s from such
sources as r o o f leaders; c e l l a r and yard area drains; foundation drains; commercial and indus-
t r i a l so-called clean water discharges; d r a i n s from springs and swampy areas; etc. I t does n o t
include, and i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from, n i n f i l t r a t i o n " as p r e v i o u s l y defined.
I n f i l t r a t i o n and i n f l o w i n t o sewers are widespread problems adversely a f f e c t i n g most o f
t h e e x i s t i n g c o l l e c t i o n systems and treatment plants. For d e t a i l e d analysis o f i n f i l t r a t i o n
and i n f l o w , the reader i s r e f e r r e d t o standard handbooks (WPCF, 1970b; O.S. EPA, 1970). A
b r i e f discussion o f i n f i l t r a t i o n and i n f l o w follows.

68
4.7.4.1 I n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o sewers

Excessive i n f i l t r a t i o n may become a serious problem i n the design, construction, operation and
maintenance o f sewer systems. I n f i l t r a t i o n i s an important source o f l a r g e volumes o f flow i n
sanitary and combined sewer systems regardless of the s i z e of the drainage area, t y p e s o f sewer
pipe construction, pipe and j o i n t i n g materials, and types o f s o i l formations i n which the
sewers are l a i d (U.S. EPA, 1970). I n f i l t r a t i o n contributes s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o hydraulic over-
loading o f both c o l l e c t i o n systems and treatment plants. There a r e even cases where i n f i l t r a -
t i o n and i n f l o w exceed t h e dry weather flow.
Among t h e adverse e f f e c t s o f i n f i l t r a t i o n and inflow, one can name t h e following:
- cost o f treatment o f i n f i l t r a t e d water;
- cost o f construction o f new r e l i e f sewers and treatment f a c i l i t i e s t o accommodate i n f i l -
t r a t i o n flows;
- reduced treatment p l a n t e f f i c i e n c y ;
- increased bypassing o f treatment plants;
- higher pumping costs;
- basement flooding;
- cave-ins and s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e s o f sewers and road structures r e s u l t i n g from s o i l wash-
ing i n t o sewers; and,
- increased sewer maintenance costs r e s u l t i n g from s o i l deposits i n sewers.
To avoid these costs, some degree o f i n f i l t r a t i o n control needs t o be exercised. I n new
systems, t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n control i s achieved by adequate design, proper selection o f m a t e r i a l s
o f sewer construction, pipes, j o i n t s , and proper l a y i n g procedures and techniques. Correction
o f existing sewer i n f i l t r a t i o n can be accomplished by replacing d e f e c t i v e components, sealing
t h e existing openings, and building within the e x i s t i n g components (Lager and Smith, 1974).
During construction o f new sewers, i n f i l t r a t i o n control can be achieved by proper con-
sideration o f sewer pipe material, selection of sewer j o i n t s , and construction consideration.
The important issues t o consider i n pipe m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n are s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y ,
wastewater characteristics, and l o c a l s o i l or gradient conditions. Combinations o f these
factors may make one m a t e r i a l b e t t e r suited than another, or p r e f e r a b l e under c e r t a i n condi-
tions. Pipe resistance t o i n f i l t r a t i o n should not be omitted from these considerations.
Good sewer j o i n t s are probably the most important single factor i n the control o f i n f i l -
tration. A good j o i n t must be watertight, r e s i s t a n t t o r o o t penetration, e f f e c t s o f s o i l ,
groundwater, and sewage, long-lasting, and f l e x i b l e (Lager and Smith, 1974). New j o i n t i n g
methods which represent a vast improvement over the t r a d i t i o n a l methods include PVC and poly-
urethane j o i n t s , compression gaskets and chemical-weld j o i n t s .
Major i n f i l t r a t i o n problems occur i n house l a t e r a l connections. These connections are
made a f t e r the sewer pipes have been l a i d and tested. The connections a r e made i n a crude way
and are r a r e l y inspected.
Sewer construction considerations include s i z e o f trenches, dewatering o f trenches, p i p e
l a y i n g and assembly, b a c k f i l l i n g , and post-construction performance t e s t s .
I n e x i s t i n g sewers, the correction o f i n f i l t r a t i o n involves a lengthy systematic plan o f
action, which includes the following steps (Lager and &th, 1974):
- i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the drainage system;
- evaluation o f the extent o f i n f i l t r a t i o n (by f i e l d measurements, o r by examining t r e a t -
ment p l a n t records);
- survey o f the sewer system and adjacent s o i l s (smoke t e s t s , s o i l conditions, groundwater
conditions);
- economic and f e a s i b i l i t y study t o determine t h e most cost-effective locations €or i n f i l -
t r a t i o n control;
- sewer cleaning ( i f required);
- photographic and t e l e v i s i o n inspection; and
- r e s t o r a t i o n o f the sewer system.

4.7.4.2 I n f l o w i n t o sewers

I n f l o w sources generally represent d e l i b e r a t e connection o f drains t o a sewerage system. Such

connections may be authorized and permitted; or they may be i l l i c i t connections made f o r t h e
convenience o f property owners and f o r solution of on-property problems, without consideration
o f t h e i r e f f e c t s on public sewer systems (Lager and Smith, 1974).
The nature o f inflow water and i t s e f f e c t on sewer systems a r e very much s i m i l a r t o those
o f i n f i l t r a t i o n water, as discussed i n t h e preceding subsection.
Correction o f inflow problems depends on regulatory and enforcement a c t i o n on the p a r t o f
c i t y o f f i c i a l s , r a t h e r than on construction measures, The e f f e c t s o f inflows i n t o sewers can
be g r e a t l y reduced by a v a r i e t y of methods. For example, many a u t h o r i t i e s advocate the

69
discharge o f roof water i n t o s t r e e t gutter areas or onto l o t s where i t can percolate i n t o the
soil. Discharging roof o r areaway drainage onto the land or i n t o s t r e e t gutters reduces t h e
immediate impact on the sewer system by providing f o r reduction o f the flow volume and attenua-
t i o n o f the peak discharge. The use o f pervious drainage swales and surface storage basins
w i t h i n urban areas allows the stormwater t o percolate i n t o the ground (Lager and Smith, 1 9 7 4 ) .
Depressed manholes w i t h vented covers i n s t r e e t areas where runoff can pond over the cover
should be repaired o r the covers replaced w i t h unvented covers. F i n a l l y , commercial and indus-
t r i a l water users should be encouraged t o p r a c t i c e on-stream reclamation and reuse o f the
so-called "clean water" (mostly cooling waters) t o control t h i s source o f inflows.

70
5 Quantity o f stormwater

5.1 STOWATER ANALYSIS

5.1.1 Scope o f stormwater analysis

As explained i n Chapters 2 and 4 , the flow i n an urban drainage system i s composed o f storm-
water, i n f i l t r a t e d water, and domestic, commercial and i n d u s t r i a l sewage. I n the case of a
separate sewer system, t w o sewers, one f o r dry weather flow and the other one f o r stormwater
need t o be designed. I n the case of a combined system, only one common sewer i s designed.
While the dry weather flow can be q u a n t i f i e d f a i r l y e a s i l y , a r e l i a b l e determination o f storm-
water flows i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t .
Information on stormwater runoff quantity i s needed f o r planning, design and operation o f
urban drainage systems. Runoff events can be characterized by i n d i v i d u a l parameters, such as
the runoff volume, peak flow and duration, o r by a complete runoff hydrograph showing t h e run-
o f f flow r a t e v a r i a t i o n i n t i m e . Such a hydrograph o f course contains the e a r l i e r mentioned
individual characteristics. S i m i l a r l y , various methods o f urban hydrology y i e l d e i t h e r speci-
f i c characteristics o f runoff events, e.g., the peak flow, or e n t i r e runoff hydrographs. Among
the former methods, empirical formulae expressing t h e runoff peak flow as a function of t h e
runoff c o e f f i c i e n t , the t o t a l catchment area and r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y can be mentioned. The
l a t t e r , hydrograph methods, comprise hydrologic methods using time-dependent t r a n s f e r functions
f o r r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r the e n t i r e drainage area ("black box") and hydrodynamic
methods employing the continuity and energy equations. Consequently, d i f f e r e n t methods
describe the stormwater runoff process with d i f f e r e n t d e t a i l and accuracy. Because more
d e t a i l e d and complex approaches r e q u i r e greater d e t a i l i n input data and hence greater costs,
t h e selection o f the method f o r c a l c u l a t i o n of stormwater runoff should be based on t h e study
objectives, the complexity o f the design problem and the data base a v a i l a b l e . Typical objec-
t i v e s of drainage studies were explained i n Chapter 1, components o f drainage systems were
discussed i n Chapter 3 and various supporting data or means o f t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n a r e presented
i n Volume 2 (Unesco, 1987).
Rough estimates o f stormwater quantity and q u a l i t y may be adequate f o r t h e screening and
planning o f various design and operation a l t e r n a t i v e s , but more accurate data are required f o r
the design o f i n d i v i d u a l sewer system components. Thus, hydrologic methods a r e sometimes used
i n the planning phase and f o r expedient calculations o f stormwater runoff required i n real-time
operation o f drainage systems. On the other hand, hydrodynamic methods usually a r e applied i n
t h e design of drainage systems, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the system i s very complex and involves l a r g e
or interconnected networks w i t h many special structures. The design o f smaller and simple
(tree-type) drainage networks may s t i l l be done w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t methods or hydrologic
methods. An overview o f suggested applications o f various stormwater runoff c a l c u l a t i o n
methods t o studies w i t h c e r t a i n objectives i s given i n Table 5.1. O f course, there a r e no
r i g i d l i m i t s on the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l methods. Besides t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method, t h e
choice of the r a i n f a l l input i s o f utmost importance and i s d e a l t w i t h i n Chapter 4. changes
i n stormwater runoff processes caused by snowfall and snowmelt a r e not addressed. Such
problems are discussed elsewhere (Ven Te Chow, 1964; Toebes and Ouryvaev, 1970).
Sections 5.2 t o 5.5 explain d i f f e r e n t basic formulae f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f stormwater runoff
and provide values f o r key parameters needed i n such calculations. The network design methods
o f Chapter 8 combine one or more o f these runoff formulae i n procedures f o r the design o f
drainage networks o f various complexity. The most appropriate computational method can be
chosen only i f t h e assumptions, l i m i t a t i o n s and data input requirements o f t h e basic approaches
a r e w e l l understood. For instance, t h e sophistication and accuracy o f calculations by means o f

71
d e t a i l e d methods are defeated i f input requirements are n o t met w i t h a d e t a i l and accuracy
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n procedure applied.

Table 5.1 Overview o f a p p l i c a t i o n s o f various urban stormwater r u n o f f c a l c u l a t i o n methods

Time Requirements
Runoff Study Data Catchment Network and
Attribute Method Objective Requirement Area* Layout A p p l i c a t i o n Costs

Runoff peak Coefficient Screening, LOW <300 ha Simple LOW

and volume methods planning and tr ee-t ype
design

Hydrograph Hydrologic Planning, LOW <300 ha Tree-type Modera t e

synthesis design and (sometimes
operation larger)

Hydrograph Hydro- Design Extensive Any s i z e Complex mtensi v e

dynamic
routing

* Other considerations besides t h e area may also apply (e.g., storage i n t h e system, catchment
and sewer slopes).

5.1.2 Phases o f r u n o f f development

Urban areas comprise surfaces o f widely varying c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T y p i c a l examples o f such

surfaces are roofs, backyards, s t r e e t s , sidewalks, parking l o t s , playgrounds, d i f f e r e n t kinds
o f vegetation covers, bare s o i l s and rocks. The generation o f r u n o f f i s s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by
t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e surface cover, i.e. , whether i t i s pervious o r impervious. Pervious
surfaces a l l o w l a r g e losses due t o i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o t h e ground and thereby reduce the r a i n -
water supply a v a i l a b l e f o r r u n o f f . Impervious covers, such as asphalt, concrete o r a bare s o i l
h i g h l y consolidated by t r a f f i c , c o n t r i b u t e t o h i g h r u n o f f r a t e s because o f low hydrologic
losses.' On t h e whole, t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l behaviour o f urban drainage areas d i f f e r s s t r o n g l y from
t h a t o f r u r a l areas, because o f h i g h imperviousness and dense drainage network comprising paved
g u t t e r s , sewers and n a t u r a l streams. However, t h e b a s i c p h y s i c a l phenomena governing t h e
r u n o f f process a r e t h e same f o r n a t u r a l as w e l l as urbanized areas.
When r a i n f a l l s on an urban area, some rainwater f a l l s on impervious surfaces and some on
pervious surfaces w i t h o r without vegetal cover. A t t h e s t a r t o f r a i n , t h e rainwater f a l l i n g
on impervious areas i s p a r t l y absorbed by w e t t i n g t h e surface, p a r t l y evaporated and p a r t l y
trapped i n surface depressions. A f t e r such depressions have been f i l l e d , water w i l l overflow
and form surface r u n o f f . Water trapped i n depressions on impervious surfaces w i l l e v e n t u a l l y
evaporate a f t e r r a i n f a l l ceases.
O n pervious surfaces, some rainwater i s intercepted by vegetation and stored on leaves and
stems and t h e r e s t reaches t h e pervious ground. A t t h e s t a r t o f r a i n f a l l , t h e rainwater
reaching t h e pervious ground i n f i l t r a t e s i n t o t h e s o i l . As r a i n continues, open spaces i n t h e
s o i l may be reduced by s w e l l o f c o l l o i d a l m a t e r i a l s and become f i l l e d w i t h water. Conse-
quently, t h e r a t e o f i n f i l t r a t i o n i s v a s t l y reduced i n comparison t o t h e i n i t i a l r a t e . When
t h e r a t e o f r a i n f a l l exceeds t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n capacity, water s t a r t s ponding on t h e surface and
f i l l s surface depressions. A f t e r such depressions have been f i l l e d , overflowing water forms
surface r u n o f f . A f t e r t h e r a i n f a l l ceases, water trapped i n depressions evaporates and/or
i n f i l t r a t e s i n t o the s o i l .
Water which i n f i l t r a t e d i n t o t h e s o i l may move l a t e r a l l y through t h e upper s o i l horizons
towards t h e stream as t h e so-called i n t e r f l o w . Water p e r c o l a t i n g t o t h e lower s o i l horizons
reaches groundwater which i s sometimes conceptually d i v i d e d i n t o t w o storage compartments - the
a c t i v e storage w i t h subsurface (groundwater) f l o w and t h e i n a c t i v e o r deep groundwater storage.
The d e s c r i p t i o n o f water t r a n s p o r t through t h e s o i l was included here only f o r completeness,
because such t r a n s p o r t processes are g e n e r a l l y n o t considered i n t h e analysis o f stormwater
quant i ty.
The t r a n s p o r t o f surface r u n o f f i n urban catchments s t a r t s w i t h overland f l o w which d r a i n s
i n t o swales and g u t t e r s and those i n turn d r a i n i n t o t h e drainage system through stormwater
inlets. I n s i d e t h e drainage system, stormwater i s transported through open-channel o r sewer
conduit networks according t o t h e h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f such networks. The formation o f

72
runoff may be graphically presented by p l o t t i n g hydrographs f o r a p a r t i c u l a r point on the
catchment surface, a t a stormwater i n l e t o r i n the sewer system, channel o r stream which drains
t h e catchment. Such hydrographs represent integrated e f f e c t s o f r a i n f a l l and catchment charac-
t e r i s t i c s , such as the area, shape, surface cover, depression and i n f i l t r a t i o n capacities, land
use, drainage patterns, surface and drainage slopes, and sewer? channel and stream characteris-
tics. The magnitude of peak discharges and the shapes o f these hydrographs are o f i n t e r e s t f o r
t h e layout o f urban drainage systems.
The p r i n c i p l e s o f stormwater runoff development and i t s possible superimposition w i t h d r y
weather flow are summarized i n Figure 5 . 1 . I n calculations, the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f process can be
divided i n t o three stages dealing w i t h the determination o f
- the r a i n f a l l excess
- surface runoff hydrographs a t i n l e t s t o the drainage system ( i n l e t hydrographs), and
- transport i n the drainage system.
Some o f the methods described i n Sections 5.3 t o 5.5 apply t o both the determination o f
surface runoff and i t s transport i n the drainage system.

5.2 RAINFALL EXCESS AND ABSTRACTIONS

5.2.1 Determination o f r a i n f a l l excess

Ayetographs o f actual or synthesized design storms, or r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t i e s o f c e r t a i n magni-

tudes and recurrence frequencies are used as r a i n f a l l inputs i n runoff calculations. The
preparation o f such inputs was discussed e a r l i e r i n Chapter 4 . The r a i n f a l l input can be
divided i n t o t w o parts, r a i n f a l l excess and r a i n f a l l abstractions. The former component
represents t h a t p a r t o f r a i n f a l l which i s d i r e c t l y converted i n t o r u n o f f . The r a i n f a l l
abstractions make up the remaining p a r t o f r a i n f a l l which does not contribute t o runoff. Such
abstractions comprise interception, evaporation, evapotranspiration, depression storage, and
infiltration. They are also sometimes c a l l e d losses, which i s not a very appropriate term
because no water i s l o s t i n the hydrological cycle. For i n d i v i d u a l r a i n storms, r a i n f a l l
excess on impervious surfaces d i f f e r s substantially from t h a t on pervious surfaces. Within
each surface category, there are a d d i t i o n a l differences i n r a i n f a l l excess depending on
d e t a i l e d characteristics of the surface cover. As stated e a r l i e r , phenomena connected w i t h
snowfall and snowmelt are not addressed i n the discussion t h a t follows.
R a i n f a l l excess I e x ( t ) i s described by Equation 5.1 as r a i n f a l l I ( t ) minus the r a i n f a l l
abstractions which include i n t e r c e p t i o n I i n ( t ) , surface wetting I w e ( t )evaporation , and
evapotranspiration ~ ~ , ( t ) s, o i l i n f i l t r a t i o n I s i ( t l , and surface depression storage I d e ( t ) :

A l l the terms i n Equation 5.1 are generally expressed i n u n i t s o f r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y , such as

nun/min, or mm/hr. Additional discussion o f r a i n f a l l abstractions can be found i n a hydrology
hantlbook (Chow, 1964).
O n impervious areas, the only abstractions taking place are I w e ( t ) I e, v ( t ) and I d e ( t ) . I t
should be f u r t h e r noted t h a t evaporation during r a i n f a l l i s normally n e g l i g i b l e ( I e V ( t ) " O )
and t h a t surface wetting and depression storage occur a t the onset of r a i n f a l l and can be
lumped together as the so-called i n i t i a l abstraction I i ( t ) = I w e ( t ) + I d e ( t ) . Thus f o r imper-
vious areas, Equation 5.1 can be reduced t o t h e following expression:

Although a l l the abstractions i n Equation 5 . 1 generally apply t o pervious surfaces, the

i n i t i a l and i n f i l t r a t i o n abstractions exceed the remaining ones by an order o f magnitude and
Equation 5.1 can be reduced, f o r p r a c t i c a l applications t o pervious surfaces, t o t h e following
form:

Iexp(t) = I(t) - Ii(t) - Isi(t) (5.3)

Equations 5.2 and 5.3 are shown schematically i n Figure 5 . 2 . I t should be noted t h a t
i n i t i a l abstractions on pervious and impervious areas d i f f e r . Numerical values o f i n i t i a l
abstractions which represent mostly depression storage are given i n Section 5.2.2.
R a i n f a l l excess can be calculated by considering t h e time-varying r a i n f a l l r a t e s and
abstractions, or by working w i t h lumped estimates. The former approach i s taken when using
actual or synthesized storm hyetographs i n conjunction w i t h hydrologic o r hydrodynamic methods

73
 I ATM0 S P H E R E I
I
A L
t
I
L

EVAFûTRAEaPIRATION EVAPORATION R A I NFALL

t

WETTING SURFACES AND FILLING DEPRESSIONS INFILTRATION

!-L 1
8
2
3
a
W
JEXCESS (EFFECTIVE)RAINFALL I elPERCOLATION

LT
*
i
3
Y, SHEET( OVERLAND) FLOW -Lr FLOW IN GUTTERS AND DITCHES
, L

CfJ
to3
DOMESTIC,COMMERCIAL
AND I NDUSTR IAL
SEWAGE .
dryweather FUM IN COLLECTlNG
flow
m
SEWE RI LATERALS) U SEWER
INFl LTRATION

CONFLUENCE AND FLOW

DE TE N TI ON DIVERSION WITHIN THE NETWORK
* 4

I I
I INTERCEPTOR F W
FLOW DIVERSION AT
OVERFLOWS
I
iI
I
t
I I

SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT RECEIVING WATERS

Fig. 5.1 Development o f s t o r m a t e r r u n o f f and f l o w i n combined sewer systems

( a f t e r Geiger, 1 9 8 4 ) .

74
o f runoff calculations. The l a t t e r , lumped approach, i s used i n c o e f f i c i e n t methods f o r
calculation o f runoff peaks. Both approaches are shown schematically i n Figure 5 . 3 .

RAINFALL INTENSITY
AND ABSTRACTIONS I
1
IMPERVIOUS AREAS

'TIME t

RP IFALL INTENSITY
Ab ABSTRACTIONS I
PERVIOUS AREAS

TIME t I

Fig. 5.2 R a i n f a l l abstractions on impervious and pervious areas.

The c a l c u l a t i o n o f time-varying abstractions can be done i n two ways. I n the f i r s t

method, also r e f e r r e d t o as the threshold method, t h e wetting i n t e r c e p t i o n and depression
abstractions are combined together as the i n i t i a l abstraction (see Figure 5.3a). I n the second
method, also known as t h e l i m i t i n g value method, t h e wetting and i n t e r c e p t i o n abstractions a r e
again combined as the i n i t i a l abstraction, but the depression abstraction i s considered t o be
an exponentially decaying function applied t o the known t o t a l abstraction ( i . e . , t h e l i m i t i n g
value: see Figure 5.3b).
Lumped abstractions are r e f l e c t e d i n the magnitude o f the runoff c o e f f i c i e n t and, f o r a
constant runoff c o e f f i c i e n t , r a i n f a l l excess represents a f i x e d f r a c t i o n o f r a i n f a l l (see
Figure 5 . 3 ~ ) . F i n a l l y , approximate estimates o f r a i n f a l l excess on pervious areas can be
obtained by subtracting a constant or time dependent value from the t o t a l r a i n f a l l (see
Figure 5.3d .
Calculations o f stormwater runoff peaks and volumes are usually not sensitive t o r a i n f a l l
abstractions on impervious areas. On t h e other hand, abstractions on pervious areas a f f e c t

75
s i g n i f i c a n t l y both the runoff peak and volume. I n the case of urban areas which comprise
impervious and pervious subareas, runoff peaks are controlled l a r g e l y by the impervious
subareas whose sharppeaked hydrographs precede somewhat attenuated hydrographs from pervious
areas. T h i s was confirmed by K i b l e r and Aron (1978) f o r watersheds with more than one-half o f
t h e t o t a l area developed. I n such watersheds, flood peaks from moderate storms d i d not depend
on i n f i l t r a t i o n abstractions or surface roughness o f the pervious p a r t o f the watershed.

ABSTRACTION
I 'LX I,,

a ) THRESHOLD
METHOD

b) LIMITING
VA LU E
METHOD

m
c ) COEFFICIENT
METH OD

d ) CONSTANT
ABSTRACTION
METHOD

TIME t

Fig. 5.3 Determining r a i n f a l l excess using various d e f i n i t i o n s for r a i n f a l l abstractions.

When runoff volumes are of importance, as i n the case o f the design o f detention basins,
runoff from pervious areas can have an appreciable e f f e c t and should be properly evaluated
(Kibler, 1982). Erroneous assumptions about or errors i n r a i n f a l l abstractions are d i r e c t l y
r e f l e c t e d i n calculated runoff peaks and volumes. Therefore, i t i s recommended t o evaluate
each s p e c i f i c design problem before deciding which abstractions should be considered.

5.2.2 R a i n f a l l abstractions

5.2.2.1 Interception

R a i n f a l l which i s intercepted by vegetation p r i o r t o reaching the ground i s r e f e r r e d t o as

interception loss. The amount intercepted i s a function o f species, age and density of the

76
vegetation, character o f the storm, and season of t h e year. I t has been estimated t h a t between
10% and 20% o f the r a i n f a l l which f a l l s during the growing season i s intercepted and returned
t o the atmosphere by evaporation (Viessmann e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ) . Except f o r dense vegetation, such
as a forest, water losses by i n t e r c e p t i o n during r a i n storms a r e not pronounced. Interception
losses develop during the e a r l y portion o f the storm and l a t e r the r a t e of i n t e r c e p t i o n r a p i d l y
approaches zero. Although there are formulae expressing i n t e r c e p t i o n as a function o f r a i n f a l l
and vegetation characteristics (Horton, 1939; Kittredge, 1948; Chow, 19641, i t i s a common
p r a c t i c e t o deduct the estimated interception from the storm r a i n f a l l as p a r t o f the i n i t i a l
abstraction.

5.2.2.2 Evaporation and evapotranspiration

The evapotranspiration process i s highly complex and requires a l a r g e amount o f input informa-
t i o n f o r i t s formulation. This process i s a function o f the p l a n t species, the vegetation
density, season, s o i l characteristics, and meteorologic conditions such as wind speed, humi-
d i t y , ambient temperature, cloud cover, and l a t i t u d e . Evaporation occurs i n the s o i l p r i m a r i l y
a t the s o i l - a i r i n t e r f a c e . Transpiration i s defined as vaporization o f water a t the surface o f
p l a n t leaves a f t e r the s o i l water has been transported through t h e p l a n t (Overton and Meadows,
1976).
For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , i t i s commonly assumed t h a t water supply t o the p l a n t and s o i l surface
i s not l i m i t e d which permits the treatment of evaporation a t i t s p o t e n t i a l r a t e . There are
four basic approaches t o the deterministic modelling o f p o t e n t i a l evapotranspiration:
- The energy budget approach,
- The water balance method,
- The aerodynamic approach, and,
- The combination o f energy budget and aerodynamic approaches. Further d e t a i l s can be
found i n hydrological handbooks (Chow, 1964; WMO, 1966).
I n calculations o f stormwater r u n o f f , evapotranspiration, which i s n e g l i g i b l e during r a i n -
f a l l , i s t y p i c a l l y neglected. Even i n the Sahelian zone, w i t h evaporation r a t e s from 10 m/day
t o 15 m/day, the e f f e c t s o f evapotranspiration on runoff from r a i n storms a r e n e g l i g i b l e .

5.2.2.3 Surface wetting and depression storage

The t r a n s i t i o n from wetting the surfaces t o f i l l i n g small voids or puddles w i t h water i s a

continuous one. Therefore, wetting abstractions are frequently included i n the depression
abstractions, or both wetting and depression abstractions a r e combined and r e f e r r e d t o as t h e
i n i t i a l abstraction. However, i f separate values f o r wetting abstractions are needed, they may
be estimated as 0,2 - 0,5 mm and 0,2 -
2,O mm f o r impervious and pervious surfaces, respec-
t i v e l y (Pieper, 1938; Braun, 1959).
Depression storage accounts f o r water which i s trapped i n small puddles and held u n t i l i t
i n f i l t r a t e s or evaporates. Since there are many sizes and shapes o f depressions throughout an
area, i t i s possible only t o consider t h e i r gross e f f e c t . Linsley e t a l . (1949) reported t h a t
t h e water stored i n depressions, a t any given time a f t e r the beginning of r a i n f a l l , could be
approximated by the following expression:

(5.4)

where Sde i s the maximum storage capacity o f depressions, and 1, i s the r a i n f a l l minus
i n f i l t r a t i o n , interception and evaporation.
For impervious urban areas, Kidd ( 1 9 7 8 ) found a strong c o r r e l a t i o n between Sde and t h e
surface slope, as shown i n Figure 5 . 4 . For h o r i z o n t a l o r almost h o r i z o n t a l surfaces,
depression storage values were reported by many authors i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . Such data a r e sum-
marized i n Table 5.2. I n i t i a l abstractions which represent mostly depression storage are
frequently used i n runoff calculations. A l i s t of i n i t i a l abstractions which depend on land
use and surface cover permeability i s given i n Table 5.3 (Geiger and Dorsch, 1980). Such data
can be used d i r e c t l y i n Equation 5.2.
Since there i s a f i n i t e upper l i m i t on Sde, i t follows from Equation 5.4 t h a t the l a r g e r
t h e storm r a i n f a l l , the less s i g n i f i c a n t i s depression storage i n stormwater runoff calcula-
tions. Thus, when dealing w i t h intense r a i n storms i n urban areas, depression storage i s not
an important factor. On the other hand, f o r l e s s intense storms on catchments with low imper-
viousness, depression storage would be an important f a c t o r . Further discussion o f depression
storage can be found elsewhere (Viessmann e t a l . , 1972).

77
 MEAN DEPRESS ION
STORAGE, MM
1,75 ~~

v HOLLAND

IV
v UNITED KINGDOM
1,50 V
SWEDEN

1,2 5

l,oo

0,7 5

0,5 O

v e

0,2 5 v

O
O 1 2 3 4 5
AVERAGE SLOPE,
PERC EN T

Fig. 5.4 Depression storage abstraction versus impervious area slope ( a f t e r Hidd, 1978)

5.2.2.4 Infiltration

There are two basic conceptual approaches t o i n f i l t r a t i o n , the soil-physics approach and the
hydrological approach. The soil-physics approach r e l a t e s the i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e t o such s o i l
properties as s o i l conductivity, c a p i l l a r y tension, and moisture content. However, since such
s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s vary s p a t i a l l y and temporally and a r e d i f f i c u l t t o measure, the applica-
t i o n o f t h i s approach i n design involves extensive judgement and requires a very l a r g e amount
o f input data. Rose (1966) and H i l l e l (1971) provided thorough descriptions o f physical and
chemical factors which may a i f e c t i n f i l t r a t i o n rates. Overton and Meadows (1976) presented a
short d e r i v a t i o n o f the governing equations.
The hydrologic approach i s parametric and u t i l i z e s lumped characteristics o f the s o i l t o
simulate i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s . The process parameters used i n t h i s approach should be determined
by optimization. A comparison o f hydrologic i n f i l t r a t i o n models was given by Overton (1964).
The best-known and most widely used i n f i l t r a t i o n equation which uses the hydrologic approach
was proposed by Horton (1939) i n the form given by Equation 5.5 and i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 5.5.

where f i s the i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e a t time t (minutes), fo and fc are the i n i t i a l and f i n a l

i n f i l t r a t i o n rates (m/min), respectively, and k i s an exponential decay c o e f f i c i e n t (min" 1 .
The formula assumes an adequate supply o f water so t h a t the s o i l surface i s flooded. This
equation was f i r s t developed by Gardener and Widstoe (1921) as a special a n a l y t i c a l solution of

78
the Green and Ampt equation (Green and Ampt, 1911), Gardener r e l a t e d the k-value t o i n d i v i d u a l
s o i l hydrodynamic variables, while i n the Horton equation (Equation 5.5), k i s a lumped
parameter f o r the s o i l hydrodynamic processes.

Table 5 . 2 Depression storage capacities as reported by various authors

Depression Storage
Surface Type i n unn Reference

Impervious Areas:

Average surface structure Fruehling (1903)

Average surface structure ûechsner (1967)
Small areas Viessmann (1968)
Smooth surface Munz (1966)
Smooth asphalt paving Pieper ( 1938
Gravelled asphalt Pieper (1938)
Concrete pavement Pieper (1938)
Rough concrete pavement Pieper ( 1938)
Cobble pavement Pieper ( 1938 1
Roofs, f l a t
Roofs, sloped

Pervious Areas :

Bare c l a y 0,56 - 1,4 Horton (1939)

Bare c l a y Op7 - 0.8 Hicks (1944)
Clayey s o i l s w i t h no o r l i t t l e vegetation 0,6 - 1,O
Clayey s o i l s w i t h vegetation !' ,5 - 4,O Braun (1959)
Bare s i l t y c l a y 2,O - 3,O Neal (1938)
Grass-covered s i l t y clay i,û - 2,5 Sharp and Hoïtan (1940)
Bare clayey sand 3.0 - 4.0 Ovorak (1959)
Clayey-sandy humus with short grass 1,9 Schumann ( 1940)
Clayey sand w i t h 25% grass cover 3,3 Reinhold (1955)
Clayey sand with 4 5 % grass cover 4,6 Reinhold (1955)
Lawn grass 5,O - 12,O
Wooded areas and open f i e l d s 5,0 - 15,O

Clay Hicks (1944)

Loam Hicks (1944)
Sand Hicks (1944)

Table 5.3 I n i t i a l losses on impervious and pervious areas ( a f t e r Geiger and Dorsch, 1980)

Land üse/Soiï Surface Characteristics I n i t i a l Loss i n mm

impervious Areas :

Comer cia l
Residential
Industrial

Pervious Areas:

Open space, uncultivated vegetation 10

Cultivated s o i l (corn, r o o t plants, crops, v i n i c u l t u r e , hop culture, e t c . ) 8
P 1aygr ound 2
Protected green areas and slopes 5
Garden or meadow 5

79
 INFILTRAT ION
RATE

TIME t

Fig. 5.5 Graphical presentation o f Horton i n f i l t r a t i o n equation.

When applying Equation 5.5, some guidance i n s e l e c t i o n o f parameter values can be found i n
the l i t e r a t u r e . Holtan e t a l . ( 1 9 6 7 ) and Musgrave ( 1 9 4 6 ) recommended some i n i t i a l i n f i l t r a t i o n
r a t e s which are l i s t e d i n Table 5.4. The f i n a l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s which were recommended by
Chow ( 1 9 6 4 ) are given i n Table 5.5. I t should be mentioned t h a t some pavements allow i n f i l t r a -
t i o n a t r e l a t i v e l y low rates. B r i c k and concrete t i l e s e x h i b i t e d i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s o f about
0,2 rnm/min a f t e r one hour and up t o 0,12 rnm/mh a f t e r 12 hours (van Dam and van de Ven, 1 9 8 4 ) .
Although the l a s t parameter i n Equation 5.5, k, depends on s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e vegetative
cover and antecedent moisture conditions, i t i s frequently taken as 0,0697 m i n -
f .
Table 5.4 I n i t i a l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e fo f o r various conditions

Condition f o i n mm/min Source

S o i l s without vegetation 0,27 Holtan e t aï. ( 1 9 6 7 )

Grassed and wooded areas 1,95 Holtan e t aï. ( 1 9 6 7 )
Clays without vegetation 0,60 Musgrave ( 1946)
Sandy s o i l s w i t h dense vegetation 1,80 Musgrave ( 1 9 4 6 )
~ ~~

Table 5.5 F i n a l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e f, f o r various s o i l types ( a f t e r Chow, 1964)

S o i l Type f c i n mm/min

Heavy p l a s t i c clays and s o i l s w i t h h i g h s w e l l i n g O - 0,021

Clay loams, shallow sandy loams, s o i l l o w i n organic matter, s o i l s high i n clay 0,021 - 0,064
Sandy loams and shallow loess 0,064 - 0,127
Deep sand, deep loess, aggregated s i l t s 0,127 - 0,190

5.2.3 Lumped r a i n f a l l abstractions

5.2.3.1 Runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s

The r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t i s based on an assumption t h a t r a i n f a l l abstractions represent a f i x e d

f r a c t i o n o f r a i n f a l l f o r any given drainage area, although i n r e a l i t y such abstractions

80
(losses) vary i n time as a r e s u l t of changing r a i n f a l l , climate and surface conditions. Among
the variables i n the r a t i o n a l method described i n Section 5 . 3 . 2 , the runoff c o e f f i c i e n t i s the
most d i f f i c u l t one t o determine. The r a t i o of stormwater runoff volume t o the t o t a l volume of
r a i n f a l l f o r a p a r t i c u l a r area yields the average volumetric runoff c o e f f i c i e n t . For the
calculation of peak runoff, however, a peak runoff c o e f f i c i e n t must be used. The peak runoff
c o e f f i c i e n t , Cp, i s defined by Equation 5.6 below:

cP
-- 3 2 (5.6)
IP

where Qp = peak runoff r a t e i n l i t r e s / s * h a , and

Ip= peak r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y , i n l i t r e s / s * h a .

I t should be noted t h a t both the peak runoff r a t e and r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y were given i n

l i t r e s per second per hectare. Other u n i t s are also used i n p r a c t i c e as discussed i n
Section 5.3.2. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between Qp and Ip i s shown i n Figure 5.6.

R , JFALL INTENSITY I ( t )
RI OFF RATE Q ( t )

TIME t

F i g . 5.6 Peak runoff c o e f f i c i e n t : notation sketch.

I n p r a c t i c a l applications, i t i s common t o work w i t h o v e r a l l runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s which are

defined for various surface covers and are assumed t o remain constant during the storm. It i s
o f t e n desirable t o develop a composite runoff c o e f f i c i e n t based on the percentage of d i f f e r e n t
types of surfaces i n a drainage area. The peak runoff c o e f f i c i e n t i s the weighted average o f
the c o e f f i c i e n t s for i n d i v i d u a l subareas according t o Equation 5.7 :

(5.7)

81
This procedure i s o f t e n applied t o t y p i c a l "sample" blocks as a guide t o selection o f
reasonable values o f the c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the e n t i r e area. Runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r various
surface covers currently used i n p r a c t i c e are given i n Table 5.6.

Table 5.6 Typical runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r various surfaces and 2- t o 10-year design

r e t u r n period ( a f t e r WCF, 1970a; ATV, 1982a; and CIEH, 1984).

Character o f Surface Runoff Coefficients

Pavements

Asphaltic and concrete 0,70 - 0,95

Brick 0,70 - 0,85
Gravel and cobblestone 0,25 - 0,60
Sand and gravel sidewalks and roads 0,15 - 0,30
Tarred s t r e e t s and sidewalks
Slope O - 3% 0,85
3 - 6% 0,90
>6% 0,95

Lateral streets O -5% 0,35

>5% 0,50

Steep roofs 0,75 -0,95

metal and s l a t e 0,95
t i l e s and roofing f e l t 0,90
F l a t roofs 0,50 -0,75

Sandy s o i l :
Flat 2% 0,05 - 0,lO
Average 2 - 7% 0,lO - 0,15
steep 7% 0,15 - 0,20

Heavy s o i l :
Flat 2% 0,13 - 0,17
Average 2 - 7% 0,18 - 0,22
Steep 7% 0,25 - 0,35

Other surfaces

Undeveloped land 0,05

Treated land (gardens) 0,10
Sport f i e l d s and playgrounds 0,20
Railway yards 0,20

The c o e f f i c i e n t s i n Table 5.6 are applicable f o r storms with frequencies from 2 t o

10 years. Less frequent, higher-intensity storms would r e q u i r e the use o f l a r g e r c o e f f i c i e n t s ,
because i n f i l t r a t i o n and other losses would have a proportionally smaller e f f e c t on runoff. On
t h e other hand, f o r storms with lower i n t e n s i t i e s , one could use smaller values. The above
c o e f f i c i e n t s are based on an assumption t h a t the design storm does not occur when the ground
surface i s frozen. The reported p r a c t i c e indicates t h a t the composite runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s ,
selected on the basis o f experience, produce acceptable r e s u l t s and require l i m i t e d e f f o r t f o r
evaluation o f component factors.

5.2.3.2 @ - Index
The @-index which i s used as a bookkeeping method f o r pervious areas, accounts f o r intercep-
t i o n , evaporation, wetting, depression and i n f i l t r a t i o n abstractions, i n order t o estimate a

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uniform abstraction r a t e from actual storm r a i n f a l l and runoff records. By subtracting the
runoff volume from the t o t a l r a i n f a l l volume, the t o t a l volume o f abstractions i s obtained. If
t h i s volume i s divided by the observed r a i n f a l l duration, a uniform abstraction ( l o s s ) r a t e i s
obtained, which i s c a l l e d the @-index. I f the runoff measurements were taken i n n a t u r a l
channels or streams, baseflow should be subtracted from the hydrograph.
Although the @-index method i s a r a t h e r crude procedure, p a r t i c u l a r l y because o f t h e
assumption o f constant r a t h e r than decreasing abstraction r a t e s , i t may be o f t e n t h e best
method a v a i l a b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r l a r g e r watersheds. The W-index i s a refinement o f t h e
@-index i n t h a t i t excludes surface storage and r e t e n t i o n (Chow, 1964).

5.3 SEPARATE CALCULATIONS OF RUNOFF VOLUME AND PEAK

5.3.1 Application of separate calculations

Calculation methods providing only the peak runoff r a t e o r runoff volume may be derived from
l o c a l data using generally applicable c o e f f i c i e n t methods. While the methods derived from
l o c a l observations are applicable only t o the monitored area o r very s i m i l a r conditions, other
c o e f f i c i e n t methods are generally applicable. Such methods r e l y on gross assumptions f o r rain-
f a l l abstractions (Section 5 . 2 . 3 ) and on the choice o f frequency and duration o f t h e design
r a i n f a l l (Chapter 4 ) . Obviously, such assumptions r e s u l t i n considerable v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e
magnitude o f design parameters. The s i m p l i s t i c scope o f these methods permits and requires, t o
a l a r g e extent, subjective judgement i n t h e i r application. T h i s i s especially t r u e f o r t h e
calculations o f runoff peaks and volumes f o r d i f f e r e n t choices o f design storm frequency. In
calculations o f runoff peaks, l a r g e errors can be caused by erroneous estimates o f the time o f
concentration and t h e corresponding r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y . Because most urban drainage areas a r e
f a i r l y small, the times o f concentration are r e l a t i v e l y short and t h i s contributes t o r e l a -
t i v e l y l a r g e errors i n t h e i r estimates. Such short times then correspond t o t h e steepest
p o r t i o n of the intensity-duration-frequency curves and t h i s may further magnify the o v e r a l l
e r r o r i n the calculated runoff peak. Although the runoff peak and volume a r e t h e key quanti-
t i e s f o r sizing sewers and detention basins, the r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t methods t o t h e
evaluation o f i n d i v i d u a l single storm events i s a severe l i m i t a t i o n . Rather than providing a
l a r g e d r a i n capacity required t o remove runoff without delay from the catchment area, i t may be
more economical t o provide l o c a l detention storage which releases runoff over a longer period
and reduces the requirements on d r a i n capacity. E f f e c t i v e design o f such integrated systems
requires the use o f complete runoff hydrographs and, therefore, i t precludes the use o f c o e f f i -
c i e n t methods. Nevertheless f o r sewer sizing i n small drainage areas, c o e f f i c i e n t methods a r e
widely used and useful, i f applied c o r r e c t l y .

5.3.2 Runoff volume estimation methods

The runoff curve number method o f the S o i l Conservation Services (SCS) i s a procedure f r e -
quently used f o r estimating runoff volume from storm r a i n f a l l . The SCS equation f o r p r e d i c t i n g
runoff volume reads as follows:

(P-O, 2 S I 2
Q E for P > 0,2 S (5.8)
P + 0,8S

Q = O for P < 0,2 S

where Q = t o t a l runoff volume (mm),

P = t o t a l storm r a i n f a l l (mm), and
S = p o t e n t i a l maximum r e t e n t i o n a f t e r runoff begins (mm).

I n Equation 5.8, the term 0,2S represents the i n i t i a l abstraction t h a t accounts f o r a l l

losses p r i o r t o t h e s t a r t o f runoff and consists mainly o f interception, i n f i l t r a t i o n , evapora-
t i o n , and surface depression storage.
The p o t e n t i a l maximum r e t e n t i o n a f t e r runoff begins, S , i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s o i l and cover
conditions i n the watershed through the runoff curve number, CN, by the equation

S -
25400
CN
- 254 (5.9)

The hydrologic s o i l cover complex CN accounts f o r hydrologic s o i l group, land use and
treatment class, and hydrologic condition. Soils a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o four groups (A,B,C & D )

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 according t o t h e i r minimum i n f i l t r a t i o n rate, which i s obtained f o r a bare s o i l a f t e r prolonged
wetting. Watershed cover conditions are described by l a n d use and treatment class. Land use
i s characterized by t h e watershed urban and/or a g r i c u l t u r a l cover which comprises a l l vegeta-
t i o n , fallows, water surfaces, and impervious surfaces. Land treatment r e f l e c t s a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r a c t i c e s , such as contouring, terracing, and management practices, f o r example, grazing
c o n t r o l , crop r o t a t i o n , and conservation t i l l a g e .
The hydrologic c o n d i t i o n i s a measure o f t h e land use and treatment e f f e c t s on r u n o f f . A
good hydrologic c o n d i t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s o i l has a r e l a t i v e l y superior capacity f o r water .
infiltration. Examples of land use and treatment c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a good hydrologic c o n d i t i o n
i n c l u d e lawns o r crop r o t a t i o n s which have a l a r g e amount o f dense vegetation, l a n d w i t h a
s m a l l percentage o f impervious cover, p r a c t i c e s leaving vegetative residue on t h e land surface,
and p r a c t i c e s l e a v i n g a rough surface. The CN i s an i n d i c a t o r o f t h e r u n o f f p o t e n t i a l f o r a
unique hydrologic s o i l cover complex and ranges from O t o 100. The CN's f o r c u l t i v a t e d and
non-cultivated a g r i c u l t u r a l lands represent average watershed r u n o f f conditions, when f l o o d i n g
occurs, and were determined by f i t t i n g a median curve t o t h e measured r a i n f a l l and r u n o f f data
from small a g r i c u l t u r a l watershed areas. The CN's f o r developing and f u l l y developed urban
areas were obtained f r o m comparisons and i n t e r p o l a t i o n s o f data i n d i c a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f
imperviousness on r u n o f f and r u n o f f t r a n s p o r t from impervious areas t o t h e drainage system.
D e t a i l s o f t h i s method are given elsewhere (U.S. Department o f Agriculture, SCS, 1 9 7 5 ) .

5.3.3 Peak r u n o f f e s t i m a t i o n methods

The best method f o r estimating peak r u n o f f r a t e s i n ungauged catchments, f o r given recurrence

i n t e r v a l s , i s t o develop p r e d i c t i o n equations based on measurable storm and watershed charac-
teristics. The development o f these equations requires an extensive data base o f measured peak
r u n o f f rates. The forms o f these equations and techniques o f t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n are manifold.
Popular techniques i n c l u d e l i n e a r and nonlinear regressions y i e l d i n g expressions w i t h indepen-
dent v a r i a b l e s r a i s e d t o various powers. I n other approaches, t h e independent v a r i a b l e s are
grouped t o form dimensionless parameters r a i s e d t o a power. The most common v a r i a b l e s used i n
' t h i s approach are t h e drainage area, channel length, watershed slope, stream slope, watershed
storage, mean annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n , r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y f o r given d u r a t i o n and recurrence i n t e r -
val, b a n k - f u l l discharge, r u r a l peak r u n o f f r a t e f o r a given recurrence i n t e r v a l , land use i n
t h e watershed, channel conditions, and percentage o f t h e t o t a l area serviced by storm drains,
curbs and g u t t e r s . These derived r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be presented i n t h e form o f equations o r
graphically. As an example o f t h e graphical form, t h e method developed by ïmhoff and Imhoff,
( 1 9 8 5 ) i s shown i n Figure 5 . 7 . I n t h i s method r u n o f f peaks are estimated from t h e sewer
length, f l o w v e l o c i t y and r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t . For example, assuming a sewer l e n g t h o f 7,5 Ian,
an average f l o w v e l o c i t y o f 2,O m/s and a r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t o f 15%, a peak r u n o f f f l o w r a t e o f
1 1 l / s * h a i s obtained from Figure 5.7 (see t h e worked out example i n t h i s f i g u r e ) .
The above procedure i s given here o n l y as an example o f d e r i v a t i o n o f design graphs from
extensive l o c a l observations. Such design graphs are n o t generally applicable. The graphs i n
Figure 5.7 apply o n l y t o t h e conditions s i m i l a r t o those i n t h e northwestern p a r t o f t h e
Federal Republic o f Germany. These conditions are characterized by c e r t a i n surface covers and
r a i n f a l l characteristics. The data base r e q u i r e d f o r t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f peak r u n o f f estimation
methods must be s u f f i c i e n t l y long t o ensure t h a t events o f t h e magnitude o f t h e desired design
frequency are included i n t h i s base. I n addition, t h e catchment c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t i n g storm
r u n o f f must remain more o r l e s s constant throughout t h e p e r i o d o f observations. Such r e s t r i c -
t i o n s , however, can be seldom met because o f usual changes i n urban development.

5.3.4 Peak r u n o f f c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e r a t i o n a l method

I n t h e r a t i o n a l method, t h e peak r u n o f f r a t e i s r e l a t e d t o r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y by t h e formula

Q = k = C * I * A (5.10)

where Q = peak r u n o f f r a t e i n l i t r e d s ,
C = runoff coefficient,
I = average r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y i n l i t r e s / s * h a f o r a d u r a t i o n equal t o t h e time o f
concentration, Tc,
A = drainage area i n ha, and
k = general f a c t o r f o r r e d u c t i o n o f t h e r u n o f f peak. I f other u n i t s f o r Q and Ia r e
used, a unit conversion f a c t o r has t o be included i n Equation 5.10.

The underlying p r i n c i p l e o f t h e r a t i o n a l method i s t h e assumption t h a t , f o r r a i n f a l l o f a

constant i n t e n s i t y , t h e maximum discharge w i l l occur a t a b a s i n o u t l e t a t t h e time when t h e

84
e n t i r e area upstream of the o u t l e t i s contributing runoff. This time i s r e f e r r e d t o as the
time o f concentration which i s defined as the time required f o r runoff t o t r a v e l from t h e
h y d r a u l i c a l l y most d i s t a n t point i n the basin t o the o u t l e t . For s i m p l i c i t y , the average flow
v e l o c i t y along t h i s path i s taken as 1 m/s. To account f o r the reduction i n runoff peak
because of the t r a v e l time and f o r s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r a i n f a l l i n l a r g e r catchments, t h e
k-factor i s added. Other key assumptions o f the r a t i o n a l method include the following:
- The frequency or r e t u r n period o f the computed peak flow i s the same as t h a t o f the
design storm,
- The r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y i s constant f o r the e n t i r e r a i n f a l l duration and s p a t i a l l y
uniform f o r the whole area under analysis,
- The necessary basin characteristics can be i d e n t i f i e d , and
- The runoff c o e f f i c i e n t does not vary during the storm.

RUNOFF COEFFICIENT
IN '10
5 10 15 20
aoxlco

2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

SEWER LENGTH ( k m )

F i g . 5.7 Estimation o f runoff peaks from sewer lengths, flow v e l o c i t i e s

and runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s ( a f t e r Imhoff and Imhoff, 1985).

The contributing area a t any point under consideration i n a drainage system i s t h e only
element of the r a t i o n a l method subject t o precise determination. Boundaries o f the drainage
area may be established by f i e l d surveys o r from s u i t a b l e maps o r a e r i a l photographs. The
e n t i r e drainage area i s subdivided i n t o subareas, each of which drains i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r

85
inlet. This r e q u i r e s a p r e l i m i n a r y l a y o u t o f the system and t e n t a t i v e l o c a t i o n s o f i n l e t
points. Rearrangements o f t h e system l a y o u t o r o f i n l e t l o c a t i o n s o f t e n become necessary as
t h e design proceeds.
The determination o f values o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t C i s d i f f i c u l t because t h i s f a c t o r combines
many v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n , ground slope, ground cover, surface depression storage,
antecedent p r e c i p i t a t i o n and s o i l moisture, shape o f t h e drainage area, overland f l o w v e l o c i t y ,
and others. A d e t a i l e d discussion o f t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t and i t s values f o r p r a c t i c a l applica-
t i o n s were given e a r l i e r i n Section 5.2.3. As described i n Chapter 4, t h e determination o f t h e
r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y I f o r drainage design involves considerations o f an average frequency o f
r a i n f a l l occurrence, i n t e n s i t y - d u r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r a i n f a l l f o r t h i s selected frequency
o f occurrence, and an estimate o f t h e time o f concentration. As already discussed, a l l of
these components depend on s u b j e c t i v e judgement.
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e use o f t h e r a t i o n a l method has been recommended f o r small areas,
u s u a l l y l e s s than 300 ha, w i t h tree-type drainage networks. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r a t i o n a l
method i n planning i s f u r t h e r discussed i n Chapter 8. I n l a r g e r basins, t h e sewer o r channel
system i s more complex and proper analysis o f such systems u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s t h e use o f hydro-
graph methods which account f o r f l o w r o u t i n g and channel storage e f f e c t s ( K i b l e r , 1982). In
s p i t e o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e r a t i o n a l method, long time experience w i t h i t s use has r e s u l t e d
i n p r a c t i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f i t s v a r i a b l e s and i t s generalized representation of r u n o f f i a
f e a s i b l e i f t h e designer uses judgement i n evaluating t h e component f a c t o r s . Thus, t h e
r a t i o n a l method, i f c o r r e c t l y used, y i e l d s s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s f o r r e l a t i v e l y small areas.
I n d i f f e r e n t countries, various m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e b a s i c r a t i o n a l method have been
developed, accounting f o r slope and shape o f t h e drainage area, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f impervious
areas w i t h i n t h e catchment and t h e magnitude o f t h e design r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y . Such modifica-
t i o n s are u s u a l l y reported i n n a t i o n a l handbooks, such as those prepared by WPCF (1970a) and
ATV (1982a and 198233). Because these m o d i f i c a t i o n s are t i e d t o network c a l c u l a t i o n s , they a r e
f u r t h e r discussed i n Chapter 8.

5.3.5 S u b s t i t u t i o n hydrographs derived by t h e r a t i o n a l method

The peak f l o w computed by t h e r a t i o n a l method may be considered as t h e peak o f an e q u i l a t e r a l

t r i a n g u l a r hydrograph w i t h a base l e n g t h equal t o t w o times t h e time o f concentration. This
assumption holds t r u e o n l y i f t h e d u r a t i o n o f the r a i n f a l l i s assumed equal t o the time o f
concentration, which i s t h e normal design assumption i n t h e r a t i o n a l method.
I f t h e r a i n f a l l d u r a t i o n i s longer than the time o f concentration, a trapezoidal hydro-
graph i s obtained and i t s peak flow i s again equal t o C I A as p r e v i o u s l y derived. However, f o r
a given frequency, t h e peak flow o f t h e t r a p e z o i d a l hydrograph i s smaller than t h a t o f t h e
t r i a n g u l a r hydrograph because t h e i n t e n s i t y o f r a i n f a l l decreases w i t h t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e
rainfall. Thus, f o r any r a i n f a l l frequency-intensity-duration curve described i n Chapter 4, i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o draw a f a m i l y of hydrographs, as shown i n Figure 5.8, w i t h increasing r a i n f a l l
durations. The t r i a n g u l a r hydrograph, shown i n Figure 5.8 and derived f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f
r a i n f a l l equal t o t h e time o f concentration, gives, as p r e v i o u s l y stated, t h e maximum r u n o f f
r a t e and i s normally used f o r s i z i n g sewer pipes and other conveyance elements. However, other
hydrographs i n Figure 5.8, which have a t r a p e z o i d a l shape, produce greater volumes o f r u n o f f .
Such volumes a r e equal t o t h e area o f hydrograph trapezoids.
Once such a f a m i l y o f hydrographs has been developed, t h e storage volume o f a d e t e n t i o n
b a s i n may be computed f o r an allowable o u t f l o w r a t e from t h e basin. However, t h i s procedure i s
n o t recommended f o r general use, because superior hydrologic and hydrodynamic methods a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r hydrograph c a l c u l a t i o n , as discussed i n t h e next section.
' B y p l o t t i n g t h e allowable o u t f l o w hydrograph i n conjunction w i t h t h e f a m i l y o f r u n o f f
hydrographs, t h e r e q u i r e d storage volume o f t h e detention b a s i n can be computed as the maximum
area (storage volume) below one o f t h e t r a p e z o i d a l hydrographs and above t h e o u t f l o w hydrograph
( t h e cross-hatched area i n Figure 5.8).
Although t h e use o f t h e r a t i o n a l method hydrograph procedure seems a t t r a c t i v e because o f
i t s ease and s i m p l i c i t y , t h e r e s u l t s may be inaccurate. Consequently, t h e use o f such a
procedure should be l i m i t e d t o small catchments w i t h areas o f 4 ha o r l e s s (Wanielista, 1979).
More r e l i a b l e hydrograph procedures, whose a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e c a l c u l a t i o n e f f o r t s comparable
t o those o f t h e r a t i o n a l method, are described i n Section 5.4.

5.4 HYDROGRAPH CALCULATION BY HYDROLOGIC METHODS

5.4.1 A p p l i c a t i o n o f hydrologic methods

As p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, a serious l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e r a t i o n a l method i s t h e f a c t t h a t i t y i e l d s

Only t h e peak flow. A major a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e e n t i r e r u n o f f hydrograph and t o

86
account f o r flow detention. As shown i n Section 5 . 3 . 5 , such a hydrograph can be approximated
by a procedure which adds more assumptions t o the r a t i o n a l method. However, i t i s preferable
t o derive runoff hydrographs by hydrologic or hydrodynamic methods, p a r t i c u l a r l y because these
methods allow f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f calculated hydrographs against the measured ones.

DI ;HARGE
rn

0,

Dc=Tc D2 D3 D4 TIME t
min

Fig. 5.8 Family o f hydrographs developed from the r a t i o n a l method

procedure ( a f t e r Wanielista, 1979).

While the hydrodynamic methods r e q u i r e c l e a r and d e t a i l e d hydraulic boundary conditions,

hydrologic methods are i n s e n s i t i v e t o changes i n such conditions along the flow path, as long
as the o v e r a l l catchment and system c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s remain constant i n space and time. There-
fore, surface runoff or combinations o f runoff and sewer flow may be modelled w i t h hydrologic
methods, even though the flow path changes as water flows from roofs t o drains, from sidewalks
t o gutters, and from gutters i n t o sewers. Transfer functions or model parameters, which form a
substantial p a r t o f hydrologic methods, r e f l e c t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the t o t a l area. There-
fore, the input requirements f o r hydrologic methods are much l e s s d e t a i l e d and intensive than
those f o r hydrodynamic methods, and b a s i c a l l y represent proper d e f i n i t i o n s o f t r a n s f e r func-
t i o n s and model parameters. The s i m p l i c i t y of the hydrologic methods r e s u l t s i n l i m i t e d
mathematical e f f o r t s and low computing time requirements.
While f o r empirical formulae of the r a t i o n a l method type the design i n t e n s i t y represents
the r a i n f a l l input, actual r a i n f a l l patterns or synthetic design storm hyetographs serve as
r a i n f a l l inputs f o r hydrograph c a l c u l a t i o n methods. For d e r i v a t i o n o f design frequencies and
design storms, the reader i s r e f e r r e d t o Chapter 4 .

5.4.2 Conceptual models

The conceptual approach t o the modelling o f r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f processes i n a given catchment i s

mainly based on system analysis i n which the catchment i s considered as a system converting
input, the r a i n f a l l , i n t o an output, the runoff a t the catchment o u t l e t (see Figure 5 . 9 ) .
Mathematically, the catchment i s represented by a response function, h, transforming
inputs, I l s , i n t o outputs, Q ' s . Thus, the conceptual modelling o f t h e r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f
processes b a s i c a l l y consists i n i d e n t i f y i n g the function h. That may be accomplished i n two
ways, e i t h e r by an a n a l y t i c a l approach based on the system analysis theory o r by t h e synthesis
approach i n which an a p r i o r i given function h i s f i t t e d t o the r a i n f a l l , runoff and catchment
data.

87
 RAINFALL
I(t,x,y)-
INPUT
CATCHMENT
- RUNOFF
Q(t,x,,yJ
OUTPUT

Fig. 5.9 Transformation of r a i n f a l l i n t o runoff.

5.4.3 A n a l y t i c a l d e r i v a t i o n of the t r a n s f e r function

The a n a l y t i c a l d e r i v a t i o n of the transfer function i s e s s e n t i a l l y based on the l i n e a r systems

theory. The simplest form of the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f transformation i s given by the c l a s s i c a l
convolution i n t e g r a l f o r a lumped, l i n e a r , time-invariant system w r i t t e n as follows:

(5.11)

For continuous r a i n f a l l excess I e x ( t ) and runoff Q ( t ) , the function h, which i s called

t h e transfer function, represents the system response t o a Dirac impulse function. I n hydro-
l o g i c applications, t h i s function h i s c a l l e d the Instantaneous U n i t Hydrograph ( I U H ) .
Figure 5.10 shows the transformation described by Equation 5.11.
According t o the l i n e a r system theory, some other forms of the convolution i n t e g r a l
(Equation 5 . 1 2 ) may have t o be used i n special cases. For example, i f the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f
process varies i n time and space, the corresponding system i s considered t o be time-varying and
s p a t i a l l y distributed. Equation 5 . 1 1 i s then r e w r i t t e n i n the following form:

(5.12)

where A i s the catchment area. Usually, the r a i n f a l l input i n the form of hyetographs i s given
i n a d i s c r e t e form, and consequently, Equation 5 . 1 1 i s w r i t t e n as:

Q(jAt) = ï(iAt) H(t-j)At (5.13)

i =1

where the function H i s the system response t o a u n i t volume input over the duration o f A t .
The function H i s known as the so-called u n i t hydrograph which was f i r s t derived by Sherman
(1932) and further developed by many other researchers (Chow, 1964).
The d e r i v a t i o n of the function H may be accomplished by various mathematical methods.
However, the most widely used method i s t h a t based on the matrix form o f Equation 5.13 which i s
given as Equation 5.14 below:

Qi

.
42

. (5.14)

Qm
o r as
IH = Q (5.15)

88
 +
Ittu- f-T I

-+----*I
t -t
GI- lex
+t" +
Fig. 5.10 Determination of storm runoff hydrograph by the u n i t hydrograph method.

89
 I n general the problem posed by the discrete convolution r e l a t i o n i s over-determined
because there are more equations than unknowns (m > n ) . A unique solution can be obtained by
applying the least-squares c r i t e r i o n f o r minimization of the r e s i d u a l sum of squares. This i s
a widely used expedient and a v a r i e t y o f treatments o f least-squares methqds can be found i n
algebra o r s t a t i s t i c a l handbooks. The use of the l e a s t squares method t o derive a unit hydro-
graph from observed data o f t e n produces an u n r e a l i s t i c solution. A common f a u l t i s t h a t the
derived unit hydrograph i s unstable and even contains negative ordinates. O f course the
response o f a catchment t o a pulse o f n e t r a i n f a l l should be smooth w i t h usually j u s t one maxi-
mum point and t w o i n f l e x i o n points, one on the r i s i n g limb and one on the receding limb. The
above anomaly stems from the f a c t t h a t the unit hydrograph i s defined i n terms o f a l a r g e
number of parameters (ordinates) and consequently has the f l e x i b i l i t y t o approximate very
closely the observed r e l a t i o n s h i p between n e t r a i n f a l l and quick-response runoff. The l e a s t
squares c r i t e r i o n ensures t h a t t h i s i s done, and, i n the absence of any r e s t r i c t i o n s on the
r e l a t i v e values o f the ordinates, the end product can be an unstable unit hydrograph.
Various modifications t o the least-squares method have been proposed t o ensure the
s t a b i l i t y o f derived u n i t hydrographs. The r e s t r i c t e d least-squares method a t t a i n s a stable
r e s u l t by reducing the number o f ordinates defining the u n i t hydrograph. A simpler a l t e r n a t i v e
i s t o smooth out the derived unit hydrograph. Various methods f o r smoothing derived unit
hydrographs and averaging techniques f o r i n d i v i d u a l l y derived u n i t hydrographs are discussed by
Boorman and Reed (1981).
From numerical solutions of Equation 5.15, some researchers t r i e d t o derive empirical
relationships f o r unit hydrographs i n order t o f i n d some s p e c i f i c hydrograph patterns t h a t
could be used f o r ungauged catchments. This has been r a r e l y successful and, therefore, the
a n a l y t i c a l approach i s seldom used i n urban hydrology.

5.4.4 Synthesis o f the t r a n s f e r function

I n the approach based on synthesis, a given function h i s applied t o r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f data and

the function parameters are f i t t e d t o the data using some c r i t e r i a f o r the goodness of f i t .
Many functions can be used f o r t h i s purpose. I n such procedures, the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f process
i s considered as a r e s u l t of t w o elementary effects:
- Translation effects by means of which the input I e x ( t ) translates i n t o Q ( t + T ) , where T
i s a t r a n s l a t i o n ( l a g ) time, and
-
Storage e f f e c t s described by a general storage equation i n the form:

N M
S(t) = (5.16)
n=O

where S ( t ) i s the water temporarily stored on the catchment and qi and B, are storage con-
stants.
Thus, a conceptual r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f model derived by the synthetic approach w i l l comprise
t h e following terms:
-The continuity equation, i . e . ,

- Various equations describing the t r a n s l a t i o n and/or storage e f f e c t s . AIthough there are

no r e s t r i c t i o n s on the v a r i e t y o f such conceptual models, only a few of them produced
s a t i s f a c t o r y , r e s u l t s for urban catchments. These are discussed i n the following
sections.

5.4.4.1 Models considering t r a n s l a t i o n e f f e c t s only

The so-called isochrone model i s the most widely used t r a n s l a t i o n conceptual model. I n this
approach, each point i n the catchment i s assigned a t r a v e l time required by a water p a r t i c l e t o
reach the o u t l e t o f the catchment. By connecting a l l the points w i t h equal t r a v e l times, the
so-called isochrones are obtained. The maximum t r a v e l time i s c a l l e d the time of concentra-
tion. BY i n t e g r a t i n g the areas contained by i n d i v i d u a l isochrones, a time-area diagram i s
constructed as shown i n Figure 5.11. According t o t h i s figure, the area contributing runoff
increases l i n e a r l y with time u n t i l the r a i n f a l l duration equals ( o r exceeds) the time o f
concentration and the t o t a l area contributes runoff .
90
 From the mathematical point of view, the isochrone method should be considered as a
s p a t i a l l y - d i s t r i b u t e d , time-invariant, l i n e a r model. For a d i s c r e t e input, the system equation
may be w r i t t e n as:

n
~~

Q(n dt) = 1 I,, j A ( n + l - j ) (5.18)

j=1

where A ( n + l - j ) i s the ordinate of the time-area diagram (see Figure 5 . 1 1 ) . Equation 5.18 may
be w r i t t e n i n a matrix form similar t o t h a t o f Equation 5 . 1 4 . The response function i s given
by the time-area diagram. Such a model can take i n t o account the a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of rain-
f a l l or runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s over the catchment. I n t h a t case, Equation 5.18 can be r e w r i t t e n
as :

where Ï and are t h e mean r a i n f a l l and mean runoff c o e f f i c i e n t during t h e j-th time i n t e r v a l ,
respectively, and are r e l a t e d t o the A(n=l-j) element of the area. I t should be noted t h a t
t h e function h i s not specified here, but simply given by the catchment characteristics.
Consequently, t h i s model, i f adequate, could be used f o r ungauged catchments. On the other
hand, when t h i s model i s f i t t e d t o a given data set, i t can be used t o i d e n t i f y runoff c o e f f i -
cients. However, the neglect o f storage e f f e c t s , inherent t o t h i s model, w i l l generally lead
t o overestimates o f runoff or runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s .

PLAN OF SITE SHOWING ISOCHRONES

DRAINAGE AREA A

TIME-AREA-DIAGRAM

r T O T A L

=maAt

Figure 5 . 1 1 Isochrone method.

91
5.4.4.2 Models considering storage e f f e c t s only

Among a l l the storage models t h a t could possibly be derived from Equations 5 . 1 6 and 5 . 1 7 , only
a few have been widely used and successfully tested. Several such models are discussed below.
The single l i n e a r reservoir model uses a s i m p l i f i e d form of Equation 5.16 i n the form:

S=KQ (5.20)

where K i s the only model parameter and i t i s expressed i n time units. The I U H o f t h i s model
can be expressed as:

h(t) = (l/K)e-t/K (5.21)

A d i s c r e t e i n t e g r a t i o n o f the model equation leads t o the following e x p l i c i t relationship:

Q( j At) = Q( (j-1)At) + ïex(j A t ) (l-e-At/K) (5.22)

The Muskingum l i n e a r storage model uses a modified version o f Equation 5 . 1 6 i n the form:

S = K[xQ + ( I - X ) IeX1 (5.23)

where K and x are tvm model parameters. Usually, the Muskingum procedure equation i s estab-
l i s h e d by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t i a l equation derived from Equations 5.17 and
5.23, f o r constant K and x, i n the following form:

(5.24)

A d i s c r e t i z e d numerical i n t e g r a t i o n o f Equation 5.24 w i l l generally lead t o an e x p l i c i t

r e l a t i o n s h i p w r i t t e n as:

The cascade o f l i n e a r storage reservoirs (Nash, 1957) i s schematically shown i n

Figure 5.12. When a l l the reservoirs have the same K parameter, the IUH o f t h i s model i s
expressed as:

(5.26)

The cascade model has t w o parameters, K and n. I n p r a c t i c a l applications, n does not have
t o be an integer and the f a c t o r i a l ( n - l ) ! i n Equation 5.26 i s then replaced by the Gamma func-
tion.
A l l the three models discussed are l i n e a r and t h i s feature generally allows simple
e x p l i c i t calculations o f the runoff Q ( t ) . Some researchers also proposed various non-linear
storage models arguing t h a t the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f process i s non-linear. The most widely tested
and simplest non-linear storage model i s described by a storage equation i n the form:

s = K Q ~ (5.27)

This model has two parameters, K and n. From Equations 5 . 1 7 and 5.27, i t i s possible t o
d e r i v e a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation o f the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f process, f o r K and n i n v a r i a b l e i n time,
i n the following form:

(5.28)

For a given time i n t e r v a l , Equation 5.28 can be solved numerically using i m p l i c i t methods.

92
 U
HYDROGRAPHS

LINEAR STORAGE RESERVOIRS

Figure 5.12 Routing of instantaneous inflow through a series o f l i n e a r storage reservoirs.

5.4.4.3 Models considering both t r a n s l a t i o n and storage e f f e c t s

Although the combination of storage and t r a n s l a t i o n e f f e c t s should generally lead t o unlimited

modelling approaches, only a few such combinations have been tested against the actual data and
evaluated for general a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o the actual phenomena. Two such models are presented
below.
The isochrone method (also r e f e r r e d t o as a generalized r a t i o n a l method) can be combined
w i t h a l i n e a r reservoir. I n t h i s approach, the output Q(ndt given by Equation 5.18 i s routed
through a l i n e a r reservoir (Equation 5 . 2 2 ) .
The l i n e a r or non-linear reservoir models can be mod f i e d t o account for t r a n s l a t i o n
effects. The corresponding storage equations are written f o r a l i n e a r reservoir as:

(5.29)

and for a non-linear reservoir as:

S(t) = K Qn(t+T) (5.30)

where T i s a parameter r e f l e c t i n g t r a n s l a t i o n e f f e c t s (Kidd, 1978).

5.4.5 Determination of parameters of conceptual models

Usually, the determination of conceptual model parameters i s done by f i t t i n g the calculated

runoff t o the observed one using various f i t t i n g c r i t e r i a , such as for example, the least-
squares procedure. When the parameters are numerous, the f i t t i n g procedure becomes rather
complex. I t i s then desirable t o simplify the f i t t i n g procedure by determining one or more

93
parameters from some hydrodynamic considerations, as done f o r example f o r the non-linear reser-
v o i r model, and apply the f i t t i n g procedure t o the remaining parameters.
The f i t t i n g of a given model t o a sample of r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f data w i l l produce a sample o f
numerical values o f the model parameters. Except f o r the case o f constant parameters, t h e
r e s u l t i n g model with f i t t e d parameters w i l l be i n e f f e c t i v e i n predicting runoff from another
sample o f r a i n f a l l data, even i f the model f i t t e d w e l l the i n i t i a l data sample. Consequently,
some researchers used m u l t i v a r i a t e analysis techniques t o derive relationships between the
parameter values and the catchment and r a i n f a l l characteristics t h a t can be e a s i l y estimated.
For example, f o r the l i n e a r reservoir model, Viessman (1968) established the following ex-
pression, f o r the parameter K, applicable t o catchments w i t h areas up t o 4000 m , 2
slopes from 1
t o 8%, and various degree of imperviousness:

(n L I O , ~ ~
K = 0,525 (5.31)
0,33
SO

where n i s t h e Manning c o e f f i c i e n t o f roughness o f the catchment surface, L i s the maximum flow

length ( m ) , and So i s the mean slope along the flow path.
Desbordes (1978) applied the l i n e a r reservoir equation t o 21 U.S. and French urban catch-
ments w i t h areas up t o 100 ha. I n such cases, the t r a n s f e r function describes both surface
runoff and flow transport i n sewers. A m u l t i p l e regression of measured data yielded an equa-
t i o n f o r the parameter K i n the following form:

(5.32)

where A = the catchment area ( h a ) ,

TE the duration of the peak r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y (minutes),
L = the length of the catchment (m),
so = the slope, dimensionless,
NTE = the t o t a l r a i n f a l l (mm) f o r the duration TE, and
a = (area contributing r u n o f f ) / ( t o t a l area).

Again, a f t e r including r a i n f a l l the model a c t u a l l y becomes nonlinear.

Further d e t a i l s on the determination o f parameters o f conceptual models, especially f o r
l i n e a r reservoirs i n series and non-linear single reservoirs, can be found i n Chow (19641, Dyck
(1980) and Kidd (1978).
However, i t should be emphasized t h a t such equations as 5.31 and 5.32 are s t a t i s t i c a l l y
based and depend on the characteristics o f the catchment sampled, the general c l i m a t i c and
urbanization c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and other factors. Consequently, they should not be used without
some t e s t i n g o f t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o other specific conditions.

5.5 HYDROGRAPH CALCULATIONS BY HYDRODYNAMIC AND SIMPLIFIED HYDRODYNAMIC METHODS

5.5.1 Application o f hydrodynamic methods

While hydrologic methods use functions t o transform r a i n f a l l patterns i n t o discharge hydro-

graphs and derive the corresponding water l e v e l s from steady-state flow relationships, hydro-
dynamic methods solve physically-based equations of conservation of mass and momentum using
water l e v e l and discharge as dependent variables and time and space as independent variables.
Geometrical data are used t o describe e f f e c t s of r e t e n t i o n and only basic hydrologic parameters
are needed t o represent additional phenomena such as f r i c t i o n .
I n hydrodynamic stormwater computations, the following three subsystems are commonly
distinguished:
- surface runoff
- sewer flow, and
- streamflow or flow i n other types of receiving waters.
I n general, each o f the above subsystems can influence only the downstream subsystems.
Consequently, t h e subsystems can be t r e a t e d one a f t e r another, proceeding i n the d i r e c t i o n o f
flow. Computational r e s u l t s f o r the upstream subsystem then serve as boundary conditions f o r
the downstream subsystem. Because the f i r s t subsystem, surface runoff, i s t y p i c a l l y calculated
by means o f c o e f f i c i e n t methods, hydrological methods or s i m p l i f i e d hydrodynamic methods (e.g.,
t h e kinematic wave equation), the section on hydrodynamic methods deals mostly with sewer
flow.

94
5.5.2 Hydrodynamic equations

Without s i g n i f i c a n t simplifications, sewer flow can be considered as a h o r i z o n t a l one-dimen-

sional unsteady g r a v i t y flow. Consequently, the so-called S t . Venant equations o f momentum and
continuity describe accurately discharge, or v e l o c i t y and depth, as functions o f distance and
time. I n terms of discharge, the continuity equation can be w r i t t e n as

2.32 = 0 (5.33)
at ax

and the momentum equation can be w r i t t e n as

1aq.ta
gA at gA ax
(O2)
A
+ COS 8 -
ah
at
- (so-sf) = O (5.34)

I n terms of v e l o c i t y , Equations 5.33 and 5.34 can be w r i t t e n as

(5.35)

(5.36)

where Q = the discharge,

v = the velocity,
h = the depth measured normal t o the channel bottom,
So = the channel slope,
8 = the angle between channel bottom and the horizontal,
D = the r a t i o of flow area t o water surface width ( t h e mean hydraulic depth),
x = the distance i n the d i r e c t i o n of flow, and
Sf = the f r i c t i o n slope.

The transient nonuniform flow i n a sewer pipe i s shown i n Figure 5.13.

I n Equations 5.34 and 5.36, Sf i s usually evaluated using the Manning or Darcy-Weisbach
formulae, w i t h Sf replacing So, and using the l o c a l values o f discharge, v e l o c i t y and
depth. Both Manning and Darcy-Weisbach formulae are further discussed i n Chapter 6.

5.5.3 S i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the hydrodynamic equations

Because of the complexity of the S t . Venant equations, numerous s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s are used i n

t h e i r applications. Table 5.7 summarizes various forms and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f the momentum
equation.
I n Equations 5.36 t o 5.40, & / a t i s the l o c a l acceleration r e s u l t i n g from the change o f
v e l o c i t y with time ( t r a n s i e n t flow), av/ax i s the convective acceleration r e s u l t i n g from the
change of v e l o c i t y i n flow d i r e c t i o n (nonuniform flow) and a(h*cos 0)/ax i s the change o f water
depth i n flow d i r e c t i o n . The simplest form of the momentum equation i s the kinematic wave
approximation which neglects a l l except the l a s t t w o terms of the complete momentum Equa-
t i o n 5.36 (see Equation 5.40). I f Equation 5.40 i s combined w i t h the continuity equation, the
r e s u l t i n g calculation, y i e l d s a routed hydrograph which t h e o r e t i c a l l y has no attenuation o f t h e
peak. I n such calculations, only hydrograph t r a n s l a t i o n and some shape modification are
achieved. Note, however, t h a t the numerical procedure usually introduces some numerical atten-
uation. I f i n addition t o using Equation 5.40 the v e l o c i t y v i n the continuity Equation 5.35
i s kept constant, the runoff hydrograph i s only translated and i t s shape remains unchanged.
The diffusion-wave approximation, Equation 5.39, incorporates the l a s t three terms o f
Equation 5.36 and thereby permits hydrograph attenuation. The quasi-steady dynamic wave,
Equation 5.38, adds the convective v e l o c i t y term and leads t o a more accurate description o f
the hydrograph movement which i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n the complete momentum equation.
A complete analysis of the e f f e c t s of neglecting i n d i v i d u a l terms of Equation 5.36 on the
runoff hydrograph was given by Verworn (1980). His numerical t e s t s were c a r r i e d out f o r a
1000 m sewer pipe w i t h a slope of 1%, a S t r i c k l e r roughness c o e f f i c i e n t of 40
(Manning n = 0,025 ( ~ m - ~ / ~ a ) , baseflow of 0,075 m3/s and a f r e e outflow. I n these calcula-
tions, the pipe length was discretized i n t o 20 m sections and a time step of 20 s was used. As
a flow input, t w o hydrographs of d i f f e r e n t steepness, denoted as QZ i n Figures 5.14 and 5.15,

95
were used. The n o t a t i o n assigned t o t h e routed hydrographs i n Figures 5.14 and 5.15
corresponds t o t h a t l i s t e d f o r various s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e momentum equation i n Table 5.7.

Fig. 5.13 Transient non-uniform f l o w i n a sewer pipe.

Table 5.7 S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e momentum-equation

Equation
Case Flow Mode Equation Number

A Transient- -1 -
av + 2+-
a (hecos 8) =
5.36
nonuniform (complete at ax ax so-sf
momentum equation)

B Transient-uniform -I -
av + -
a (h*cos 8 )
ax i- So-Sf 5.37
9 at
C Simplified transient- 5.38
nonuniform (quasi-
steady dynamic wave)

a
D Simplified transient
uniform ( d i f f u s i o n wave)
-
ax (h'cos 8) = So-Sf
5.39

E Kinematic wave O = So-Sf 5.40a

v = f(h)

F Kinematic wave O = sO-sf 5.40b

v = v, = constant

96
 Q
mYs

-
I

0,80
.
I

INPUT 1
0,60
m

0,40

-
m

O, 20

t
O IO 20 30 40 SO 60 70 60 90 min

Fig. 5 . 1 4 Flow routing using f u l l and s i m p l i f i e d S t . Venant equations: runoff

hydrographs f o r input hydrograph No. 1 ( a f t e r Verworn, 1 9 8 0 ) .

Q
mYs

INPUT 2

O I W W I 8 I W W I t
O, 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 min

Fig. 5.15 Flow routing using f u l l and s i m p l i f i e d S t . Venant equations: runoff

hydrographs f o r input hydrograph No. 2 ( a f t e r Verworn, 1980).

The magnitudes of deviations r e s u l t i n g from neglecting av/at, case B, or av/ax, case C,

from the r e s u l t s obtained by solving the complete S t . Venant equations are s i m i l a r . Case B
r e s u l t s i n s l i g h t l y l a r g e r and case C i n s l i g h t l y smaller runoff peaks, respectively. Case D
approximated best the exact solutions, case A, although both av/at and av/ax were neglected.
T h i s close agreement can be explained by the f a c t t h a t , i n case D, both neglected terms are o f
a similar magnitude, but opposite signs. Consequently, a b e t t e r f i t i s obtained by neglecting
both terms rather than one o f them. I n comparison t o case D, case E also neglects the term
aihocos w a x which i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e and i t s neglect leads t o increased errors. For both
inputs, case E produced higher runoff peaks than cases A, B and C. This i s caused by neglect-
i n g the r e t e n t i o n term. F i n a l l y , i n case FI i t i s assumed t h a t v = vo = constant, and
consequently, the input hydrograph i s simply translated from the i n l e t t o the o u t l e t . The l a g

97
time i s equal t o the time o f t r a v e l . This case corresponds t o the use of the r a t i o n a l method
as a hydrograph method (see Section 5.3.5).

5.5.4 Solution methods f o r the hydrodynamic equations

There are four basic methods f o r solving the complete S t . Venant equations:
- Analytical solutions which are feasible only f o r s i m p l i f i e d systems. They may be used
t o v e r i f y numerical solutions and t o study basic phenomena. Other than t h a t , they have
no p r a c t i c a l applications.
- Transformation i n t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equations which f a c i l i t a t e s graphical or numerical
solutions. For s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow as w e l l as for teaching purposes, t h i s i s a useful
method f o r computing sewer flow. I n general, the method o f characteristics i s con-
sidered t o be l e s s useful than the next two methods l i s t e d below.
- F i n i t e difference solutions o f the basic d i f f e r e n t i a l equations ( 5 . 3 3 and 5.341, and
- F i n i t e element solution by using the Galerkin approach.
The l a s t t w o methods may lead t o e i t h e r i m p l i c i t or e x p l i c i t equations. The former ones,
l i n e a r or nonlinear, have t o be solved simultaneously by i t e r a t i o n o r direct-solution tech-
niques, such as t h e Gauss algorithm. I n the l a t t e r case, t w o e x p l i c i t equations are solved f o r
every point i n time and space t o obtain the t w o independent variables.
Although the f i n i t e element and f i n i t e difference methods can be shown t o produce iden-
t i c a l r e s u l t s , t h e r e are some basic differences between i m p l i c i t and e x p l i c i t numerical
schemes. The i m p l i c i t schemes are unconditionally stable, but they are not always consistent
( i . e . , do not converge t o the proper solution). The i m p l i c i t schemes may be more complicated
t o solve, but t h e i r high computational e f f i c i e n c y leads t o reduced computer time requirements.
The double sweep method i s an important technique i n t h i s category (Cunge, 1961).
The e x p l i c i t numerical methods are stable only i f s u f f i c i e n t l y small time steps are used.
The selected time step should s a t i s f y the Courant c r i t e r i o n w r i t t e n as

Ax
A t < (5.41)

where A t i s the computational time step, Ax i s the length step, v i s the flow v e l o c i t y , h i s
the depth o f flow, and g i s the acceleration due t o g r a v i t y .
The major advantage o f e x p l i c i t schemes i s t h e i r consistency of stable solutions. This
somewhat compensates f o r lower sophistication and greater computer time requirements.
Numerous comparisons of various solution schemes have been c a r r i e d out (Brandstetter,
1976) without proving any p a r t i c u l a r method c l e a r l y superior t o others. The most important
d i f f e r e n c e can be seen i n the appropriate application of suitable models t o the problem a t
hand.

5.6 COMPARISONS OF VARIOUS RUNOFF COMPUTATION APPROACHES

I n summary, the estimation and c o e f f i c i e n t methods o f Section 5.3 y i e l d only discrete values o f
the peak flow and runoff volume. Such r e s u l t s are adequate only f o r smaller areas w i t h simple
tree-type sewer networks. A comprehensive overview o f the l i m i t a t i o n s o f the r a t i o n a l method
(Section 5.3.4) was given by McPherson (1969). When dealing w i t h larger urban drainage areas
and especially the design o f storage f a c i l i t i e s , the methods y i e l d i n g runoff hydrographs, which
were described i n Sections 5.4 and 5.5, should be used. The hydrological synthesis and hydro-
dynamic calculations given i n Sections 5 . 4 and 5.5 are preferable t o hydrograph derivations
based on c o e f f i c i e n t methods (given i n Section 5 . 3 . 5 1 , i n order t o avoid the extensive and
questionable assumptions required i n the l a t t e r approach. Advantages and disadvantages o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l methods were described i n Sections 5 . 3 . 1 , 5.4.1 and 5.5.1.
Comparative t e s t s o f various modelling approaches have been performed on hypothetical t e s t
catchments or sewer systems (Section 5.5.3) as well as on actual systems w i t h observed f i e l d
data. The comprehensive models f u r t h e r discussed i n Chapter 8 comprise mostly the basic
approaches and concepts given i n Sections 5 . 2 , 5.4 and 5.5. Further d e t a i l s of such models and
t h e i r computational schemes are given i n Chapter 8. Comparisons o f runoff models have been
conducted by t w o types o f research groups:
- Model builders t e s t i n g t h e i r own model and sometimes comparing i t w i t h other models
(Watkins, 1962 and 1976; Metcalf and Eddy e t a l . , 1971; Swinnerton e t a l . , 1972;
Papadakis and Preul, 1973; T e r s t r i e p and S t a l l , 1974; Watt aiid Kidd, 1975; Chow and Yen,
1975; H e l l i w e l l e t a l . , 1976; Kidd, 1978; Geiger and Dorsch, 1980; Geiger, 1 9 8 4 ) .
- Independent teams evaluating one or more models ( T e r s t r i e p and S t a l l , 1969; Waller
e t a l . , 1976; S t a l l and Terstriep, 1972; Heeps and Mein, 1973; Marsalek e t a l . , 1975;
MacLaren, 1975; Aitken, 1975; KWK/ATV, 1977; Abbott, 1978; Geiger, 1984).

98
 The most comprehensive overview of comparative t e s t s was provided by Colyer ( 1 9 7 7 ) . He
found t h a t peak discharge and runoff volume were best predicted by hydrologic methods
(Section 5 . 4 ) . The r a t i o n a l method (Section 5.3.5) has not performed well, p a r t l y because i t
i s s t r i c t l y a design method and some o f i t s assumptions a r e inappropriate f o r reproducing
actual events which are s i g n i f i c a n t l y smaller than the design event. While most of the models
tested were acceptable i n t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n o f time t o peak, the simulated runoff volumes
showed l a r g e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r accuracy. One of the l a t e r studies (Geiger, 1984) found t h a t
hydrograph calculations by hydrologic and hydrodynamic methods agreed'well w i t h f i e l d data from
a 5 4 0 ha urban catchment as long as the sewer system was not surcharged. However, f o r compre-
hensive sewer networks w i t h surcharging, the advantages o f the hydrodynamic methods may be
outweighted by numerical i n s t a b i l i t i e s . When examining model comparisons, i t should be
r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e i r r e s u l t s depend on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the study area, the accuracy o f
f i e l d measurements, author's experience with i n d i v i d u a l models and, l a s t but not l e a s t , the
author's objectives o r personal bias.
While applications of c o e f f i c i e n t and hydrologic methods r e q u i r e very l i t t l e data and
computing time, hydrodynamic calculations are extremely time consuming i n both data preparation
and computing. On the other hand, proper d e f i n i t i o n of parameters f o r the c o e f f i c i e n t and
hydrologic methods requires much more experience than the preparation o f data f o r hydrodynamic
methods.
F i n a l l y , while c o e f f i c i e n t methods can hardly be checked against f i e l d data, hydrologic
and hydrodynamic calculations can be e a s i l y compared w i t h measurements. Such measurements a r e
t o some extent necessary f o r successful application o f hydrologic models. Furthermore, v e r i f i -
cations of model r e s u l t s by f i e l d data increase the acceptance o f model r e s u l t s and designs
based on such calculations.
I n t e n t i o n a l l y , no recommendations t o use a s p e c i f i c method are given, because the success-
f u l application o f any method also depends on the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l o c a l data and the engineer-
i n g experience. For instance, the use o f the r a t i o n a l method by an experienced designer may
produce b e t t e r r e s u l t s than the application o f a hydrodynamic method by inexperienced per-
sonnel.

99
6 Hydraulics of conduits and open channels

6.1 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Drainage systems consist o f various conveyance elements and special structures which convey
runoff from the catchment surface t o the point of disposal. Descriptions of such elements and
structures were given i n Chapter 3. I n hydraulic design o f drainage systems, i t i s required t o
determine design flows i n a l l system elements using design parameters described i n Chapter 4
and computational procedures given i n Chapter 5 . After such design flows have been estab-
lished, i t i s possible t o proceed w i t h hydraulic design of i n d i v i d u a l conveyance elements and
special structures. Towards t h i s end, basic hydraulic p r i n c i p l e s required f o r s i z i n g o f con-
veyance elements, such as conduits and open channels, are discussed i n t h i s chapter. The
hydraulic design o f special drainage structures i s discussed i n Chapter 7 and special topics o f
network design are t r e a t e d i n Chapter 8.
A properly designed and functioning drainage system must e f f e c t i v e l y convey the maximum
discharge, f o r which i t i s designed, transport solids suspended i n runoff t o minimize t h e i r
deposits and the r e s u l t i n g odour nuisance, and avoid s t r u c t u r a l damages due t o excessive flow
velocities. A hydraulic design meeting such performance c r i t e r i a i s not an easy task consider-
i n g large v a r i a t i o n s i n drainage flows and t h e i r composition. I t should be r e a l i z e d , however,
t h a t a cost e f f e c t i v e drainage system cannot be designed without a thorough hydraulic analysis
considering a l l drainage components as a system o f i n t e r r e l a t e d elements.
Drainage systems consist of open channels and subsurface conduits. Thus from the hydrau-
l i c s point o f view, both open-channel flow and pressure flow are encountered i n drainage
design. Furthermore, the flow can be uniform or nonuniform, and steady o r unsteady. The
discussion t h a t follows deals mostly with steady uniform flow and, t o a lesser degree, w i t h
nonuniform flow. Selected aspects of unsteady flows i n drainage systems are addressed i n
Chapter 8.
The m a t e r i a l presented i n t h i s chapter s t a r t s w i t h a review of fundamentals o f hydraulic
analysis, followed by a discussion o f pressure flow design, open-channel design, v e l o c i t y
considerations, and nonuniform flow problems.

6.2 HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS

6.2.1 Types o f flow

Flow i s considered t o be steady i f the flow r a t e a t a point i n a conveyance element remains

constant w i t h time and unsteady i f i t varies. Although the f l o w i n drainage networks i s i n
many cases unsteady, i t i s o f t e n acceptable t o simplify the hydraulic analysis by assuming
steady flow conditions. Note t h a t the acceptance o f such an assumption i s also a f f e c t e d by t h e
choice of the runoff computation method. Some methods assume a constant r a i n f a l l and, conse-
quently, the calculated runoff and the flow i n t h e drainage network are steady. Cases where an
unsteady flow analysis needs t o be applied are discussed i n Chapter 8.
Steady open-channel flow i s said t o be uniform i f t h e v e l o c i t y and the depth do not change
along the channel and nonuniform i f the v e l o c i t y or depth, or both change. Pressure flow i s
uniform i f the flow area remains uniform along the conduit.
Other types of flow include laminar and turbulent flows, and s u b c r i t i c a l , c r i t i c a l , and
s u p e r c r i t i c a l flows i n open channels. The flow i n drainage systems i s always considered t o be
turbulent. A further discussion o f the above types o f open-channel flows i s given l a t e r .

101
6.2.2 Basic p r i n c i p l e s

I n most hydraulic designs o f drainage systems, v a r i a t i o n o f flow characteristics across any

section may be ignored and the analysis i s then l i m i t e d t o the one-dimensional case, thus
considering only changes o f mean values i n the d i r e c t i o n o f flow. Basic t o o l s used i n such an
analysis include the continuity, momentum and energy principles. Such p r i n c i p l e s are b r i e f l y
described below i n forms suitable f o r p r a c t i c a l design. For a d e t a i l e d treatment o f these
subjects, the reader i s r e f e r r e d t o the l i t e r a t u r e (Chow, 1959; Rouse, 1961; Streeter, 1971).
For steady incompressible flow, the equation of continuity i s expressed as

where Q i s the discharge, A i s the cross-sectional area, V i s the mean v e l o c i t y , and the sub-
s c r i p t s designate t w o sections as shown i n Figure 6.1.
The momentum p r i n c i p l e may be w r i t t e n as

(6.2)

where x represents an a r b i t r a r y d i r e c t i o n , F, i s the summation of the x-components o f exter-

n a l forces acting on the f l u i d body under consideration, Q i s the discharge, Y i s the s p e c i f i c
weight, g i s the g r a v i t y acceleration, 8 i s the momentum correction factor (taken as 8 = 1 i n
sewer design work), V, i s the x-component of the mean v e l o c i t y , and the subscripts 1 and 2
designate t w o sections.
F i n a l l y , the energy p r i n c i p l e may be w r i t t e n as

where a i s the k i n e t i c energy c o e f f i c i e n t , V i s the mean v e l o c i t y , y i s the pressure head above

the i n v e r t ( y = p/Y, where p i s the pressure and Y i s the s p e c i f i c weight), z i s the elevation
above the datum, Ha i s the energy gain between sections 1 and 2 (e.g., as produced by a
pump), and HL i s the energy l o s s between the t w o sections (see Figure 6.1).
For the s i z i n g o f drainage elements, Equation 6.3 can be further modified by assuming
uniform flow and evaluating energy losses. Two types o f losses are distinguished - friction
losses and form (minor) losses. F r i c t i o n losses are caused p r i m a r i l y by viscous and turbulent
shears along the boundary o f the conduit. Form losses are caused by shear as w e l l as pressure
d i f f e r e n t i a l s caused by various hydraulic phenomena. Both types of losses are discussed i n
more d e t a i l l a t e r i n t h i s chapter.

6.2.3 Flow f r i c t i o n formulae

A wide v a r i e t y o f flow equations has been developed t o overcome d i f f i c u l t i e s associated w i t h

the application o f the energy p r i n c i p l e t o the solution o f design problems. Most o f these
equations, which are applicable t o both pipes and channels, are e s s e n t i a l l y empirical. Their
applications are l i m i t e d t o steady uniform flow i n which only f r i c t i o n losses are present.
Over the years, many flow f r i c t i o n formulae have been proposed and recommended f o r various
applications. A d e t a i l e d treatment and comparisons of various formulae are beyond the scope o f
t h i s r e p o r t and the reader i s r e f e r r e d t o the l i t e r a t u r e on t h i s subject (Chow, 1959;
Henderson, 1966). For p r a c t i c a l reasons, the discussion i s l i m i t e d t o the Manning and Darcy-
Weisbach formulae, which are widely used by practicing engineers and should be adequate f o r
most drainage design problems.

6.2.3.1 Manning equation

The Manning equation i s one of the oldest and simplest flow f r i c t i o n formulae. Because o f
recommendations by various authors and a u t h o r i t i e s (WPCF, 1970a1, t h i s formula i s widespread i n
sewer design practice, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n North America. The Manning equation may be w r i t t e n , i n
,
metric u n i t s as

102
(a) CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE

(b) ENERGY PRINCIPLE

Fig. 6.1 Notation sketch for continuity and energy principles

103
where V i s the mean v e l o c i t y , n i s the Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t , R i s the hydraulic radius
(equal t o the flow cross-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter), and Se i s the slope
o f the energy grade l i n e (equal t o the i n v e r t slope for steady uniform flow).
Typical values o f the Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t n f o r various materials are l i s t e d i n
Table 6.1. I t should be noted t h a t the values of n from 0.013 t o 0.015 are most frequently
used i n sewer design.

Table 6.1. Manning's f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and values of e f f e c t i v e absolute roughness

f o r various conduit materials ( a f t e r WCF, 1970a)

Manning' s E f f e c t i v e Absolute
Coefficient Roughness
n k (nun)

Closed Conduits

Asbestos-cement pipe 0,011 - 0,015 0,3 - 3,O

Brick 0,013 - 0,017 1,5 - 6,O

Cast i r o n pipe
Uncoated (new) - 0,3
Asphalt dipped (new) - or1
Cement-lined and sea- coates 0,011 - 0,015 0,3 - 3,O

Concrete (monolithic)
Smooth forms 0,012 - 0,014 0,3 - 1,5

Rough forms 0,015 - 0,017 1,5 - 6,O

Concrete pipe 0,011 - 0,015 0,3 - 3,O

Corrugated metal pipe ( 1 2 nun x 70 mm corrugations)

Plain 0,022 - 0,026 30,O - 60,O
Paved i n v e r t 0,018 - 0,022 9,0 - 30,O
Spun ashpalt l i n e d 0,011 - 0,015 0,3 - 3,O

P l a s t i c pipe (smooth) 0,011 - 0,015 0,3

V i t r i f i e d clay
Pipes 0,011 - 0,015 0,3 - 3,O
Liner p l a t e s 0,013 - 0,017 1,5 - 3,O

Open Channels

Lined channels

Asphalt 0,013 - 0,017

Brick 0,012 - 0,018
Concrete 0,011 - 0,020 0,3 - 9,0
Rubble o r r i p r a p 0,020 - 0,035 6,O
Vegetal 0,030 - 0,040

Excavated or dredged
Earth, s t r a i g h t and uniform 0,020 - 0,030
Earth, winding and f a i r l y uniform 0,025 - 0,040
Rock 0,030 - 0,045
Unmaintained 0,050 - 0,140

N a t u r a l channels (minor streams, top

width a t flood stage less than 30 m) - 30,O - 90,O
F a i r l y regular section 0,030 - 0,070 -
I r r e g u l a r section with pools 0,040 - 0,100

104
 Two more points about Manning's n should be mentioned. F i r s t l y , the c o e f f i c i e n t varies
with the depth of flow as demonstrated i n Figure 6.2. Secondly, the c o e f f i c i e n t s l i g h t l y
increases w i t h the pipe s i z e and t h i s may have t o be taken i n t o account when dealing w i t h l a r g e
pipes. For p r a c t i c a l purposes, the c o e f f i c i e n t n i s usually considered as a constant regard-
less of the depth of flow or the conduit dimensions. Applications of the Manning equation t o
drainage design are discussed l a t e r .

U
w
I-
W
2
a
O
P
r
I-
n
w
n
s
O
-I
IL

8
g
U

Fig. 6.2 Hydraulic elements f o r c i r c u l a r sewers

6.2.3.2 Darcy-Weisbach equation

The Darcy-Weisbach equation represents a basic approach t o the formulation o f flow equations.
I t s advantages include dimensional correctness and a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o any f l u i d over a wide range
o f conditions. For open channels, t h i s equation may be w r i t t e n as

where Se i s the slope of the energy grade l i n e , f i s a dimensionless f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , and R,

V, and g have been defined previously.
For pressure flow, the equation i s usually w r i t t e n as

where hf i s the f r i c t i o n head loss, L i s the length of the conduit, and D i s the conduit
(pipe) diameter.

105
 I t can be shown t h a t the f r i c t i o n factor f may be expressed as

k
f = 4 (Re, -1 (6.7)
D

where 4 i s a function, Re i s the Reynolds number, and k i s the e f f e c t i v e absolute pipe rough-
ness which i s l i s t e d for various materials i n Table 6.1. The Reynolds number used i n t h i s
connection i s expressed as

Re = -
4 R V
V
(6.8)

where v i s the kinematic viscosity (frequently taken as V = 1 , 1 4 1 x m2s-l, for water a t

15OC). For pressure flow i n c i r c u l a r pipes, Equation 6.8 further simplifies t o

Re = -
D V
V
(6.9)

The r e l a t i o n s h i p for the f r i c t i o n factor f described by Equation 6.7 has been experimen-
t a l l y studied by many researchers. As a r e s u l t of these studies, various equations and graphs
have been proposed for the general r e l a t i o n s h i p i n Equation 6.7. Among these, the most wide-
spread i s the Colebrook-White expression written as

-
1
= - 2 log (- k
+-)2 51
(6.10)
JE 3,7 D Re Jf
The main disadvantage of Equation 6.10 stems from the f a c t t h a t i t has t o be solved by
iterations. Such problems become r e l a t i v e l y minor i f one uses a programmable calculator t o
undertake these i t e r a t i o n s . Furthermore, graphs and e x p l i c i t approximations for the f r i c t i o n
factor f have been developed t o simplify calculations.
For design purposes, a graphical presentation of Equation 6.7 i s p a r t i c u l a r l y popular and
a number of graphs have been prepared f o r t h i s purpose. Among these graphs, the Moody diagram,
which i s shown i n Figure 6.3, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y popular.
Further information on applications o f the Darcy-Weisbach equation t o drainage design and
on e x p l i c i t approximations for the f r i c t i o n factor f i s given i n Sections 6.3 and 6.4.

6.2.4 Form losses

Energy losses r e s u l t i n g from rapid changes i n the d i r e c t i o n o r magnitude of the v e l o c i t y are

c a l l e d form losses, or also minor or l o c a l losses. Under special circumstances, these losses
may become f a i r l y l a r g e and even exceed the f r i c t i o n losses.
Form losses are usually expressed i n terms of the k i n e t i c energy, i n the following form:

V2
hL = K- (6.11)
29

where hL i s the form l o s s , and K i s the energy head l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t . The loss c o e f f i c i e n t K

v a r i e s depending on the magnitude of flow v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n changes a t various hydraulic
structures.
For some design work, i t may be more convenient t o express the form l o s s i n terms o f the
equivalent length o f s t r a i g h t pipe, which i s then added t o the actual pipe length. The e a r l i e r
discussed flow f r i c t i o n formulas can be used for t h i s purpose.
Form losses usually occur i n drainage systems a t various t r a n s i t i o n s which connect con-
d u i t s o f d i f f e r e n t 'characteristics. For smaller conduits, t r a n s i t i o n s are t y p i c a l l y sudden and
are confined t o manholes. For l a r g e r conduits, more gradual and h y d r a u l i c a l l y e f f i c i e n t
t r a n s i t i o n s may be i n order.
The consideration of form losses i s important for the calculation of water surface pro-
f i l e s and hydraulic grade l i n e s . A b r i e f summary of common form losses follows; additional
d e t a i l s can be found i n hydraulic handbooks (Brater and King, 1976; WPCF, 1970a; M i l l e r , 1971;
Wright-Mclaughlin Engineers, 1969).
Most o f the losses discussed here apply t o the pressure flow. I n open channels the energy
considerations are more complex and w i l l be further discussed i n the section on nonuniform flow
problems.

106
 \F

' ,O5

-
,04
,003
n
,O2
Y
,015
,O1
ûO8
8
,006 2
,004 5
3
9002 0
U
,001
,0008 W
-,O006 2
,0004 Q
PO02 d
K= ROUGHNESS VALUE (mm) ,0001
D- PIPE DIAMETER (mm) .,O0005

,00001
I I 1
1'03 104 105 186 107 108
REYNOLDS NUMBER

Fig. 6.3 Moody diagram: F r i c t i o n factor versus Reynolds number and r e l a t i v e roughness

6.2.4.1 Entrance loss

The l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the entrance l o s s varies from 0,2 f o r well-designed (rounded edge)

entrance t o 1,0 for inward projecting pipe without a headwall. For a square-edged entrance
flush w i t h a headwall, the l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t equals 0,s (Brater and King, 1976).

6.2.4.2 Contraction and expansion l o s s

For pressure flow, the loss due t o a contraction can be expressed as

(6.12)

where V 2 i s the downstream v e l o c i t y , A1 and A2 a r e the flow areas upstream and downstream o f
the contraction ( A l > A2), and the c o e f f i c i e n t K i s equal t o 0,5 f o r a sudden contraction and
t o about 0 , l f o r a well-designed gradual contraction (WPCF, 1970a).
The expansion loss i n pressure flow can be expressed as b

(6.13)

where V i i s the upstream v e l o c i t y and K i s equal t o 1 , O f o r a sudden expansion and t o about 0 , 2

f o r a well-designed t r a n s i t i o n (WPCF, 1970a).
Somewhat s i m i l a r expressions have been derived f o r s u b c r i t i c a l open-channel flow and
well-designed t r a n s i t i o n s (no w a l l d e f l e c t i n g more than 1 2 . 5 " ) (American I r o n and Steel I n s t i -
t u t e , 1980):

107
 v2 v1
Contraction Loss hL = 0,l (- - -) (6.14)
29 29

2 2
v1 "2
Expansion Loss hL = 0,2 (-- -) (6.15)
29 29

For s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow, the evaluation of losses i s more complicated and additional fac-
tors, such as standing waves, need t o be considered. D e t a i l s can be found elsewhere (Chow,
1959).

6.2.4.3 Manhole l o s s

Manhole losses are probably the most common form losses i n sewer systems. Basically, a manhole
l o s s represents a combination of the expansion and contraction losses. For straight-flow-
through manholes, the l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t varies from 0.05 t o 0.35 depending on the manhole
geometry (Archer e t a l . , 1978; Marsalek, 1 9 8 4 ) . Losses a t other types o f junction manholes a r e
much more complex and generally depend on both junction geometry and flow conditions. A
d e t a i l e d discussion o f such losses can be found i n the l i t e r a t u r e (Marsalek, 1985; Wright-
McLaughlin Engineers, 1969).

6.2.4.4 Bend l o s s

The sewer pipe alignment frequently changes. Such changes i n the alignment, bends, can be
e i t h e r gradual as i n the case of curved sewers, o r sudden. Sudden bends are located a t man-
holes f i t t e d w i t h deflectors.
Values of the bend l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t are given i n Figure 6.4 (American I r o n and S t e e l
I n s t i t u t e , 1980) f o r various bend arrangements and angles of deflection. For d e f l e c t i o n angles
smaller than 4 0 ' , one may also use the following formula (Wright-McLaughlin Engineers, 1969):

hL = 0,25 /L - 90'
V2
29
(6.16)

where Y i s the d e f l e c t i o n angle.

6.3 PRESSURE FLOW

Calculations o f pressure flows i n drainage pipes are based on the continuity and energy equa-
tions. I n a general case, a l l the energy losses need t o be evaluated and substituted i n t o t h e
energy equation (Equation 6.3). Various formulae for evaluating form losses were presented i n
Section 6.2.4; the procedures f o r the calculation o f f r i c t i o n losses and the sizing of pipes
flowing f u l l are given below.
I n t h e hydraulic drainage design, the designer i s usually given the design discharge, then
selects a pipe m a t e r i a l which determines the pipe roughness, and needs t o determine e i t h e r the
pipe diameter D, f o r a chosen slope S, or the pipe slope f o r a chosen diameter. I n both cases,
the choices of D and S have some economic implications. The larger the pipe diameter, the
higher the cost of the pipe. The steeper the slope, the smaller the pipe diameter required,
but the excavation costs may increase. Further information on these aspects and the minimum-
cost drainage system design can be found elsewhere (Tang e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ) .
To solve the hydraulic design problem, both the Manning and Darcy-Weisbach equations can
be used. The e a r l i e r presented forms o f these equations, Equations 6.4 and 6.6, are cumbersome
t o use i n the actual design work and, consequently, various more convenient forms of these
equations and design aids have been developed f o r p r a c t i c a l applications.
The Manning equation forms a basis f o r numerous design aids. For c i r c u l a r pipes flowing
f u l l , i t i s convenient t o express the Manning formula i n one o f the following forms:

QO 3
= 1 D8/3 L
s1/2
(6.17)
n e

(6.18)

108
1L
I-
z
Lu
O
Li-
LL
O
O
cn
cn
O
1
n
a
W
I

DEFLECTION ANGLE Y'

Fig. 6.4 Sewer bend head l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t

1 O9
where Q i s the pipe discharge, n i s the Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t , D i s the pipe diameter,
and Se i s the energy grade l i n e slope.
Basic design problems can be r e a d i l y solved using Equations 6.17 t o 6.19. Furthermore,
various' nomographs have been prepared f o r applications of the Manning formula i n sewer design.
Two such nomographs have been included i n Chapter 7. The f i r s t one provides a graphical solu-
t i o n f o r Equations 6.17 t o 6.19. Thus, i f any three o f the four variables ( Q I n, D, and Se)
a r e given, the fourth v a r i a b l e can be determined from the nomograph.
Where a large number of r e p e t i t i o u s calculations i s t o be made, i t i s advantageous t o
prepare a graph o f pipe discharges for various slopes, pipe diameters, and a chosen value of
pipe roughness. An example o f such a graph i s given i n Chapter 7 .
The Darcy-Weisbach equation, w i t h the Colebrook-White function for the f r i c t i o n factor, i s
rather cumbersome t o use i n actual design. Consequently, various design aids and procedures
have been developed t o simplify the solution of design problems, using both numerical and
graphical solutions.
Numerical solutions of the Colebrook-White function (Equation 6.10) are based on approxi-
mate e x p l i c i t expressions f o r the f r i c t i o n factor f . Although such approximations s l i g h t l y
deviate from the exact i t e r a t i v e solution of Equation 6.10, the r e s u l t i n g errors are s m a l l ,
less than several percent. I n t h i s report, e x p l i c i t expressions proposed by B a r r ( 1975) have
been adopted. Further information on other approaches can be found elsewhere ( L i , 1974; Swamee
and Jain, 1976).
Considering the pipe diameter D, the discharge Q, and the energy grade l i n e slope Se as
t h e main design variables, Barr (1975) derived the following e x p l i c i t expressions for these
variables:

(6.21)

(6.22)

where k i s the e f f e c t i v e absolute roughness.

As an a l t e r n a t i v e t o the numerical solutions, various graphical solutions of the pipe
design problem, based on the Colebrook-White function, have been developed (Barr, 1978; L i ,
1974). Such solutions are not very convenient t o use and i t would appear t h a t , considering the
present a v a i l a b i l i t y of electronic calculators, the graphical solutions may have o u t l i v e d t h e i r
usefulness.
Where a large number of pipe sizing calculations i s t o be made, design charts, based on
the Colebrook-White function, may expedite such calculations. Towards t h i s end, extensive
design charts have been prepared by Ackers (1969) and Kirschmer (1966).
After both the f r i c t i o n and form losses have been evaluated, the designer p l o t s the energy
and hydraulic grade l i n e s for the proposed system and checks t h a t the hydraulic grade l i n e i s
not above any service connections, i n which surcharge conditions would create unacceptable
flooding or s t r u c t u r a l damages.

6.4 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW DESIGN

Many drainage elements, including storm sewers, are o f t e n designed for open-channel flow condi-
tions. I n the f i r s t phase of design, the dimensions of drainage elements need t o be determined
and t h i s i s usually done by assuming steady uniform flow i n the drainage network. Under t h i s
assumption, the slope o f the energy and hydraulic grade l i n e s i s the same as the channel bottom
slope and the depth of flow i s the so-called normal depth. For these conditions, the e a r l i e r
discussed flow f r i c t i o n formulae may be applied t o design problems.
I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t i n any drainage system the uniform flow could p r e v a i l throughout the
system. Rather, there w i l l be interconnected reaches of uniform and nonuniform flows. Conse-
quently, once the elements of the drainage network have been t e n t a t i v e l y sized for uniform
flow, i t i s necessary t o analyze the actual flow conditions i n the system. Towards t h i s end,

110
water surface p r o f i l e s are calculated i n important elements o f the drainage system and, i f
required, adjustments i n the element dimensions are made.
The discussion i n t h i s section i s l i m i t e d t o uniform flow. Selected aspects of nonuniform
flow w i l l be discussed l a t e r i n Section 6.6.
The Manning equation may be used for hydraulic design o f open channels i n several ways.
For channels o f an a r b i t r a r y cross-section, the discharge may be expressed from the Manning
equation as

(6.23)

where A i s the flow area and other q u a n t i t i e s are as defined previously. Equation 6.23 i s not
i n a form convenient f o r solution of design problems, because i t must be solved by successive
approximations. To remedy t h i s , Chow (1959) introduced a term A R2/3, which depends only on
t h e depth of flow and channel geometry, as the section factor f o r uniform flow computations and
rearranged Equation 6.23 as follows

(6.24)

Equation 6.24 i s very useful f o r computations o f uniform flow. I f the discharge, slope,
and roughness are known, t h i s equation gives the section factor AR2i3 and hence the normal
depth f o r a p a r t i c u l a r cross-section. For a known slope, roughness, depth, and hence the
section factor, the normal discharge can be calculated. I n order t o s i m p l i f y calculations,
dimensionless graphs showing the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the depth and the section factor AR2i3
have been produced by Chow ( 1959) f o r rectangular , trapezoidal, t r i a n g u l a r , and c i r c u l a r
channels. Such graphs are given i n Chapter 7 .
The e a r l i e r discussed nomographs f o r the pressure flow i n c i r c u l a r pipes have also some
application t o flow problems i n open channels. I n p a r t i c u l a r , the nomograph f o r the solution
o f the Manning equation may be used t o determine the flow v e l o c i t y i n an open channel by sub-
s t i t u t i n g 4R ( i . e . , four times the hydraulic radius) f o r the pipe diameter D. The c a l c u l a t i o n
i s then completed by multiplying the v e l o c i t y by the flow area.
Flows i n c i r c u l a r pipes flowing p a r t l y f u l l can be determined from the f u l l - p i p e flow,
which can be obtained from the nomograph i n Chapter 7, and the graph o f hydraulic elements f o r
c i r c u l a r sewers (Figure 6.2). The l a t t e r graph r e l a t e s the discharge o f a p a r t l y - f i l l e d pipe
t o the f u l l - p i p e capacity.
The Colebrook-White equation may be also used i n open-channel design. Again, the pipe
diameter i s replaced by 4R and the f r i c t i o n factor f can be determined from Figure 6.3 or
Equation 6.10. The f l o w v e l o c i t y i s then calculated from Equation 6.5 and used further t o
calculate the discharge.
I t should be stressed again t h a t the uniform flow design has t o be f u r t h e r v e r i f i e d f o r
the actual flow conditions. The occurrence of non-uniform flow i n some reaches of the drainage
system i s l i k e l y and may r e s u l t i n modifications o f the i n i t i a l design. Computations o f
nonuniform flow problems are discussed i n Section 6.6.

6.5 VELOCITY CONSIDERATIONS

Various computations discussed so far d e a l t only with hydraulic capacities o f drainage

elements. I n p r a c t i c a l sewer design, such computations are subject t o t w o constraints -
suspended solids should be transported under most flow conditions and v e l o c i t i e s should not
exceed c e r t a i n l i m i t s t o avoid s t r u c t u r a l damage.
The problem of self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s i n sewers has been studied by many researchers.
Using Shields’ r e s u l t s , Camp (1946) developed the following equation f o r t h e v e l o c i t y required
t o transport sediment i n conduits flowing f u l l :

(6.25)

where s i s the s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of the p a r t i c l e , Dg i s the p a r t i c l e diameter, B i s a dimen-

sionless constant (B = 0,04 f o r inception of the p a r t i c l e motion, and B = 0,8 f o r adequate
self-cleansing), f i s the f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , n i s t h e Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t , and g i s t h e
g r a v i t y acceleration.

111
 Equation 6.25 indicates t h a t the v e l o c i t y required t o transport materials i n sewers i s
p r i m a r i l y dependent on the p a r t i c l e s i z e and specific weight, and only s l i g h t l y dependent on
the conduit shape and the depth of flow r e f l e c t e d by the hydraulic radius t o the one-sixth
power.
D i f f i c u l t i e s i n achieving self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s i n sewers a t a l l times a r i s e from the
f a c t t h a t flows i n sewers vary and, consequently, the depth of flow and v e l o c i t y vary as w e l l .
Even though a sewer may be designed t o be self-cleansing a t a p a r t i c u l a r discharge, i t i s not
necessarily self-cleansing a t lower discharges. The range of flow variations depends on the
type of sewer. The l e a s t flow variations are encountered i n sanitary sewers, i n which the
self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s (about 0,s t o 1,0 m/s) should be achieved for the mean flow (WPCF,
1970a). I n storm sewers, the minimum flow approaches zero and the self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s
can not be achieved under such conditions. I t i s suggested t h a t storm sewers should achieve
self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s during moderate storms w i t h flows considerably less than the design
flow (WPCF, 1970a). Such moderate flows could be taken as flows corresponding t o a storm w i t h
the monthly occurrence ( i . e . , the storm, which occurs on the average twelve times a year). The
most d i f f i c u l t i s self-cleansing of combined sewers. I t i s r a r e l y possible t o design combined
sewers with adequate self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s a t the minimum dry-weather flow, i f the sewer
capacity must be adequate for the stormwater runoff. Consequently, combined sewers are o f t e n
subjected t o the sediment deposition during dry weather periods and these deposits are then
flushed during wet weather periods. Such sewer flushing contributes t o l a r g e p o l l u t i o n shock-
loading o f the receiving water body.
Camp's work (Equation 6.25) was further extended by F a i r e t a l . , (1966) t o flows a t l e s s
than the f u l l depth. The r e s u l t i n g relationships for various hydraulic elements are as
follows :

(6.26)

where Vs i s the self-cleansing v e l o c i t y , Qs i s the discharge a t the self-cleansing v e l o c i t y ,

and the subscript f r e f e r s t o the f u l l - p i p e flow. The relationships given by Equations 6.26
are presented graphically i n Chapter 7. I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o note t h a t the r a t i o S/Sf remains
p r a c t i c a l l y constant f o r sewer flows between the h a l f and f u l l depth. For flows smaller than
h a l f - f u l l , the sewer slope must be Cncreased t o maintain self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s .
For s i m p l i c i t y , i t i s sometimes specified t o keep the minimum v e l o c i t i e s i n sanitary
sewers i n excess of 0,s - 1,O m/s. The corresponding minimum slopes vary from 0,0022 ( f o r
D = 0,305 m) t o 0,0008 ( f o r D > 0,68 m ) . Similar values could be also used for other types o f
sewers.
Although i t i s desirable t o transport flows i n sewer systems rather s w i f t l y , harmful high
v e l o c i t i e s leading t o erosion of sewers must be avoided. For clear water i n hard-surfaced
conduits, the l i m i t i n g v e l o c i t y i s f a i r l y high. V e l o c i t i e s between 3,6 t o 6,O m/s have been
found harmless t o concrete channels (WPCF, 1970a). Erosion of pipes may r e s u l t from much lower
v e l o c i t i e s i f the water c a r r i e s sand or other g r i t t y material. For continuous flow i n sanitary
sewers, the l i m i t i n g v e l o c i t y of 3 m/s i s recommended. I n storm sewers, flows are i n t e r m i t t e n t
and the maximum design v e l o c i t i e s could be allowed t o exceed the l i m i t of 3 m/s. However,
v e l o c i t i e s i n excess of 6 m/s should be avoided even for the design flow (WPCF, 1970a).

6.6 NONUNIFORM FLOW PROBLEMS

Conditions of steady nonuniform flow e x i s t when a constant discharge i s conveyed by transport

elements w i t h varying cross-sections and slopes. Such conditions are frequently encountered i n
drainage design and need t o be properly analyzed. I n the analysis of nonuniform flow, i t i s
essential t o establish f i r s t the normal and c r i t i c a l depths i n various reaches of the drainage
system. I n the next phase, the water surface p r o f i l e i s calculated s t a r t i n g from the control
sections with the known depth of flow and proceeding i n the upstream or downstream d i r e c t i o n
according t o the flow regime.
The selected nonuniform flow problems discussed i n t h i s section include the c r i t i c a l flow,
drawdown and backwater curves, and the hydraulic jump.

6.6.1 C r i t i c a l flow

The c r i t i c a l flow i s defined as the s t a t e of flow a t which the specific energy i s a t i t s

minimum f o r a given discharge. The c r i t i c a l flow i s characterized by a condition t h a t i t s
Froude number i s equal t o unity and t h i s condition may be w r i t t e n as

112
 F r = - V- - 1 (6.27)
fi
where ym i s t h e h y d r a u l i c mean depth equal t o A/T, A i s t h e f l o w area, and T i s the width o f
t h e water surface.
I n drainage design, t h e f l o w i s generally t u r b u l e n t and f o r such a flow, two f l o w regimes
can be distinguished - t h e f l o w i s s a i d t o be s u b c r i t i c a l when Fr i s l e s s than u n i t y , and the
f l o w i s s u p e r c r i t i c a l , when Fr i s greater than u n i t y . I n s u b c r i t i c a l flow, g r a v i t y waves can
propagate upstream, but i n s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow, they propagate o n l y downstream. The propagation
o f g r a v i t y waves then determines t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e water surface p r o f i l e c a l c u l a t i o n s
proceed. The s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r these c a l c u l a t i o n s i s a c o n t r o l s e c t i o n w i t h a known f l o w
depth and, f a i r l y often, t h e c o n t r o l s e c t i o n i s chosen as a s e c t i o n w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l depth o f
flow. I t i s t h e r e f o r e o f i n t e r e s t t o determine t h e c r i t i c a l depth i n i n d i v i d u a l reaches o f t h e
drainage system using t h e f o l l o w i n g expression:
n

(6.28)

Equation 6.28 i s solved by t r i a l and e r r o r by evaluating t h e left-hand s i d e f o r various

depths o f flow. When t h i s term equals u n i t y , t h e c r i t i c a l depth i s obtained.
To expedite c a l c u l a t i o n s o f c r i t i c a l flow, Chow ( 1 9 5 9 ) introduced t h e s e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r
c r i t i c a l f l o w computations defined as

where Z i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e depth and depends on t h e channel cross-section. Chow determined

values o f 2 f o r various cross-sections and these are shown i n Chapter 7 i n t h e form:

Trapezoidal sections yc/b = f(Z/b2n5) (6.30)

C i r c u l a r sections Ycb - f(Z/D2n5) (6.31)

where yc i s the c r i t i c a l depth, and b i s t h e width o f t h e channel bottom. Thus f o r a given

discharg t h e s e c t i o n f a c t o r i s computed from Equations 6.29 t o 6.31, t h e value o f Z / b 2 r 5
(Or Z/O':5) i s entered i n Figure 7.5 and t h e value yc/b (or yc/D) i s read from t h e
graph. A s i m i l a r procedure i s followed when t h e c r i t i c a l depth i s given and t h e discharge i s
t o be determined. For rectangular channels, t h e c r i t i c a l depth can be expressed d i r e c t l y from
Equation 6.28 as
1/3 2/3
Y C ' 9 q (6.32)
3
where q i s t h e unit discharge (m /s/m). For c i r c u l a r channels, t h e c r i t i c a l depth can a l s o be
determined from t h e nomograph given i n Chapter 7.

6.6.2 Drawdown and backwater curves

The design o f some drainage channels and conduits may be a f f e c t e d by t h e shape o f drawdown and
backwater curves and, consequently, i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o determine t h e shape o f these curves. In
t h e case o f drawdown curves, i t may be p o s s i b l e t o reduce costs by reducing t h e s i z e o f t h e
conduit as t h e depth g r a d u a l l y decreases i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f flow. For backwater curves, i t i s
o f i n t e r e s t t o find t h e increases i n t h e depth and t h e distance upstream t o which t h e backwater
curve extends.
A general analysis o f f l o w p r o f i l e s f o r t h e g r a d u a l l y v a r i e d flow, which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
f o r drawdown and backwater curves, i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s r e p o r t and can be found else-
where (Chow, 1959; Henderson, 1 9 6 6 ) . For drainage design, t h e discussion may be l i m i t e d t o t h e
s i x most common f l o w p r o f i l e s shown i n Figure 6.5. Engineering c a l c u l a t i o n s o f these p r o f i l e s
are u s u a l l y based on t h e f o l l o w i n g equation (Chow, 1 9 5 9 ) :

(6.33)

113
 CRITICAL DEPTH

f I

M i BACKWATER CURVE
M2 DRAWDOWN CURVE
M3 STREAM BELOW A SLUICE

(b) Steep slope (Yn4 Yc)

S3 TRANSITION FROM STEEP SLOPE TO

MILDER STEEP

Fig. 6 . 5 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of f l o w p r o f i l e s

114
where x i s the distance between the t w o sections o f the flow, y i s the flow depth, So i s the
bottom slope, Se i s the average slope of the energy grade l i n e between the t w o sections, and
subscripts 1 and 2 r e f e r t o the t w o sections between which the c a l c u l a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out.
There i s a l a r g e number o f methods f o r the computation o f the gradually varied flow and a
d e t a i l e d analysis of many o f these methods can be found elsewhere (Chow, 1959). I n engineering
applications, t w o methods are p a r t i c u l a r l y popular -the d i r e c t step method and the standard
step method. A b r i e f o u t l i n e of both methods follows.
The d i r e c t step method i s one o f the simplest step methods and i s applicable t o prismatic
channels. I n p r i n c i p l e , i t i s based on the following equation:

(6.34)

where AL i s the length step (measured i n the d i r e c t i o n il which the calculations are proceed-
i n g ) , y i s the depth o f flow, hv i s the v e l o c i t y head, Se i s the average slope o f the energy
grade l i n e (over the length step), So i s the i n v e r t slope, and A(y+hv) i s the change i n
s p e c i f i c energy along the length step. For calculations of the slope Se, the e a r l i e r dis-
cussed Manning equation may be used, or any other uniform flow formula. Note t h a t , i n the
d i r e c t step method as w e l l as i n the standard step method discussed l a t e r , the step calcula-
t i o n s should be c a r r i e d upstream i f the flow i s s u b c r i t i c a l and downstream i f the flow i s
supercritical.
Another stepwise method f o r calculations of the gradually varied flow i s the standard step
method, which i s based on the following equation:

hf 0 , s (Sel + Sepl AL (6.35)

where hf i s the f r i c t i o n loss between the t w o end sections, Se i s the energy grade l i n e
slope, AL i s the length between the t w o end sections, and subscripts 1 and 2 r e f e r t o the
respective end sections.
The standard step method has more f l e x i b i l i t y and may be used f o r both uniform and nonuni-
form channels. On the other hand, i t requires a t r i a l and e r r o r solution. Further d e t a i l s of
t h i s method can be found elsewhere (Chow, 1 9 5 9 ) .

6.6.3 Hydraulic jump

Besides the gradually varied flow discussed i n the preceding section, the r a p i d l y varied flow
may be also encountered i n the drainage design. The most common case, the hydraulic jump, i s
discussed below.
The hydraulic jump i s a phenomenon through which a flow abruptly changes from
s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow a t a r e l a t i v e l y low depth t o s u b c r i t i c a l flow a t a greater depth. The
hydraulic jump i s sometimes used t o dissipate excess energy o f flow entering the drainage
system, or t o avoid scour of earthen channels. The problems connected with incorporating the
hydraulic jump i n the design include the determination o f the l o c a t i o n o f the jump, flow depths
upstream and downstream o f the jump, and the head l o s s due t o the jump.
The simplest case which i s discussed here represents a hydraulic jump i n a s l i g h t l y
sloping rectangular channel. I n t h i s case, the jump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be described by the
following equation (Chow, 1959):

-
Y2

Y1
= I(--
2
1) (6.36)

where y1 and y2 are the depths before and a f t e r the jump, respectively, and F r l i s the Froude
number of the upstream flow ( F r l = Vi/=).
The head loss, AH, due t o the jump, can be expressed as

AH =
(Y2 - Yi) 3
(6.37)
4 Y 1 Y2

For nonrectangular channels, t h e calculations become more tedious and the reader is
r e f e r r e d t o standard t e x t s on open-channel flow (Chow, 1959: Henderson, 1966).

115
7 Design of components o f drainage systems

7.1 INTERFACE BETWEEN HYDROLOGIC AND HYDRAULIC DESIGNS

Various components of drainage systems, such as conduits, catch basins, drop structures,
i n l e t s , overflow structures, culverts, siphons, and storage f a c i l i t i e s , were described i n
Chapter 3. Basic hydraulic principles used f o r design o f conveyance elements were presented i n
Chapter 6 and t h i s chapter reviews some special hydraulic aspects t o be considered i n d e t a i l e d
design of drainage system components. It assumes t h a t design flows are known and were deter-
mined by the methods discussed i n Chapter 5. S t r u c t u r a l and geotechnical designs are not
discussed here, although such aspects are sometimes very important. The i n t e r f a c e between
hydrologic modelling and hydraulic design i s o f t e n i t e r a t i v e because the flow magnitude i s
influenced by hydraulic characteristics of the o u t l e t , storage outflow r e l a t i o n s , v e l o c i t i e s i n
the conveyance system, etc. As an example, i n underground sewer design with the r a t i o n a l
method, flow computations and pipe selection should be interfaced with constraints for cover,
slopes and v e l o c i t i e s as prescribed by municipal c r i t e r i a . Minimum v e l o c i t i e s are required for
self-cleansing and maximum permissible v e l o c i t i e s are determined by the materials. The use o f
corrugated s t e e l pipes instead of concrete conduits changes the time o f concentration and
modifies the flow.
Another example of i n t e r f a c e between hydraulic design and hydrologic analysis i s the
determination of storage requirements. The minimum storage i s given by an optimum control
operation w i t h a gate which releases a l l the i n f l o w when i t i s smaller than the maximum per-
missible release r a t e and maintains a constant outflow when the inflow reaches t h i s specified
maximum discharge. Operated gates, however, are r a r e l y used i n drainage systems and the
discharge of most o u t l e t s varies with head according t o r e l a t i o n s which are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t
from one technical a l t e r n a t i v e t o another. Note t h a t for o r i f i c e s and conduits, the discharge
varies w i t h the square root of the head while, on the other hand, f o r weirs and culverts w i t h
i n l e t control, the discharge i s a function o f head t o the power of 1,5. Selection of the
o u t l e t type has t o consider l o c a l configuration, type of embankment, a v a i l a b l e head, prob-
a b i l i t y o f clogging, etc. These non-hydraulic factors, therefore, may change the volume of
required storage.
Hydraulic design o f many drainage structures, such as overflow chambers, may become q u i t e
complex. I n t h i s case, municipal engineers may r e q u i r e advice or assistance from hydraulic
specialists. I t should be also mentiorieà t h a t some network design methods discussed i n
Chapter 8 i n t e g r a t e the computational aspects of hydrologic and hydraulic design i n a single
design t o o l , a comprehensive computer method.

7.2 PRACTICAL DESIGN OF CONVEYANCE ELEMENTS

7.2.1 Sizing of conveyance elements

Basic hydraulics p r i n c i p l e s used i n the sizing o f conduits and channels were discussed i n
Chapter 6 . P r a c t i c a l aspects are described i n t h i s section. Frequent designs of conveyance
elements are usually done with s i m p l i f i e d methods or nomograms such as those based on the
Manning formula and shown i n Figures 7.1 and 7.2. P r a c t i c a l computations usually assume t h a t
the roughness c o e f f i c i e n t , n, does not vary w i t h the depth o f flow (see Table 6.1). The error
introduced by t h i s assumption i s small. For a v a r i a b l e n, v e l o c i t i e s do not reach a maximum
f o r the r e l a t i v e depth of 0,8. Although the formula of Colebrook-White i s more complex than
t h a t of Manning, i t can be e a s i l y used with the nomogram i n Figure 7.3 (see also Chapter 6 ) .

117
 V
60000:
--
Se
40 000- - -0 2
-
- I- =0,1
20 0007 -
Z - OD8
--- O
a -- 0,06
-
-- a - 0,04
10000~ z
- -
Z
8000 i
- U
- DIR 3 - 0.02
6000 - I-
o - 0 ,Ol
n 1 0.008
Z
O - 0,006
-
wm 0
- 2000 11 - 0,004
-
- 0,002

-1 0,001-
-
-
-
z 4004 Z -
- - 600 -- 0,0005
lu W’
a
c3 - -
U
200- a
a
1 LL
O
- 0,0002
O
-cn U
a 100: W
t- 0,0001
80 -- 2
W
200
-
-
-
60 - -
d
- n - 0,00005
40 - -
-
100 - 0,00002
20 -
- 0,00001

Fig. 7.1 Nomogram for application o f Manning formula

118
 DISCHARGE ( m3/s )

Fig. 7.2 P i p e flows calculated by Manning formula

0.01 8.1 i,o ICi.0

DISCHARGE ( m3/s )

Fig. 7.3 Pipe flows calculated by Colebrook-White equation

119
F i n a l l y , nomograms for normal and c r i t i c a l depths i n open channels w i t h trapezoidal and circu-
lar cross-sections are shown i n Figures 7.4 and 7.5.
Underground storm sewers for minor systems have been designed i n more recent projects w i t h
c i r c u l a r cross-sections. I f a large flow, e.g., i n a l a r g e watershed or major system, i s
collected i n an underground storm sewer, the height of the sewer can be reduced by using rect-
angular or composite cross-sections. These cross-sections have very low flow v e l o c i t i e s during
frequent storms. I n order t o provide self-cleansing a t such low flows, i t i s possible t o use a
small narrow c o l l e c t o r cunette, i n the bottom. I n older i n s t a l l a t i o n s , egg-shaped cross-
sections have been used for the same reason. Nomograms for these cross-sections are available
i n various handbooks of hydraulic design.

7.2.2 Self-cleansing v e l o c i t i e s

Although comprehensive information about the concentration and grading of sediments i n sewers
and storm drains i s lacking, i t i s w e l l known t h a t s i l t , sand and coarser solids enter storm
drainage systems i n appreciable quantities. I f they are not transported through the system by
the flow, a maintenance operation i s required t o remove them.
Various c r i t e r i a have been proposed f o r self-cleansing conditions i n conduits and they a r e
frequently expressed as a l i m i t i n g v e l o c i t y (see Chapter 6 ) . A n example of a graph of self-
cleansing v e l o c i t i e s i n sewers flowing p a r t l y f u l l i s given i n Figure 7.6. Recent t h e o r e t i c a l
works and experiments suggest, however, t h a t a constant value o f the l i m i t i n g v e l o c i t y does not
adequately describe the flow capacity t o transport sediment i n pipes flowing p a r t l y f u l l .
Ackers ( 1 9 7 8 ) showed t h a t f o r a c e r t a i n diameter, the v e l o c i t y required t o avoid accumulation
of sediments varies s i g n i f i c a n t l y with sediment concentration. He derived the relationships
expressing the diameter and the v e l o c i t y as a function of discharge and sediment concentration
i n the following form:

0,325
V C2D

where D i s the required diameter (m),

V i
Q i
s
s the required v e l o c i t y (m SI,
s the r a t e of discharge (m / S I , and
C1 and Cg are c o e f f i c i e n t s , shown i n Table 7.1, which depend on the sediment concen-
t r a t i o n and the degree of pipe cleanliness.

Table 7.1 Recommended c o e f f i c i e n t s for required diameter and v e l o c i t y

f o r self-cleaning action ( a f t e r Ackers, 1 9 7 8 ) .

Sediment Bed Thickness =

Sediment Clean Pipe 0 , l Pipe Diameter .
Concentrati n
(mg/l) x 10
2 C1 c2 C1 c2

1 O0 1,36 0,62 1,46 0,56

200 1,26 0,74 1,36 0,65
500 1,16 0,90 1,23 0,83

As discussed e a r l i e r i n Chapters 2 and 3, many drainage systems i n developing countries

are b u i l t as open-channel networks. Design c r i t e r i a used for the design of open channels i n a
drainage project i n A f r i c a are summarized below:
i) Whenever possible, i t i s preferred t o avoid s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow by reducing the slope
o r changing the cross-section. I f s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow cannot be avoided, the channel
depth should account f o r a possible hydraulic jump and could be set equal t o the
s p e c i f i c energy head. The channel layout should avoid bends i n reaches with
s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow. I n such reaches, a rectangular cross-section i s preferred, a t
l e a s t for frequent storms. I f the rectangular channel of width, Bo, i s combined
w i t h a trapezoidal channel, the base width of the trapezoid should be greater than
BO*

120
 I I I I I IlII I I I I I I I I I I I I I1111 I I I I 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 I I I I I I
o;m1 0.01 o.1 1 10

AR '13/b ' I 3and AR2I3/D 'I3

Fig. 7.4 Nomogram for determining the normal depth i n various

open channels ( a f t e r Chow, 1 9 5 9 )

Values of Z/b 215 for Trapezoidal Sect ions

n ni nr 1 in 1 O

U
Y / rn :4,O
c
m
n
\
>
c
O

aD
Y

0,Ol ' I
I I I I I I I I 1 I I I l I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I III

aooi 0.0 1 0.1 1 O

Values of Z/D2.5 for Circular Sections

Fig. 7.5 Nomogram for determining the c r i t i c a l depth i n various

open channels ( a f t e r Chow, 1959)

121
 s / sf
O 1 2 3 4 5
190
Subscripts: s - Self -Cleansing
-
0,8 -
-

O 4--
I I I I I
O 0,4 O, 6 O, 8 1,O 2

Fig. 7.6 Hydraulic elements of self-cleansing sewers ( a f t e r WPCF, 1970a)

ii) C r i t i c a l flow should be avoided, because i t i s unstable. I t i s preferable t o maintain

s u b c r i t i c a l flow i n channels characterized by Froude numbers smaller than or equal t o
0,8, where the Froude number i s defined by Equation 6.27.
iii) Maximum v e l o c i t i e s i n earth channels should be controlled t o avoid erosion. For guid-
ance, the following maximum permissible v e l o c i t i e s are suggested:
Sandy s o i l Vm, = 0,75 m/s
Loess Vmax 1 m/s
Sandy clay compacted Vm, = 1,s m/s
i v ) To ensure sediment transport and self-cleansing of channels, the following minimum
v e l o c i t i e s are suggested:
Lined channels vmin = 1 m/s
Earth channels vmin = 0,65 m/s
V) For small open channels, the optimum cross-section f o r maximum conveyance can be
selected as a h a l f square or a h a l f e q u i l a t e r a l hexagon.
v i 1 Where sand traps are provided, flow v e l o c i t i e s should be smaller than 0,3 m/s ( f o r
sand p a r t i c l e diameter greater than 0,2 mm).
v i i ) The minimum freeboard i n channels meeting the condition (ii) above and for super-
c r i t i c a l flow should be 0,25 m and 30% of the depth, respectively. Underground sewers
should be designed for f r e e flow and a maximum flow depth o f 0,7 of the cross-section
height.
v i i i ) Slabs covering open channels should be checked for u p l i f t caused by a small surcharge.

7.3 MANHOLES AND CATCH BASINS

The hydraulic design o f sewer networks i s based on equations of mass continuity and energy
conservation. The l a t t e r equation requires consideration of t w o types of head losses - skin
f r i c t i o n losses i n sewer pipes and form losses a t various appurtenances and special structures,
such as manholes. While skin f r i c t i o n losses are caused p r i m a r i l y by viscous and turbulent

122
shears along the conduit boundary, form losses may be caused by shear as w e l l as pressure
d i f f e r e n t i a l s caused by flow separation, changes i n flow alignment, and drag on flow obstruc-
tions. I n some cases, form losses a t junctions may be f a i r l y large, i n comparison t o f r i c t i o n
losses, and junctions then act as bottlenecks which seriously l i m i t the capacity o f the sewer
system. Under such circumstances, the sewer system becomes surcharged and t h i s condition may
lead t o basement flooding or sewage overflows. I t i s therefore desirable t o include minor
losses i n the hydraulic design of sewers. This i s done sometimes by increasing the roughness
c o e f f i c i e n t of sewer pipes, or by compensating f o r manhole and junction head losses by i n v e r t
drops. Magnitudes of head losses a t common junction manholes are given below. For further
d e t a i l s , the reader i s r e f e r r e d t o the l i t e r a t u r e (Marsalek, 1985).
Minor losses are generally expressed i n the following form:

AE = K Vz/2g (7.3)

where AE i s the minor head loss, K i s the head l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t and Vo i s the mean v e l o c i t y
i n the manhole o u t f a l l . C o e f f i c i e n t K a t t a i n s widely ranging values depending on manhole
geometry and flow characteristics. Some basic K values are given below.
For straight-flow-through manholes, the head l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t varies from 0,05 t o 0,35.
The lower value corresponds t o open-channel flow through a junction w i t h U-shape benching
(i.e., a channel) and the higher one corresponds t o pressure flow through a junction without
benching.
Larger head losses are observed a t junctions w i t h bends. For a 90' bend, the head l o s s
c o e f f i c i e n t varies from 0,9 t o 1,9, where the lower value corresponds t o pressure flow a t
junctions w i t h a U-shape benching and the higher value corresponds t o the case without benching
(Marsalek, 1985). For d e f l e c t i o n angles smaller than go', approximate K-values can be obtained
by i n t e r p o l a t i o n of data f o r O' and 90'.
Head losses a t junctions of a main with a l a t e r a l or t w o opposed l a t e r a l s depend on both
t h e junction geometry and the flow d i v i s i o n between the main and the l a t e r a l , or both l a t e r a l s ,
respectively. A t junction of a main and a l a t e r a l , the highest K ' s were found f o r designs
without benching and almost a l l of the flow passing through the l a t e r a l . K ' s f o r the main and
l a t e r a l were 1,7 and 1,9, respectively. Such values could be reduced by about one-third by
i n s t a l l i n g a curved U-shape benching a t the junction. Junctions of t w o opposed l a t e r a l s
behaved s i m i l a r l y and K-values as high as 1,9 were observed (Marsalek, 1985).
Recently, more a t t e n t i o n was also given t o the design of catch basins t o improve t h e i r
retention of sediments. An experimental study, conducted by Lager e t a l . (19761, compared
various catch basins i n terms of sediment r e t e n t i o n and recommended the design shown i n
Figure 7.7. The dimension from the o u t l e t pipe crown t o the s t r e e t or i n l e t grade i s p r i m a r i l y
determined from s t r u c t u r a l considerations, as i t contributes l i t t l e t o the hydraulic perfor-
mance. The design i n Figure 7.7 has proven t o be very e f f i c i e n t for coarse m a t e r i a l removal
but with respect t o f i n e m a t e r i a l i t s performance i s less satisfactory.

Fig. 7.7 Catch basin design w i t h high r e t e n t i o n o f sediment

123
7.4 DROP STRUCTURES

Drop structures are designed t o dissipate excessive flow energy and, a t the same time, t o
prevent a i r entrainment. A i r entrainment may cause a i r pockets, surges and flow i n s t a b i l i -
ties. For high heads, special a i r separators have been designed. Computations of energy
d i s s i p a t i o n can be f a c i l i t a t e d by nomograms or simplified r e l a t i o n s .
As an example for design of the drop structure shown i n Figure 7.8, i t i s possible t o use
the nomogram shown i n the same figure. I n a t r i a l and error computation, as a f i r s t step, a
height of the s i l l , p, i s assumed and the difference i n energy head, To (metres) i s read on ,
t h e dotted l i n e . With the f i r s t value, To, and specific flow, q ( l / s ) , the values of the
contracted and t a i l w a t e r depths, hc and B, respectively, are determined from the nomogram.
The height of the s i l l , p, can then be computed as p = B - hk. A new difference i n head,
To, w i l l r e s u l t and i s entered i n t o the nomogram. The correct s i l l height i s usually
obtained i n no more than two or three t r i a l s . Figure 7.8 also gives a r e l a t i o n f o r the length
of the chamber based on the equation of the j e t .

7.5 PRINCIPLES OF INLET DESIGN

An important aspect of proper operation o f urban drainage i s an adequate interception of runoff

by the minor drainage system. A t the same time, the capacity of i n l e t s must also be matched
w i t h conduit capacity. This requires proper analysis of both the gutter flow and i n l e t opera-
tion. The gutter flow can be evaluated numerically, or as an a l t e r n a t i v e , i t i s possible t o
use the nomogram f o r t r i a n g u l a r gutters given i n Figure 7.9.
The maximum permissible flow depths or spreads across the pavement are generally speci-
f i e d , for storms with various frequencies of occurrence, by municipal drainage c r i t e r i a . The
f i r s t r e s t r i c t i o n , the flow depth, avoids flooding by overland runoff and the second one, the
spread, maintains a p a r t of the road open t o t r a f f i c . The flow depth or spread are controlled
by the placement and capacity of i n l e t s and are important mainly for highway drainage design.
Typical design considerations include the determination of i n l e t interception flow f o r a given
g u t t e r flow and i n l e t type and geometry, and the determination of i n l e t spacing for a given
interception capacity. As shown f o r grate i n l e t s with longitudinal bars i n Figure 7.10,
carry-over flow may occur i n three ways:
i) flow between the curb and the f i r s t s l o t ,
i i ) flow outside the l a s t s l o t (towards the pavement crown),
iii) carry-over flow across the grate i t s e l f .
The spread of the maximum gutter flow i s generally larger than the i n l e t width. The f i r s t
of the above flows i s r e l a t i v e l y small. Theoretical and experimental considerations show t h a t
i t i s uneconomical and/or unfeasible t o eliminate e n t i r e l y the carry-over flow caused by flows
next t o the curb and outside the l a s t s l o t .
I n general practice, i f the carry-over flow from the f i r s t i n l e t does not exceed about 25%
of the t o t a l gutter flow, the t o t a l flow tends t o be intercepted by the time the t h i r d or
fourth i n l e t i s reached (assuming uniform flow, continuous grade and uniformly-spaced i n l e t
series 1.
As shown i n Figure 7.11, simple experimental diagrams can be developed for d i r e c t computa-
t i o n of intercepted flow by a given type of i n l e t and s t r e e t cross-section (Townsend e t a l . ,
1981). Other numerical methods based on extensive hydraulic laboratory t e s t s were presented by
Marsalek (1982).
Storm sewer surcharge can be avoided by r e s t r i c t i n g the i n f l o w of runoff i n t o the conduit,
i n terms of maximum f r e e flow capacity. Figure 7.11 shows a diamond-shaped i n l e t r e s t r i c t o r
applied i n several Canadian and U.S.A. projects. I n l e t r e s t r i c t o r design i s usually combined
w i t h the analysis o f depth o f s t r e e t flows during major storms. Such computations can be done
by hand or using a dual drainage computer model.

7.6 OVERFLOW STRUCTURES

The basic hydraulic considerations i n design of storm sewage overflow structures i n combined
sewers are l i s t e d below. I t should be mentioned t h a t overflow structures are sometimes used
even i n storm sewers for p a r t i a l treatment of stormwater discharges.
i ) The overflow should come i n t o operation only when inflow exceeds a prescribed
discharge t o the interceptor and treatment plant ( Q t p ) .
ii) The intercepted flow should not increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y as the inflow Qi n
in t o the
structure r i s e s above Qtp. If Qtp i s the maximum flow discharged i n t o the
interceptor for the maximum inflow Qin i t i s possible t o define a separation
c o e f f i c i e n t , usePr as

124
 !vations

EXAMPLE
Given: hu = 1,2m; Vu = 2 m/s; Q = 4,8 m3/s; W = 2m; hd = 1m; H = 2,8m
Try P = l m
Calculate To = 1,2 + 2% 9,62 + 2,8 + 1 = 5,2m
Determine from the chart B = 1,9m
- -
Calculate P = B hd = 1,9 1,0 = 0,9m
Calculate new To = 5 , l - correct value
Determine hc = 0,27 from the chart

Fig. 7.8 Nomogram f o r design o f energy dissipators a t pipe o u t l e t s

( a f t e r Dumitrescu, 1970)

125
EQUAT1ON
8/3
Q = 0,375 S1/2 d,
Q = triangular channel discharge
z = reciprocal of crossfail
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
S = channel slope; d = flow depth
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Connect Z/n ratio with slope S; intersect with
turning line,connect with depth d to obtain
discharge Q.
2. For shallow V-shaped channel shown below use
Nomograph with Z=T/d.

10000

Loo0 I

EXAMPLE :

40 Given: S = 0,02, Z = 5 0
W
n = O, 013,Z/n = 3846
d = 0,05
20 O
Find : Q = 0,070 mJ/s
10

Fig. 7.9 Nomogram for flow i n triangular channels

126
 Cross - Sect ion

t 2

( a ) During minor storms, inlets should

capture as much runoff as possible.

STORM SEWER

(b) During rare storms, inlets should restrict

captured flows to prevent overloading of sewers.
JJ

STORM SEWER

Fig. 7.10 Operation of sewer i n l e t s

127
 - Qtp max
ci sep - (7.4)
QtP

An i d e a l case would correspond t o cisep = 1. This can be achieved o n l y by appropriate

operation o f a c o n t r o l gate. For other considerations i n the design o f overflow structures,
see a l s o Chapter 3.

1% ROAD GRADE
0,07
2%ROAD CROSS FALL

3
9
LL
0,04

9 0,03 STORM
-I, SEWER
Fi
8 0,02 APPROACH FLOW
O
0 0,Ol CAPTURED BY
APPROACI
FLOW

I I I I I I 1
O 0,05 OJO OJ5 O,20 O,25 O,30
Qs , APPROACH FLOW (m3/s)

Fig. 7.11 Hydraulic performance o f diamond-shaped i n l e t f l o w r e s t r i c t o r s

( a f t e r Townsend e t al., 1981)

Besides h y d r a u l i c considerations, the design o f overflow s t r u c t u r e s should also consider

c o n t r o l o f p o l l u t i o n i n overflows and maintenance of these structures. Towards t h i s end, i t i s
recowended t o maximize the amount o f p o l l u t a n t s retained i n the system and transported towards
the treatment plant. This c o n d i t i o n w i l l minimize the load o f p o l l u t a n t s i n overflows. Fur-
thermore, the overflow chamber should be self-cleansing. I t should be designed so as t o mini-
mize turbulence and t h e r i s k o f blockage and should r e q u i r e t h e minimum amount o f maintenace.
The above conditions can be met by p r a c t i c a l recommendations from model tests. An example
o f a s t i l l i n g - p o n d overflow chamber, which was studied i n a scale model, i s shown i n
Figure 7.12 (Balmforth, 1 9 8 2 ) . This s t r u c t u r e consists o f a chamber i n which dry-weather f l o w
passes through a V-shaped channel t o the o u t l e t pipe. The discharge o f stormwater i s normally
c o n t r o l l e d by a weir, which i s set a t such a l e v e l t h a t the sewer upstream o f the chamber f i l l s
before the weir overflows and the volume stored i n t h i s way i s discharged t o the treatment
p l a n t a f t e r the storm has passed. A scum board which i s located a short distance upstream o f
the weir prevents f l o a t i n g matter from passing over the weir. The o u t l e t t o the treatment
p l a n t i n t e r c e p t o r i s designed as a t h r o t t l e pipe, which l i m i t s the r a t e o f f l o w t o a s p e c i f i c
value a t the moment when the weir begins t o overflow. I d e a l l y , t h i s throughflow should remain
constant. As the head over the weir increases, a f u r t h e r f l o w increase i s i n e v i t a b l e but can
be minimized by a c a r e f u l design o f t h e t h r o t t l e pipe.

128
 SECTION A-A

f
B
throttle pipe

SECTION B-B

overflow pipe
4l
A A
f -v

Fig. 7.12 Stilling-pond overflow chamber (Balmforth, 1982)

Model studies reveal t h a t f l o a t i n g matter tends t o remain i n quiescent zones, a t the

surface, near the upstream corners of the chamber. A drop i n the e f f i c i e n c y o f s e t t l i n g
occurred when the Froude number of the incoming flow, Q, exceeded the value of 0,60. Hence,
the minimum diameter o f the i n l e t pipe was recomended as

bin = 0,165 Qo,4 (7.5)

Experiments i n d i c a t e t h a t the numerical c o e f f i c i e n t i n Equation 7.5 varies s l i g h t l y with t h e

height of the weir. Table 7.2 gives recommended dimensions of the overflow chamber shown i n
Figure 7.12.

129
 Table 7.2 Recommended dimensions for s t i l l i n g ponds (Balmforth, 1982)

Height of W e i r Crest Minimum Diameter of I n l e t Pipe Top Water Level Height of Scum Board
%ID %in Q o r 4 %@min H,/D

0,165 1,60
0,161 1,70
0,157 1,85

I t i s also recommended t o design the V-channel w i t h the side slopes of 45' and the t h r o t t l e
pipe w i t h a minimum diameter o f 225 rnm or greater.
During dry-weather flow, the t h r o t t l e pipe runs p a r t l y f u l l , and the v e l o c i t y a t t h i s
stage should f a c i l i t a t e self-cleansing of the structure.
Flow patterns a t regulators w i t h l a t e r a l weirs may be q u i t e complex, and d e t a i l e d hydrau-
l i c analyses or model t e s t s are recommended f o r important structures. For t y p i c a l , simpler
structures, Jensen (1982) derived design graphs from a n a l y t i c a l considerations.

7.7 CULVERTS

Although the primary purpose of culverts i s t o convey water under roadways, i f properly
designed, they may also be used t o r e s t r i c t flow and reduce downstream storm runoff peaks. The
design of a c u l v e r t i s influenced by the purpose, hydraulic e f f i c i e n c y , and costs of the pro-
posed structure and also by the topography of the proposed culvert s i t e . I f there i s a s u f f i -
c i e n t head of water, the choice of the i n l e t may not be c r i t i c a l . For l i m i t e d heads and where
erosion or sedimentation i s a problem, a poor i n l e t design may severely r e s t r i c t culvert capa-
city. A c u l v e r t can operate under i n l e t or o u t l e t control. I n l e t control conditions occur
when the discharge capacity of the culvert i s controlled a t the culvert entrance by the depth
o f headwater, type of i n l e t edge, entrance geometry, b a r r e l shape and cross-sectional area.
Outlet conditions do not a f f e c t hydraulic performance o f i n l e t - c o n t r o l l e d culverts.
Outlet control r e f e r s t o t h a t condition where the capacity of the c u l v e r t i s controlled a t
the o u t l e t and depends on a l l the hydraulic phenomena taking place upstream of the o u t l e t .
Some t y p i c a l water surface p r o f i l e s i n culverts are shown i n Figure 7.13.
I n the case o f i n l e t control, the t a i l w a t e r l e v e l w i l l be r e l a t i v e l y low so t h a t t h e
c u l v e r t runs p a r t l y f u l l for some o r a l l of i t s length. I f the slope o f the bed i s supercriti-
c a l , the c r i t i c a l flow depth w i l l be established a t the i n l e t and, from there on, the depth o f
flow w i l l diminish (case A ) . Case B shows the s i t u a t i o n where the i n l e t i s submerged by a high
headwater l e v e l and the t a i l w a t e r i s very low. The c r i t i c a l depth could be induced a t the
i n l e t e i t h e r by a steep downstream slope or a high headwater l e v e l . Case C, where a hydraulic
jump occurs, i s possible f o r high t a i l w a t e r l e v e l s . I n t h a t case, i t i s recommended t o ensure
stable flow conditions i n the culvert by i n s t a l l i n g a v e n t i l a t i o n device. I n each of the
i n l e t - c o n t r o l cases, the b a r r e l s i z e downstream of the i n l e t could be reduced without a f f e c t i n g
the culvert discharge. Conversely, i f the i n l e t conditions were improved, the capacity of the
c u l v e r t f o r any l i m i t i n g headwater could be increased.
For very high t a i l w a t e r and headwater levels, the culvert i s completely drowned and the
discharge i s controlled by the difference between the entrance and e x i t water l e v e l s . This i s
a form of o u t l e t control (case D ) . Another o u t l e t control condition i s found when the pipe
capacity l i m i t s the c u l v e r t discharge and/or increases the headwater l e v e l . Consequently, the
control i s transferred t o the b a r r e l (case E ) .
The l a s t two cases describe the pipe flow, i n which the head a v a i l a b l e i s used p r i m a r i l y
t o overcome conduit f r i c t i o n .
I n some cases, culverts f a i l t o perform as intended because of high t a i l w a t e r l e v e l s which
c r e a t e backwater conditions. I n general, the normal depth of flow i n the downstream channel,
a t a discharge equal t o the culvert capacity, should be computed t o check i f the water surface
elevation i s below the i n v e r t of the culvert e x i t .
For o u t l e t control conditions, the o u t l e t flow may be e i t h e r a free flow with a c r i t i c a l
depth a t the o u t l e t , or a pressure flow, i f the o u t l e t i s submerged.
Culvert flow computations are frequently conducted by means of nomograms, such as those
shown i n Figures 7.14 and 7.15 (Portland Cement Association, 1 9 6 4 ) .
For i n l e t - c o n t r o l l e d culverts, the required head i s q u i t e sensitive t o the i n l e t shape.
Operation of e x i s t i n g culverts can be improved by using an improved hydraulic shape. Studies
have also been conducted w i t h hooded i n l e t s which eliminate vortices for submerged flow condi-
tions.

130
(I
I
I
i \
I -
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
'I I
l-
I I
I I
3.
6 l I
z I I
I I
$ 1 I
B I I
1
I
I
4%
I'
,
4'1
I I 1
131
 Discharge Head
N= No.of pipes
HW or Hf
D D
INLET TYPE
€ 300

-0 70

-0,60

-0.50

-0Aû

-0,30

CULVERT TYPE : Concrete pipe ( n - 0,012)

F i g 7.14 Nomogram f o r d e s i g n o f c u l v e r t s w i t h i n l e t c o n t r o l
( P o r t l a n d Cement A s s o c i a t i o n , 1964)

132
 Discharge
N= No. of pipes
Q
E (m3/s) Head required to
-80 convey specified
70 discharge
-60 Culvert
Diameter
- 50 D(m)
Ke
O, 2 -Socket end
- 40 -4,OO
-Bevel led or tapered inlet
-- 30 0 5 -Square end
-
-
--
- 20 -3,OO
-

-
-9
-8
-7
-

-10
-
-

-2,OO
-
-
- tre
O
Q
9
-6 - 0.2

-1,50
-5
- -
-4 -

4
Example :
Given: Q I N =3m3/s; D = 0 , 8 m ; 5
Ke = O S ; culvert length L=17m 6
Find : H
8
Solution : For Ke = O ,5 , connect the values
Qf D and L. For Q I N = 3m3/s and
intersect on the turning line,
obtain H = 3,4m.

t 091
CULVERT TYPE : Concrete pipe (n = O , 012

F i g 7.15 Nomogram f o r design o f c u l v e r t s w i t h o u t l e t control

(Portland Cement Association, 1964)

133
7.8 OUTLETS OF SEWERS AND CULVERTS

Bank and stream bed erosion can be controlled by means of properly designed o u t l e t structures.
Such structures are designed as o u t l e t s w i t h end walls and wing walls, aprons, or as submerged
o u t l e t s w i t h impact s t i l l i n g basins (Figure 7.16).
The design of r i p r a p downstream of o u t l e t s involves the selection of a rock size l a r g e
enough so t h a t the force attempting t o overturn i n d i v i d u a l rocks i s smaller than the gravita-
t i o n a l force holding the rocks i n place. Because r i p r a p i s graded, the design procedures must
also consider an appropriate gradation of p a r t i c l e sizes so t h a t erosion of smaller p a r t i c l e s
on the surface w i l l leave an armored channel t h a t i s stable. F i n a l l y , the design procedures
must also include a methodology f o r selecting appropriate underlying f i l t e r s so t h a t water
flowing beneath the r i p r a p w i l l not erode the base material.
Free-springing j e t s occur when the culvert o u t l e t height i s greater than the t a i l w a t e r
depth which i s a common case i n steep t e r r a i n . The erosive p o t e n t i a l of such j e t s i s very
high, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the depth of flow i n the receiving channel i s shallow. I n general,
free-springing j e t s or p a r t i a l l y submerged j e t s are acceptable only i n highly stable receiving
channels or f o r infrequent high-discharge operation.
Supported-jet o u t l e t s are those i n which the downward d i f f u s i o n of the j e t i s prevented by
e i t h e r a n a t u r a l or man-made f l o o r or apron. This type of operation w i l l allow the flow from
the o u t l e t t o spread and d i s t r i b u t e i t s e l f across the width of the discharge channel. It i s
necessary t o provide an apron of s u f f i c i e n t length t o f u l l y d i s t r i b u t e the flow before i t
reaches the n a t u r a l channel. The approximate length of apron can be expressed as

La = 0,66 Vo D (7.6)

where La i s the length of the apron, Vo i s the o u t l e t v e l o c i t y (m/s), and D i s the o u t l e t

diameter (m).
I f the t a i l w a t e r covers the o u t l e t apron and p a r t i a l l y submerges the o u t l e t , i t i s o f t e n
desirable t o provide end w a l l s and wing walls. Wing w a l l s may be b u i l t a t any angle as long as
the t o t a l angle of the f l a r e i s greater than a design value (usually 22') and the apron covers
the bottom of the enclosed area.
Generally, the width of the t r a n s i t i o n zone i s increased i n order t o allow formation o f a
hydraulic jump as the t a i l w a t e r depth increases. I n some cases, even i f the t a i l w a t e r i s too
low t o cause a hydraulic jump, i t i s desirable t o use the hydraulic jump f o r energy dissipa-
tion. The necessary depth can be provided e i t h e r by depressing the o u t l e t apron, or by provid-
i n g a broad-crested weir, a t the end of the apron, which would create a pool of s u f f i c i e n t
depth t o meet the t a i l w a t e r requirements for the formation of the hydraulic jump. The method
of depressing the apron seems preferable, because there i s less scouring a t the end of the
apron. To ensure the formation of the hydraulic jump on the apron, the use of b a f f l e blocks i s
sometimes recommended.
I n some cases, culverts operate with submerged o u t l e t s . Submerged j e t s discharged from
such o u t l e t s remain concentrated and do not r e a d i l y dissipate t h e i r energy. For j e t s supported
by a bottom plane, v e l o c i t i e s remain f a i r l y high over the length of 6 , 2 D. Past t h i s region,
apron v e l o c i t i e s f o r o u t l e t s w i t h i n v e r t s located a t the apron l e v e l may be calculated as

V = 6,2 -
VOD
L
(7.7)

where V i s the maximum v e l o c i t y (m/s) a t the distance L ( m ) from the o u t l e t , D i s the o u t l e t

diameter, and Vo i s the o u t l e t v e l o c i t y ( m / s ) .
I f protection by r i p r a p or a long apron i s not feasible, a compact solution may be
achieved by using an impact s t i l l i n g basin i n which the flow s t r i k e s a v e r t i c a l b a f f l e and
thereby loses i t s energy (Figure 7.16b). The b a f f l e p a r t l y d e f l e c t s the flow against the f l o o r
and p a r t l y , by a horizontal extension, against the incoming flow (see Figure 7.16b). Although
no submergence of the o u t l e t by t a i l w a t e r i s required for good operation, i t s performance
improves with o u t l e t submergence because of reduced o u t l e t v e l o c i t i e s . The design of the
impact s t i l l i n g basin depends only on the discharge and i s independent of o u t l e t v e l o c i t y and
pipe s i z e as long as o u t l e t v e l o c i t i e s do not qfceed 9 m/s (U.S. Department of the I n t e r i o r ,
Bureau of Reclamation, 1 9 6 0 ) .

7.9 DESIGN OF STORAGE FACILITIES

I n studies o f runoff control by storage, the designer usually knows the inflow hydrograph which
was determined by the hydrologic methods discussed i n Chapters 5 and 8. Two types of design
problems are usually encountered: the v e r i f i c a t i o n of an e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t y and the sizing o f a
new r e s e r v o i r .

134
 (a) Erosion control at outlets
OUTLET WITH ENDWALL OUTLET WITH ENDWALL
AND WINGWALLS WINGWALLS, APRON AND SILL

(b) Impact stilling basin

PLAN

SECTION
0,58Wd

riprap

bedding

-E
GRAPH FOR DETERMINATION OF W

z
5
: I

0,3 0,4 0,5

I I

0,75 1
I

2
I I
3 4
I I

5
l I I I

10
DISCHARGE Q ( m3/s /m)

F i g . 7.16 E r o s i o n c o n t r o l a t o u t l e t s and d e s i g n o f i m p a c t - t y p e s t i l l i n g b a s i n s
( a f t e r U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of R e c l a m a t i o n , 1960)

135
 I n general (see Figure 7.17), the change i n storage, AS, during a time i n t e r v a l , At, is
given by

I2 + I1 O1 + O2

A s = 2
At - 2
A t

where I i s the i n f l o w r a t e , O i s the outflow r a t e and subscripts 1 and 2 r e f e r t o the beginning

and end of A t , respectively. Equation 7.8 can be reduced t o the form

-ASE 1 - 0
(7.9)
A t

which i s known as the continuity equation for reservoir routing. For p r a c t i c a l calculations,
Equation 7.8 i s rearranged as

(7.10)

where S2 - S i = AS.

Inflow Hydrograph Outflow Hydrograph

I O1

L t L t

It Flow Rate

At

Fig. 7.17 Flow routing through a reservoir

I n the v e r i f i c a t i o n case, the o u t l e t characteristics are usually known as a r e l a t i o n s h i p

between the outflow, O, and elevation, 2 . On the other hand, the reservoir geometry gives a
r e l a t i o n s h i p between Z and the storage, S. I t i s , therefore, easy t o express the outflow as a
function of storage i n the form

which can be plotted. A t each time step, the right-hand terms i n Equation 7.10 are known and a
tabular computation gives the l e f t term for which the outflow value, 0 2 , can be determined from
Equation 7.11.
For design purposes, several t r i a l and error computations with various storage volumes are
required, u n t i l the maximum outflow, omax,
i s achieved. I t s magnitude i s usually known from
an analysis of downstream conditions or as a pre-development value.

136
 The maximum depth i n the reservoir i s not known and should be f i r s t assumed. For t h i s
depth and O,,,=, i t i s required t o s i z e an outflow structure and calculate the head vs.
outflow r e l a t i o n s h i p and the storage vs. outflow relationship. Once t h i s i s determined, the
i n i t i a l l y estimated dimensions are v e r i f i e d according t o the previously described procedure.
I f the required storage volume or maximum outflow i s d i f f e r e n t from the i n i t i a l l y assumed
value, another t r i a l i s necessary. For many o u t l e t s , the discharge varies with the head.
I t i s also recommended t o v e r i f y the reservoir operation for r a i n f a l l s with d i f f e r e n t
durations and r e t u r n periods. A reservoir for peak flow shaving designed f o r a given maximum
i n f l o w may not be e f f i c i e n t for larger or much smaller peak inflows. I f peak shaving i s
required for d i f f e r e n t r e t u r n periods, i t may be necessary t o design the f a c i l i t y as a m u l t i p l e
o u t l e t storage.
Other s i m p l i f i e d methods are also used. One o f them i s based on hydrographs derived from
the r a t i o n a l method (Section 5 . 3 . 5 ) . By approximating the release r a t e , i t i s possible t o f i n d
approximate storage volumes for d i f f e r e n t durations o f a uniform r a i n f a l l . The maximum storage
i s given by a c r i t i c a l r a i n f a l l duration.

7.10 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

The return period of a design storm should be based i n p r i n c i p l e on a cost-benefit analysis,

d e t a i l e d or i m p l i c i t . The r e t u r n period of design storms recommended i n design c r i t e r i a f o r
various municipalities varies s i g n i f i c a n t l y . As discussed i n Chapter 4, minor systems i n many
r e s i d e n t i a l areas i n North America are designed f o r flows corresponding t o 5- t o 10-year storms
without surcharge. Downtown areas have greater r e t u r n periods ( 2 5 years). I n some countries
i n Europe, however, the r e t u r n period i s based on surcharge below the s t r e e t l e v e l f o r a one-
year storm.
This wide v a r i a t i o n shows t h a t the sizing o f drainage systems i s frequently based on
t r a d i t i o n , a v a i l a b l e funds, p o l i t i c a l pressures, etc.
Although an economic analysis i s i n p r i n c i p l e possible, i t i s r a r e l y used f o r minor
systems. Attempts have been made, however, t o use t h i s approach for major drainage systems,
mainly i n connection w i t h flood damage reduction programs. Several agencies i n the U.S.A. and
Canada have developed standardized r e l a t i o n s f o r estimation of damages, i n terms of flood
elevation, for various types of homes. I t i s , therefore, possible t o f i n d the damage f o r
floods with d i f f e r e n t frequencies. Additional general flood protection benefits t o the e n t i r e
community, from t r a f f i c improvements, etc., are considered as a percentage o f t h i s value. For
a given flood control a l t e r n a t i v e , the affected area and annual damage w i l l be reduced and the
difference between the twu values with and without control gives an annual b e n e f i t . Annual
costs are given by f i n a n c i a l analysis methods which consider annual costs of repayment of the
investment. Such costs vary with the discount r a t e and operation maintenance.
Comparisons of the cost-benefit r a t i o , or of the net benefits, are useful for decision-
makers. Selection o f the preferred scheme, however, accounts frequently f o r social,
environmental and p o l i t i c a l factors which are more d i f f i c u l t t o quantify.

137
8 Network design methods

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives information concerning the most widely used methods f o r the design o f sewer
networks, s t a r t i n g w i t h the simplest ones and proceeding t o the more complex ones. As stated
e a r l i e r i n Chapter 1, i t should also make designers aware not only of the accuracy and the
l i m i t s of these methods, but also of the needs or opportunities f o r t h e i r use. Using such
information, the designer should be able t o select a good t o o l , i f not the best one, according
t o design objectives, and the a v a i l a b l e data, computer f a c i l i t i e s and resources. Some
technical aspects of these design tools were also discussed i n Chapters 5, 6 and 7.
A f t e r more than ten years of a worldwide intensive research e f f o r t i n urban hydrology,
many new computational tools have been developed. Most of them are based on more or less
sophisticated modelling of the urban water cycle. Some of them are w e l l known; they have been
applied successfully i n many p r a c t i c a l studies and are f r e e l y available, because they have been
developed by means of public fundings. An engineer with access t o good computer f a c i l i t i e s
should normally choose one of these tools, according t o h i s design objectives, and the
available resources. However, i t should be borne i n mind t h a t a proper use of such a new
method or t o o l inherently implies a good knowledge of the d e t a i l e d operations which the method
or t o o l perform. I n other words, the engineer should have a s u f f i c i e n t knowledge of the
hydrological and hydraulic processes simulated by the t o o l he i s planning t o use. I f not, the
advantages of using a new procedure may be i l l u s i v e and such an application may t u r n out t o be
time consuming, expensive and possibly produce even less accurate r e s u l t s than a well-known and
well-applied simpler method.
T h i s i s probably the reason why the rather old, approximate and simple, so-called r a t i o n a l
method, and i t s variants, remain so popular i n developed countries where hydrological simula-
t i o n s are not l i m i t e d by the lack of computer f a c i l i t i e s . To obtain f u l l benefits from using
new design methods, interested p r a c t i t i o n e r s should consider t r a i n i n g i n urban hydrology and
water management modelling. I n turn, t h e i r thorough knowledge of p r a c t i c a l drainage design
should be of great i n t e r e s t i n improving modelling t o o l s produced by researchers. Practi-
tioners are best q u a l i f i e d t o i d e n t i f y the shortcomings of models encountered i n p r a c t i c d
applications and also t o f i n d ways f o r making models a t t r a c t i v e for t h e i r colleagues. A
good example of such f r u i t f u l co-operation i s the U.S. Storm Water Management Model (SWMM)
User's Group whose formation was p a r t l y prompted by the f a c t t h a t the SWMM i s a r a t h e r complex
and sophisticated model which should never be used without a c a r e f u l inspection of i t s
a p p l i c a b i l i t y or i t s usefulness i n a given design s i t u a t i o n (U.S. EPA, 1977; U.S. EPA,
1978-1982).
I n the chapter t h a t follows, some examples are given only f o r the simplest methods. Other
examples and d e t a i l e d information on the most comprehensive and sophisticated models can be
found i n the referenced handbooks and papers. Frequent references are made t o Chapters 3, 4
and 5, which provide background information for t h i s chapter. F i n a l l y , Chapters 1 and 2
provide descriptions of general problems and concepts which are pertinent t o network design.

8.2 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

A preliminary analysis i s a very important f i r s t step of the design procedure. It involves

considerations of the basic approaches t o urban drainage which were developed i n Chapter 2.
After t h i s f i r s t step, the engineer should be able t o choose an appropriate method f o r h i s
design problem.

139
 Some items of t h e p r e l i m i n a r y analysis are q u i t e obvious and these are summarized below.
- The design o b j e c t i v e s which, as stated i n Chapter 1, can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o various
categories, such as screening, planning, analysis, design and operation. The p r e c i s i o n
l e v e l s , the time and space i n t e r v a l s used t o describe the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f process and
drainage simulations may vary from one o b j e c t i v e t o another and so may vary the design
methods o r models used.
- The accuracy o f data describing the e x i s t i n g urban area and i t s drainage network, and
t h e accuracy o f p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e f u t u r e development and i t s connection t o t h e e x i s t i n g
drainage network.
- Local c o n s t r a i n t s on the drainage area given by frequent flooding, q u a l i t y aspects o f
r u n o f f , e x i s t i n g sewers, and the a v a i l a b l e space f o r drainage or treatment f a c i l i t i e s .
- Constraints imposed by r e c e i v i n g waters - r u n o f f q u a l i t y o r quantity, sewage overflows,
downstream r e c e i v i n g water uses, etc.
- The a v a i l a b l e data, such as r a i n f a l l data, r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t estimates, r u n o f f q u a l i t y
data and e x i s t i n g sewers geometry.
- Local constrains f o r choosing a design method, according t o t h e l e v e l o f knowledge o f
r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f processes, computer f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e f o r simulations o f these
processes, t e c h n i c a l guidelines and regulations, etc.
O f course, many o f t h e above items should be examined when using any design method. A
s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n should be p a i d t o the design parameters as described e a r l i e r i n Chapter 4.
Among these parameters, t h e design r e t u r n periods o f elements o f the drainage system are
probably most dependent on designer's experience r e f l e c t i n g l o c a l socio-economic conditions.
As said i n Chapter 4, t h e choice o f the design r e t u r n p e r i o d should be based on the least-cost
concept, but t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l concept i s r a r e l y e f f e c t i v e i n p r a c t i c e because o f l a r g e uncer-
t a i n t i e s i n t h e estimated f a i l u r e costs and i n p r o b a b i l i s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f r u n o f f peak
discharges and volumes. From a general p o i n t o f view, i t should be recognized t h a t t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n costs o f storm sewer systems are o f t e n b a r e l y s e n s i t i v e t o the design r e t u r n
p e r i o d regardless o f the design method used (Section 4 . 1 ) .
This discussion o f p r e l i m i n a r y analysis, given as i n t r o d u c t o r y remarks t o the design
methods f o r sewer networks, shows t h a t engineers should systematically t e s t t h e s e n s i t i v i t y
o f the models o r formulae they use, i n order t o i d e n t i f y the most s e n s i t i v e parameters having
the greatest i n f l u e n c e on the c a l c u l a t i o n s and which, therefore, should be estimated w i t h
t h e greatest p r e c i s i o n l e v e l . These s e n s i t i v i t y t e s t s are very h e l p f u l f o r choosing an
appropriate method according t o the conditions o f the design problem and may save a l o t
o f time. It should be noted t h a t s e n s i t i v i t y analyses are not s p e c i f i c t o sewer network
design, but they generally apply t o any engineering technique which involves many uncertain-
ties.

8.3 METHODS YIELDING PEAR FLOW FOR SINGLE EVENTS

These methods have been most widely used and w i l l be probably used f o r a long time t o come
because they r e q u i r e l i m i t e d input data and l e s s c a l c u l a t i o n s than storm r u n o f f models. Their
use i s l i m i t e d t o quick screening o f objectives, and the planning and design o f tree-type storm
sewer systems or small drainage s t r u c t u r e s ( l i k e c u l v e r t s ) i n r a t h e r small watersheds. They
can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two broad types: General empirical formulae and the r a t i o n a l method
w i t h i t s derivatives.

8.3.1 General e m p i r i c a l formulae

From a general p o i n t o f view, these formulae give the peak discharge a t the o u t l e t o f a given
watershed as a f u n c t i o n o f the f o l l o w i n g parameters o r variables:
- Watershed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : Area, mean slope, main channel length, etc.
- R a i n f a l l characteristics: Mean i n t e n s i t y f o r a given duration, r a i n f a l l depth f o r a
given duration, r e t u r n p e r i o d o f the mean i n t e n s i t y , etc.
- Land use and surface cover: Urban, pavement, lawn, forests, etc.
These formulae have been established f o r s p e c i f i c design o b j e c t i v e s i n various locations,
according t o the a v a i l a b l e experimental data. Although many such formulae are a v a i l a b l e (Chow,
1964; Rawls e t al., 1 9 8 0 ) , they should not be used outside o f t h e i r experimental domains. The
simpler ones g i v e only a s p e c i f i c peak runoff r a t e per u n i t o f catchment area (see Chapter
5.3.3). Some o f them represent e m p i r i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f peak r u n o f f , i n which
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n parameters have been expressed as a f u n c t i o n o f some v a r i a b l e s mentioned
above. The more complex formulae have been established using c o r r e l a t i o n or m u l t i v a r i a t e
analysis. Although these formulae can g i v e quick r u n o f f estimates f o r a given area, they
cannot be used without experimental support r e f l e c t i n g l o c a l conditions.

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8.3.2 Rational method and i t s m o d i f i c a t i o n s

The r a t i o n a l method i s probably t h e most popular method f o r designing storm sewer systems. It
has been applied a l l over the world and many refinements o f t h e method have been produced.
Although t h e r a t i o n a l method incorporates some e m p i r i c a l aspects and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e a
great deal o f judgement and experience, i t has been shown t h a t i t i s founded on a t h e o r e t i c a l
basis and a w e l l accepted hypothesis. This made the method t r a n s f e r a b l e from one country t o
another.

8.3.2.1 General formula

The r a t i o n a l method can be w r i t t e n i n a general form as

Qp(T) = k C iM(tc,T) A F (8.1)

where %(TI i s t h e peak r u n o f f , f o r a r e t u r n period T, a t t h e design p o i n t i n t h e d r a i n -

age system,
C i s the runoff coefficient,
iM(tc,T) i s t h e mean r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y , w i t h a r e t u r n period T, f o r a d u r a t i o n equal
t o t h e so-called time o f concentration,
A i s t h e area o f t h e watershed upstream o f t h e design p o i n t ,
k i s a unit conversion f a c t o r depending on the u n i t s used, and
F i s a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r t a k i n g i n t o account such e f f e c t s as s p a t i a l r a i n f a l l
distribution, storage i n sewers, watershed shape and slope, etc. This
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r i s not used i n a l l formulations o f t h e r a t i o n a l method.

The r a t i o n a l method formula looks very simple and t h a t i s the reason why i t remains so
popular. However, i t i s founded on some i m p l i c i t hypotheses which i n d i c a t e i t s l i m i t a t i o n s .
The f i r s t hypothesis assumes t h a t , Qp i s produced by the mean r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y o f dura-
t i o n equal t o t h e time o f concentration, tc, and so i t i s independent o f the temporal d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f instantaneous i n t e n s i t i e s over t h a t duration. This means t h a t t h e r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f
process i s assumed t o be a l i n e a r process. I f i t were non-linear, t h e r a t i o n a l method c o u l d
lead t o l a r g e errors. Consequently, t h e method should n o t be used i n the f o l l o w i n g cases:
- Watersheds w i t h important storage e f f e c t s , such as d e t e n t i o n basins, f l o o d p l a i n s ,
strong backwater e f f e c t s i n f l a t areas o r caused by submerged o u t l e t conditions.
- Watersheds w i t h strong v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f land slopes o r land use.
The second hypothesis i s a p r o b a b i l i s t i c one because i t assumes t h a t t h e peak r u n o f f Q
has the same r e t u r n period as the mean r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y . This means t h a t t h e r a i n f a l l - r u n o f P
process i s n o t random and the r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t C i s n o t a random v a r i a b l e . On t h e other
hand, C should be a random v a r i a b l e i n n a t u r a l watersheds where t h e r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t depends
on antecedent r a i n f a l l conditions. Assuming the r e t u r n p e r i o d o f iM(tc,T1) as T1 and t h e
r e t u r n period of C(T2) as Tp, t h e peak discharge Qp(T'), given by Equation 8.1, w i l l gener-
a l l y have an unknown r e t u r n p e r i o d T ' , which can be estimated o n l y by s t a t i s t i c a l analysis o f
observed data. However, as T1 increases, t h e e r r o r i n T' becomes smaller and, f o r saturated
conditions, Equation 8.1 may lead t o c o r r e c t estimates. For such conditions, t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n
r a t e s remain approximately constant (see Chapter 5 . 2 . 5 ) and SO does the r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t .
But i t i s n o t generally possible, without experimental data, t o g i v e an a p r i o r i lower l i m i t o f
TI, f o r which t h e r u n o f f process becomes d e t e r m i n i s t i c . Although many modified r a t i o n a l method
formulae t a k i n g i n t o account these e f f e c t s have been proposed f o r n a t u r a l watersheds (Chow,
19641, they should not be extrapolated o r transposed.
As a consequence o f the r a t i o n a l method hypotheses, t h e use o f t h e method should be
l i m i t e d t o small homogeneous urban watersheds and t h e design o f simple tree-type storm sewer
systems w i t h f r e e o u t f a l l s and no s p e c i a l h y d r a u l i c s t r u c t u r e s (e.g., detention basins). In
such conditions, the method gives good estimates o f peak r u n o f f as shown experimentally by
comparison o f t h e r e s u l t s given by t h e r a t i o n a l method and much more complex s i m u l a t i o n models
(Wisner, 1 9 8 1 ) . However, i t i s n o t easy t o g i v e precise l i m i t s on t h e method a p p l i c a b i l i t y ,
because they may depend on l o c a l drainage practices. Examples o f such l i m i t s are given below.
For the t o t a l watershed area, t h e upper l i m i t f o r t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e r a t i o n a l method
should be between 100 and 300 ha. When comparing p r a c t i c e s i n various countries, i t was noted
t h a t t h i s upper l i m i t v a r i e s widely. For example, t h i s l i m i t i s 10 - 50 ha i n t h e U n i t e d
Kingdom, 200 ha i n France, 1500 ha i n the U.S.A., and 4500 ha i n t h e Soviet Union. Such upper
l i m i t s f o r the r a t i o n a l method a p p l i c a b i l i t y depend on catchment homogeneity, experimental data
and analysis, and l o c a l refinements o f the method.

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 The r a t i o n a l method i s generally applicable t o the catchments w i t h a minimum impervious-
ness from 20% t o 30%. The selection of t h i s minimum value further depends on l o c a l practices
f o r drainage of n a t u r a l pervious areas i n towns (such as open spaces or p r i v a t e gardens), the
r e t u r n periods under consideration (usually less than 10 years), c l i m a t i c conditions, vegeta-
t i o n , s o i l s characteristics, etc.

8.3.2.2 Simple applications o f the r a t i o n a l method

The r a t i o n a l method may be used successfully f o r design of small hydraulic structures, such as
s m a l l bridges or culverts, i f only the peak runoff i s necessary for such design and the water-
shed upstream of the design point f a l l s within the general application l i m i t s of the method.
Assuming t h a t the l o c a l IDF curves are known (see Section 4.6.11, the designer has t o
estimate C and tc. Usually, a mean value of C i s estimated by weighting the i n d i v i d u a l C i
values of homogeneous subareas A i according t o the following expression:

C = CiAi / Ai (8.2)

For each subarea w i t h homogeneous land use, the C i values may be estimated from l o c a l
experience or well-known c o e f f i c i e n t tables (see Section 5.2.3). I f there are important per-
vious areas connected t o the drainage system, the designer should estimate the runoff c o e f f i -
cient C+
for these areas according t o the selected design r e t u r n period. Usually, a rough
estimate of the mean runoff c o e f f i c i e n t C of the area upstream of the design point can be given
as

C(T) (1 - IMP) Cp(T) + IMP Cimp (8.3)

where I M P i s the imperviousness measured from a e r i a l photographs or f i e l d investigations,

Cp(T) i s the runoff c o e f f i c i e n t of the pervious areas and Cimp i s the runoff c o e f f i c i e n t of
impervious surfaces, such as roofs, s t r e e t , and parking l o t s . Moreover, the designer should
only consider the pervious and impervious areas which are d i r e c t l y connected t o the sewer
system. I f a and b are the fractions of the t o t a l directly-connected impervious and pervious
areas, respectively, then Equation 8.3 can be w r i t t e n as

C(T) = b (1 - IMP) $(TI + a IMP Cimp (8.4)

I n some cases, a and b are much smaller than 1, and further depend on the r e t u r n period T.
I n t y p i c a l European urban conditions, b i s o f t e n very small and may be neglected for the design
periods usually considered. However, the s i t u a t i o n may be d i f f e r e n t i n developing countries
w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t pervious open spaces without dense vegetation cover.
For C i m , a value of 0,9 i s generally used. Because C+ depends g r e a t l y on l o c a l
c l i m a t i c con&tions, l o c a l s o i l coverages and characteristics, and l o c a l practies, i t i s not
easy t o give a d e f a u l t value for . For example, i n developed countries of Europe and North
America, such a d e f a u l t value w i % range from 0 , l t o 0,3 for T values from 5 t o 10 years.
However, the designer must remember t h a t i n these countries the s o i l vegetation cover i s o f t e n
dense. On the other hand, for bare s o i l s with slopes up t o 5%, the Cp value may exceed 0,6.
As the calculated peak runoff i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the mean C value, the designer should pay
a special a t t e n t i o n t o i t s estimate.
The estimate of tc i s not as easy as i t seems. Usually, tc i s taken as the sum of the
overland flow time, to ( o r the "time t o entry" or the " i n l e t time"), and the time of t r a v e l ,
ta, i n sewers or the main channel. While ta can be estimated using the flow formulae given
i n Chapter 6, other methods are needed t o compute to. For small fully-sewered areas, some
drainage a u t h o r i t i e s specify to as a constant t y p i c a l l y ranging from 5 t o 15 minutes. In
more complex situations, i t i s recommended t o use the kinematic wave formula i n the following
form (Ragan and Duru, 1972):

where to i s i n minutes, L i s the t r a v e l l e d length (m), n i s the Manning's roughness c o e f f i -

cent, i i s the r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y (mm/hr), and S i s the slope (m/m). Other formulae for to
and tc were discussed and evaluated by McCuen e t a l . (1984).
For quick estimates or for comparison of various development scenarios (planning pur-
poses), a rough estimate of tc can be obtained by d i v i d i n g the length of the main drainage
route by the mean estimated flow v e l o c i t y . I n many cases the Qp value i s less sensitive t o
tc than t o C.

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 The r a t i o n a l method remains of great i n t e r e s t for quick comparison of development schemes,
or for evaluation o f the e f f e c t s o f urbanization shown i n the example below. As shown i n
Figure 8.1, a n a t u r a l watershed t h a t may be divided i n t o t w o subareas A1 and A2 i s assumed.
The catchment data given i n Table 8.1 describe both pre- and post-urbanization conditions.
Detailed calculations are given i n Appendix B and t h e i r r e s u l t s are summarized i n Table 8.2.
They lead t o the following observations:
F i r s t l y , for n a t u r a l conditions, i t should be noted t h a t the peak runoff from the whole
watershed, a t o u t l e t O, i s greater than Qpl or Q 2 but smaller than ( Q 1 + Qp2). In
general, the usual calculations by the r a t i o n a l methos should lead t o the fol5owing r e l a t i o n -
ships :

F i g . 8.1 Catchment used for demonstration of a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f the r a t i o n a l method

Table 8.1 Watershed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Pr e-urban Post-urban

Çub-area A1 A2 A1 A2

Area (ha) 40 60 40 60
Channel length (m) 1200 1600 1200 1600
Channel flow v e l o c i t y (m/s) 1,2 0 ,8 2,o 1,4
Overland flow length (m) 300 400 300 400
Overland flow v e l o c i t y (m/s) 0,3 0,2 0,6 0,4
Runoff c o e f f i c i e n t 0,3 0,2 0,6 0,6

Some "partial-area" e f f e c t s , however, may lead t o r e s u l t s which do not s a t i s f y Equations

8.6 and 8.7. I n t h a t case, i t may be concluded t h a t the application l i m i t s of the r a t i o n a l
method have been exceeded because of strong non-homogeneities i n the subcatchments. That i s t o
say t h a t another method must be used i n order t o get more precise r e s u l t s .

143
 3
Table 8.2 Peak runoff ( m /SI for various development scenarios

Secondly, i t should be noted t h a t urbanization results i n strongly increased peak runoff

values - by 160% f o r A l , 300% for A2 and 230% for the e n t i r e watershed. Moreover, when only a
p a r t of the watershed i s urbanized and the subareas A1 and A2 are f a i r l y non-homogeneous, i n
terms of C-values and drainage v e l o c i t i e s , the r e s u l t s seem erroneous, especially i n the case
when A1 i s f u l l y urbanized. The t o t a l peak runoff a t the o u t l e t of 5,8 m3/s i s smaller than
Qpi a t O ' (6,8 m 3 / s ) . Equation 8.6 i s no longer s a t i s f i e d . This i s a proof of the r a t i o n a l
method deficiency i n t h i s case, even i f the watershed i s rather small. To avoid t h a t , the
designer should consider the value o f 6,8 m3/s for the o u t l e t O, i f there are no important
storage e f f e c t s between points O ' and O.

8.3.2.3 The r a t i o n a l method applications i n design of sewer networks

As stated before, the r a t i o n a l method i s the most widely used method for the design of storm
sewers. Many countries, including some developing ones, have produced guidelines, manuals and
handbooks giving more or less d e t a i l e d or standardized information on the use of t h i s method
(WPCF, 1970a; ATV, 1982a; Ministere de i l I n t e r i e u r , 1977; Rawls e t a ï . , 1980; V.A.V. 1976).
Having l i m i t e d the use of the r a t i o n a l method t o simple tree-type sewer networks, the
design p r i n c i p l e s are the same for any form of t h i s method. Such principles are summarized
below.
- The drainage area i s f i r s t subdivided i n t o subareas with homogeneous land use according
t o the e x i s t i n g or planned development.
- For each subarea, the designer estimates the runoff c o e f f i c i e n t C, and the correspond-
i n g area A,.
- The layout of the sewer system i s then drawn according t o the topography, the existing
or planned s t r e e t s and roads, and l o c a l design practices.
- I n l e t points are then defined according t o the d e t a i l of design considerations. For
main sewers, for example, the o u t l e t s of the e a r l i e r mentioned homogeneous subareas
should serve as i n l e t s t o the sewers. I n t h a t case, the Aj-areas are t y p i c a l l y 1 t o
1 0 hectares or more, and should be serviced by a secondary sewer system, i m p l i c i t l y
taken i n t o account i n the calculations. On the other hand i n very d e t a i l e d calcula-
tions, a l l the i n l e t points should be defined according t o l o c a l design practices. The
drainage areas per i n l e t should be much smaller, often less than 1 hectare.
- A f t e r the i n l e t points have been chosen, the designer must specify the drainage subarea
for each i n l e t point A i n and the corresponding mean runoff c o e f f i c i e n t Cin. I f the
drainage subarea for a given i n l e t has non-homogeneous land use? a weighted c o e f f i c i e n t
may be estimated using Equation 8.2 ( o r 8.3 and 8 . 4 ) .
- I n p r a c t i c a l applications, a simple tree-type layout scheme of a sewer network i s drawn
as shown i n Figure 8.2. The i n l e t points are numbered from the most upstream parts o f
the watershed t o the f i n a l o u t l e t . The trunk sewer lengths and mean i n v e r t slopes are
estimated. I n a preliminary step of the design procedure, a f i r s t estimate of the
i n v e r t slopes can be obtained by using the mean slopes of the s o i l surface.
- The runoff calculations are then done by means of the general Equation 8.1 for each
i n l e t point, proceeding from the upper parts of the watershed t o the f i n a l o u t l e t (point
8 i n Figure 8 . 2 ) . The peak runoff which i s calculated a t each point i s then used t o
determine the diameter of the downstream trunk sewer using a hydraulic formula for
pipes flowing f u l l (see Section 6.3).
The main problem i n the above computations i s t o estimate the time of concentration tck
a t the k-th i n l e t point (McCuen e t a l . , 1984). For the most remote subareas, i n l e t s 1, 5 and 6
i n Figure 8.2, the time of concentration i s approximately equal t o the t r a v e l time of overland
flow. A f a i r l y a r b i t r a r y value i s o f t e n specified for tc, ranging from 1 t o 15 minutes,
according t o l o c a l drainage and design practices. I n other cases, to may be estimated from
Equation 8.5 or as shown i n Section 5.3.4.

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 Outlet

A = contributing area
C = runoff coefficient
= sewer inlet

F i g . 8.2 Tree-type scheme used i n the application of the r a t i o n a l method

As the calculations progress downstream, the times of concentration a t any i n l e t point

must be estimated along a l l the possible flow paths and the longest time i s generally retained
i n the calculations. The reader should note t h a t the longest time i s not necessarily obtained
for the longest flow path. For example, a t i n l e t point number 7, the various flow times t o
t h a t point are as follows:

+ td1,2 + td2,3 + %3,7

+ %2,3 + %3,7
to5 + td5,4 + td4,3 + td3,7
t04 + %4,3 + %3,7
t06 + td6,7
to7

When reaching the i n l e t p o i n t , the designer must note t h a t the times o f flow i n sewer
trunks, such as t d l ,2 between points 1 and 2, are normally unknown, because the pipes
upstream of point 7 are not flowing f u l l for the design r a i n f a l l corresponding t o the sewer
trunk between points 7 and 8 . For small sewer systems, the designer should use the flow velo-
c i t i e s calculated a t preceeding steps f o r f u l l - f l o w i n g pipes. The calculations are thus
e x p l i c i t l y defined by proceeding from the upper parts o f the watershed t o i t s o u t l e t . Such a
procedure should lead t o a small overestimation of the calculated peak. For very large sewer
systems, the peak runoff a t a design point must be calculated by a t r i a l and error procedure
which i s summarized i n f i v e points below.
- Obtain the f i r s t estimate of the time of concentration a t the design point by assuming
t h a t the upstream pipes are flowing f u l l .
- Read the f i r s t estimate of the design r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y from the IDF curves f o r t h e
selected design r e t u r n period.
- Calculate peak runoffs a t the i n l e t points upstream o f the l a s t point under design.
- Estimate t r a v e l times for each p a r t i a l l y - f i l l e d sewer trunk using tables or graphs (see
Chapter 6 ) .
- Produce a new estimate of the time of Concentration and repeat the whole procedure u n t i l
the estimated and calculated concentration times, f o r the design point, are approxi-
mately equal.
When the above refinement i s implemented i n hand calculations, such calculations become
r a p i d l y awkward as the area upstream of the design point becomes l a r g e r . O f course, the proce-
dure may be simply computerized using small programmable calculators.

145
 A f t e r the f i r s t c a l c u l a t i o n of the peak discharge has been completed, the f i n a l design
procedure begins. I n some cases, because o f constraints on flow v e l o c i t i e s i n sewers, the
i n i t i a l l y chosen sewer slopes, which are equal t o s o i l surface slopes, have t o be modified.
New slopes have t o be chosen according t o v e l o c i t y l i m i t a t i o n s and the above procedure must be
repeated i n order t o check the e a r l i e r selected pipe diameters.
To avoid the t r i a l and error procedure, some methods use modified forms of Equation 8.1.
Usually, such forms use an e x p l i c i t formulation of the time of concentration a t the point under
design. I n France, for example, such a modified form of the r a t i o n a l method i s known as t h e
Caquot's formula (Ministère de l ' I n t é r i e u r , 1977) i n which the time of concentration i s given
as

where S i s the mean slope along the path corresponding t o tc, and m, c, d, and f are para-
meters defined from observations. For French design conditions, the parameter values are
0,5, - 0,41, 0,51 and - 0,29, respectively.
The reader should also note t h a t i f the designer uses the longest flow times along various
flow paths upstream o f the design point, some partial-area e f f e c t s are encountered as the area
gets l a r g e r , and such e f f e c t s should be examined. These p a r t i a l - a r e a e f f e c t s are caused by the
opposite influences o f the increasing area, when proceeding downstream, and the decreasing
design r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y with the increasing tc. So, i n some cases, because o f
non-homogeneous slopes and land use, i t may happen t h a t an intense storm of a duration shorter
than the time o f concentration, for a p a r t i c u l a r design r e t u r n period, may produce a higher
peak runoff, even i f only a part of the area upstream of the design point i s contributing
runoff t o t h a t peak. Such a s i t u a t i o n should be checked a t the junction of t w o main sewers, a t
the o u t l e t from a l a r g e subarea with r e l a t i v e l y large concentration time and i n other similar
cases.
The reader w i l l f i n d an example of the r a t i o n a l method calculations for the sewer system
shown i n Figure 8.2 i n Appendix C.
I n many forms of the r a t i o n a l method, a correction factor F i s used (see Equation 8 . 1 ) .
Such a c o e f f i c i e n t i s evaluated from l o c a l land use and observations, and should not be extrap-
o l a t e d or transposed without a c a r e f u l inspection of i t s influence. For rather small water-
sheds, say less than 100 hectares, t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t may be about 1 and the magnitude of the
correction t h a t i t would introduce would be f a r below the uncertainties inherent t o the
r a t i o n a l method.

8.3.2.4 Concluding remarks

As said before, the r a t i o n a l method i s a very simple method t h a t may be used for small homoge-
neous urban watersheds ( l e s s than 100 t o 300 ha) with a simple tree-type sewer system having a
f r e e o u t f a l l and no special hydraulic structures. I f l i m i t e d t o those cases, the r a t i o n a l
method w i l l produce f a i r l y good r e s u l t s which are comparable t o those produced by much more
sophisticated models (Wisner, 1 9 8 1 ) and s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate for design of small sewer
systems.

8.4 SEWER DESIGN USING HYDROGRAPH MODELS

For the peak-flow, single-event methods, such as the r a t i o n a l method, a l l hydrological and
hydraulic processes of the urban water cycle are generalized i n synthesized formulations, which
have l i m i t e d application domains. On the other hand urban hydrological models attempt t o simu-
l a t e i n d i v i d u a l processes of the urban hydrological cycle. These simulations deal w i t h water
quantity and/or q u a l i t y aspects.
From a general point of view, the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f processes may be divided i n t o some prin-
c i p a l components t h a t should be properly modelled (see Chapter 5 ) . Such components comprise
the following phenomena:
- Design storm modelling,
- R a i n f a l l abstractions,
- Rainfall-runoff modelling a t i n l e t s ,
- Flow routing through sewer trunks,
- Flow routing through special hydraulic structures such as detention basins, sewer junc-
tions, sewer drops, etc.
While the f i r s t three components belong t o the hydrological analysis, the l a s t two belong
t o hydraulic analysis. For each of the above mentioned f i v e p r i n c i p a l components, various
modelling approaches are possible according t o such factors as the design requirements, avail-
able data, accuracies required, a v a i l a b l e computer f a c i l i t i e s , and the minimum time and space
i n t e r v a l s required.

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 Usually, a hydrograph model f o r network design comprises l i n k e d submodels, each of which
simulates one of the p r i n c i p a l process components. Because o f various modelling approaches t o
i n d i v i d u a l components and various linkages of these components, many urban hydrological models
have been developed a l l over the world during the l a s t 15 years. For such a l a r g e number o f
models, it i s not easy t o give an objective evaluation. I t should be also noted t h a t designers
experienced i n urban hydrological modellirig are capable o f developing t h e i r own linkages of t h e
e x i s t i n g subniodels.
The designer should be aware o f the f a c t t h a t the most sophisticated t o o l i s not always
the best t o o l for h i s problem and t h a t i n newly developed packages, a l l the submodels should
have comparable accuracies. For example, i t i s counter-productive t o route runoff hydrographs
through sewers using a highly accurate hydrodynamic model, i f such hydrographs were produced
from hydrological input data containing very l a r g e errors. The accuracy o f such simulations
should not be judged by the precise method used f o r the hydrograph routing.
Before describing some existing well-documented simulation models, some remarks on t h e
modelling of the above mentioned p r i n c i p a l components are given.

8.4.1 Design storm modelling

This component has been already discussed i n Chapter 4 on design parameters. The reader w i l l
f i n d i n t h a t chapter many good references r e l a t e d t o various approaches t o the design storm
concept. I t should be recognized t h a t design storms or actual r a i n f a l l events are usually
needed i n order t o produce complete runoff hydrographs a t any point i n the sewer system and
thereby t o produce more comprehensive r e s u l t s when simple peak-runoff methods are inadequate
(e.g., i n a system w i t h storage e f f e c t s ) .
The design storm modelling may lead t o various submodels according t o the phenomenon t o be
simulated. Three types o f such submodels are further discussed below.
Single-event design storms are used for design (or analysis) o f storm sewer systems.
Synthesized storms or actual events of c e r t a i n characteristics can serve f o r t h i s purpose. At
the beginning of the project, the appropriate design storm i s generally not known and the
designer should experiment with various selected storms, i n order t o study t h e i r e f f e c t s on the
whole sewer system. The design storms are usually d i s c r e t i z e d i n t o very short time i n t e r v a l s
(e.g., 5 minutes or even l e s s ) .
Continuous r a i n f a l l data are also used i n the planning or analysis of storm sewer
systems. Such r a i n f a l l series may be observed data generally d i s c r e t i z e d i n t o f a i r l y long time
i n t e r v a l s (e.g., one hour or even longer), or they may be produced by a stochastic model of
r a i n f a l l time series with time i n t e r v a l s o f t e n longer than one day.
When using continuous runoff simulation i n conjunction w i t h long r a i n f a l l records dis-
c r e t i z e d i n short time i n t e r v a l s , i t i s possible t o undertake s t a t i s t i c a l analysis o f simulated
runoff parameters, such as runoff peaks and volumes, i n order t o estimate t h e i r frequencies of
occurrence independently o f the s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r a i n f a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Such
a procedure represents the best approach but i t requires good r a i n f a l l data and good computer
facilities. A t the same time, i t i s rather time consuming and expensive. For longer r e t u r n
periods, say more than 5 years, the r e s u l t s produced are often close t o those obtained with a
simple synthetic design storm o r an actual design storm.
The r a i n f a l l s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s sometimes simulated f o r f a i r l y l a r g e watersheds, say
larger than 1000 t o 5000 ha. A t present such simulation models are scarce, because they cannot
be developed without extensive records from rather dense r a i n gauge networks. Simpler models
use reduction c o e f f i c i e n t s applied t o the point r a i n f a l l a t the centre of the storm. They a r e
generally presented i n the following form:

i(d,t) = c(d) iM(t) (8.9)

i(A,t) = c(A) iM(t) (8.10)

where d i s the distance from the centre of the storm c e l l t o a given point i n the watershed, A
i s the area around the centre of the storm c e l l , i M ( t ) i s the r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y a t the centre
of the storm c e l l over the duration t, i ( A , t ) i s the mean r a i n f a l l depth over the area A,
i ( d , t ) i s the r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y a t a distance d from the centre of the storm, and c i s a
reduction c o e f f i c i e n t (see also Figure 4.4 i n Chapter 4 ) . Some research i s being done t o
develop more precise forms of Equations 8.9 and 8.10 from radar r a i n f a l l data.

8.4.2 R a i n f a l l abstractions

R a i n f a l l abstractions were discussed i n Chapter 5 where numerous approaches t o q u a n t i f i c a t i o n

o f such abstractions were described.

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 R a i n f a l l abstractions are used t o d e f i n e the net storm hyetographs which serve as inputs
t o other submodels. It appears t h a t a sophisticated modelling o f abstractions i s needed only
when there are n a t u r a l pervious areas, producing s i g n i f i c a n t r u n o f f , connected t o the sewer
system. For such areas, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s p e c i f y values o f the probable abstractions under
design conditions.
I n many densely urbanized areas, the pervious zones are i s o l a t e d from t h e sewer system.
Simple r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t s (see Section 5.2.3) can then be used t o describe abstractions. In
catchments w i t h extensive pervious areas, l o c a l observations may be needed i n order t o q u a n t i f y
t h e abstractions.

8.4.3 R a i n f a l l - r u n o f f modelling

The modelling concepts o f r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f processes were also discussed i n Chapter 5. Many

models o f the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f processes have been produced using analyses w i t h various d e t a i l .
For example, some models deal o n l y w i t h overland flow i n h i g h l y urbanized small catchments
( l e s s than one hectare, f o r example). Other models deal w i t h r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f processes i n
l a r g e watersheds (more than 50 hectares, f o r example). Such r u n o f f models consider i m p l i c i t l y
the e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l o r man-made drainage.
The f i r s t modelling approach should be q u i t e empirical. I n the next stage, a more sophis-
t i c a t e d approach, such as h y d r o l o g i c a l methods, should be used. Many such methods are based on
t h e l i n e a r r e s e r v o i r theory. The simplest model i n t h i s category can be expressed as

dS(t)/dt = In(t) - Q(t) (8.11)

S(t) = K Q(t) (8.12)

Equation 8.11 i s the c o n t i n u i t y equation, i n which I n ( t ) i s the excess r a i n f a l l , Q ( t ) i s

the discharge a t t h e catchment o u t l e t , and S i t ) i s storage on t h e catchment surface and i n i t s
drainage system. Equation 8.12 i s the storage equation i n which K i s t h e only parameter o f the
model. The K values can be defined from observations (see Section 5.4.5). For urbanized
watersheds researchers have established e m p i r i c a l equations g i v i n g design K-values expressed as
functions o f t h e catchment and r a i n f a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Desbordes, 1978; Rao e t al., 1972).
The l i n e a r r e s e r v o i r model i s very simple and can be e a s i l y operated. Assuming empty
sewers a t the beginning of the storm, the d i s c r e t i z e d s o l u t i o n o f Equations 8.11 and 8.12 i s
given by

Q(n*dt) = Q ( (n-l)*dt)*e-l/K + In(n-dt)*(i-e-l/K) (8.13)

where K i s given i n d t units, and d t i s the time i n t e r v a l used i n computations.

Many other simple models could be also used, such as the generalized r a t i o n a l method i n
t h e form o f time-area o r isochrone l i n e methods, or models combining two well-known processes,
storage and t r a n s l a t i o n (see Section 5.4).

8.4.4 Hydraulic r o u t i n g through sewers and s p e c i a l s t r u c t u r e s

The hydrographs c a l c u l a t e d i n the preceding step are then routed through sewers. Again, many
r o u t i n g methods w i t h various accuracy o r d e t a i l can be used. They were summarized i n Section
5.5.
The simplest r o u t i n g techniques are based on t r a n s l a t i o n s o f the i n l e t hydrographs t o the
next i n l e t o r j u n c t i o n p o i n t . The t r a n s l a t i o n v e l o c i t y can be defined as, f o r example, the
f l o w v e l o c i t y corresponding t o the mean f l o w discharge o f the t o t a l i n l e t hydrograph, o r a mean
v e l o c i t y corresponding t o a p a r t o f the i n l e t hydrograph around the peak discharge, o r some
weighted-average v e l o c i t y defined as

(8.14)

where ,,Q, i s t h e discharge o f the m - t h d i s c r e t i z e d p a r t o f the hydrograph, Vm i s the

corresponding flow v e l o c i t y , and V i k i s the weighted t r a n s l a t i o n v e l o c i t y o f the hydrograph
between p o i n t iand k.
Some other simple techniques are based on storage r o u t i n g s i m i l a r t o t h a t described above
f o r the r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f proccess. I n t h a t case, the i n f l o w hydrograph a t a given p o i n t i s
considered as the storage input, and the storage output i s the hydrograph a t the downstream
s e c t i o n o f the sewer trunk. Linear and non-linear storage equations have been adopted f o r such
f l o w r o u t i n g using various approaches. One o f the frequently used methods i s the so-called
Muskingum method described by the f o l l o w i n g equation:

148
where I ( t ) i s the inflow, Q ( t ) i s the outflow, and K and x are parameters. Equation 8.15 i s
associated w i t h the continuity Equation 8.11. Under s p e c i f i c conditions, numerical i n t e g r a t i o n
of the r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l equation leads t o good r e s u l t s .
The e a r l i e r discussed simple hydrograph t r a n s l a t i o n techniques may be used f o r conditions
characterized by r e l a t i v e l y steep slopes and absence of s i g n i f i c a n t backwater e f f e c t s . Storage
routing techniques give good r e s u l t s for rather f l a t sewer systems. For systems with s i g n i f i -
cant backwater e f f e c t s or i n order t o get very accurate r e s u l t s , the use of the Saint-Venant
hydrodynamic equations may be required (see Section 5 . 5 ) . However, the reader should be aware
of the f a c t t h a t flow routing by means of complete hydrodynamic equations requires l a r g e compu-
ter facilities. Moreover, for fast-varying transient flows, even the complete one-dimensional
Saint-Venant equation i s not always adequate.
For surcharged sewers, the common routing techniques must be modified. A few models simu-
l a t e such conditions using conceptual approaches w i t h l i m i t e d experimental support data (Price
and Kidd, 1 9 7 8 ) .
Some models also contain procedures for flow routing through special hydraulic structures,
such as overflow structures, detention basins, etc. Most o f these procedures represent concep-
t u a l approaches involving continuity equations and functional equations o f the hydraulic
controls and structures. I n many cases, s p e c i f i c subroutines must be added t o a general
package i n order t o account for hydrograph routing through special hydraulic structures.

8.4.5 Runoff q u a l i t y modelling aspects

Runoff q u a l i t y modelling which was b r i e f l y discussed i n Section 4.7 i s a r a t h e r new aspect of

urban hydrology. I t depends g r e a t l y on l o c a l conditions. Runoff q u a l i t y models are r e l a t i v e l y
few and represent highly empirical approaches requiring c a l i b r a t i o n data f o r successful appli-
cation (Torno e t a i . , 1986; Geiger, 1984).
Runoff q u a l i t y models deal with some selected pollutants, such as suspended solids or
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and use semi-empirical equations t o c a l c u l a t e the r a t e s a t
which a given p o l l u t a n t i s washed o f f from the watershed through the sewer network. Sophisti-
cated q u a l i t y models, some of which are discussed l a t e r , comprise a number o f submodels. Each
submodel simulates a p a r t i c u l a r component of the t o t a l process, e.g., transport o f pollutants
through sewer networks, accumulation and erosion o f p o l l u t a n t s i n the watershed, sedimentation
i n sewers, special processes i n l o c a l hydraulic structures or treatment f a c i l i t i e s , etc.
Great caution i s urged when using the e x i s t i n g runoff q u a l i t y models without l o c a l c a l i -
b r a t i o n data, because they have been developed for s p e c i f i c land use and drainage practices.
Even then, the general modelling concepts may be of some i n t e r e s t t o the designer, because he
can use them t o b u i l d h i s own appropriate models.

8.4.6 Network design using comprehensive models

The preliminary analysis described i n Section 8.3.2.3 f o r the r a t i o n a l method applications must
s t i l l be done when using comprehensive models. Thus, the drainage area i s f i r s t subdivided
i n t o subareas with homogeneous land use, and the proposed structures or the e x i s t i n g sewer
system are drawn i n a more or less d e t a i l e d manner, depending on the design objectives.
According t o the requirements of the model used, the designer w i l l f i r s t assemble and
c a r e f u l l y check a l l the required data on design r a i n f a l l , sewer geometry, hydraulic roughness,
runoff c o e f f i c i e n t s , and r a i n f a l l abstraction parameters. Generally the data set w i l l be much
larger than t h a t required f o r the r a t i o n a l method. I n many cases, the data required w i l l not
be available and the designer w i l l have t o use d e f a u l t values given i n the user's manual o f the
chosen model. I f these d e f a u l t values seem unsuitable f o r the design conditions, the designer
should t e s t the model s e n s i t i v i t y t o these values, using t h e i r probable range. I f t h e nodel i s
too sensitive t o such parameters, i t should not be used and the designer should select another
model o f a similar complexity, or even a simpler one (e.g., as simple as the r a t i o n a l method).
The f i r s t review and analysis of the required and a v a i l a b l e data i s very important and
should not be attempted without a d e t a i l e d user's manual. From a general point o f view, the
designer should not operate any comprehensive model without c a r e f u l inspection of i t s d e t a i l e d
user's manual describing, w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l , the operations which are performed.
After the preliminary analysis, and according t o the design objectives, s,ewer network
complexity, a v a i l a b l e data, computer f a c i l i t i e s , and other factors, the designer should be able
t o choose an appropriate model from those now a v a i l a b l e a l l around the world. O f course, i t i s
not possible t o describe here, i n d e t a i l , a l l the e x i s t i n g comprehensive models. Consequently,
only the best known and publicized ones are mentioned. A d i s t i n c t i o n should be made between
proprietary and non-proprietary models. The former ones are d i s t r i b u t e d by p r i v a t e firms,

149
usually f o r a fee, and t h e i r descriptions may be less d e t a i l e d than those of the non-pro-
p r i e t a r y models d i s t r i b u t e d by public agencies.
Some comparative studies have been done for the best known runoff models (Brandstetter,
1976). However, the r e s u l t s of such studies become quickly outdated, because many models are
being continuously improved. For the four l e v e l s of stormwater management problems indicated
i n Table 8.3, the main characteristics of 38 applicable models are summarized i n Table 8.4.
Both tables were adopted from a report (U.S. EPA, 1977) giving summarized descriptions of some
o f the models mentioned i n Table 0.4 and about 250 referenced papers dealing with urban hydrol-
ogy and water management modelling. The reader should f i n d reading t h i s report b e n e f i c i a l even
i f some information presented i s already out of date. Furthermore, some recent models,
developed a f t e r the publication of the above report, are not included i n Table 8.4. Among such
models, i t i s possible t o name the Wallingford procedure (National Water Council, 1981; Price
and Kidd, 1978) developed i n the United Kingdom by the Hydraulics Research Station and the
Wallingford I n s t i t u t e o f Hydrology, the R E M model (Desbordes, 1978; Service Technique de
l'urbanisme, 1980) developed i n France for the M i n i s t r i e s of I n t e r i o r and Equipment by the
Laboratory o f Mathematical Hydrology of the Montpellier University of Science, and the IMPSWMM
Urban Drainage Modelling Procedures of the University of Ottawa (Wisner, 1 9 8 4 ) developed i n
Canada. A l 1 the above models can be characterized as design/analysis models.

Table 8.3 Levels of analysis for stormwater management (U.S. EPA, 1977)

Analysis Model
Level Model Type Complexity Purpose of Model Model Characteristics

I Desk-top Low t o Problem assessment, No computers required. Equa-

medium preliminary planning tions or nomograms based on
a l t e r n a t i v e screening. s t a t i s t i c a l analyses o f many
years of records.

II Continuous Low t o Problem assessment, Programs of a few hundred t o a

simulation medium planning, preliminary
sizing of f a c i l i t i e s
( p a r t i c u l a r l y storage)
a l t e r n a t i v e screening,
assessment o f long-
term impacts of pro-
posed designs.
few thousand statements, use
many years of r a i n f a l l records
with hourly time steps, may
include flow routing and con-
tinuous receiving water analy-
sis.

III Single Medium t o Analysis f o r design, Programs with over 10,000

event high d e t a i l e d planning. statements, higher modelling
precision, deal with r a i n f a l l ,
sewer flow routing, and
possibly the receiving waters.
Short time steps and simulation
steps, few a l t e r n a t i v e s are
evaluated.

IV Operational Medium Real-time operation Use telemetered r a i n f a l l data

o f sewerage systems.
and feedback from sewer system
sensors t o make continuously
short-term predictions of the
system response and control
decisions during storms

I t should be recognized t h a t even models o f high complexity (e.g., SWMM and HSPF) smploy,
s p e c i a l l y i n water q u a l i t y modelling, many empirical relationships which are r e l a t e d t o
specific land use and types of urban development and may d i f f e r from one country t o another.
So the designer should f i r s t c a r e f u l l y study the user's manual before using a given modelling
package.
I t i s not possible t o give here d e t a i l e d information on a l l the c u r r e n t l y used or avail-
able models. The reader w i l l f i n d many good papers i n the above mentioned references or
elsewhere (Geiger, 1984; U.S. Army Carps of Engineers, 1 9 7 7 ) . Among a l l the existing models,
-,

150
 Catchment Sewer Wastewater Miscel-
Hydrology Hydraulics Q u a l i t y laneous

LEVEL 1 (Desk-top)
University o f F l o r i d a sWMM Level 1 X x x x x x X X
URS Research Company - x x x x
BA-MERL - X x x x x x x x x x x x
LEVEL 11 (Continuous)
U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts - xx x x x X
Chicago Sanitary D i s t r i c t FSP xx x x x x x X x x x x
University of I l l i n o i s ISS xx x x x x x x x x x x x
Metcalf & Eddy S i m p l i f i e d SWMM x x x x x x x x x x x x
Norwegian Water Research NIVA xx x x x x x x x x x X x x
Corps o f Engineers STORM x x x x x x X x x
C i t y o f Chicago CHM-RPM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Hydrocomp HSP x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Dorsch Consult QQS x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
LEVEL 111 (Single event)
Queen's U n i v e r s i t y QWRM X x x x
U n i v e r s i t y o f Nebraska HYDRA x xx x x X
Wilsey and Ham WH- 1 X x x x x x x
Colorado State U n i v e r s i t y
U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts -- x x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
X
X
U n i v e r s i t y of C i n c i n n a t i UCUR X x x x x x X
B r i t i s h Road Research Lab. RRL x x x x x x x x x
I l l i n o i s State ILLUDAS x x x x x x X x x x
Chicago Sanitary D i s t r i c t FSP x x x x x x x X x x x x
CH2M-Hill SAM x x x x x x x x x X
MIT - Resource Analysis MITCAT x x x x x x x x x x x x x
University of I l l i n o i s ISS x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Norwegian Water Research NIVA x x x x x x x x x x X x x x
C i t y o f Chicago RPM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
SOGREAH CAREDAS x x x x x x x x x x X x x x x
Hydrocomp HSP x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
B a t t e l l e Northwest BNW x x x x x x x x x x x x X x x x x
Watermation CSM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x X x x x
EPA SWMM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Dorsch Consult HMV x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Water Resources Engineers STORMSEWER x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
LEVEL V I (Operational)
Minneapolis - S t . Paul UROM-9 x x x x x x X x x x
S e a t t l e Metro CATAD x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
B a t t e l l e Northwest BNW x x x x x x x x x x x x X x x x x
Watermati o n CSM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x X x x x
Hydrocomp HSP x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x C h a r a c t e r i s t i c included i n model.

151
two are probably best known, because they were among the f i r s t models introduced and have been
improved continuously by users. The f i r s t one i s the STORM model (Storage, Treatment, Overflow
and Runoff Model) of the U.S. Corps of Engineers (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1977). The
o r i g i n a l version was completed i n January 1973 by Water Resources Engineers, Inc. (Walnut
Creek, C a l i f o r n i a ) . I t has since been revised and expanded a number o f times. The major
processes modelled by STORM are shown i n Figure 8.3. I t was designed p r i m a r i l y t o evaluate
stormwater storage and treatment f a c i l i t i e s required t o abate stormwater and combined sewage
overflows. The model continuously simulates the time-varying flow o f wastewater and f i v e con-
servative q u a l i t y constituents, from many urban and non-urban land uses, within a single catch-
ment, without routing them through the sewer network. Although the model considers the flow
diversion t o the treatment plant, i t does not simulate p o l l u t a n t removals or associated costs.
I t i s a rather simple t o o l f o r planning purposes.

FLOW
STORAGE

Fig. 8.3 Conceptual representation of the urban system used i n the STORM model

The second model i s the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. The model was o r i g i n a l l y developed by Metcalf and Eddy Inc., the University
o f F l o r i d a and Water Resources Engineers i n 1971, and i t has been subsequently improved by the
University of F l o r i d a (U.S. EPA, 1977; Huber e t a l . , 1982). A somewhat dated werview of the
SWMM structure i s given i n Figure 8.4 which depicts the Canadian version of SWMM (Environment
Canada, 1976).

152
 [-RAINFALL I

SURFACE RUNOFF
OVERLAND FLOW QUALITY OF
ROUTING OVERLAND FLOW BLOCK
- (SNOWMELT AND
I I OVERLAND FLOW)
1 INLET K I INLET K

FLOW ROUTING QUALITY ROUTING TRANSPORT BLOCK

THROUGH DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
=. THROUGH DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
(DRAINAGE SYSTEM
ROUTING)

OUTFALL L OUTFALL L

a--------
lnt --------------
FLOW ROUTING QUALITY ROUTING STORAGE/TREATMENT
THROUGH THROUGH BLOCK
STORAGE/TREATMENT STORAGE/TREATMENT (EFFECTS OF S/T FACILITIES)
SYSTEM SYSTEM

I DISCHARGE M

U ) A t

RECEIVING WATERS
FLOW ROUTING QUALITY ROUTiNG BLOCK
THROUGH THROUGH (RECEIVING WATERS
RECEIVING WATERS RECEIVING WATERS RESPONSE)

Fig. 8.4 Overview o f the Stormwater Management Model (SWMM)

153
The model program, consisting of more than 12,000 statements, i s one of the most d e t a i l e d and
comprehensive mathematical procedures for the simulation of single urban runoff events, storm
sewer discharges, and combined sewer overflows. It includes numerous water q u a l i t y con-
s t i t u e n t s , pumping stations, diversion structures, sedimentation and scour, treatment and
storage w i t h associated costs, and two-dimensional receiving water quantity and q u a l i t y simula-
tions. The data requirements are very l a r g e and include data on the catchment physiography,
the system structures, information r e l a t e d t o the system maintenance, the dry weather flow and
receiving waters, and numerous r a i n f a l l records, runoff hydrographs and combined flow q u a l i t y
measurements. The most recent SWMM version can be operated i n the continuous simulation mode
and the model v e r s a t i l i t y and f l e x i b i l i t y was g r e a t l y enhanced by l e t t i n g the user choose from
many optional modelling approaches including pressure flow routing (Huber e t a l . , 1982).
Beyond the pioneering aspect o f the SWMM, the reader should note t h a t the f i r s t version
has been continuously improved by the users meeting r e g u l a r l y since 1977. The U.S. EPA has
published the proceedings o f these meetings, and the designer can f i n d valuable information i n
such publications (U.S. EPA, 1978-1982). Similar meetings are organized also i n other
countries (Great B r i t a i n , France and Scandinavian countries) w i t h regard t o some n a t i o n a l
models. However, most of the e a r l i e r mentioned models are pertinent t o the developed countries
conditions and should not be exported without adjustments f o r the conditions encountered i n
developing countries.
Presently, most of the existing models are s t i l l under study and development. For
example, some models are being expanded t o include continuous simulation and various new water
q u a l i t y submodels. Many research e f f o r t s deal w i t h receiving waters q u a l i t y modelling (Medina,
1979; Torno e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ) which may gain more prominence i n the future. I t should be recog-
nized, however, t h a t the design of sewer networks by means of comprehensive models, such as
those discussed above, r e f l e c t s socio-economic conditions which vary from one country t o
another. I n developing countries, the socio-economic conditions are probably of even greater
importance. They should be f i r s t c a r e f u l l y analyzed and the appropriate network design methods
should be derived from t h a t analysis. Under such conditions, an appropriate network design
model should be preferably established i n these countries rather than imported from any
developed country without modifications.

154
9 Organization and administration of
urban drainage projects

9.1 DRAINAGE AS PART OF THE URBAN WATER SYSTEM

Good water management i n urban areas depends on many aspects including p o l i t i c a l goals, laws
and regulations, water management i n s t i t u t i o n s , experienced s t a f f receptive t o innovations and
modern techniques of water control, up-to-date knowledge and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f information
required. Urban water management i s i n t e r - l i n k e d with the development of water resources i n
the urban area and, consequently, with the planning, i n space and time, o f f a c i l i t i e s of the
water system on the whole, including water supply and sanitation services. Therefore, the
guidelines f o r organizational and administrative aspects given i n t h i s chapter are not r e s t r i c -
ted only t o urban drainage projects. The case studies and references given deal with i n s t i t u -
t i o n a l requirements of urban water management. They w i l l make the responsible engineer aware
of economic, f i n a n c i a l , i n s t i t u t i o n a l and managerial implications of designing an urban drain-
age system as p a r t o f the urban water system.

9.2 PLANNING AND ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS

The set-up o f urban drainage projects needs c a r e f u l preparation, not only i n the technical and
economic sense, but also concerning the planning and organization of the p r o j e c t during and
a f t e r i t s implementation. I n many cases, urban drainage systems are i n t e r r e l a t e d with other
components of the water system of the c i t y and i t s surroundings, such as water supply, sanita-
t i o n and transport f a c i l i t i e s . The following examples i l l u s t r a t e t h i s interdependency.
one of the p r o v i n c i a l government p o l i c i e s i n Ontario (Canada) i s t h a t every municipality
i s required t o develop master drainage plans for a l l watersheds w i t h i n the municipal boun-
daries. I t states ( M i n i s t r y of the Environment and Environment Canada, 1980) t h a t "the purpose
of t h i s p o l i c y i s t o foster master drainage planning f o r r a p i d l y developing municipalities t o
ensure t h a t stormwater drainage systems are developed i n a manner compatible w i t h watershed
needs, t o i d e n t i f y e x i s t i n g water q u a l i t y and flooding problems, and t o avoid future problems."
I n Nigeria, various i n s t i t u t i o n s are engaged i n the planning and implementation of sewer-
age, drainage and waste disposal services. I n 1976, a streamlining o f the organizational
p a t t e r n for these services was introduced. I n the beginning, t h i s resulted i n a d i v i s i o n of
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r sewerage, drainage, and waste c o l l e c t i o n and disposal among the Urban
Development Board, the M i n i s t r y of Works and Housing and the Municipal Council of the Metro-
p o l i t a n Area, respectively. I n 1978, a proposal f o r i n t e g r a t i o n o f these three sectors, sewe-
rage, drainage and waste disposal, was formulated i n the Master Plan Report (Kano, 1978). The
basic principles f o r service i n t e g r a t i o n and organization were followed by an action programme
o f organizational and managerial inputs required for a successful implementation of the Master
Plan. Since the above basic principles are of general i n t e r e s t , t h e i r modified t e x t i s given
below.
I n the l e g a l , administrative and socio-economic context, the organization and management
o f sewerage, drainage and waste disposal services can best be met within the framework of a
public board or agency. The following p r i n c i p l e s should be observed i n any reform o f t h e
administrative structure and functions aimed a t the improvement of e f f i c i e n c y and r e l i a b i l i t y
o f performance.
- Clear i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and subsequent grouping of required a c t i v i t i e s ( f o r instance,
conservation and cleaning service, operation o f sanitary sewers and sewage treatment and
disposal f a c i l i t i e s , waste c o l l e c t i o n and d i s k s a l ) i n l o g i c a l coherent groups of
a c t i v i t i e s and i n a functional hierarchy o f such groups.

155
 - Drawing up o r g a n i z a t i o n a l structures, i n which the functions o f d i f f e r e n t agencies axe
c l e a r l y defined, t h e d i v i s i o n o f work i s l o g i c a l and t h e l i n e s o f a u t h o r i t y as w e l l as
d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s are understood by a l l concerned.
- Every important f u n c t i o n must be c l e a r l y a t t r i b u t e d t o one agency o r administration. No
s i n g l e f u n c t i o n o r two s i m i l a r functions s h a l l be a t t r i b u t e d t o t w o d i f f e r e n t agencies
o r administrations.
- Designing a system of coherent o b j e c t i v e s and p r i o r i t i e s which are p e r i o d i c a l l y re-
viewed.
- Enhancing adequate i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l delegation o f power, so t h a t t i m e l y decisions
are made and actions taken a t t h e lowest possible l e v e l , where and when needed. Maximum
autonomy a t l e a s t f o r current tasks (recruitment, t r a i n i n g , promotion and payment o f
personnel, purchase o f equipment, commercial a c t i v i t i e s , land a c q u i s i t i o n ) should be
implemented.
- No d i v i s i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s between planning, design and execution o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
works, on one hand, and operation and maintenance, on t h e other.
- Combining, t o the maximum p o s s i b l e extent, s i m i l a r a c t i v i t i e s d e a l i n g w i t h sewerage and
water supply i n one s i n g l e organization.
- Choice o f a s t r u c t u r e which allows f o r a f u t u r e streamlining on a nation-wide l e v e l .

The f o l l o w i n g may be defined as the main service functions:

- Preparation and enforcement o f s a n i t a r y regulations,
- Planning, conceptual layout and design,
- Construction, c o n s t r u c t i o n supervision and implementation,
- F i n a n c i a l and commercial management?
- Operation, maintenance and r e p a i r , and
- Stock-keeping and m a t e r i a l s handling.
For these functions, precise operational procedures w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g major features have
t o be prepared:
- Adequate cost and funding programme, annual forecasts o f income and expenditure on
operations and investment, a u t h o r i t y and a b i l i t y t o impose and c o l l e c t fees and charges,
from which a l l o c a t i o n s are made f o r operation, maintenance ana f i n a n c i a l reserves;
- Work procedures and forms t o enable a b e t t e r and more equitable performance f o r q u a n t i t y
and q u a l i t y o f service, programme f o r e f f e c t i v e appraisal o f r e s u l t s (audits, inspec-
t i o n s , s t a t i s t i c a l studies and r e p o r t s ) , comprehensive record keeping;
- Regular review o f inventory l e v e l s f o r materials, r e g u l a r inventory and re-evaluation o f
the p h y s i c a l p l a n t .
Services should be a v a i l a b l e t o the greatest possible number of c i t i z e n s without unbear-
able f i n a n c i a l charges t o them. Generation o f income from service charges can only be r a i s e d
step by step t o such l e v e l s , which w i l l f u l l y cover operation and maintenance costs.
The Master Plan Report recommends t h a t t h e long-term o b j e c t i v e should be t o e s t a b l i s h a
m u l t i f u n c t i o n a l unit responsible f o r sewerage, drainage and waste disposal according t o
Figure 9 .l. The l e v e l o f autonomy should gradually evolve towards a l a r g e r and well-defined
independence. The proposed u n i t should consist o f three main f u n c t i o n a l departments, i.e.,
Administration, Finance and Accounting, and Engineering Operation, Maintenance and Q u a l i t y
Control, and one s t a f f u n i t .
P r i n c i p l e s o f e f f i c i e n t operation favour the establishment o f an i n t e g r a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
u n i t w i t h a c e r t a i n amount of autonomy. Therefore, c o l l e c t i o n , treatment and disposal o f
wastewater (sewerage) and stormwater (drainage) as w e l l as domestic and i n d u s t r i a l s o l i d wastes
should i d e a l l y be executed by one s i n g l e a u t h o r i t y . J o i n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r waste c o l l e c t i o n
and drainage i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important.
Given the s c a r c i t y o f q u a l i f i e d t e c h n i c a l and adminstrative personnel, the organizational
unit should be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o an e x i s t i n g organization r a t h e r than c r e a t i n g a completely new
organization.
G o o d co-ordination o f a l l a c t i v i t i e s concerning the t h r e e sectors and a l l other urban
development a c t i v i t i e s should be assured v i a a comprehensive Urban Development Plan and by
permanent close contact w i t h urban planning and development a c t i v i t i e s (Kano, 1 9 7 8 ) .
The I n s t i t u t i o n o f Water Engineers and S c i e n t i s t s ( 1 9 8 3 ) proposed a t e n t a t i v e o u t l i n e o f
the functions i n water management organizations (see Figure 9 . 2 ) which i s s i m i l a r t o t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t given i n the Kano Master Plan. Figure 9.2 shows t h e technical, f i n a n c i a l
and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e functions i n water supply and s a n i t a t i o n services. For a d e t a i l e d descrip-
t i o n o f these funtions, reference i s made t o the above-mentioned report. This r e p o r t also
concluded t h a t i n recent years, the implementation o f a growing number o f l a r g e p r o j e c t s has
led t o increased a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r management. This i s a welcome trend because any l a r g e
p r o j e c t under implementation puts a d d i t i o n a l marked s t r a i n on the organization and management
o f the sponsoring agency. Poor p r o j e c t management can g r e a t l y add t o t h a t s t r a i n . A t t h e same

156
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Fig. 9.2 Functions of an urban water management organization

( I n s t . o f Water Engineers and Scientists, 1983)

time, the project produces l i t t l e or no b e n e f i t for the agency u n t i l i t i s substantiauy or

f u l l y completed and provides additional services t o water supply or sanitation system users.
Even though the scope of t h i s chapter does not allow d e t a i l e d discussion of project
management, two r e l a t e d points o f special importance t o the sponsoring agency are made below.
These points apply i f the main design and construction e f f o r t s are provided by outside contrac-
t o r s and consultants.
( 1 ) The project work i s l i a b l e t o disrupt the regular operational work of the agency.
The best method of guarding against these e f f e c t s usually i s t o separate very c l e a r l y
executive r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for project management from r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the continued
management o f normal operations. This i s i n l i n e with the information given i n the
right-hand p a r t of the chart i n Figure 9.1 showing separate blocks for "operation and
maintenance" and "planning and implementation", under one leading r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
engineering, operation and maintenance, as recommended i n The Kano Master Plan
Report.
( 2 ) Having pointed out the p o t e n t i a l strains of project execution, i t i s important t o
emphasize t h a t such strains w i l l not cease as soon as construction i s completed.
The planning procedure o f water resources management i n the Province of Gelderland, the
Netherlands, presented i n Figure 9.3, shows the interdependency between the conditions of the
management plan and the development and formulation of implementation goals and measures, which
may lead t o the selection of the optimal implementation plan. I n t h i s respect, general
planning of water management i n the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) i s brought t o the atten-
tion. Already i n 1957, the FRG water management law required water management plans f o r r i v e r
basins o r other t e r r i t o r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s of the country. These plans include forecasts of the
s t a t e o f water resources, provisions for flood protection and conservation of water q u a l i t y .
Such planning i s c l e a r l y linked w i t h the planning of physical f a c i l i t i e s ( P h i l i p p i , 1974;
Klosterkemper, 1980).
The connection between the development of urban water resources and research and engineer-
i n g design i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 9.4 which also indicates the r e l a t i o n between the decision
makers and other agencies (Notodihardjo and Zuidema, 1982).
As the a t t i t u d e t o water problems i s changing and the hydrological data needed for r e l i -
a b l e water resources planning are t o a great extent generated by means of various hydrological
models, c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n has t o be given t o the specification o f required data (Gottschalk,
1982). Examples of such data are given i n Table 9.1. Additional information on hydrological

158
 CONDITIONS FROM THE NATIONAL
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(Unesco, 1979)

159
 Scientific, I n v e s t i ga t i on Pol it i c a l and
e d u c a t i o n a l and and design a t planning level
training part engineering level

1s t phase
Demonst r at ion/ P o l it i c a l
t r a i n i n g programme

-
f o r i n t e g r a t e d urban
water resources
devel opment

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and t r a i n i n g (LW)
- Land and water
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I
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I
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Fig. 9.4 Demonstration/training programme f o r i n t e g r a t e d urban water resources management

and a n c i l l a r y data was given e a r l i e r i n Chapter 4 (Design Parameters) and the c o l l e c t i o n o f

hydrometeorological and a n c i l l a r y data i s described i n Chapters 2 t o 4 o f Volume I I (Unesco,
1987).
Once a l l the data required have been assembled, i t i s possible t o proceed w i t h a c t u a l
design. I f t h e considerations are r e s t r i c t e d t o storm sewers, the design procedure f o r sewers
may be considered as c o n s i s t i n g o f four d i s t i n c t steps shown i n Figure 9.5 (Hengeveld and de
Vocht, 1982). The f i r s t step o f t h i s procedure s p e c i f i e s e s s e n t i a l boundary conditions of t h e
design. This w i l l be f u r t h e r elaborated on i n Section 9.3.
It can be concluded t h a t the organization and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f urban drainage p r o j e c t s
cannot be considered apart from r e g i o n a l water management and i t s l e g i s l a t i v e aspects and p o l i -
t i c a l framework. I n such considerations, the watershed i s o f t e n t h e p r e f e r r e d r e g i o n a l u n i t ,
though t h e metropolitan area may be the best adminstrative u n i t , as concluded by McPherson
(1978).

9.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ASPECTS

I d e a l l y , the choice o f an appropriate design frequency, as given i n Figure 9.5, and discussed
i n Chapter 4, should be based on an economic analysis i n which a l l the b e n e f i t s o f the p r o j e c t ,
i n c l u d i n g the costs o f t h e damage prevented, are balanced against the costs o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
(Hengeveld and de Vocht, 1982). The p r o j e c t b e n e f i t s comprise the so-called t a n g i b l e benefits,
such as property damage prevention, which can be r e a d i l y q u a n t i f i e d , and the i n t a n g i b l e bene-
f i t s , such as prevention o f general inconvenience, transport delays and i n j u r y t o health, which
are much more d i f f i c u l t t o assess (see Table 9.2). Benefits o f urban drainage and f l o o d
c o n t r o l p r o j e c t s must be measured i n terms o f objectives o f these projects. Traditionally,
such o b j e c t i v e s are considered t o be f l o o d protection, economic o b j e c t i v e s other than r e d u c t i o n
i n property damage, and amenity objectives. The r e a l i z a t i o n s o f these objectives are u s u a l l y
measured as shown i n Table 9.3 (Grigg, 1977). Not a l l b e n e f i t s are f i n a n c i a l and r e c i p i e n t s o f
such b e n e f i t s include property owners, public, developers and business groups.

160
 Table 9.1 Examples of data required €or the use O€ hydrologic models
i n planning (Gottschalk, 1982)

Sur face Water Meteorology

Stream discharge Precipitation

Lake and reservoir l e v e l Temper a t ure
Water tempera t ure Humidity
Sediment concentration Barometric pressure
Chemical and b i o l o g i c a l properties Radiation
Sunshine duration
maporation
snow depth and water content
Interception

Watershed Characteristics S o i l and Ground Water

Topography (drainage area and land Slopes) Water l e v e l

Temper a t ure
Geology Chemical properties
S o i l type Storage c o e f f i c i e n t s
Geomorphology (drainage Permeability
pattern 1 Moisture content
Vegetation
Land use

ECONOMKS
PUBLIC HEALTH SELECT RECURRENCE
PERCEPTION OF RISKS
AND NUISANCE

L
METEOROLOGY
METEOROLOGY t ----i h -SELECT DESIGN
STORM
c-

ESTIMATE PEAK
HYDROLOGY RUNOFF RATE OR
STORM HYDROGRAPH

1
HYDRAULICS
t----i
l 1
CHOOSE APPROPRIATE
SIZE OF CONDUIT
J

Fig. 9.5 Design procedure for stormwater systems

161
 Table 9.2 Inventory o f p o t e n t i a l costs and benefits of urban drainage
and flood control projects (Grigg, 1977)

Benefits costs

Reduced flood damage t o public and p r i v a t e f a c i l i t i e s Construction costs

Land value enhancement Land acquisition costs
Reduced l i a b i l i t y t o upstream land owners Costs of non-structural programmes,
Reduction i n t r a f f i c delays including food p l a i n zoning
Reduced income, r e n t a l , sales and production losses Evacuation and emergency programme
Reduced clean-up and maintenance costs costs
Reduced emergency r e l i e f costs Administration costs
Increased p o s s i b l i t i e s for recreation opportunities Insurance subsidy costs
Reduced inconvenience Increased reconstruction costs due
Increased sense o f security t o the magnitude and extent of
A l l e v i a t i o n o f h e a l t h hazards flood damage
Improved aesthetic environment Environmental and social costs
Reduced r i s k t o l i f e
Improved water q u a l i t y

Table 9.3 Measures of urban drainage and flood control benefits (Grigg, 1977)
~~ ~

Project Objectives Measures

Protective

Minimize property damage Average annual property damage

Eliminate l i f e losses Expected loss of l i v e s
A l l e v i a t i o n of health hazards Absence of hazards
Reduction o f t r a f f i c hazards Presence (absence) of hazards

Other Economic

Improve land values MeasUred land values

Reduction i n maintenance Expected maintenance budget
Reduction i n l i a b i l i t y Presence (absence) of p o t e n t i a l l i a b i l i t y

Amenity

Aesthetic improvements Scale of aesthetic value

Recreational Quantity of recreational opportunities
Convenience Travel time, cleaning b i l l s , etc.

Various techniques f o r evaluation o f urban water projects are i n use by national and l o c a l
agencies. Such techniques are not necessarily incompatible among themselves, but they do
approach socio-economic considerations from d i f f e r e n t angles. There i s a trend towards the
blending of r i v e r basin planning and urban planning, which r e s u l t s i n confusion regarding the
methodology f o r evaluation and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . National and l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s must reconcile
these t w o forms of planning, and research i n the social sciences i s needed t o develop improved
concepts f o r precise evaluation.
Large drainage and sewerage schemes should be subject t o socio-economic evaluation of both
tangible and i n t a n g i b l e benefits. Small schemes probably do not j u s t i f y the e f f o r t needed, but
should be designed as minimum cost solutions meeting the prescribed standards. The a u t h o r i t i e s
responsible f o r s e t t i n g drainage standards should re-examine those standards i n the l i g h t of
recent socio-economic changes i n metropolitan regions (Lindh, 1979; Unesco, 1977) and with due
a t t e n t i o n t o the regional context (Lindh, 1 9 8 5 ) .
Optimization of the layout plans of sewer networks i s one f i e l d which has been explored so
far only t o a small extent. Walters (1982) developed a dynamic programming approach as a basis
f o r robust and practicable computer programs allowing the designer t o produce networks which
are 5% t o 15% cheaper than the t y p i c a l manually designed networks. I t i s expected t h a t i n the
near future the a v a i l a b i l i t y of low cost computing w i l l make these models more a t t r a c t i v e as
design tools. A schematic flowchart f o r the network layout program i s given i n Figure 9.6.

162
 Start
I '
Define g r i d s a t j u n c t i o n s and ranges o f d i s c r e t e depths
.I
For 1 s t j u n c t i o n o b t a i n minimum c o s t o f a r r i v a l a t
each g r i d p o s i t i o n and p i p e depth

ti
1st grid position Next g r i d p o s i t i o n
1
1 s t d i s c r e t e depth Next d i s c r e t e depth
i
C a l c u l a t e c o s t o f branch connection.
c *

Using a l l g r i d p o s i t i o n s , d i s c r e t e depths and associated

c o s t s f o r upstream j u n c t i o n , s e l e c t s o l u t i o n f o r main d r a i n
t h a t minimizes t h e t o t a l network c o s t upstream o f c u r r e n t
j u n c t i o n . S t o r e c o s t and s o l u t i o n .
A

No Y es

Fig. 9.6 Flowchart of Multicon programme f o r optimization of sewer network layouts

I n the new towns of Lelystad and Almere, the Netherlands, the choice between a combined
and a separate sewer system has been based on extensive studies dealing w i t h costs, water
q u a l i t y , implementation and maintenance. The arguments leading t o the preference o f a separate
system were as follows:
- The uniformity o f the system f o r the whole c i t y , which w i l l f a c i l i t a t e good management
and control during the implementation of the system, spread over about 20 years, and
which w i l l simplify the management a f t e r implementation.
- The separate system allows more f l e x i b i l i t y than the combined system, during both t h e
design and implementation.
- Lower design costs of the separate system.
- Lower energy-consumption of the separate system.
There were no differences i n the t o t a l investment costs o f the water systems (open water-
ways, sewers, subsurface drains) employing e i t h e r sewer system, nor i n p o l l u t a n t loads reaching
the receiving water (van Dam e t a l . , 1981; de Jong and Smid, 1981).
Duriog various stages of urban planning i n the Netherlands (structure plan, land-use
development plan, p r o j e c t ' p l a n ) , an o v e r a l l cost-benefit analysis i s c a r r i e d out, including t h e
proof of the v i a b i l i t y of the development plan and compilation of the budget on the basis of
the design. Generally, t h i s requires proper procedures fox cost-benefit analysis, budgetting
and f i n a n c i a l monitoring (van Dort e t a l . , 1977; Unesco, 1979).

163
 When the budget i s being compiled, expenditures f o r s i t e preparation and services, up t o
but excluding construction, can be subdivided as follows:
- Land a c q u i s i t i o n
- S o i l improvement and drainage
- Pavement
- Sewer systems
- Parks and r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s
- Street lamps and f i r e hydrants
- Preparation and supervision
- Bridges, c u l v e r t s , etc.
- P l a n development costs
- Cost o f work outside o f the plan area
- Financing i n t e r e s t payments
The costs o f f i v e urban development plans were examined by van Dort e t a l . ( 1 9 7 7 ) who
r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e costs o f sewer systems amounted t o 12% o f t h e ' t o t a l s i t e preparation and
services costs. The cost o f s o i l improvement and drainage, sewer systems, and bridges and
c u l v e r t s amounted t o 32% o f the t o t a l s i t e preparation and services costs.

9.4 EFFECTIVE URBAN WATER ORGANIZATIONS

The c r i t e r i a f o r e f f e c t i v e urban water organizations were studied by Vlachos ( 1 9 8 2 ) . His

f i n d i n g s are presented below.
C r u c i a l f a c t o r s f o r the success o f any water resources p r o j e c t include proper water
management organization, technological innovation, and e f f i c i e n t a l l o c a t i o n and use o f a v a i l -
a b l e resources. Other considerations, i n c l u d i n g n a t i o n a l growth p o l i c i e s , environmental
concerns and emerging p o l i c i e s f o r conservation o f n a t u r a l resources al60 c a l l f o r more compre-
hensive, h o l i s t i c o r i n t e g r a t e d planning. 1

The p o s i t i v e i n t a n g i b l e b e n e f i t s o f water resources t o community development, which have

always been t a c i t l y recognized, need t o be a r t i c u l a t e d i n s p e c i f i c terms. Towards t h i s end,
water, as an organizing concept, can p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e i n guiding and s t i m u l a t i n g growth, i n
p r o v i d i n g new standards and evaluation c r i t e r i a , and i n strengthening i t s p o t e n t i a l as an addi-
t i o n a l means f o r achieving l a r g e r s o c i a l goals. A t t h e same time, water becomes part o f a
broader p o l i c y which recognizes a necessary balancing o f three important dimensions (Vlachos,
1982):
- E f f i c i e n c y , o r the growth i n m a t e r i a l development so t h a t a s o l i d basis o f economic
s u f f i c i e n c y may be maintained;
- Equity, o r f a i r access o f resources and consumption t o d i f f e r e n t segments o f the popula-
t i o n ; and
- Effectiveness, o r t h e o v e r a l l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f any p r o j e c t o r p o l i c y vis-a-vis the pur-
suing o f c e r t a i n l a r g e r s o c i a l goals.
I n recent years, the increasing s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l aspects o f water
resources development c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e broadening o f t h e i r planning space. Diverse questions
o f s o c i a l p o l i c y and e q u i t y i n water management have emphasized an increased pre-occupation
w i t h expanded time horizon, t h e search f o r a higher r e s o l u t i o n i n any p r o j e c t e f f e c t s , and
multi-disciplinary integration. U.S. experience i n d i c a t e s t h a t four sources o f judgement
c o n t r i b u t e t o a b e t t e r planning e f f o r t and assessment o f a l t e r n a t i v e s (Vlachos, 1 9 8 2 ) :
- Standards and c r i t e r i a as developed i n laws, guidelines and s i m i l a r documents;
- I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f courts, o f elected o f f i c i a l s and l e g a l precedents;
- Professional judgements and d i s c i p l i n a r y inputs; and .
- Public p a r t i c i p a t i o n and involvement.
I t i s hoped t h a t i n t h e j u n c t i o n o f a l l these sources a set o f c r i t e r i a would be developed
f o r appropriate o r balanced decisions concerning facets o f the urban water management system.
Such an approach would be t e c h n i c a l l y sound, economically viable, l e g a l l y p e r t i n e n t , s o c i a l l y
acceptable, and p o l i t i c a l l y feasible. Note t h a t behind these abstract p r i n c i p l e s i s the common
sense f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n t o urban hydrology systems the i n t a n g i b l e dimensions o f a harmonious
collective l i f e . A broader perspective i n urban water management w i l l make i t possible t o
account f o r t h e v a r i e t y o f environments affected by urban water by considering more d i s c i -
p l i n e s , by i n c o r p o r a t i n g an extended horizon i n planning and, by concerning planners w i t h t h e
far-reaching consequences o f human actions i n the surrounding environment (Vlachos, 1 9 8 2 ) .

164
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176
A b b r e v i a t i o n s used i n t h e l i s t of references

AGU American Geophysical Union

APWA American Public Works Association
ASCE American Society o f C i v i l Engineers
ATV Rbwassertechnische Vereinigung
CIEH Comite I n t e r a f r i c a i n d'Etudes Hydrauliques
COA Canada-Ontario Agreement (on Great Lakes Water Q u a l i t y )
EPA ( U . S . ) Environmental Protection Agency
IAHS-AISH I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Hydrological Sciences -
Association I n t e r n a t i o n a l e des
Sciences Hydrologiques
KWK Kuratoriums f uer Wasser und Kulturbanwesen
NATO North A t l a n t i c Treaty Organization
STORM Storage, Treatment and Overflow - e l
SWMM Storm Water Management Model
TRRL Transport and Road Research Laboratory
UNESCO United Nations Educational, S c i e n t i f i c and C u l t u r a l Organization
WHO World Health Organization
WPB, World Meteorological Organization
WPCF Water P o l l u t i o n Control Federation

177
Appendix A

INTERNATIONAL LIST OF URBAN TEST CATCHMENTS

Almost a l l the methods a v a i l a b l e f o r storm runoff calculations employ parameters which may need
t o be calibrated against f i e l d data. Local values of such parameters, which depend on l o c a l
meteorological, hydrological, and geophysical conditions, seldom e x i s t . Furthermore, the
existing data always r e f l e c t the past or existing pre-development conditions, but the planning
of urban drainage i s usually done for some future post-development s i t u a t i o n . Therefore, i t
may be even impossible t o c o l l e c t l o c a l parameter values and i t becomes necessary t o adopt the
values of parameters from other similar catchments. Such transposed values may r e f l e c t s i t e -
s p e c i f i c conditions, o r much more general conditions t y p i c a l f o r the whole country or con-
t i n e n t . Q u i t e often, the transposed parameter values are c a l l e d d e f a u l t values.
The c o l l e c t i o n of urban f i e l d data i s time consuming and requires extensive experience.
Furthermore, i t may be d i f f i c u l t t o c o l l e c t r e l i a b l e data when the catchment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
such as, e.g., land use, change during the data c o l l e c t i o n programme, as i t o f t e n happens i n
urban areas. This problem i s o f t e n encountered i n the case o f runoff p o l l u t i o n data. I n spite
o f the aforementioned problems, i t i s s t i l l advisable t o obtain l o c a l data, because they are
useful for b e t t e r understanding of l o c a l hydrological processes, v e r i f i c a t i o n of various
assumptions made in calculations, and improvement of accuracy of and confidence i n computed
results.
I n order t o make the reader aware of sources of urban hydrological data, a l i s t of urban
hydrological t e s t catchments has been compiled and presented i n t h i s Appendix. I t i s also
hoped t h a t the information presented w i l l lead t o a b e t t e r understanding of t y p i c a l parameter
values used i n hydrological calculations and t o the sharing o f the experience gained i n data
c o l l e c t i o n under similar meteorological, hydrological, land use, and i n s t i t u t i o n a l conditions.
This l i s t o f catchments includes references t o the i n s t i t u t i o n s which were responsible f o r data
c o l l e c t i o n progranunes. By contacting these i n s t i t u t i o n s , the reader may obtain information on
such programmes. To a s s i s t the reader i n the selection o f sources o f information p e r t i n e n t t o
h i s study, the l i s t of catchments also contains t h e i r basic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s including the
catchment surface cover, drainage concept, land use and the phenomena monitored. The meteoro-
l o g i c a l and general hydrological conditions should be judged from the catchment location.
For b r e v i t y , a number o f abbreviations has been used i n the catchment l i s t . Such abbrevi-
ations are explained below.

Column ( 5 ) Land use res. residential

corn. comerc i a l
ind. industrial

Column ( 6 ) Sewerage concept sep. separate system

comb. combined system
mix. mixed drainage

Column ( 8 ) Phenomena monitored P(n) p r e c i p i t a t i o n (number o f stations)

R(n) runoff quantity (number o f stations)
PQ precipitation quality
RQ runoff q u a l i t y

179
 Although every e f f o r t has been made t o make the l i s t of urban t e s t catchments as complete
as possible, i t s extent depended on co-operation o f volunteers from various countries and,
consequently, i t i s impossible t o judge the completeness of the l i s t i n terms of both the
countries l i s t e d or the catchments reported f o r i n d i v i d u a l countries. The names of
co-operators p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s survey and the countries f o r which they supplied the
required information are given below. Their co-operation i s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

Co-operator: Provided data f o r :

Mr. A. Van der Beken Belgium

Mr. J.P. Lahaye Benin, Burkina Faso, M a l i , Niger and Togo
Mr, J. Marsalek Canada
Mr. Y.W. Kang Republic of China
Mr. P. Urcikan Czechoslovakia
Mr. M. Jensen Denmark
Mr. M. Melanen Finland
Mr. M. Desbordes and G. Jacquet France
Mr. W.F. Geiger Federal Republic of Germany
Mr. o. Starosolszky Hungary
Mr. F. Caïomino and Mr. A. P a o ï e t t i Italy
Mr. T. Sueishi Japan
Mr. E. Schultz and M r . van de Ven The Netherlands
Mr. P Blaszczyk Poland
Mrs. M.R. Matos Portugal
Mr. S. Lyngfelt, M r . J. Nimczynowicz
and Mr. G. Westerstrom Sweden
Mr. R. Gloor and M r . 8 . Auber Switzerland
Mr. T. Tingsanchali Thailand
Mr. R.K. P r i c e United Kingdom
Mr. C. Maksimovic Yugoslavia

180
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Appendix B

RATIONAL METHOD CALCULATIONS FOR THE WATERSHED SHOWN I N FIGURE 8.1

For a 10-year r e t u r n period, the l o c a l IDF curve i s assumed t o be described by equation

iM(t, 10) = 366 t-0,44

where iM(m/h) i s the r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y f o r duration t ( m i n ) .

Case I - Pre-urban conditions

Using the data from Table 8.1, d e t a i l e d calculations f o r Case I appear below.

(a) Area A l

(1) Time of concentration, a t outlet O ' , can be expressed as

tC1 = toi + tdl

where to1 i s the overland f l o w t r a v e l t i m e f o r area A l and t d l i s the t r a v e l time i n

the drainage channel. Such times are calculated by d i v i d i n g the t r a v e l l e d lengths by
the corresponding mean flow v e l o c i t i e s as shown below:

toi = 300/0,3 = 1000 s

tdl = 1200/1,2 = 1000 s

tcl = 1000 + 1000 = 2000 s = 33,3 min

(2) C r i t i c a l i n t e n s i t y f o r area A l i s calculated as

iM(tc1,lO) = 366 =
(33,3)'O~~~ 78,3 m / h

(3) Peak runoff Qp(T) a t o u t l e t O ' -

i n Equation 8.1, constant k equals 2,78 x
i f the i n t e n s i t y i s given i n m/h, the area i s i n hectares, and the discharge i n
m3/s. Assuming the correction factor F = 1, Equation 8.1 can be w r i t t e n as

Qp(T) = 2,78*10'3 C iM(tc,T) A

and, f o r C = O 3, the expression f o r Qp1 then reads

Qpl 10) = 2,78010-~ 0,3 78,3 40 = 2,61 m3/s

(b) Area A2

Calculations analogous t o those f o r area A l lead t o the following r e s u l t s :

199
 (1) Time of concentration tcg a t o u t l e t O

tCg = (400/0,2) + (1600/0,8) = 4000 s = 66,7 min

(2) C r i t i c a l i n t e n s i t y for area A2

i M (tcg,lO) = 366 (66,7)'0144 = 57,6 m / h

(3) Peak runoff Qpg from Ag only (C = 0,2)

Qpz(10) = 2,78*10'3 0,2 57,6 60 = 1,92 m3 /s

(c) Whole Watershed

(1) The t o t a l time of concentration t c a t o u t l e t O should be the greater of the t w o

times, t c ' and t c " , calculated below:

tc' = tcl + (Ag channel flow time)

and

tc" = tcg

A f t e r substitution, t c ' = 2000 +

2000 = 4000 s and t c " = 4000 s. I n t h i s case, the two calcu-
l a t e d times are equal. I n other cases, t c ' and t c " may d i f f e r and t h i s may produce, i n com-
b i n a t i o n with various values of A and C, the so-called p a r t i a l area e f f e c t s which represent one
of the deficiencies of the r a t i o n a l method (see Section 8.3.2).

(2) The c r i t i c a l i n t e n s i t y f o r the whole watershed i s calculated as

iM(tc,lO) = iM(tc',lO) = iM(tcp,lO) = 57,6 m / h

(3) The mean runoff c o e f f i c i e n t for the whole watershed i s calculated from Equation 8 . 2
as

(4) The t o t a l peak runoff, Q p t ( l O ) , a t o u t l e t O i s then calculated as

Qpt(l0) = 2,78 0,24 57,6 100 = 3,8 m3/s

The reader w i l l note t h a t Qpt i s greater than both Qp1 and Qpg, but smaller than (Qp1 + Qpg).

Case II - Post-development Conditions

For post-development conditions, applied t o A l , A2 or the whole watershed, the calculations are
conducted i n a similar manner as for Case I, using the data from Table 8.1. The r e s u l t s of a l l
calculations are given i n Table 8.2.

200
Appendix C

RATIONAL METHOD CALCULATIONS FOR THE SEWER SYSTEM SHOWN I N FIGURE 8.2.

I - Given Data
(a) Physiographic characteristics are summarized i n Table C.l below.

Table C. 1 Subcatchment and sewer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

SUb- Area Runoff Drained Sewer length Sewer slope

Catchment (ha) coefficient by sewer (m) so

L 12 1O 0 0,Ol
L 23 1O0 0,005
L 54 1 O0 0,Ol
L 43 1 O0 0,02
L 37 1 O0 0,005
L 67 1O0 0,005
L 78 1 O0 0,005

(b) Other Information

(1) R a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t i e s are described by the following IDF curve for the r e t u r n period
o f 5 years:

i M (tc,5) (nmi/h) = 250 t - O t 5 (min)

(2) For time i n minutes, areas i n hectares, peak runoffs i n l i t r e s per second, F = 1 and
a f t e r substituting f o r iM, the r a t i o n a l method equation can be w r i t t e n as

Qp(l/s) = 695 C A tce0p5

(3) The Manning formula f o r c i r c u l a r pipes flowing f u l l i s given by Equation 6.17 i n the
fo m

3
where Q i s the discharge i n m /s, n i s the Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t (see
Table 6.1 i n Chapter 6 ) , D i s the pipe diameter (m) and Se i s the slope of the
energy grade l i n e (assumed equal t o the pipe i n v e r t slope, So). For concrete pipes
i n good condition, n was taken as n = 0,0125 and the above equation i s r e w r i t t e n as

24,9 D So
1/2
Q

20 1
II - Calculations
The r e s u l t s o f a l l calculations are summarized i n Table C.2. I n such calculations, no
corrections f o r p a r t i a l l y - f i l l e d pipes were made and flow v e l o c i t i e s were calculated f o r
t h e o r e t i c a l pipe diameters. I n p r a c t i c a l design, such diameters would be rounded o f f upward t o
the nearest a v a i l a b l e standard size. Furthermore, as commonly done i n practice, a constant
i n l e t time ( t o = 4 min) was assumed throughout the sewer system. samples of calculations
follow .
(a) Peak Runoff a t a Subcatchment Outlet

Subcatchment A l -
the i n l e t time was assumed as 4 minutes (see Table C.2). The
concentration time tcA1 can be expressed as

tcA1 = to1 + tdl

I n t h i s case, to1 = 4 and t d l = O (because the sewer system s t a r t s a t point 1) and,

consequently, tcA1 = 4 min.

For subcatchment A l , CA1 = 0,4 and A = 1,5 ha (see Table C . 2 ) .

Table C.2 Results o f design calculations of the sewer system shown i n Figure 8 . 2

T o t a l area Mean Peak Flow Pipe

Design upstream runoff to td tc runoff Sewer velocity diameter
point (ha) coefficient (min) (min) (min) (1/s) trunk (m/s) (m)

1 1,s 0,4 4 - 4 208 L12 1,7 0,394

2 2,2 0,368 4 1 5 252 L23 1,4 0,483
5 1 ,O 0,4 4 - 4 139 L54 1,5 0,339
4 2,7 0,463 4 1 5 388 L43 2,6 01438
3 4.9 0,42 4 2,2 6,2 574 L37 1,7 0,657
6 2,o 0,3 4 - 4 208 L67 1,s 0,449
7 7,9 0,413 4 3,2 7,2 845 L78 1,5 0,759

The peak runoff a t point 1 , according t o the equation given e a r l i e r i n Section I ( 2 ) i s

Qpi(A1) = 695 0,4 1,5 (4)-On5 = 208 l / s

S i m i l a r l y , the peak runoff a t the o u t l e t o f subarea A2 i s given as

Qp2(A2) 695 0,3 0,7 (4)-Op5 = 73 l / s

f o r concentration time tcA2 = 4 min, and CA2 = 0,3 and A2 = 0,7 ha.

(b) Sewer Design

The peak runoff i n f l o w a t the upstream end of the sewer i s used t o calculate the sewer
diameter. For example, sewer L12, between points 1 and 2, i s designed for peak runoff Qp1
( A l ) from subcatchment A l .

The pipe diameter can be calculated from the equation given e a r l i e r i n Section I ( 3 ) as

A f t e r substituting for L12,

il
D(L12) = (0,208/(24,9 0,011/2))3/8 = 0,394 (m)

For a full-pipe flow, the flow v e l o c i t y i n L12 i s calculated as

V(L12) = 4Q/*D2 = 4 0,208/(3,14 0,3942) = 1,7 m/s

202
 The t r a v e l time i n L12 i s calculated as

t d (L12) = Length (L12)/V(L12) = 100/1,70 = 58,6 s = 1 min

(c) Calculations a t a Sewer Junction

F i r s t , the longest time of concentration has t o be determined f o r the given junction. For
example, a t point 2, there are t w o t r a v e l times:

tcg = top = tcA2 = 4 min

and

Consequently, the greater of both times, t c l i s considered i n further calculations. As

mentioned e a r l i e r , sewer L12 was assumed flowing f u l l , which i s not exactly true, because
for times tel's greater than the c r i t i c a l time o f concentration o f 4 minutes the peak
runoff w i l l decrease, the pipe w i l l be only p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d and the flow v e l o c i t y w i l l
d i f f e r from the design v e l o c i t y . Taking these e f f e c t s i n t o consideration r e s u l t s i n a
tedious i t e r a t i v e procedure as mentioned i n Section 8.3.2.

Checking f o r the longest time of concentration i s done a t each junction i n the sewer
system. For example, a t point 7, there are s i x d i f f e r e n t t r a v e l times t o t h a t point from
the upstream branches.

For point 2, the mean runoff c o e f f i c i e n t i s calculated as

the contributing area i s given as

and the peak runoff i s calculated as

I t should be noted t h a t 9$2(AT2) i s greater than both Qpl(A1) and Qp2(A2), but smaller
than t h e i r sum. Peak runoff Qp2(AT2) w i l l be used t o design the diameter o f sewer L2,3.

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