Unit-1 Concept of environment

• The term environment means surroundings which include physical, chemical,

biological, cultural and social conditions of nature
• It can be defined as all external conditions or influences under which an organism
lives or develop
• Thus, total sum of physical, biological factors that influences the survival, growth,
development of an organism is the environment
• Survival, reproduction, growth and development of an organism are determined
by the environment
• The combination of air, water, soil, temperature, plants, animals, human beings,
microbes, insects and man made socio-cultural factors constitute the
environment
• None of the living organisms can survive alone, the living organisms depend on
each other and environment as a whole to survive 1
• According to Webster, environment is the aggregate of all the external conditions
and influences affecting the life and development of an organism
• According to Park, the aggregate of all the external conditions and influences
affecting the life and development of an organism, human behavior and society is
environment
• In modern concept, environment includes not only physical, chemical, biological
factors but also includes the social and economical conditions under which
human beings live

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Dynamics of environment
• It means changes in the environment
• It is the change or disturbances of the environment most often
caused by human influences and natural ecological processes
• Dynamics of environment includes many more things such as natural
disasters, human interferences, urbanization, industrialization,
mining, nuclear power, waste and pollution, over exploitation of
natural resources, population growth, deforestation, green house
gases etc.

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Components of environment
The environment has 3 important constituents:
I Physical: soil, water, air, climate, temperature, light
Also k/a abiotic constituents of the environment and mainly determines the
type of habitats and living condition of human beings
ii Biological: plants and animals as well as microbes, insects, rodents etc.
the biological components also k/a biotic components. These components
interact with abiotic components
iii Social: man is the most intelligent living creatures; thus, they make laws,
rules and regulation, norms, religion, culture, income etc. for the proper
functioning of life
• The three major constituents of environment give rise to 4 zones( sub-
components) of environment:
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I. Atmosphere
II. hydrosphere
III. lithosphere
IV. biosphere
• There is continuous interaction among these 4 zones or sub- components
• These interactions involve the transport of various elements, compounds and
energy forms
Atmosphere

biosphere

lithosphere
hydrosphere
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Atmosphere:
• Layers of air surrounding the earth
• Layers of atmosphere:
a)Troposphere - from the earth surface to 16 km
b)Stratosphere – from 16 km to 50 km
c) Mesosphere – from 50 to 80 km
d) Thermosphere – from 80 to 720 km
e) Exosphere - from about 720 km above the earth surface

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• Troposphere:
• about 95% of earth’s atmosphere is in the troposphere
• Weather change is related to this layer
• Temperature alters in accordance with altitude

• Stratosphere:
• Temperature increases according to altitude increases
• Contains ozone layer which absorbs u-v radiation and protects from harmful
effects of u-v radiation

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• Mesosphere:
• Temperature decreases with altitude
• Strong wind blows in this sphere
• Streaks of hot gases released from meteors are seen in this layer

• Thermosphere:
• Completely exposed to solar radiation
• About 0.01% of total atmosphere
• Upper region of this layer has helium and hydrogen

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• Exosphere:
• Gravity is so weak in this layer and are very few atoms present
• Some atoms escape into the space
• Air is negligible in this layer but molecules and atoms of air blow with very high
speed

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Hydrosphere

• Includes surface water

• Vital force of lives to survive
• Possesses number of physical and chemical properties which suit for
the life existence
• Most abundant substance on the earth surface
• Demand for global water resources increasing day by day
• Necessity to store and conserve water resources

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• Lithosphere:
• outer boundary layer of solid earth and discontinuity within the mantle

• Biosphere: encompasses all the zones on the earth in which life is present
• The bio-resources and their surroundings constitute the biosphere

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Ecosystem
• It is the relationship between living organisms and non-living environment both
interacting and exchanging materials between them so as to maintain balance in
nature
• In this system exchange of materials takes place between living organisms and
non-living environment
• According to A.G. Tanseley: the term ecosystem applies to any system composed
of physical, chemical, biological processes within a specific time unit of any
magnitude
• According to C. C. Park: ecosystem is the sum of all natural organisms and
substances within an area, and it can be viewed as a basic example of an open
system in physical geography

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• An ecosystem includes population, communities, habitats and environment as
well as refers to the dynamic interactions of all parts of the environment,
focusing particularly on the exchange of materials between the living and non-
living parts
• Balance in the ecosystem:
• In the nature, the living and non-living things exist in harmony and are
interdependent
• Plants obtain nourishment from the non-living world and animals depend on
plants directly or indirectly for their existence
• If one of the factors in this system is affected then the other factor is also
affected

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• For example: it there would be no sun, there would be no plants and animals, if
there would be no grass , there would be no animals that live on the grass and
consequently there would be no animals feeding on the grass eating animals,
human beings too, depending upon plants and animals for food can not exist
• The plants and animals community living together make up the balance in the
ecological or ecosystem of a place
• Ecosystem refers to the balanced and maintained environment
• The interactions between living world and physical environment between plants
and animals establishes the balanced ecosystem

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Structure of an ecosystem
• Ecosystem consists of biotic and abiotic components:
• Biotic components:
a) Producer
b) Consumer
c) Decomposer
• Abiotic components:
a) Heat and light
b) Water and air
c) Soil and minerals
d) Organic substances
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a) Producer: all the green plants which are autotrophs
b)Consumer: organisms which depend upon other plants and animals for their
food
• Consumers are divided into primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. For
example – rabbit, Grasshopper,, cow, goat, dog, fox, tiger, birds etc.
c) Decomposer:
• After the death of plants and animals, the microorganisms present in the soil like
bacteria and fungi decompose the bodies and mix up into soil, in addition,
necessary gases and chemicals released to soil and atmosphere

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Basic types of ecosystem:
1. Aquatic-ecosystem
2. Terrestrial ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem:
• Is the Ecosystem in water, as for example, pond ecosystem
• In this ecosystem, following biotic and abiotic factors are involved:
a) Abiotic factors: minerals, water, air, soil, light
b) Biotic factors:
I. Producers: phytoplankton like algae, volvox, etc. which are autotrophs
II. Consumers: all the organisms which consume producers
primary consumers: small fishes, paramecium, amoeba and other small organisms

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• Secondary consumers: earthworms, big fishes, frogs
• Tertiary consumers: snake, ducks, storks etc.

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Terrestrial ecosystem
• Is the ecosystem on land, as for example grass land ecosystem
• Factors involved are:
• Abiotic factors: soil, air, water, light, heat, moisture etc.
• Biotic factors:
a) producers: all the green plants or autotrophs
b) Consumers:
I. Primary consumer: herbivores. Examples- grasshopper, rabbit, Deers etc.
II. Secondary consumers: carnivorous animals. For examples- fox, dog, jackal etc.
III. Tertiary consumers: are larger in shape and size than secondary consumers,
comparatively stronger and they are carnivorous. They eat primary and
secondary consumers. For example. tiger
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• Decomposers: after death of producers and consumers, the microbes present in
the soil like bacteria and fungi decay the dead bodies and mix up into soil as well
as gases and chemicals also released

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Food chain
• Is the sequence of living organisms in a community in which one
organisms consumes another organisms to transfer food energy
• Food web:
• Is the network of large numbers of organisms existing in a food chain

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Ecological pyramid
• Graphical representation of numbers, biomass and energy of the producers,
primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers is k/a
ecological pyramid
• Pyramid is prepared on the basis of trophic level(food level), so called food
pyramid
Types of pyramid:
• Pyramid of number
• Pyramid of biomass
• Pyramid of energy

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Biogeochemical cycle:
• Essential elements provided by the earth and that required by organisms for their
existence are k/a bio-geo-chemicals
• The exchange of materials between living and non-living organisms of biosphere
is called bio-geo-chemical cycle
• Examples of bio-geo-chemical cycles;
• Nitrogen cycle
• Oxygen cycle
• Carbon cycle

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Nitrogen cycle:
• Nitrogen moves in a cyclic path from soil to plants, plants to different animals like
herbivores, carnivores, back to soil and atmosphere. This cyclic path is k/a
nitrogen cycle
• Nitrogen cycle completes in the following steps:
a) Nitrogen fixation: conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous
compounds like nitrate that can be used by green plants is k/a nitrogen fixation
b) Ammonification: is the process in which the proteins of plants and animals are
broken down in ammonia or ammonium salts by the action of decomposers
c) Nitrification: conversion of ammonia or ammonium salts to nitrites and nitrates
by the action of soil bacteria is called nitrification
d) Denitrification: nitrates not utilized by plants are decomposed into free
nitrogen is called denitrification. It is the process of conversion of nitrate salts
present in the soil into free nitrogen and is carried by free living bacteria called
pseudomonas 34
• The denitrifying bacteria decomposes some of the nitrate present in the soil and
water into nitrogen which goes back to the atmosphere
• Replacement of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil:
• During lightning a very high temperature produced and the atmospheric nitrogen
combines with oxygen to form oxides of nitrogen. The oxides of nitrogen
dissolves in rain water and reach to the earth surface where they react to the
minerals to form nitrate
• The root nodules of certain leguminous plants have nitrogen fixing bacteria called
Rhizobium. These bacteria converts the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate directly
and utilized by plants

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• Examples of Nitrifying Bacteria
• Genera that convert ammonia to nitrite
Nitrosomonas
Nitrosococcus
Nitrosospira

Genera that convert nitrite to nitrate

Nitrobacter
Nitrospina
Nitrococcus
Nitrospira

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• Examples of Denitrifying Bacteria
• Thiobacillus denitrificans
Micrococcus denitrificans
Paracoccus denitrificans
Pseudomonas

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Oxygen cycle
• It is an important element for all living organisms and conducts life processes
such as respiration
• All animals and plants take oxygen from atmosphere for their respiration. The
oxygen is converted to carbon dioxide and water during respiration and is
released into atmosphere
• Burning of fossil fuels wood etc. requires oxygen from atmosphere and release
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
• During photosynthesis, the green plants take up CO2 and water for their
Photosynthesis to form food carbohydrate and release oxygen in the atmosphere

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Carbon cycle
• Carbon is an essential constituents of all organic compounds such as
carbohydrate, nucleic acid, cellulose, protein
• All organic compounds that enter into the living beings contain carbon
• The major source of carbon is carbon dioxide and in the atmosphere it
constitutes 0.03%
• The autotropic plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and prepare
food in the form of organic compounds during photosynthesis
• The organic compounds transfer from plants to animals through the food chain
• A large amount of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is returned to the
atmosphere by the respiration of living beings and by the decay and
decomposition of dead plants and animals by decomposers. Various fuels like
coal, wood, petroleum are burnt and carbon dioxide is released in the
atmosphere. Volcanic eruption also releases CO2 in atmosphere. 44
Carbon cycle

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Diversity of an ecosystem
• It deals with the variations in ecosystems within a geographical location and its
overall impacts on human existence and the environment
• Ecosystem diversity, which is the variety of habitats, biological communities and
ecological processes that occur in the biosphere
• It is the variation in the ecosystem found in a region or the variation in the
ecosystems over the whole planet
• Ecological diversity includes variation in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
including variations in ecosystems such as desert, forest, grasslands, wetlands
and oceans
• Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species have an
important role to play. For example, a larger number of plants species means a
greater variety of crops. Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability
for all life forms
• Healthy ecosystem can better withstand and recover from a variety of disasters
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Ecosystem stability
• it is an important corollary(statement that is already proved) of sustainability.
Over time, the structure and function of a healthy ecosystem should remain
relatively stable, even in the face of disturbance. If a stress or disturbance does
alter the ecosystem it should be able to bounce back quickly

• Stability has two components:

• Resistance: the ability of the ecosystem to continue to function without change
when stressed by disturbance
• Resilience: the ability of the ecosystem to recover after disturbance

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Factors affecting stability:
• Disturbance frequency and intensity
• Species diversity, interactions
• Trophic complexity, food web structure
• Rate of energy flux(flow)

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Productivity of an ecosystem
• Refers to the rate of production i.e. the amount of organic matter accumulated in
any unit time
• Types of productivity:
1. Primary productivity: associated with the producers( autotrophic plants, in less
extent chemosynthetic microorganisms)
• Rate at which radiant energy is stored by chemosynthetic and photosynthetic
activities of the producers
• primary productivity is further sub- divided into two types:
a) Gross primary productivity: total rate of photosynthesis including the organic
matter used up in respiration during the measurement period. It is also sometimes
referred as total photosynthesis or total assimilation. It depends upon chlorophyll
contents
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b) Net primary productivity:
• Also k/a apparent photosynthesis or net assimilation
• Refers to the rate of storage of organic matter in plant tissues in excess of the
respiratory utilization by plants during the measurement period. Thus, it is the
rate of increase of biomass
• This NPP refers to balance between gross photosynthesis and respiration and
other plants losses as death

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2. Secondary productivity
• Refers to the consumers or heterotrophs
• These are the rate of energy storage at consumer level
• Since, the consumers only utilize food material(already produced) in their
respiration, simply converting the food matter to different tissues by an overall
processes, SP is not divided into gross and net amounts. Thus, some ecologists,
prefer to use the term assimilation rather than production at this level
• SP actually remains mobile( keeping moving from one organism to another) and
not live in situ(stationary) like the primary productivity

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3. Net productivity:
• Refers to the rate of storage of organic matters not used by the
heterotrophs(consumers) i.e. equivalent to net primary production minus
consumption by the heterotrophs during the unit period
• It is thus the rate of increase of biomass of the primary producers which has
been left over by the consumers

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Concept of ecosystem approach
• Essential features of ecosystem health are the capacity to maintain integrity and
to achieve reasonable and sustainable human goals
• A/C to convention on biological diversity(CBD), ecosystem approach is defined as
the strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources
that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way
• A/C to WWF, ecosystem approach is a way of making decisions in order to
manage our activities sustainably. It recognizes that humans are part of the
ecosystem and that our activities both affect the ecosystem and depend on it
• The ecosystem approach requires:
• An integrated approach that considers all ecosystem components( human
activities, habitats and species and physical processes)
• Consideration of ecosystem functions and resulting ecosystem services
• Strong participation of stakeholders 53
• The promotion of human health must be embedded in the wider pursuit of
ecosystem health
• Interventions will be impaired if ecosystem linked determinants of health are not
taken into account
• In extreme case, if ecosystem lose their capacity to renewable, society will lose
life support services
• The ecosystem approach can determine link between human health and activities
which disturb ecosystem state and function, for example landscape disturbance
in agriculture, mining, forestry, urbanization and natural disasters

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• Ecosystem services are the foundation for our economic prosperity and well-
being – yet human activities are degrading ecosystem such a way that their ability
to continue to provide these services is in jeopardy(danger of loss or harm)
• To get the most economic and social benefit and avoiding the costly
consequences of damaging them, the ecosystem approach calls for stake holders
participation- involving all those who have an interest in, or could be affected by,
decision making, it is not crucial, not least because the ecosystem approach is
about managing human activities
• People are much more likely to act upon a decision and change their behavior if
they understand and accept the basis on which it was made

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Health as a holistic approach
• Holistic approach rather than focusing on illness or specific parts of the body, this
ancient approach to health considers the whole person and how he or she
interacts with his or her environment
• It emphasizes the connection of mind , body and spirit
• Holistic care is an integrated approach to health care that treats the whole
person, not simply symptoms and disease
• Mind and body are integrated and inseparable
• Holistic health care practitioners do more than just identify and treat a specific
ailment(illness)

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• It is important to care the whole person and to see them as just that a whole
person, not just a patient or diagnosis
• Holistic nursing care involves healing the mind, body and soul of a patient
• Holistic care is a philosophy, it is a method to ensure care for all parts of a patient
• A holistic view means developing and engaging whole person
• It can be thought at different levels, physical, emotional, mental and spiritual

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Ecosystem approach to human health and disease
• Ecosystem approach to human health(eco-health) aim to improve community
health by focusing on social and ecological interactions
• Eco-health approaches can contribute to the prevention from many
communicable diseases such as malaria, dengue and other many diseases
• The ecology and transmission of diseases are closely related to environmental
resources management, social and behavioral pattern
• The focus of the approach is oriented to prevent diseases through a better
understanding of modifications of the ecosystem dynamics and mainly by two
ways:
o By avoiding the creations of such condition
o By increasing resilience of people to such outbreaks

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Agroecosystem concept
• It is a site or integrated region of agricultural production – farm and agricultural
activities including biotic and abiotic components characterized by driving
variables such as energy, fertilizers, chemicals, human infrastructures and
knowledge
• It provides frame work with which to analyze food production system as a whole
• Human manipulations and alteration of ecosystem for the purpose of establishing
agricultural production makes agroecosystem very different from natural
ecosystem
• Energy flow in agroecosystem is altered greatly by human interferences
• The agroecosystem becomes open system where considerable energy is directed
out of the system at the time of each harvest, rather than stored in a biomass,
which could otherwise accumulated within the system
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• Nutrient cycling is minimal in most agroecosystem, considerable quantity is lost
from the system with the harvest or result of leaching
• Population regulating mechanism is rarely self regulating, human inputs or
control agents determine the population size
• Stability due to reduced structural and functional diversity in relation to natural
ecosystem, agroecosystem have much less resilience
• A focus on harvest outputs disturb any equilibrium that is established
• Agroecosystem only can be sustained if outside interference is maintained
• Sustainability in agriculture can only come from understanding the interaction of
all components of the food system
• Changes need to be made in design and management of agriculture so as to
come closer to farming in nature’s image
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Links between agroecosystem and human health
• Human health is directly linked to and depend on the state of health of the
ecosystem that supports them
• As people are the integral part of agroecosystem, a range of socio-economic and
biophysical factors affect their health
• For example, nutrition is a primary factor, without food security, human health
suffers
• Quantity of food is increased but quality is decreased and many suffers from
malnutrition
• Apart from nutrition, naturally occurring heavy metals like mercury, toxins,
agricultural chemicals cause to health risks within the context of agroecosystem

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• Mercury contamination of fish cause consequent rise in symptoms of toxicity in
people
• Degradation of soil using chemicals cause health risks to people
• Solution to this health problems lies in better management of aquatic and
terrestrial agroecosystem
• Participation of local people is the must

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Unit-3 Common environmental problems in context of
Nepal
• Acid rain:
• The oxides of some non- metals, which are released into the atmosphere, under
certain natural processes, change into different acidic substances. Such
substances further react with the water and change into different types of acids
like Sulphuric acid, carbonic acid etc. when such acids fall down on the Earth’s
surface along with the rain, it is k/a acid rain
• The term acid rain is also k/a acid precipitation in rain, snow, dew etc. which
increases the acidity of soil and affects the chemical balance of aquatic
ecosystem
• Acid rain is defined as any type of precipitation with low PH i.e. less than about
5.6 PH
• A/C to U.S environmental protection agency, serious environmental problem
which affects large part of US and Canada causing weathering of rocks and
accelerating building weathering, acidification of rivers killing aquatic lives and
also damaging forests 63
Sources of acid rain gases
• Natural phenomenon: like volcanic eruption in which gases are emitted to
atmosphere and from biological processes that occurs on land, marshy place as
well as in water, oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur emitted to atmosphere
• Human activity: generation of sulphuric and nitrogen compounds from factories,
vehicles and other activities
• Gas phase chemistry: oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur are oxidized by OH radical to
form acidic compounds
SO2 + OH HOSO2 NO2 + OH HNO3
HOSO2 + O2 HO2 + SO3 CO2 + H2O H2CO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

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• Oxidation: many aqueous reactions oxidizes Sulphur leading to form
Sulphuric acids
SO2 + O2 SO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

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Adverse effects of acid rain
On aquatic animals: cause damage to fish and other aquatic lives, at low PH less
than 5 , eggs of fish can’t hatch out and also kills adult fishes
• Due to low PH, biodiversity reduced in aquatic ecosystem
On soils: soil biology damaged by acid rain, enzymes of microbes denatured due to
low PH and killed
Forests and other vegetation: slows the growth rate, leaves turn brown and
defoliation occurs and trees and vegetation die
Human health: cause illness such as skin diseases and cancers leading to
premature death
Other effects: damage to historical monuments and buildings. It causes
weathering on ancient and valuable statutes. Acid reacts with calcium compounds
in the stones forming gypsum leading to considerable damage
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Prevention methods
• Technical solutions: coal burning power plants uses fuel gas desulfurization to
remove Sulphur containing gases. A wet scrubber is a reaction tower equipped
with a fan that extracts smoky gases from power plant into the tower
• Lime in slurry form is also mixed in tower to react with Sulphur dioxide gases
from power plant
• International treaties : many treaties are agreed to prevent from pollution of
acid rain as well as other pollutants such as Sulphur reduction protocol and
convention
• Plantation: it helps to reduce the air pollution from industrial harmful gases
• Emission trading: providing license only those who fulfil the criteria to establish
industry and other power plants which pollute the environment

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Global warming and green houses gases
• Green house effect: is the phenomenon of increase in the temperature of earth
• In average, the temperature remains constant but with the altitude varies
• Green house effect warms the atmosphere of the earth, so in some extent, it is
essential for the existence of life
• But if the green house effects increases due to increase of green house gases, it
has adverse effects on the life of creatures and plants as well as the whole
ecosystem
• The green house gases are: CFC, CO2, CO, SO2, N2O and trace amount of other
gases, water vapour etc.
• These green house gases are present in atmosphere, absorbs solar radiation as a
result the temperature of the earth rises which is termed as the green house
effect
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• The green house effect in normal level are very essential for the existence of life
• If these green house gases in the atmosphere is absent, the earth would be cold
and it would be lifeless planet with average temperature of -18ᴼC
• But the green house gases are increased in the recent decades causing fearful
climatic change and food growing pattern
Sources of green house gases
1. Industrial process:
• Chemical industries
• Metallurgical industries
• Oil refiners
• Fertilizer factories
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2. Combustion of fossil fuel and wood
• From industries
• Domestic
3. Motor vehicles

4. Others:
• Burning of refuse
• Agricultural activities
• Crop spraying
• Pest control
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Causes of green house effect
• Human activities
• Energy production and consumption
• Deforestation
• Unregulated industries, CFC used for refrigeration contribute 24% of green house
gas
• Population increase means increase in human activities i.e. more production of
green house gases

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Global warming
• Current increase in the temperature of earth’s surface as well as its atmosphere
• Scientists are confined that the main cause is the increase in the green house
gases mainly CO2 gas produced by burning fossil fuel and natural gas as well as by
burning forests
• Certain waste management and agricultural practices aggravate the production of
other potent global warming gases such as methane and nitrous oxide
• It affects the rainfall, increase in the sea level, snow pattern, increase drought,
severe storms, melt glaciers, increase sea level and change plant and animal
behaviour

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 Effects of global warming
• Rising temperature: is the earliest sign of global warming. From 2001- 2010, it is
seen to increase temperature of atmosphere by about 0.7ᴼC and it is predicted,
we could see the average rise of 2.5ᴼC
• Effects on ecosystem: due to climate change, there would be severe affects on
ecosystem, the ecosystem would not be able to recover fast due to high rate of
species extinction from the ecosystem
• Rising sea levels: due to melting of glaciers and thermal expansion of water, sea
level could rise 0.5- 1m. Rising sea levels would disrupt many coastal ecosystem
and coastal cities
• Threats to fresh water: problem in fresh water supply would be and drought
condition may arise

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• Food security problem: there would be problem of food security at first in pond
due to flood or altering rainfall, drowning valuable cultivable land and resulting
malnutrition
• Anomalous weather: floods, hurricanes,, tornadoes etc cause heavy loss in
financial condition from national disaster funds and insurance
• Impact on human health: climate change has adverse effect, potential
transmission of vector borne disease
• Social destabilization and conflict: drowning of coastal cities disrupt world’s food
supplies, drought, crop failure etc.

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 Global solution
• Local sources of carbon emission decided at community level
• Using climate friendly energy, transportation
• International agreement to reduce the carbon overload as well as the green
house gases
• Using scrubber to remove green house gases from industrial plants
• Controlling deforestation
• Controlling increase rate of population
• Introducing carbon tax and improvements in public transport
• Phase out CFC

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• Using alternative sources of energy
• Using renewable sources of energy
• Protection of coastal areas from flood
• Research in breeding of plants that require less water for irrigation
• Trying to use less amount of fossil fuel

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Deforestation:
• Is the clearance of forest in massive scale where the land thereafter converted to
a non- forest use
• For example conversion of forest land to farms or urban use
• Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons(causes):
• For building or sold as fuel
• For making pasture land
• Population increase
• Poverty
• Political instability
• Timber smuggling
• Lack of awareness 80
• Commercial agriculture
• Urbanization
• globalization

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Effects of deforestation
• Extinction
• Desertification
• Displacement of population
• Global warming
• Green house effect
• Water cycle affected
• Erosion
• Flooding
• Landslides
• biodiversity reduced
• Ecosystem affected
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Deforestation in Nepal
• Is a serious issue, which has severe effects in lives of poor people
• In the past Nepal was widely forested but for the extension of rural areas,
migration of hill people to plains, for firewood, only less than 30% forest remains
• However between 2000 to 2005, the rate of deforestation decreased by 28.9% to
1.35% per year
• In between 1990 to 2005, Nepal lost 24.5% of its forest cover

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Solution for deforestation
• Curb the felling of trees by applying a series of rules and regulations
• Clear cutting of trees must be banned
• Cutting of trees must be replaced by planting young trees
• Public awareness about its consequences

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Soil erosion
• It is a natural process that involves wearing away of top soil
• It involves loosening of the soil particles, blowing or washing away of the soil
particles forming valley, far away land or washed away to rivers, oceans
• Soil erosion is a natural process but has been exacerbated by human activities like
agriculture and deforestation
• Soil erosion is driven by the natural physical forces of wind and water
• Farming activities such as tillage also significantly contribute to soil erosion
• Therefore, soil erosion is a continuous process and may occur at unnoticed rate
or at alarming rate contributing great loss of the top soil
• The outcomes of soil erosion are: reduced productivity, ecological collapse, soil
degradation, desertification may take place
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Causes of soil erosion
• All soil undergo erosion, but some are more vulnerable than others due to
human activities and other natural causal factors
• The severity depends upon soil type and the presence of vegetation cover
• Some major causes are:
• Rainfall and flooding: greater duration and intensity of rainfall means greater
potential for soil erosion.
• Rivers and streams: flow of rivers and streams cause valley erosion. The water of
rivers and streams tend to take away the soil along the water system leading to a
‘V’- shaped eroded structure. When the rivers and streams are full of soil
deposits due to sedimentation and the valley levels up with the surface

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• High winds: can contribute to soil erosion, particularly in dry weather periods or
in the arid and semiarid region. The winds pick up the loose soil particles with its
natural force and carries them away to far lands, it is severe during the times of
drought region, so it is the major cause of desertification and degradation of soil
• Overgrazing and tillage practices: transformation of natural ecosystems to
pasture land has increased rate of soil erosion, loss of soil nutrients and top soil.
Agricultural tillage depending on the machinery used also breaks down soil
particles making soil vulnerable to erosion by water
• Deforestation, reduced vegetation cover and urbanization: urbanization and
deforestation destroy the vegetation land cover. Agricultural practices such as
burning and clearing of vegetation also reduce the overall vegetation cover and
increase the rate of soil erosion
87
• Trees and vegetation help to hold soil particles together there by reduces the
erosive effects of erosion caused by rainfall and flooding. Deforestation and
urbanization are some of the human actions continued the cycle of soil erosion
• Mass movement and soil structure: outward and downward movement of
sediments and rocks on slanting or slope surface due to gravitational pull cause
soil erosion. Soil structure and composition is another factor that determines the
erosivity of wind or rainfall. For example, clay soil is more resistant to soil erosion
than sandy or loose silt soil

88
Effects of soil erosion
• Loss of fertile soil: take up the top soil which is the fertile layer and also the
essential microorganisms supporting the fertility of soil and organic matter
resulting reduced productivity and mass starvation
• Water pollution and flood: eroded soil carry heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers
that mix in the river water and damage to aquatic ecosystem. Also the
accumulated soil cause clogging of water resulting flooding. Water quality is also
deteriorated due to deposition of soil particles in water sources causing health
problem in communities
• Sedimentation and threat to aquatic system: damage the breeding habitat of
fish and reduces their food and causing damage to the biodiversity of aquatic
ecosystem. Sediments can enter to the gills of aquatic life affecting the
respiratory system

89
• Air pollution: wind erosion carry the dust particle and mix in the air causing air
pollution. Some particles contain harmful and toxic particles that can cause
severe health hazards
• Destruction of infrastructure: such as damps, drainage, embankments
• Desertification: soil erosion convert cultivable land to desert by altering the
ecosystem and loss of biodiversity carrying the fertile soil and converting into
sandy land

90
Solution of soil erosion
• Careful tilling
• Mulch/ fertilizer
• Retaining walls
• Crop rotation
• Covering soil with vegetation
• afforestation
• Water control
• knowledge

91
Biodiversity
• Bio = life and diversity = variation
• It refers to the variety and variability of life on the earth
• A/C to UNEP, biodiversity typically measures variation at genetic, species and the
ecosystem level
• Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystem
• In short, it is the degree of variation of life
• Also refers to the number of species living within a particular regions
• Various plants and animals present in an ecosystem ensures sustainability of
ecosystem

92
• Nepal is rich in terms of biodiversity. There are high mountains, high hills and
plain land of Terai regions where different species of plants and animals are
found
• Each region has its typical topography, climate and vegetation. This diversity has
helped in wholesome biodiversity
• It is recorded that Nepal has a total of 118 types of ecosystem, 75 types of
vegetation and 35 types of forests. There are different types of plants and
animals found only in Nepal. So, Nepal is rich in its biodiversity
• A/C to bird conservation Nepal(BCN), the number of some birds like sparrow and
crow is increasing. Among 832 species of birds of Nepal, 31 species have been
disappearing from the world

93
Types of biodiversity
• There are millions of living being including plants, animals, birds and
microorganisms on the earth. There are differences and diversity among them.
These diversity and differences in ecosystem refer to biodiversity. Biodiversity
brings differences in the ecosystem where organisms and gene play an important
role. Biodiversity of an area refers to existing organisms , gene, animals, and
ecosystem per unit area of land . In totality, biodiversity refers to the existing
number of organisms and their diversity
• Biodiversity can be classified into:
• Genetic diversity:
• Ecosystem diversity:
• Species diversity:

94
• Species diversity: The species of organisms and virus are also included in them.
This is the numerical counting of species . It has created differences in an
Ecosystem. The structure of ecosystem causes biodiversity. Even living beings
have their own heredity qualities. The people of Himalayas have the heredity
quality to tolerate severe cold where as those of the terai region can tolerate hot
temperature

• Diversity of ecosystem: various types of land and water ecosystem are according
to geographical region. Nepal is divided into Himal, hill and terai. Due to
differences in geographical region, ecosystem also differs depending upon soil,
slope, altitude etc. The difference has created great difference in the ecosystem.
Due to diversity in ecosystem, there are great differences in vegetation and
animals of Nepal 95
• Gene biodiversity: it refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the
genetic make up of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which
describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary. It serves as a way for
population to adapt to changing environment

96
Importance of biodiversity
• Maintaining balance in the ecosystem
• Provision of biological resources: medicine, pharmaceuticals, food for human and
animals, ornamental plants, wood product, breeding stock and diversity of
species, ecosystem and genes
• Social benefits: recreation and tourism, cultural value, education and research
• Biodiversity and food: provides food, shelter
• Biodiversity and human health: drug discovery, medicinal resources
• Biodiversity and industry: provides raw materials like fiber, oil, dyes, rubber,
timber etc.
• Biodiversity and culture: fishing, bird watching, trekking etc. and inspires
musicians and artists
97
• Natural beauty and scene
• Watershed conservation
• Soil conservation
• Improvement in breed
• Animal production

98
Reasons for loss of biodiversity
• Human beings are the most dangerous cause
• Habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, human overpopulation,
overharvesting
• Pesticides
• Monoculture farming
• Climate change
• Uncontrolled hybridization
• Overexploitation such as overfishing, hunting
• Global warming

99
Protection of biodiversity
• Reducing use of pesticides
• Encouraging local biodiversity
• Diversify the garden
• Raise awareness
• Patrolling wildlife areas
• Organize campaign
• Establishing conservation areas like national park and wildlife conservation area
• Botanical garden
• Increasing biodiversity in urban landscapes

100
Siltation or Siltification:
• Silt is a granular material derived from soil or rock of a grain size between sand
and clay
• It is a process by which water becomes dirty as a result of fine mineral particles
in the water
• It may occur as a soil or as suspended sediment in a surface ‘’water body’’
• It may also exist as soil deposited on a river or lake bed
• Most often caused by soil erosion or sediment spill
• Siltation is the pollution of water material
• It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments on bottom
and to the increased accumulation of fine sediments on bottom where they are
undesirable
• Sometimes siltation is called sediment pollution 101
Causes:
• By fecal sludge
• Industrial waste
• Soil erosion
• Construction activities
• Climate change
• Septage

102
Effects of siltation:
• Destruction of fish breeding areas
• Flooding
• Poor water quality
• Sulfide mixed with silt particles has negative effect on photosynthesis,
metabolism and growth
• Affects human and animal health

103
Prevention and control of siltation
• Controlling run- off water effectively
• Minimizing disturbed areas
• Phase construction activity
• Making sediment traps
• Stabilize soil
• Slope protection
• Storm inlet protection

104
Desrtification:
• It is a type of land degradation in which relatively dry area of land becomes
increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and
wildlife
• Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem
• Thus, desertification is defined as a process of land degradation in arid , semi-arid
and sub-humid areas due to various factors including climate change and human
activities
• Desertification results persistent degradation of dryland and fragile ecosystem
due to man made activities and variations in climate
• In short, desertification is the process when land that was originally of another
type of biome turns into a desert biome because of change in all sorts

105
Causes of desertification:
• Overgrazing: it is a huge problem for many areas due to which land becomes
desert biomes
• If there are too many animals grazing in certain area, it makes it difficult for the
plants to grow back, which hurts the biome and makes it lose its green glory
• Deforestation: it’s the main cause of desertification. People cut trees for various
purpose and the rest of the biome can not thrive without plants
• Farming practices: some farmers do not know how to use their land effectively.
They strip the land of everything that it has before moving on to another plot of
land due to which soil nutrients are also stripped and results in desertification
• urbanization: urbanization development cause to kill plants and also degrade soil
due to chemicals and other things that harm the ground. Also as there is more
urbanized means less area for plants to grow and causes desertification
106
• Climate change: it plays great role in desertification. As the days become warmer
and drought, desertification becomes more and more eminent, this way huge
area of land becomes desert

• Stripping land for resources: if there is presence of natural resources like natural
gas, oil, minerals etc. people will mine it and strip the soil and nutrients killing the
plant life which in turn starts to become desert

• Natural disasters: due to natural disasters land gets heavily damaged and very
difficult to recover thus resulting desertification

107
Effects of desertification:
• Farming becomes next to impossible: once the land gets desertification, it
becomes nearly impossible to do farming without using especial technologies
and cost a lot
• Hunger: food scarcity, people of that area will suffer from hunger problems and
animals too suffer
• Flooding: it is more eminent where there is no vegetation to hold the soil and
water can take any path
• Poor water quality: without plants, water also get polluted as plants also help to
keep water clean and clear
• Overpopulation: people will migrate from desert to other place increasing
population of that area and resulting desertification gradually of that place
• Poverty: lead to poverty if not checked without food and water and spent lot of
time to get their basic needs 108
Solutions for desertification:
• Farming policy change: how to farm and how much land to farm on certain areas
to reduce the problem
• Policy change in using land for other purpose: such as mining, urbanization etc.
• Education: more land can be saved from being desert providing education
• Technology advancement for controlling desertification
• Rehabilitation efforts: in desert area to prepare for rehabilitation which is
already become desert
• Sustainable practice to prevent desertification: making polices and using
technologies sustainable practice should be effectively applied to prevent from
desertification of land in the world

109
Flooding and drought:

110
Flooding:
• What is flood?
• Is the state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to
inundation of land which is not usually submerged.
• Floods may be formed where there is no stream, as for example, when there is
heavy rainfall on flat terai region at such a rate that soil can not absorb the water
or the water can not run off as fast as it falls

• Can floods be manmade?

• Floods are caused not only by rain but also by human changes to surface of the
earth such as farming, deforestation and urbanization increase the run off from
rains and rivers, thus the land previously would have no flooding today inundate
vast areas
111
Types of floods
• Flash floods:
• great volume but for short period
• Results from torrential rain
• Failure of dam
• Bursting of lake

• Riverine floods:
• Caused by precipitation over large areas or by melting of the winter’s
accumulation of snow or by both
• Takes place in river system and drain large geographical areas
112
• Storm surge or tidal surge/flood:
• Offshore rise of water due to tropical cyclone
• Due to high winds

• Causes of floods:
• Heavy rainfall
• Heavy siltation reduces the water carrying capacity of rivers
• Blockage in the drains
• Landslide blocking the flow of the stream
• Construction of dam and reservoirs
113
Effects of flooding:
• Houses washed away
• Floatation of houses caused by rising waters
• Damage caused by inundation of house
• Deaths rate becomes greater than injuries
• Loss in agricultural products due to drowning of crops
• Erosion of top soil reducing fertility of soil
• Cause financial burden and decline in national income, decline in production of
business and ultimately development of nation
• Housing shortage due to migration of people to urban areas
• Loss of life and property such as houses, bridges, roads etc.
• Lack of proper drinking water supply 114
• Causes health problems and out break of epidemics such as diarrhea, malaria,
viral infections and many other infectious diseases
• Large agricultural areas gets inundated and there is huge crops loss resulting
shortage of food and animal fodder
• Land rendered infertile
Possible measures to reduce flooding and casualties:
• Mapping of flood prone areas
• Control in land use
• Construction of engineered structures
• Flood control: making detention, flood proof channels, flood embankments,
drainage channels
• Flood forecasting, warning via radio, TV, sirens etc. 115
Drought:
• It is defined as a period in which a region has a deficit in its water supply whether
surface or underground water
• It can lasts for days, months even years too
• Weather gets very hot and very dry soil
• Though drought can persist for several years, even a short, intense drought can
cause significant damage and harm to the local economy
• Causes: Many factors are responsible:
• Humidity of atmosphere which is responsible for precipitation of rain
• Deforestation
• Erosion causes less ability to absorb rain water when it falls
• Global warming
• Deficiency in rain water
116
Types of drought:
There are 3 kinds of drought:
• Meteorological drought:
• Hydrological drought
• Agricultural drought

117
118
119
120
Effects of drought:
• Economic condition
• Environmental condition
• Social dispute on that area
• Health problem
• Starvation
• Degradation of soil

121
Prevention and control of drought:
• Afforestation
• Proper use of rain water as well as river water resources and underground water
• Making water reservoirs
• Keeping environment condition balanced

122
Pollution and pollutants:
• Is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause
adverse change , in the form of killing of life, toxicity of environment, damage to
ecosystem
OR
• When harmful substance contaminate the environment
• Pollution refers to the very bad condition of environment in terms of quantity
and quality

123
Types of pollution
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Noise pollution
• Land pollution
• Radioactive pollution

124
Air pollution:
• Contamination of air with harmful substances

• Causes of air pollution:

• Industries
• Automobiles and domestic fuels
• High proportion of undesirable gases such as Sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide
• Excessive use of fossil fuel
• Bursting crackers

• Automobiles and domestic fuels

125
Effects of air pollution:
• Human health
• Animals
• Plants
• Atmosphere as a whole
Air pollution control:
• Using less amount of fuel for vehicles
• Do not burst crackers
• Using natural gases instead of burning coal
• Using alternative sources of energy
• Using public transport system
• Waste must be removed and recycled in the industrial plants and refineries126
Water pollution:
• Contamination of water( lake, river, ocean and under ground water) with
undesirable substances which make it unfit for usage
• When pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without
adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds
Causes:
• By organic and inorganic industrial waste and affluent discharged into rivers
• Domestic sewage
• Industrial waste water
• Agricultural waste water
• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Plastics, pesticides, heavy metals
127
Causes contd.
• Chloroform
• Food processing waste
• Insecticides and herbicides
• Lubricants

• Effects:
• Diseases like cholera, malaria, typhoid
• Aquatic life gets destroyed

128
Prevention of water pollution:
• Do not mix paints and oils in water channels
• Use environment friendly households products
• Do not over use insecticides and pesticides
• Do not throw waste into rivers, lakes or oceans
• Rivers should not be used for washing and bathing clothes directly
• Dead bodies should not be thrown in rivers and oceans

129
Noise pollution:
• Noise can be simply defined as unwanted sound
• Sound is pleasant or not depends upon the loudness , duration, rhythm and
mood of a person
• Noise means discomfort hearing from environment

• Causes:
• Traffic noise
• Air craft noise
• Noise from construction and civil engineering works
• Noise from industries
• Noise from other resources 130
Effects of noise pollution
• Hearing loss
• High blood pressure
• Stress
• Sleep disturbances
• Affects health and behavior
• hypertension

131
Prevention from noise pollution:
• Invention of new machines that should be noise proof
• Air ports should be away from residential area
• No sound horn symbol should be in public place
• Pleasant home
• Need to talk sweetly to others
• Remember ‘silent is god’

132
Land pollution
• Contamination of land with harmful substances

• Causes:
• Mining
• Sewage
• Household garbage
• Industrial waste

133
Effects of land pollution:
• Ground water gets affected
• Man can’t farm
• Land can’t be used for construction house
• Health effects
Prevention:
• Plantation
• Waste matter should be disposed in proper place
• Avoid drilling land for more underground water
• Avoid using more fertilizers and pesticides
• Awareness about biological control method
• Treating waste of industries
• Proper disposal of plastics and other garbazes 134
Radioactive pollution:
• Due to nuclear reaction, radioactive substances are liberated (radiation) and
radiation causes radioactive pollution

Causes:
• Nuclear power plant
• Nuclear weapons
• Disposal of nuclear waste
• Uranium mining

135
Effects of radioactive pollution:
• Blood in cough
• Ulcer
• Swelling of bone joint
• Cancer
• Skin cancer
• Bone cancer
• Eye problem

136
Prevention:
• Avoid constructing nuclear power plants
• Avoid using nuclear weapons
• Have proper treatment for nuclear waste
• Avoid mining for uranium to minimal

137
Air pollution and human health
• It is the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical,
physical or biological agents that modifies the natural characteristics of
atmosphere
• WHO defines, air pollution as limited to situation in which the natural
atmosphere contains material in concentration which are harmful to human
beings and their environment
Types of air pollution:
Outdoor air pollution:
• Sources of outdoor air pollution:
• smog
• Particulates
• Acid rain
• Green house gases 138
Indoor air pollution:

• Sources of indoor air pollution:

• Building material
• Cigarette smoking
• Pesticides
• Volatile organics from paints, furniture, insulators etc.
• Formaldehyde

139
Sources of air pollution:
• Natural sources: smokes that comes from wildfires, volcanoes, methane, dust etc.
• Human sources: power plants, automobiles, burning wood, stoves, fireplaces and
furnaces
• Pollutants: substances which pollute the environment. For example CO2, CO,
SO2, NO2, CFC etc.
Pollutants are of two types:
1. Primary pollutants: those emitted directly into the air, either from natural
events or human activities. For examples: SO2, CO, NO, NO2
2. Secondary pollutants: those that forms as a result of the primary pollutants
with a natural component of the environment. When certain chemical
reactions takes place among the primary pollutants(sulphuric acid, carbonic
acid)
140
Effects of air pollution:
• Health aspects:
• Air pollution has both delayed and immediate effects on health
• Immediate effects are due to respiratory problems such as acute bronchitis and in
intensive pollution, even the immediate death may occur due to suffocation
• The delayed effects are: chronic bronchitis, lung cancer, bronchial asthma,
emphysema and respiratory allergies
• Lead poisons effects many system in the body and mainly affects brain and
nervous system of developing children
• Also neuropsychological development occurs(poor IQ, poor school performance)
• Air pollution damage respiratory system and cardiovascular system
• CO combines with Hb. and reduces the ability of blood to carry oxygen
• Many volatile organic compounds such as benzene and formaldehyde and toxic
particulates such as lead and cadmium can cause mutation, reproductive
problems and cancer, irritation of nose, eye and throat 141
• SO2 reacts with water, oxygen and other materials to form Sulphur containing
acids. The acids can attach to the particulate matter which when inhaled are very
corrosive to lungs

• Social and economic aspects:

• Air pollution destroy plants and animal lives
• Damage the buildings
• Cost of cleaning and maintenance
• Reduces visibility

142
Effects of air pollution on Ozone layer
• The atmosphere consists of different layers of air
• The stratosphere is the lowermost layer which mainly contains Ozone(O3) about
50 km above the ground
• Ozone acts as protective layer as well as pollutant on the ground level
• It is damaging to plants as well as harmful to humans on the ground
level, it affects both respiratory and nervous system
• It acts as protective layer as it protects from harmful radiation of the
sunlight
• Due to air pollution different types of green house gases are
accumulated such as CO2, CO, SO2, NO2 which result in depletion of
ozone layer
143
• Due to depletion in ozone layer, harmful radiation of the sunlight may reach
directly to the earth’s surface causing many health problems to humans and
destruction of plants too
• Effects of ozone depletion:
• Acute erythema
• Chronic skin cancer
• Decreased immune suppression
• Cataracts

144
Effects of air pollution on global climate
• Due to air pollution, the green house gases are accumulated, which cause the rise
in temperature of the earth’s surface globally every year
• The green house gases cause global warming resulting many health hazards as
well as natural disasters such as floods, massive melting of ice caps
• Global change in the climate as there is rise in temperature of earth’s surface ,
sea and atmosphere

• Measures to reduce global change in climate

• Reduction in the use of fossil fuels
• Use of renewable sources of energy
• Use of solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectricity

145
Controlling air pollution
• Self-awareness to the person that pollution is a disaster
• Greening operation
• Vehicles check
• Use of renewable sources of energy
• Avoid purchasing devices which use CFC
• Suspension of license of industrial activity which destroys environment
• Relocation of polluting industries away from public place
• Development of waste and garbage disposal recycling
• Use of renewable energy sources

146
Water pollution and human health:
• Water pollution:

• It is defined as any physical, chemical and biological changes in water that can
adversely affect living organisms
• Polluted water may contain infective and parasitic agents, poisonous chemical
substances , industrial and agricultural wastes or sewage
• At the origin of source, water is pure, free from external contaminants and hence
safe for drinking
• But due to different human activities and other environmental factors, it
becomes contaminated when it flows away from the origin

147
Types of water pollution:
1. On the basis of nature of contaminants:
a) Physical pollution
b) Chemical pollution
c) Biological pollution

a)Physical pollution:
• It occurs when particulate matters such as sand and soil, plant materials etc.
make the water cloudy
• Occurrence of blue green algae bloom due to phosphates/nitrates creates a
condition known as Eutrophication

148
b) Chemical pollution:
• Entry of organic and inorganic waste to the water results in chemical pollution
• Water passing from mines and metal pipelines contains large amount of Cu, Fe
and other ores
• Radioactive and detergents discharged into water by nuclear plants, medical
facilities and industrial plants also pose a threat to humans
• Nitrates from the fertilizers when reach into the water body, it gets converted
into nitrites- the nitrates may bind to the hemoglobin in the body when
consumed
• Heavy metals such as Lead, Cadmium and Mercury are toxic to humans
• Geological weathering, industrial processing, leaching of materials bring high
chemical pollution in water
• Pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, salts of metals, nitrates, sulfates are the major
chemical pollutants
149
c) Biological pollution:
• It develops from microorganisms that enter water from sources such as humans
and animal wastes, food and meat processing companies
• Microbial agents of pollution include pathogenic bacteria, viruses, helminthes,
protozoa and several more complex multicellular organisms that can cause
gastrointestinal diseases
• The BOD is an important indication of the amount of biological pollution in water
body, higher BOD level means higher pollution

150
2. On the basis of source of water pollution:
a) Domestic water pollution:
➢ it includes waste from houses and commercial establishments
➢ Wash water, kitchen waste water reach to water system through sewage

b) Industrial pollution:
• Waste water from fertilizers, paper, textile, oil refinery, distillery, rubber
industries cause serious pollution of rivers, lakes, streams etc. industrial waste
contains Zn, Cu, Pb, Hg metals, detergents, acids, petroleum, alkalies, phenols,
alcohols, cyanides, arsenic, chlorides and many other harmful components
• These components may become highly toxic to human tissues when consumed
for a long time

151
c) Agricultural pollution:
➢ Sediments of fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, and farm animal wastes when
reach into the water sources directly or indirectly cause water pollution
Sources of water pollution:
I. Domestic sewage
II. Infectious agents
III. Plant fertilizers
IV. Inorganic minerals and chemical compounds
V. Sediments from land erosion
VI. Radioactive substances
VII. Thermal pollutants
VIII.oil
152
Sewage:
• Sewage is defined as the waste derived from houses, animal and food processing
plants, which include human excreta, soaps, detergents, paper etc
• These group constitute one of the major pollution of water
• Water pollution caused by uncontrolled dumping of village wastes, town and
cities wastes into pond, lakes, streams or rivers
Infectious agents:
• Waste water released from municipalities, slaughtering house, and agricultural
liquid waste from farm may be source of infectious bacteria and other
microorganisms
• The microbial agents from polluted water may produce disease
• Water borne diseases like typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery, may be caused due to
presence of pathogenic bacteria in water that is contaminated with sewage
• Fungi. Viruses, tapeworms roundworms may also be found in polluted water 153
Plant fertilizers:
• Plants nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous are able to stimulate growth of
aquatic plants and algae in the water bodies which will later on decay to produce
disagreeable odors
• When these nitrates and phosphates in excess amount present in water then
excess growth of algae occurs and leads to eutrophication
• The dense algal growth eventually dies and the subsequent biodegradation
produces an oxygen deficient, which can result in foul smelling
• Inorganic materials and chemical compounds:
• These includes inorganic salts, mineral acids, fine metals and metallic compounds
• These pollutants enter the water bodies from municipal and industrial waste
water
• Most of these substances are toxic and are capable of killing living organisms in
the water resulting pollution
154
Sediments from land erosion:
• It includes soil, sand and mineral particles washed into the aquatic environment
by storms and flood waters
• The sediments have the effect of increasing turbidity and consequently of
reducing the amount of sunlight
• The bottom sediments are the important sources of organic and inorganic
matters in water
• The sediments may contain various carcinogenic metallic ions like Ar, Cr, Ni, Co
etc.
• Radioactive substances:
• By the following ways the radioactive substances enter the water bodies:
• Mining and processing ores to produce usable radioactive substances
• Use of radioactive substances in nuclear weapons
• Use of radioactive substances in medical, industrial and research works
• These substances can accumulate in liver, lungs, blood 155
Thermal pollutants:
• Steam power plants ,coal fire and nuclear fuel plants use large amount of water
for cooling purposes
• The coolant water is passed to the water bodies which results in rise in
temperature
• Increase in water temperature decreases the oxygen saturation percentage hence
lower DO levels and microbial activity increases
• Oil:
• Oil and oil waste enter the water bodies from industrial effluents, oil refineries,
automobile waste oil and from petroleum plants
• The ingestion of such oil is highly toxic

156
Prevention of water pollution:
• Safe water supply:
• supply water should be safe and wholesome
• After proper treatment and purification water should be distributed
• Routine surveillance
• Sanitary well:
• It is necessary to maintain well sanitary
• 50m far from manure pit, latrine and soak pit
• Well should be covered
• Proper drainage system:
• Drainage system should be properly managed
• Waste water should not be connected directly to the sources of water
157
Proper manage of sewage:
• There should be proper system for the management of sewage
• Sewage must be treated before reaching water resources
• Good agriculture practices:
• Manure or compost should be used instead of chemical fertilizers
• Integrated pest management:
• Can be reduced the use of chemical insecticides and pesticides using organic
substances and integrated pest management
• Minimizing the waste:
• Waste can be minimized by reducing, reusing and recycling
• Prevention of erosion:
• Can be reduced by reforestation which reduce soil erosion and flooding
158
• Change the habits of people:
• Bad habits like open defecation, disposal of waste, washing clothes etc near
surrounding of water resources
• Health education:
• Health education is the must to the community with the relation between health
and water

159
Water and water related diseases:
• Safe and wholesome drinking water should be:
• Colorless, tasteless, odorless, chemically and biologically suitable for drinking
• Free from pathogenic agents
• Pleasant to taste
• Usable for domestic purposes
• Water sustains life and the availability of safe drinking water is essential for life
• Water is contaminated when does not fulfill the above criteria

• Polluted and contaminated water is the main source of many water borne
diseases
• The unsafe water kills many people and children
• Half the infants death all over the world can be attributed to water borne
diseases
160
• Water related diseases are classified as:
1. Water borne diseases from faecal contamination: when water is contaminated
directly or indirectly through excreta of humans or animals then it pose high
risk of infection. Example are: Typhoid, cholera, protozoal infection
2. Water washed diseases: water used for bathing and cleaning for the personal
hygiene is contaminated then leads to diseases of the eyes, skin and other body
parts. Eaxmple: trachoma, dysentery, scabies
3. Water based diseases: (non-faecal contamination): infections may transmit
through an aquatic invertebrate animals. For example: schistosomiasis,
Dracunculiasis
4. Water related diseases: infections spread by insects that depend on water. For
example: Malaria, filariasis, dengue fever, sleeping sickness.

161
Water related diseases also can be classified as:
A. biological water borne diseases:
I. Those caused by presence of infective agents:
a) Viral: hepatitis A, E, Poliomyelitis, Rota virus, Diarrhea
b) Bacterial: Typhoid and Paratyphoid fever, Bacillary dysentery, Cholera
c) Protozoal: Amoebiasis, Giardiasis
d) Helminthic: roundworm, threadworm, hydatid disease
2. Due to presence of an aquatic host:
a) Snail: Schistosomiasis
b) Cyclops: Guinea worm, fish tapeworm

162
B. Chemical
1. Dental health: fluoride at about 1mg/lit protect from dental caries and more
than 1mg/lit causes mottling of dental enamel
2. cyanosis in infant: high nitrate content of water is responsible for
methaemoglobunemia causing cyanosis
3. Cardiovascular disease: chemically polluted water may cause CVD
C) Some diseases are related to the insects vector such as Malaria, Filaria,
Trypanosomiasis
D). Some diseases are caused due to inadequate use of water like, Shigellosis,
Trachoma, Scabies, Conjunctivitis

163
Purification of water
• The main source of drinking water is the surface water which is most often likely
to be polluted by domestic and industrial waste. Such polluted water is harmful
for health because it consists of various disease causing pathogens
• Thus, to prevent from water borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, Hepatitis, polio,
dysentery, diarrhea and adverse effects of chemical poisons, water purification or
water treatment is very necessary
• The chief treatment required for surface water is for:
a) Contamination
b) Corrosion
c) Turbidity
d) Taste
e) Odor
• But the ground water is mainly for removal of hardness, excess iron and other
minerals
164
The main objectives of water treatment or water
purification are:
• To make water free from diseases producing organisms or harmful bacteria
• To make free from dissolved poisonous chemical substances of all kinds
• To make free from objectionable gases
• To make free from dissolved minerals which impart excessive hardness to water
and must not deposit sediment on standing
• The process of purification differs from individual water supply, community or
municipality water supply
• Water purification can be done in two scales:
1. purification on large scale
2. purification on small scale

165
• Purification on large scale:
- storage
- filtration(slow sand filter and rapid sand filter)
- disinfection
Purification on small scale:
- boiling
- filtration
- chemical disinfections( bleaching powder, chloride solution)

166
Purification on a large scale:
• This method is applied when supply is to be done for large communities as in
urban areas
• The method of treatment is usually depends upon the nature of water and
desired standard of water quality
• This method is consists of 3 stages:
I. Storage
II. Filtration
III. Chlorination(disinfection)

Storage: it is a natural process of purification which provide a reserve of water.

When water is stored for appreciable time, purification occurs to some extent .
High amount of suspended impurities settled out in a day or two by gravity. This
clarifies the water and reduces the work of filters. 167
• During storage, purification occurs in three aspects:
I. Physical: just only by storing, 90% of suspended impurities settle down in a day
due to gravity. It improves water quality and also becomes clear. This allows
sunlight to penetrate and also reduce the work of filters
II. Chemical: certain chemical changes occurs during storage, as the aerobic
bacteria oxidize the organic matters with the help of dissolved oxygen, which
reduces free ammonia and increases Nitrates
III. Biological: the pathogenic organisms gradually die out due to storage. 90% of
bacteria decrease when stored up to 5-7 days. The optimum period of storage
for river water is 10-14 days. If water is stored for a long period, the odor and
color is changed due to development of vegetative growth(algal growth)

168
• The sedimentation process during storage can be enhanced by adding chemicals
such as alum or by the following steps are involved to enhance the sedimentation
process:
a) coagulation: the raw water collected from river is 1st of all treated with
chemical coagulant as alum or Aluminium sulphate. The dosage varies from 5-
40 mg or more per liter depending on the turbidity, color, temperature and PH
of water
b) Mixing: the treated water is then pass down into the mixing chamber causing
violent agitation for a few minutes. This allows the chemical to get well mixed
with water
c) Flocculation: the next step is the gentle and slow stirring of the treated water in
a flocculation chamber for about 30 minutes. During this time, a flocculent
material i.e. Aluminium hydroxide is formed. This is due to the action of Alum
on the calcium carbonate that is present in raw water. The white precipitate
formed at the base due to Aluminium hydroxide 169
Sedimentation:
• After this, the coagulated water is sent to the sedimentation tank for a period of
2-6 hrs. at this time, the precipitate, impurities including bacteria get settled
down in the tank
• Sedimentation therefore, reduces the microbial population with visible pollutants
but does not make safe yet. So to make potable water, further treatment is
required

170
 Reservoir Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation
Raw water Mixing tank
tank with alum chamber tank

Municipal purification water plant

Sand filter

Disinfection
tank

Storage tank
supply

171
2. filtration:
• The filtration process is an effective means of removing the remaining mos. as
well as harmful chemicals from the polluted water. It removes 98-99% bacteria
apart from other impurities. Various types of filtering materials are available but
most utilize one is the layer of sand and gravel to trap the organisms. Two types
of sand filters are generally used to purify the clarified water after sedimentation
a) Slow sand(or biological) filtration
b) Rapid sand (or mechanical) filtration
Slow sand(or biological) filtration: in this method, water is collected from rivers or
lakes into the filter beds of rectangular basins. The filter is arranged with sand bed
layer at top (fine sand 1st then coarse sand) followed by fine gravel and coarse
gravel. At the bottom of the filter bed is the under drainage system consisting of
perforated pipe providing an out let for filtered water.
The process involved in slow sand filters bare mechanical straining,
sedimentation, adsorption, oxidation and bacterial action 172
• During filtration process, collected flocculent material composed of bacteria,
algae and protozoa accumulated on the surface layer of fine sand. Since bacteria
have negative electrical charge are trapped and colloidal material on the sand
grains have positive electrical charge, bacteria are thus trapped on the particles.
Bacteria are also ingested by the protozoa that inhabit the upper layer of the film.
When the gelatinous film finally becomes too thick then the efficiency of filter
decreases. Hence, the top layer of sand is removed and replaced with fresh sand
to cleanse the filter
• Rapid sand filter( or mechanical filtration): this technique occupies less space
than slow sand filters and are 40-50 times faster than biological filters. This type
of filter is commonly used in municipal water system. During the process of
filtration, this filter becomes clogged most often and must be cleaned regularly
than slow sand filters. The cleansing is accomplished by forcing water back
through the filter by mechanical pressure( i.e. back washing). Care should be
taken during back washing to see that fine sand on the surface is not lost 173
Disinfection:
• Disinfection of water is necessary to kill pathogenic microorganisms to make it
safe for drinking purpose. Although by filtration, all suspended impurities
together with most of the organic impurities(bacteria) are removed but still
some of these bacteria are very dangerous and may not be removed by simple
filtration. Water has to be sterilized where contamination is suspected
chlorination is the most practical, effective, cheapest and convenient
method for public water supplies. Chlorine is available in solid, liquid and gaseous
form
Bleaching powder- solid
Sodium hypochlorite- liquid
Chlorine -gas

174
Action of chlorine:
• When chlorine is added to water, there is formation of Hypochloric acid. The HCl
is neutralized by the alkalinity of the water. The hypochlorous acid ionizes to form
hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions as follows:
• H2O + Cl2 HCl + HOCl(hypochlorous acid)
• HOCl H + OCl (hypochlorite ions)
• The disinfecting action of chlorine is mainly due to the hypochlorous acid and to a
small extent due to hypochlorite

175
Purification of water on a small scale
• Boiling:
• it is satisfactory method of purification of water in small scale in household level
• The standard boiling is for 5-10 minutes, which kill the bacteria, ova, cyst and also
removes temporary hardness, though taste is harmless
• It is excellent method of purification
• Chemical disinfection:
• Bleaching powder can be used which white amorphous powder and contains 33%
chlorine
• Chlorine solution is available in the market can be used for disinfection of water
• Chlorine tablet found as Nirmal and is quite good for disinfecting small quantities
of water. 1 tablet of 0.5 gm is sufficient to disinfect 20 litres of water

176
• Iodine:
• Used for emergency disinfection
• 2 drops of 2% ethanol solution of iodine is suitable for 1 litre of clear water for 30
minutes
• Potassium permanganate:
• Effective especially for vibrio cholera and the draw backs are altering color, smell,
and taste of water
• Disinfection of well:
• Wells are the main source of water supply in rural areas
• The most effective method for disinfecting well water is using bleaching powder
• Steps in disinfecting well water:
I. Calculate volume of water
177
ii. Calculate amount of bleaching powder required for disinfection, 2.5 gm of
bleaching powder is required to disinfect 1000 litres of water
iii. Dissolve bleaching powder in water: at 1st paste of bleaching powder is
prepared in a bucket of water and stirred then allowed to sediment. Solution is
transferred to another bucket and sediment is discarded
iv. Delivery of chlorine solution into the well
v. Contact period: 1 hr is allowed before water is drawn
vi. Orthotolidine Arsenite test: after 1 hr. of contact period, this test is done to see
the amount of residual chlorine. If the free chlorine residual is less than 0.5
gm/lit, the chlorination process must be prepared

178
• Filtration:
• It removes bacteria but not the virus
• The filters used are ceramic filters such as chambered land filter, Berkefeld filter
• Filter candle are liable to be logged with impurities. So, candle should be clean by
scrubbing
• WHO standard guideline for drinking water:
1. Acceptability aspects:
2. Microbiological aspects
3. Chemical aspects
4. Radiological aspects

179
Acceptability aspects:
a) Physical parameters:
Turbidity: free from turbidity, < 5 NTU is acceptable
color: free from color, less than 15 TCU is acceptable
odor: no disagreeable odor
taste: free from disagreeable taste
b) Chemical parameters:
chloride: standard level 200 mg/lit and not more than 600 mg/lit
hardness: 500 mg/lit is tolerable
PH: 6.5-8.5 acceptable
Nitrites: zero in potable water and its presence indicates recent pollution
Nitrates: should not exceed 1 mg/lit
oxygen absorbed: should not exceed more than 1 mg/lit at 37°C
copper: < 1 mg/lit
180
Microbiological aspects:
• Ideally water should be free from coliform organisms
• No sample should contain E.coli in 100 ml water
• No sample should contain > 3 coliform organisms in 100 ml
• No coliform should be detectable in two consecutive sample
• Viral quality: 1 PFU per lit
• Radioactive substance:
• α activity: 0.1 Bq/lit
• β activity: 1.0 Bq/lit

181
Waste material:
• Unwanted material left over, that is discharged to, deposited in or emitted to an
environment in such amount that causes harmful changes
• Large amount of waste material is produced from households, cities, hospitals,
industries etc.
• Waste may be hazardous and non hazardous, if hazardous waste mixed with
nonhazardous then whole waste becomes hazardous waste
• Waste creates many health and environmental problems as well as it makes the
environment unsightable in looking

182
Types of waste:
On the basis of physical property:
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Hazardous waste
On the basis of biological property:
1. Biodegradable- garbage, paper, wood, dead animals, leaves etc
2. Non- biodegradable - plastic, glass, metals etc.
On the basis of effect on environment:
1. Hazardous – toxic waste, ignible, explosive, corrosive property. For example-
acids, base, dyes, cyanides, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, compounds of
mercury, lead,, arsenic, radioactive materials etc.
2. non – hazardous – leaves, straw, wood, garbage, dead animals
183
On the basis of source:
1. Domestic/ household: ash, rubbish and garbage
• Rubbish: paper, clothes, wood, metal, glass, dust and dirt
• Garbage: waste matter from cooking and consumption of food i.e. vegetable
peeling and other organic matter
• Garbage needs quick removal and disposal
2. Industrial waste: comprises wide variety of wastes such as calcium carbonate to
highly toxic and explosive compounds such as metal, pipe, dyes, hazardous
waste, paper, rubbish etc.
3. Street/ market waste: waste collected from street cleaning service and market.
It consists of leaves, straw, paper, putrid vegetables, animal droppings, animal
matter, rubbish etc.
4. Stable waste: waste collected from stables. It contains mainly animal droppings
and leftover animal feeds
184
5. Hospital waste:
• It is very infectious waste and serious to manage. It consists of used cotton,
bandage, sputum, pus, blood, scalpel, blades, syringe, needles, glass, plastics
• Effects of hazardous and non-hazardous waste:
• Hazardous waste carries environmental risks and also health risks for humans and
wildlife. Some pollutants such as mercury can accumulate in human and animal
tissue, thus compounding their effects. Hazardous waste is primarily generated
by industry and businesses. Although regulations exist, contamination still occurs
• Cancer has also been linked to air pollution from industry as well as in the home.
Radon, for example, is a radioactive by-product of uranium decay. Uranium is
found within the Earth's crust and is everywhere in the environment. Radon
exposure is the second leading cause of lung cancer according to the National
Cancer Institute.

185
Solid waste disposal and management:
• All the degradable as well as solid waste which is the outcome of individual and
the community that comes in the form of solid and semi-solid form other than
liquid waste
• Solid waste includes garbage(food waste), rubbish(paper, plastic, wood, metal,
glass)
• The proper disposal of waste material is very essential for prevention from
infectious diseases
• The common methods for the disposal of waste are:
1. Dumping: waste material is dumped in low lying areas. Due to the action of
decomposers, the volume of waste materials decreases considerably in volume
and is gradually converted in humus

186
Drawbacks of dumping:
• Exposed to flies and rodents
• A source of nuisance from smell and unsightly appearance
• Dispersed by wind
• Pollution of surface and ground water

2. Sanitary landfill:
• It is the most satisfactory method of disposing large quantity of refuse where
suitable land is available
• Refuse is placed in a trench and covered with earth
• Chemical, physical bacteriological occur in buried refuses
• After 4-6 months, complete decomposition of organic matters occurs
187
3. Incineration:
• If the adequate land is not sufficient for the disposal of waste then incineration
method is suitable and also for the heavily contaminated waste such as hospital
waste
• Waste is incinerated in a incinerator device and the mass of waste is changed into
ash
4. Composting:
• Refuse is disposed either alone or in combination with human or animal excreta
• The end product of composting is the compost manure which has high manurial
value for the soil

188
• Management of waste can be done by either minimizing the waste or by disposal
of waste
• Waste can be minimized:
I. by reducing waste: as for example minimizing use of packaging materials
II. Reuse waste: for example by cleaning containers such as glass, beverage
bottles, using clothes bags for shopping
III. Recycle waste: recycling papers, plastic, metals

189
Hazardous waste:
• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines solid waste as any garbage or
refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant,
or air pollution control facility and other discarded material, including solid,
liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material resulting from industrial,
commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community activities.
There are two primary types of solid waste -– municipal solid waste (trash or
garbage) and industrial waste (a wide variety of non-hazardous materials
resulting from the production of goods and products.
• Conversely, hazardous waste is waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to
our health or the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases,
sludges, discarded commercial products (e.g., cleaning fluids or pesticides), or the
by-products of manufacturing processes.

190
Non- hazardous waste

Texas Non-hazardous Industrial Waste Classification Under Texas regulations, non-

hazardous wastes are categorized as Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3. Class 2 and Class 3
waste are considered less harmful to the environment or human health than Class
1 waste.
• Class 1 wastes are wastes which are potentially threatening to human health and
the environment if not properly managed, because of the constituents and
properties this class can include. Therefore, there are special handling
requirements for Class 1 wastes. Examples are water contaminated with ethylene
glycol, soils contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons, liquids that are ignitable
at levels above 150 degrees F, and semi-solids and solids when combined with
water exhibits corrosive properties.

191
• Class 2 wastes are often accepted at local landfills. Examples of wastes that fall
under the Class II definition are depleted aerosol cans, non-surgical non-
radioactive medical waste, and food waste and packaging that result from plant
production, manufacturing or laboratory operations.
• Class 3 wastes that are insoluble, do not react with other materials, and do not
decompose. Examples of wastes which fall under the Class III definition are
chemically inert and insoluble substances, waste which poses no threat to human
health or the environment, rocks, bricks, glass, dirt and some plastics that are
inert and insoluble solid waste materials.

192
Resource recovery from solid waste:
• Resource recovery, recycling, and reuse can contribute to the wise and efficient
use of materials, to conserving energy, to preserving the environment, and to
improving the balance of trade by reducing our dependence on imported natural
resources. By using materials more than once, virgin resources can be conserved
for ourselves and for future generations
• There is possibility to face energy crisis in the very near future, thus the use of
waste materials as a source of energy production as well as organic fertilizers help
to push back the energy crisis that the world is going to face and also bio-friendly
fertilizer will help to control environmental pollution in some extent
• Consequently, to the extent that alternative technologies for solid waste disposal
can also recover energy and materials from MSW, they can reduce the cost of
community services and promote local development, as well as serving the
interests of health, environmental protection, economic wellbeing, and national
security.
193
Pesticides and human health:
• Pesticides may be of chemical synthesis, biological or natural products designed
to kill, repel, attract or stop the growth of living organisms
• Pests includes insects, birds, Mollusca, fish, nematodes and microbes
• Pesticides are not necessarily poisonous but can be toxic to humans or other
animals
• A/C to WHO, pesticide is any substance that is organic or inorganic in nature,
which is intended for combating insects, mites, rodents and other undesirable
species of plants and animals which are harmful to man or interfere in any other
way in production, processing, storage of foods
• The must common use of pesticides is as plant protection products, which in
general protects plants from damaging, influences such as weeds, plant diseases
or insects

194
Pesticides include:
• Herbicides
• Insecticides
• Molluscicides
• Rodenticides
• Bactericides
• Insect repellent
• Fungicides
• All the pesticides are grouped into 4 types:
• Rodenticides: (rabbit, rat, mice)
• Insecticides: against insects
• Herbicides: against weeds and herbs
• Fungicides: against fungus 195
Effects of pesticides on human health:
• Pesticides can cause a range of neurological health effects such as memory loss,
loss of coordination, reduced speed of response to stimuli, reduced visibility
ability
• Asthma, allergies, cancer, hormone disrupt, problems with reproduction and fetal
development
• Children are at more risk when exposed to pesticides
• Ingestion of organochlorine insecticides cause loss of sensation around mouth,
hypersensitivity to light, sound and touch, tremors, dizziness, nausea, vomiting,
confusion
• Organophosphorus and carbamate exposure causes excess acetylcholine,
increased salvation and perspiration, narrowing of the pupils, nausea, diarrhea,
decrease B.P, muscle weakness and fatigue
• Leukemia, skin cancer, lung cancer, dermatitis
196
Pesticides pollution:
• Pesticides are a cause of pollution, affecting particularly land and water
• The pesticides problem is huge and growing
• Pesticides cause pollution by running off agricultural fields and from horticultural
land and domestic gardens too
• Rain water washes the chemicals nearby water sources
• Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other
than their target species including non-target species, air, water and soil
• Pesticides drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are
carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them
• Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution and some pesticides are
persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination

197
Alternative methods for pesticides:
• Use of biological pest control (such as pheromones and microbial pesticides)
• Genetic engineering and method of interfering insect breeding
• Application of composted yard waste
• Cultivation practices include polyculture
• Crop rotation
• Use of trap crops
• Natural predators or parasites of the pests
• Biological pesticides based on Entemopathogenic fungi, fungi, bacteria and
viruses cause disease in the pest species can also be used
• Interfering with the insect reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males
• Soil steaming kills pest
• IPM(integrated pest management) 198
Pesticides regulation:
• It is the policy of the State to work to find ways to use the minimum amount of
pesticides needed to effectively control targeted pests in all areas of application
• The agencies of the State/country involved in the regulation or use of pesticides
shall promote the principles and the implementation of integrated pest
management and other science-based technology to minimize reliance on
pesticides while recognizing that outbreaks of disease, insects and other pests
will necessitate fluctuations in pesticide use
• These agencies, in cooperation with private interest groups, shall work to
educate pesticide users and the general public in the proper use of pesticides and
to determine other actions needed to accomplish the policy

199
Pesticides management in Nepal
• NEPAL Pest Management and Pesticide use the agricultural sector in Nepal is in
the early stages of development. Although pest outbreaks have been a problem,
there is minimal effort directed toward crop protection.
• The National Agricultural Research Center was established to concentrate on crop
production and protection measures.
• Work involves identification of pests, field experimentation, research on
appropriate plant protection measures, technology transfer to farmers, training
on safe use of pesticides, and IPM training.
• The principal crops are rice, maize, wheat, oilseeds, and jute. Yields of the major
crops are generally low not due to pests but mainly due to traditional way of
farming

200
• All crops are prone to infestations from a wide range of pests.
• Pesticides are used as needed, usually at minimal doses.
• Insecticides dominate the market and are distributed through the following
channels: * The Ministry of Health, which uses the bulk of DDT and malathion to
control malaria; " The Ministry of Agriculture (through the Agricultural Inputs
Corporation), which accounts for 35- 50% of the market
• The private sector, which is represented by manufacturers based in India that
supply Nepal through local dealerships.
• The principal pesticides used are parathion-methyl, carbofuran, malathion,
fenitrothion, and demeton-methyl and should be supplied and used in very
limited amount

201
• The Nepal Pesticide and Chemicals Company formulates BHC, but operates only
occasionally, because the demand is low.
• Pesticide Regulatory Policies and Procedures Nepal has accepted the IPM concept
and is currently implementing IPM in rice-growing areas.
• Realizing that pesticides will continue to be used when pest outbreaks occur, the
government decided to regulate the import, distribution, and use of these
products by promulgation of the Pesticides Act in 1991.
• This Act, however, has not yet been implemented, although the Department of
Plant Protection, under the Ministry of Agriculture, has been given the
responsibility for implementation when organizational issues are resolved and
when a Registrar has been selected.
• The Asian Development Bank has just completed the technical assistance package
to Nepal (1989-1993), through which this Act was prepared and approved by the
Government of Nepal. 202
Shelter and human health
• Definition of shelter:
• Shelter, along with food and clothing, is one of Man’s three most essential
necessities. Shelter protects people from the weather, shields them against wild
animals and insects, and provides a place to rest. The most common form of
shelter would be that of housing, however shelter has evolved into many
different forms, including (but not limited to) bomb shelters, bus shelters, tents,
trailers and even houseboats
• In the earliest prehistoric era, before Man knew how to build shelters, they made
use of the natural environment to provide them with shelter. The earliest forms
of shelter were those in trees, where it would provide minimal protection against
the searing heat of the sun and the cold of the rain. Also, trees protected Man
against animals that could not climb up the trees. Another natural form of shelter
was the cave, which provided greater protection against inclement weather,
though offering less protection against wild animals.

203
Detrimental effect of poor housing:
• Housing is a part of total environment of man and being a part, it is to some
extent responsible for the status of man’s health and well being.
• There is a strong relationship between housing and man’s health as well as
environment of housing
• Due to poor housing, many effects are caused to man:
1. Respiratory infection: common cold, tuberculosis, influenza, bronchitis,
measles, whooping cough etc.
2. Skin infection: scabies, ring worm, leprosy
3. Rat infestation: plague
4. Arthropods: house flies, mosquitoes, fleas and bugs, which are vectors for
many arthropod borne diseases
5. Accidents: occur in home due to some defect in home and its environment
204
6. High morbidity and mortality : caused due to poor housing conditions
7. Psychological effects: sense of isolation feeling in person living in upper floor of
high building
8. Overcrowding: if there is not sufficient room for the family members to be
accommodated then it creates problem in sleeping, separacy, anxiety, violence
and mental disorders, sex separation in children over the age of 9 years

205
Principles of housing and health:
a) Fundamental Physiologic Needs
Housing should provide for the following physiologic needs:
• protection from the elements,
• a thermal environment that will avoid undue heat loss,
• a thermal environment that will permit adequate heat loss from the body,
• an atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity,
• adequate daylight illumination and avoidance of undue(excessive) daylight glare,
• direct sunlight,
• adequate artificial illumination and avoidance of glare(shine)
• protection from excessive noise, and
• adequate space for exercise and for children to play.
206
b) Fundamental Psychologic Needs
Seven fundamental psychologic needs for healthy housing include the following:
• adequate privacy for the individual
• opportunities for normal family life
• opportunities for normal community life
• facilities that make possible the performance of household tasks without undue
physical and mental fatigue
• facilities for maintenance of cleanliness of the dwelling and of the person
• possibilities for aesthetic satisfaction in the home and its surroundings and
• Concordance(harmony) with prevailing social standards of the local community

207
C) Protection Against Disease
Eight ways to protect against contaminants include the following:
• provide a safe and sanitary water supply
• protect the water supply system against pollution
• provide toilet facilities that minimize the danger of transmitting disease;
• protect against sewage contamination of the interior surfaces of the dwelling;
• avoid unsanitary conditions near the dwelling
• exclude vermin from the dwelling, which may play a part in transmitting disease;
• provide facilities for keeping milk and food fresh and
• allow sufficient space in sleeping rooms to minimize the danger of contact
infection
208
d) Protection against accidents:
• Proper materials should be used for the erection of dwelling construction to
prevent from collapsing and protecting from possible loss of life and property
• Protection and control from possible fire and their spread
• Provision or adequate facility to escape incase of fire
• Protection against danger of electric shock and burns
• Protection against falls and other mechanical injuries
• Protection of the neighborhood against the hazards of automobile traffic

209
Quality standard of housing:
• Sanitary Facilities
• Food Preparation and Refuse Disposal
• Space and Security
• Thermal Environment
• Illumination and Electricity
• Structure and Materials
• Interior Air Quality
• Water Supply
• Access
• Site and Neighborhood
• Sanitary Conditions
• Smoke Detectors 210
1. Sanitary Facilities
• The bathroom must be located in a private room within the residence.
• The bathroom must contain a flushing toilet, a shower or tub and a sink.
• The shower or tub and the sink must have functioning hot and cold water.
2. Food Preparation and Refuse Disposal
• The unit must have an oven and a stove or a range. A microwave oven can be
substituted.
• The unit must have a kitchen sink with hot and cold water and a proper sink
trap.
3. Space and Security
• The unit must have a living room, a kitchen and a bathroom.
• Any doors or windows that are accessible from the outside must be able to be
locked.
211
4. Thermal Environment
• The heating system must safely provide heat to each room. For adequate
temperature during each month of the year.
• The cooling system must safely cool each room.
5. Illumination and Electricity
• The living room and each bedroom must have at least one window.
• The kitchen must have at least one working outlet.
• The living room and each bedroom must have at least two working outlets.
6. Structure and Materials
• All ceilings, walls and floors must not show any signs of bulging, buckling and
must not contain large holes.
• The roof must be structurally sound.
• Handrails are required when there are four or more steps.
212
7. Interior Air Quality

• Bathrooms must have a window that can be opened or must have other
adequate ventilation.
• The unit must be free from dangerous pollutants, such as carbon monoxide.
8. Water Supply

• The water supply must be free from contamination.

• Plumbing pipes and fixtures must be free from leaks.
9. Lead-Based Paint

• construction must be free from lead-based paint hazards.

• There must be no chipping, cracking or peeling paint or other hazards.

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10.Access
• There must be two ways to exit the unit. A fire escape is considered an alternate
means of exit.
• The fire escape or other emergency exit cannot be blocked.
11. Site and Neighborhood
• There must not be excessive noise or trash accumulation in the neighborhood.
• There must not be an abnormal amount of air pollution.
12. Sanitary Conditions
• There must not be a rodent or vermin infestation.
13. Smoke Detectors
• There must be at least one working smoke detector on each level of the unit,
including the basement. Local codes may have stricter requirements, such as placing
a smoke detector outside of each bedroom.
• All smoke detectors must be operational.
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Concept of healthy cities and healthy villages

• A healthy city is not one that has achieved a particular health status.
• It is conscious of health and striving to improve it. Thus, any city can be a healthy
city, regardless of its current health status.
• The requirements are: a commitment to health and a process and structure to
achieve it.
• A healthy city is one that continually creates and improves its physical and social
environments and expands the community resources that enable people to
mutually support each other in performing all the functions of life and developing
to their maximum potential.
• WHO recommends a basic model for a healthy city.

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• Healthy Cities approach
• The approach seeks to put health high on the political and social agenda of cities
and to build a strong movement for public health at the local level. It strongly
emphasizes equity, participatory governance and solidarity, intersectoral
collaboration and action to address the determinants of health.
• Successful implementation of this approach requires innovative action addressing
all aspects of health and living conditions, and extensive networking between
cities across Europe and beyond. This includes:
• explicit political commitment
• leadership
• institutional change
• Inter-sectoral partnerships.
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• The Healthy Cities approach recognizes the determinants of health and the need
to work in collaboration across public, private, voluntary and community sector
organizations.
• This way of working and thinking includes involving local people in decision-
making, requires political commitment and organizational and community
development, and recognizes the process to be as important as the outcomes.
• The concept of Healthy Cities was inspired and supported by the WHO

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Healthy village:
• The house should be provided with sanitary latrine
• There should be a sanitary well
• There should be adequate arrangement for the disposal of waste water, refuses
and garbage
• Accessible health facilities
• Separate rooms for living and kitchen
• Sufficient and healthy foods for all
• Education facilities for all
• Transportation facilities
• Well managed and planned village

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