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FATIGUE IN OFFSHORE STRUCTURAL STEELS

Implications of the D e p a r t m e n t of Energy's Research Programme


FATIGUE I N O F F S H O R E S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

Implications of the Department of Energy's Research Programme

Proceedings of a C o n f e r e n c e o r g a n i z e d b y t h e Institution of Civil Engineers,

h e l d in L o n d o n o n 2 4 - 2 5 F e b r u a r y 1981

THOMAS TELFORD LTD, LONDON, 1981


Contents

Opening address. H. G. CRISP 1

1. The design of the UKOSRP basic fatigue programme. J. G . H I C K S 3

2. Constant amplitude corrosion fatigue strength of welded joints. G. S. B O O T H 5

Discussion on Paper 2 15

3. Corrosion fatigue of welded joints under narrow band random loading. G. S. B O O T H a n d

R. H O L M E S 17

Discussion on Paper 3 23

4. An introduction to crack growth testing in the U KOS RP and its relevance to the design of
offshore structures. H. G . M O R G A N and T. W . T H O R P E 25
5. The effect of North Sea service conditions on fatigue crack growth in structural steel.
T. W . T H O R P E , A. R A N C E , D. R. V . S I L V E S T E R , P. M. S C O T T a n d H. G. M O R G A N 35

Discussion on Papers 4 and 5 45

6. Review of stress analysis techniques used in UKOSRP. N . M . I R V I N E 47

7. Stress concentration factors at K and KT tubular joints. A G W O R D S W O R T H 59

Discussion on Papers 6 and 7 67

8. The fatigue strength of tubular welded joints. K. J. M A R S H 71

9. Modes of fatigue crack development and stiffness measurements in welded tubular


joints. J . G W Y L D E a n d A. M c D O N A L D 79
10. Experimental results of fatigue tests on tubular welded joints. A M c D O N A L D a n d
J. G . W Y L D E 89

Discussion on Papers 9 and 1 0 101

1 1 . Prediction of crack growth in tubular joints—an alternative design approach.


A M. C L A Y T O N 105
Discussion on Paper 11 111

1 2 . Summary of current design and fatigue correlation. P. J. FISHER 113

1 3 . Relationship of Guidance Notes and applicability to offshore design. J . R. PETRIE 123

Discussion on Papers 12 and 1 3 127


H. G. CRISP, Manager, UK Offshore Steels
Research Project

Opening address

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s a d d r e s s is to g i v e a b r i e f It w a s n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e to get d a t a o n
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the O f f s h o r e w e l d m e n t s in t h i c k e r p l a t e .
S t e e l s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t and to show h o w A l t h o u g h m u c h w o r k had b e e n d o n e o n c o r r o s i o n
p r o b l e m s are d e a l t w i t h . l i t t l e w o r k h a d b e e n done o n c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e
W h e n s e t t i n g u p the p r o j e c t in 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 it w a s in sea w a t e r , or to show t h e e f f e c t s o f c a t h o d i c
a p p r e c i a t e d that m o s t o f the a v a i l a b l e d a t a on protection, temperature, intermittent wetting
f a t i g u e w e r e not d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e to and d r y i n g and so o n . Most fatigue work had
conditions offshore. The initial requirements b e e n d o n e in air and so t h e s t a n d a r d a i r
t h e r e f o r e w e r e to b u i l d u p a d a t a p o o l o f v i a b l e f a t i g u e c u r v e s had to be m o d i f i e d to t a k e
i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h m o r e n e a r l y r e p r e s e n t e d the account of offshore environments.
o f f s h o r e c o n d i t i o n s , and from t h i s d a t a b a s e to M u c h e f f o r t is spent in t h e o f f s h o r e i n d u s t r y
m o v e f o r w a r d to p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n and an in i m p r o v i n g the w e l d m e n t s b y t o e g r i n d i n g and
u n d e r s t a n d i n g that w o u l d b e o f v a l u e to h e a t t r e a t m e n t , and p o s s i b l y b y u s e o f T I G
d e s i g n e r s and to p r o v i d e a sound b a s i s for d r e s s i n g and p e e n i n g , and so it w a s d e s i r a b l e
future guidance n o t e s . to q u a n t i f y t h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s in t e r m s o f
T h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t g a p s to b e filled in the t h e i r e f f e c t on c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e l i v e s . Some
i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t h e n w e r e the e f f e c t s d u e w o r k w a s t h e r e f o r e p r o g r a m m e d to s t u d y t h i s
to g e o m e t r y . M o s t o f the i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t a k e n p r o b l e m - w i t h h i n d s i g h t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t as
from p l a t e s p e c i m e n s , but in fact the a r e a s o f m u c h as is d e s i r a b l e .
c o n c e r n o f f s h o r e are t u b u l a r j o i n t s . At the M a n y v a r i a b l e s w e r e to b e s t u d i e d , s o m e o f
start o f t h e p r o j e c t l i t t l e t u b u l a r w o r k had w h i c h w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t and s o m e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t
b e e n c a r r i e d out and not all the r e s u l t s had of one a n o t h e r . T h e aim w a s to m a k e t h e w o r k
been published. T h e r e w a s an o b v i o u s n e e d to g i v e r e s u l t s w h i c h would b e i m m e d i a t e l y u s a b l e
s t u d y t u b u l a r j o i n t s in as m a n y g e o m e t r i c a l and in d e s i g n and a s s e s s m e n t and to a v o i d b e i n g
load c o n f i g u r a t i o n s as p o s s i b l e . lured into the i n t e r e s t i n g t r a p of d e e p s c i e n c e
M u c h of the w o r k a v a i l a b l e in 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 w a s on which may take a considerable amount of u n ­
base plate of unrepresentative thickness r a v e l l i n g b e f o r e b e i n g of p r a c t i c a l u s e .
(6-10 m m ) , w h e r e a s the a r e a s of i n t e r e s t o f f ­ N e v e r t h e l e s s , it w a s a p p r e c i a t e d that b a s i c
s h o r e are in w e l d m e n t s in e x c e s s o f , say, 32 m m . w o r k on c r a c k g r o w t h and c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e

PROJECT MANAGEMENT
UKAEA/SRD

1 1
STRESS ANALYSIS MATERIAL PEDIGREE BASIC FATIGUE TESTS TUBULAR JOINT FRACTURE TESTS
of Tubular Joints TESTS in air and sea water TESTS
(including cathodic protection) in air
with constant and variable
amplitude loads
Tests on T-Joints Selection of Fracture
Computer Analysis with constant and Resistant Materials
ATKINS R&D Tests on Weldments variable amplitude loads. WELDING INSTITUTE
WELDING INSTITUTE Tests on Large H-Joints
NATIONAL ENGINEERING
Strain Gauged LABORATORY NATIONAL ENGINEERING
Acrylic Models LABORATORY
LLOYDS REGISTER
OF SHIPPING
Tests on Steel Plate Tests on T, K and TK
Photoelastic Studies UKAEA/Harwell Joints with constant
NOTTINGHAM UNIVERSITY UKAEA/RFL amplitude loads
WELDING INSTITUTE

Fig. 1. UK O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h Project

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 1


OPENING ADDRESS

b e h a v i o u r w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y to a c o m p l e t e O r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y t h e p r o j e c t w a s set out as
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f f s h o r e and t h i s s h o w n in F i g . 1. S t r e s s a n a l y s i s w a s r e q u i r e d to
has also been studied. g i v e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e t a i l e d b e h a v i o u r
T h e requirement that the results should be o f the t u b u l a r j o i n t s . M a t e r i a l p e d i g r e e is
i m m e d i a t e l y u s a b l e p u t c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e r e a l l y a f i l i n g c a b i n e t w i t h all t h e d e t a i l s of
p r o j e c t to r e p r e s e n t w h e r e p o s s i b l e t h e materials, specimen manufacture, weld
c o n d i t i o n s f o u n d o f f s h o r e (in p a r t i c u l a r in t h e p r o c e d u r e s and so on for f u t u r e u s e and
N o r t h S e a ) , b o t h in t h e s e l e c t i o n of reference.
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p e c i m e n s and o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e T h e b a s i c f a t i g u e t e s t s a r e d e s i g n e d to show
test conditions. T h i s led i n e v i t a b l y to s o m e the effects of the various testing p a r a m e t e r s .
compromises. T h e f o u r t h c o l u m n in F i g . 1 is c o n c e r n e d w i t h
A c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f w o r k w a s n e c e s s a r y to the tubular joint tests w h e r e the basic
m o u n t a p r o j e c t o f t h i s m a g n i t u d e , b o t h in i n f o r m a t i o n from c o l u m n s 1-3 is b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r ,
a d v i c e a n d in t h e p h y s i c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f and the f a i l u r e m o d e s o f t u b u l a r j o i n t s are
s p e c i m e n s (from 5 0 lb to 20 t o n s ) and t h e c o s t studied.
was £4.25 m i l l i o n (1980 p r i c e s ) . Twelve T h e work done on fracture toughness of
c o n t r a c t o r s w e r e e m p l o y e d and a d v i c e and h e l p w e l d m e n t s u s e d o f f s h o r e is not y e t c o m p l e t e it
w e r e t a k e n f r o m m o s t o f t h e oil c o m p a n i e s , c o u l d b e the s u b j e c t for a c o m p l e t e and
c o n t r a c t o r s and a s s e s s o r s a c t i v e o f f s h o r e in t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l c o n f e r e n c e in i t s e l f .
North Sea. I w o u l d l i k e to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r I should like to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e f i n a n c i a l aid
support w i t h advice, the use of their r e c e i v e d from the D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y and t h e
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and f r e e a c c e s s to t h e i r E u r o p e a n C o a l and S t e e l C o m m u n i t y , and a l s o t h e
construction yards. v a l u a b l e c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h c o l l e a g u e s in the
European Offshore Programme.

2
J. G. HICKS, MA, FWeldl, MRAeS, Consultant
in Welded Fabrication and Design

The design of the UKOSRP basic fatigue programme

The UKOSRP basic fatigue programme was designed to acquire information on the fatigue life of
welded joints in sea water for use in compiling design rules for offshore structures. The test
programme was designed to examine the variables relevant to offshore platforms; the various test
series were chosen to isolate the variables as far as possible and also to facilitate comparison
with existing data. Although the main aim of the programme was to acquire stress/life data for
constant amplitude and variable amplitude loadings a number of tests measured the crack propagation
rates with the intention of deriving a generalised fatigue life prediction method based on
computed stresses.

INTRODUCTION testing of standardised welded joint specimens


The research programme was initially designed the results from which would provide data in
in 1973* At that time there was relatively the traditional form of fatigue life as a
little experience of the use of structures in function of stress. The life was defined as
the water depths, wave height distributions the complete failure of a specimen. Series of
and temperatures of the northern North Sea. specimens were to be tested under both constant
Such structures would be constructed of steels and variable amplitude stress histories in air
of greater thickness and with joints of greater and simulated sea water; separate series of
complexity than hitherto. The design data in specimens in sea water were to be tested under
respect of fatigue at that time had been based freely corroding conditions and under a
on tests in air of small specimens under con­ cathodic protection condition.
stant amplitude conditions. The commentary on
the rules in the AWS Structural Welding Code The second level of testing would involve the
at that time said that "Calculated fatigue measurement of crack growth rates throughout
lives based on the proposed curves should be the specimen life. It was intended that the
viewed with a healthy amount of scepticism and data acquired here could be used in conjunction
should be used more as design guidance than as with fracture mechanics analyses to develop a
an absolute requirement". generalised method of life prediction for any
type of joint for which the detailed stress
It was apparent then that a complete test distribution could be calculated. Methods for
programme would be needed to provide design calculated stress distributions in tubular
data which could be used to design new joints were to be examined and assessed in
structures and to assess the integrity of those other parts of the Project. The value of
being designed and built at the time (ref. 1 ) . existing fatigue test data was not dismissed
The number of variables involved made the idea and the test programme was designed to permit
of a simplistic test programme covering all comparisons with that data and minimise new
these variables in one series of tests unrea­ test work as much as possible.
listic from the point of view of time and cost.
Test programmes were accordingly planned to The effect of the seawater environment was
deal with the selected variables in parallel acknowledged to be a time dependent phenomenon
tests with sufficient interfaces to provide, and fatigue testing would be relevant only if
at the end of the work, a satisfactory set of the tests in seawater were undertaken at a
results with a unified basis. cyclic frequency approximating that of the load
frequency on offshore structures, namely
The programme was designed to meet the needs of around the wave frequency. Wave frequency
the Department of Energy for certifying fixed varies with wave height but for the purpose of
offshore structures in accordance with the the tests a figure of 0.1 Hz was decided upon.
legislation, and also, what were seen at the To acquire test results in a reasonable time
time to be both the long term and the short it was then necessary to postulate multiple
term needs of the industry. testing of a large number of specimens. The
necessary test equipment would then be quite
DESIGN OF THE TEST PROGRAMME extensive requiring a large number of stations
To achieve these aims the test programme was each capable of applying a load to its specimen.
planned to take place on two separate but Axial load testing had been the conventional
inter-related levels. method in standard testing machines but the
thickness of the specimens for the offshore
The first level consisted of the fatigue

Fatieue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 3


FATIGUE STRENGTH OF W E L D E D JOINTS

programme was r e q u i r e d t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e Variable amplitude t e s t s


o f p r a c t i c e and t h i s r e q u i r e d h i g h l o a d s i n The knowledge o f t h e s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s l i k e l y
t h e a x i a l mode. A s u f f i c i e n t number o f a x i a l t o be e x p e r i e n c e d by any p a r t i c u l a r j o i n t i n
t e s t i n g machines capable of the loads envisaged an o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e was f a r from c o m p l e t e a t
would h a v e b e e n e x t r e m e l y c o s t l y and i t was t h e o u t s e t o f t h e programme and so t y p e s o f
d e c i d e d t o l o a d t h e specimens i n bending f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n were c h o s e n on t h e b a s i s o f
the seawater t e s t s , thereby minimising the studies undertaken outside the P r o j e c t .
l o a d r e q u i r e d t o develop a given s t r e s s . A F a t i g u e t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t i n a i r and
f u r t h e r benefit of t h i s technique l i e s in the simulated sea water using s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s
f a c t t h a t t h e most l i k e l y a r e a s f o r f a t i g u e b a s e d on t h e s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
cracking in tubular s t r u c t u r e s are a t the
n o d a l j o i n t s where h i g h l o c a l b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s The t e s t equipment u s e d f o r s e a w a t e r t e s t i n g
occur. The b e n d i n g t e s t t h e r e f o r e s i m u l a t e s was b a s i c a l l y t h e same a s t h a t u s e d f o r t h e
t h i s c o n d i t i o n more a c c u r a t e l y t h a n an a x i a l c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e t e s t s and t h e r e f o r e t h e
test. The number o f specimen c o n f i g u r a t i o n s b a s i c c o n s i s t e n c y and r e p e a t a b i l i t y o b s e r v e d
was l i m i t e d t o two, b o t h b a s i c a l l y a f l a t i n t h e c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e t e s t s c o u l d be
p l a t e w i t h a welded j o i n t . assumed. The c o m p a r i s o n s between c o n s t a n t and
v a r i a b l e amplitude t e s t r e s u l t s could t h e r e ­
Constant amplitude t e s t s f o r e be c o n f i d e n t l y made on t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e
C o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e t e s t s on welded j o i n t s h a v e o n l y i n f l u e n c e s would be t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
b e e n u n d e r t a k e n f o r many y e a r s and h a v e , f o r stress histories.
t h e d e s i g n o f s t r u c t u r e s working i n a i r , p r o ­
v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r many s t a n d a r d s p e c i f i c a ­ A t o t a l o f 1$8 specimens were t e s t e d under
t i o n s and c o d e s o f p r a c t i c e i n many c o u n t r i e s v a r i a b l e amplitude l o a d i n g .
o f t h e W o r l d . Such t e s t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y
s i m p l e t o c o n d u c t and a n a l y s e and a l t h o u g h Conclusions
t h e r e s u l t i n g d a t a cannot be d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d This paper has d e s c r i b e d the b a s i s of the
t o s t r u c t u r e s e x p e r i e n c i n g complex l o a d d e s i g n o f t h e t e s t programme and t h e s t e p s
h i s t o r i e s t h e y do g i v e a good b a s i s f o r com­ t a k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s would
p a r i s o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f weld d e t a i l . be o b t a i n e d .
The c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e t e s t s a l s o p r o v i d e a
s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r examining the e f f e c t o f The t e s t work was u n d e r t a k e n i n two l a b o r a ­
environmental conditions, p l a t e thickness, t o r i e s , namely t h e n a t i o n a l E n g i n e e r i n g
r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s , and t h e mode o f s t r e s s i n g L a b o r a t o r y and The Welding I n s t i t u t e . The
i . e . a x i a l o r bending. The UKOSRP b a s i c correspondence of the r e s u l t s i l l u s t r a t e s
f a t i g u e t e s t programme was d e s i g n e d t o examine t h a t the steps taken t o ensure r e p e a t a b i l i t y
t h e s e e f f e c t s under c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d e n v i r o n ­ o f t e s t c o n d i t i o n s between t h e s e l a b o r a t o r i e s
mental conditions using, f o r i n - a i r conditions, h a v e been e f f e c t i v e , x^o d e t a i l s o f r e s u l t s
standard l a b o r a t o r y f a t i g u e t e s t i n g machines h a v e been quoted i n t h i s p a p e r s i n c e t h e r e a r e
and, f o r t h e s e a water environment, s p e c i a l l y g i v e n i n d e t a i l i n accompanying p a p e r s .
d e s i g n e d and c o n s t r u c t e d t e s t m a c h i n e s .
The o v e r a l l f i n d i n g s a r e most s i g n i f i c a n t and
The f a b r i c a t i o n o f t h e t e s t s p e c i m e n s was
somewhat u n e x p e c t e d i n some a r e a s . The i n f l u ­
undertaken with close a t t e n t i o n t o r e p e a t i -
e n c e o f a s i m u l a t e d s e a w a t e r environment h a s
b i l i t y o f t h e w e l d i n g p r o c e d u r e s and t o
been shown t o be much l e s s marked than, would
dimensional t o l e r a n c e s . I t i s believed t h a t
h a v e "been e j e c t e d from p r e v i o u s work, and
t h e a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o t h e t e s t machine d e s i g n
d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s h i s t o r y show s m a l l
and s p e c i m e n f a b r i c a t i o n h a s g i v e n r i s e t o f a r
e f f e c t s on p e r f o r m a n c e .
l e s s s c a t t e r in the fatigue t e s t r e s u l t s than
h a s u s u a l l y been a c c e p t e d a s normal i n p r e v i o u s
The c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s
work o f t h i s t y p e . As a r e s u l t t h e s c a t t e r
on a b a s i s o f r o o t mean s q u a r e o r h i g h e r o r d e r
e x p e r i e n c e d c a n be t r u l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h o s e
a v e r a g i n g a p p e a r s t o o f f e r a v a l u a b l e method o f
f e a t u r e s o f welded j o i n t s which a r e r e p r e s e n ­
comparing c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e and v a r i a b l e
t a t i v e o f normal c o n s t r u c t i o n .
amplitude r e s u l t s although f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d
The two t y p e s o f specimen u s e d were a t r a n s ­ a n a l y s i s i s necessary t o demonstrate t h i s
v e r s e c r u c i f o r m b u t t weld and a non l o a d conclusively.
c a r r y i n g l o n g i t u d i n a l f i l l e t welded d e t a i l .
The f o r m e r was c h o s e n a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e The i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e programme
j o i n t d e t a i l found on a n o d a l j o i n t i n a a r e t h a t current f a t i g u e design r u l e s ( r e f . 2)
t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e ; t h e l a t t e r was c h o s e n f o r a r e n o t s e r i o u s l y i n e r r o r a l t h o u g h some
comparison with the v a r i a b l e amplitude t e s t s changes w i l l have t o be made t o a v o i d some
u s i n g t h e same t y p e o f specimen w h i c h , i n areas of lack of conservatism.
p r e v i o u s work, had b e e n found t o e x h i b i t l e s s
s c a t t e r than other types of j o i n t . In the REFERENCES
e v e n t t h e d e g r e e o f s c a t t e r was n o t s i g n i f i ­ 1 . HICKS J.G. A s t u d y o f m a t e r i a l and
c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r reasons proposed above. s t r u c t u r a l problems i n o f f s h o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
R e s e a r c h R e p o r t E/55/7i4, The Welding I n s t i t u t e ,
The r e s u l t s o f t h e v a r i o u s t e s t s a r e g i v e n i n Cambridge 197U-
t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g p a p e r s and w i l l n o t be d e t a i M 2. Guidance on t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n
here. of offshore i n s t a l l a t i o n s . UK Department o f
The t o t a l number o f s p e c i m e n s t e s t e d u n d e r Energy.
c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g was 395-

4
G. S. B O O T H , M A , P h D , M W e l d I, T h e
W e l d i n g Institute

C o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e c o r r o s i o n fatigue strength o fw e l d e d j o i n t s

Constant amplitude fatigue tests have been performed on welded steel joints under environmental
conditions intended to be representative of those experienced by an offshore platform in the North
Sea.

The S-N curves for freely corroding joints and for joints alternately immersed in sea water and
exposed to air were not significantly different from the results of joints tested in air.

At high stress ranges, cathodic protection did not influence the fatigue lives of continuously
immersed joints. As the stress range was decreased, however, the cathodically protected joints
exhibited increasingly longer lives than the freely corroding joints.

Grinding the weld toes resulted in only a small increase in the fatigue strength of freely
corroding joints. This increase was much smaller than is achieved in joints tested in air.

INTRODUCTION c) Joints alternately freely corroding


A major problem which faced the designers in sea water and exposed to air, to
of steel platforms now operating in the North represent regions near the water line
1
Sea, highlighted in a review of such problems" , which are submerged for only a pro­
was the lack of information about the effect portion of the time.
of sea water on the fatigue strength of welded
joints. Although it was known that fatigue Similar specimens have been tested in
strength could be reduced as a result of immer­ air to provide data for comparison with the
2
sion in sea w a t e r , the effect could not be results of the present work.
quantified in the context of North Sea opera­
tion. Therefore, as part of the United Kingdom It is known that the fatigue strength of
Offshore Steels Research Project, an investi­ transverse welds in air, such as those in a
gation of the influence of North Sea conditions node can be improved by grinding the weld
on the fatigue strength of welded joints was 3
t o e , 4 , 5 . The welds in tubular joints are
initiated and this paper describes the work often ground to facilitate inspection and if it
carried out so far. is found that the fatigue strength is also in­
creased in sea water, the designer might be
The critical joints in offshore platforms able to take advantage of the benefit obtained.
are the intersections between tubular members However, it is possible that any benefit would
(nodes) where high local stresses can arise be lost in joints freely corroding in sea
due to bending of the tube wall. An ideal water because of the introduction of corrosion
solution to the problem of obtaining relevant pits at the weld toe. To investigate this, a
fatigue data would have been to carry out series of tests were carried out on specimens
fatigue tests on tubular joints under simulated with ground weld toes, freely corroding in sea
North Sea environmental conditions. However, water.
it was not considered necessary to test full
scale nodes in sea water and instead tests were
This paper, therefore, describes the
carried out in bending on cruciform joints, in
results of constant amplitude fatigue tests on
which the weld detail is similar to that in
planar welded joints under environmental con­
tubular connections.
ditions intended to represent an offshore plat­
form in the North Sea. It is based on an
Three environmental conditions were in­ earlier presentation^) of the work at the
vestigated: Offshore Technology Conference in 1979.

a) Joints freely corroding in sea water, EXPERIMENTAL WORK


to represent a welded joint simply a) Material
immersed in sea water. Steel, similar to that used in offshore
b) Joints cathodically protected in sea installations in the waters surrounding the
water, to represent the more common United Kingdom, was used to fabricate the
situation in which platforms are specimens. The transverse plates were made
protected against general corrosion. from steel to BS 4360:1972 grade 50D (modified)

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981


5
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS

Table 1

Specification o f s t e e l t o BS 4 3 6 0 g r a d e 50D

Chemical Composition (wt %)


STEEL

C(max) Si Mn(max) S(max) P(max)

BS 4 3 6 0 g r a d e 50D 0.22 0.10-0.55 1.6 0.050 0.050

(a) chemical composition

Mechanical Properties

Yield Tensile Elongation Charpy V n o t c h


STEEL Stress (min) Strength on 20Qnm
gauge l e n g t h
Temperature Energy Thickness
(min) (max)

BS 4 3 6 0 g r a d e 50D 345 490-620 18% -20°C 41J 75mm


2
Nmm Nmm"
-30 C 27J 75mm

(b) mechanical properties

Table 2

range of sea water parameters

Parameter Range

PH 7 . 8 to 8.2

HCOg" c o n c e n t r a t i o n 0.08 - 0.25 gm/litre

Salinity 32 - 37 gm/litre

Chlorinity 18-21 gm/litre

D i s s o l v e d Oxygen 11 - 12 mg/ntre
Concentration (92% - 99% s a t u r a t e d )

Temperature 5°C - 8°C

6
125

45°

200

556

910 See detail A

38
81 81

60 /

316

200

150 38

Fig. 1 - Transverse Load C a r r y i n g J o i n t s - Specimen Geometry


(Dimensions in mm)

Actuator load

Fig. 2 - Schematic Diagram o f a T r a n s v e r s e J o i n t Under Test


FATIGUE STRENGTH OF W E L D E D JOINTS
PAPER 2: B O O T H

node quality and the remaining plates from tested at the free corrosion potential, which
steel to BS 4360:1972 grade 50D (modified). was found to be -0.63V with respect to a silver/
The steel specification is summarised in table silver chloride reference electrode. (All
1. potentials were measured with respect to this
electrode). Secondly, tests were carried out
b) Specimen Design and Fabrication on joints cathodically protected at the poten­
10
The specimen configuration is shown in tial recommended" for immersed steel struc­
figure 1. Manual metal arc welding, using tures of -0.85V. This potential was maintained
electrodes complying with BS 639:1976 E51 28H, to ±0.02V using an impressed current system.
was used to fabricate the specimens and a pre­ The anode was platinum wire wound onto a nylon
heat temperature of 150°C was employed. Each framework surrounding the joint. Thirdly,
specimen was manufactured individually and each tests were carried out on joints which were
weld pass was continued onto a run-off tab alternately immersed in sea water at the free
which was subsequently machined off. corrosion potential for six hours and exposed
to air for six hours. This immersion/exposure
The weld toes of one series of joints were cycle was selected to simulate tidal zone con­
5
ground using the technique recommended to ditions.
achieve an improvement in fatigue strength.
This involved grinding to a depth of 0.8mm ii) Stressing Conditions. As illustrated
beneath the plate surface at the weld toes on in figure 2, each joint was loaded in cantilever
the stressed plate. A pneumatic grinder with a bending. Two strain gauges were bonded onto
100mm diameter disc with a 36 grit in an epoxy the specimen centre line, 15mm from the weld
matrix was used. toe as shown in figure 2. The strain gauges
were used to establish the initial load but
c) Test Conditions thereafter the tests were carried out under
In air, the fatigue strength of a welded load control. The load was applied by a hy­
joint is relatively insensitive to a number of draulic actuator of approximately 20kN
variables which significantly influence the capacity.
2
fatigue strength in other environments .
Previous work ' has identified four major para­ Because the main source of dynamic load­
meters which influence the rate of fatigue crack ing acting on an offshore platform derives from
growth in sea water. These are sea water tem­ wave action, the tests were performed at a
perature, electrochemical potential, loading frequency of 1/6Hz, a typical wave frequency.
frequency and stress ratio (minimum stress/ As a result of the low testing frequency, the
maximum stress = R ) , with other variables such duration of some of the tests was greater than
as sea water chemistry exerting only a secondary a year and some unbroken specimens are still
influence. Thus, in order to obtain relevant accumulating cycles. In order to obtain suf­
S-N curves it was essential to carry out the ficient results in a realistic time, a special
tests with values of the four major parameters test rig, shown in figure 3, was built to
appropriate to a platform in the North Sea. enable 32 specimens to be tested simultaneously
The tests were therefore carried out under the and independently.
following environmental and stressing con­
ditions. As a result of the existence of large
tensile residual stresses in as welded joints,
i) Environmental Conditions. Each speci­ the effective stress ratio should be large and
men was placed in a sea water cell as shown positive in the vicinity of the joint, irres­
diagrammatically in figure 2. The volume of pective of the applied stress ratio. The
each cell was approximately 10 litres and the fatigue crack growth rate, however, appears to
8
sea water flow rate was approximately 1 litre/ be independent of stress ratio above R = 0 . 6
min. and therefore in as welded joints no effect of
stress ratio was expected. The tests were
The sea water was prepared according to a carried out at R = - 1 , i.e. fully reversed
standard specification for substitute ocean loading in order to reproduce the loading
9
w a t e r . Stock solution number 3, however, was likely to occur in real structures. Addition­
not added and thus the sea water did not con­ ally, tests were carried out at R = 0 to con­
tain heavy metal ions. Acceptable ranges for firm that the levels of residual stress were
the pH, chlorinity, bicarbonate ion concentra­ sufficiently high to result in effective stress
tion and salinity of the sea water had been ratios greater than 0.6 under both applied
defined and are shown in table 2. When any stress ratios.
parameter neared the extreme of its allowed
range a fresh mix of sea water was substituted. PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This occurred approximately every three months. The specimens failed by fatigue crack
growth from the weld toe through the plate
The temperature of the sea water was main­ thickness. A failed specimen, tested at the
tained within the limits of 5°C to 8°C, which free corrosion potential, is shown in figure 4.
is representative of the temperature range in A specimen was assumed to have failed when the
the North Sea. maximum stroke of the actuator was reached.
This corresponded to a crack through approxi­
The specimens were tested under three mately half the plate thickness. By then, how­
environmental conditions. Firstly, joints were ever, the fatigue crack growth rate would have

9
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS

Fig. 5 - Results for Transverse Joints, Stress Ratio = 0.

I I 1 1 I i i i i I I I 1 1 i i i i 1 I I I I i i i II
4
10 2 3 4 5 105 2 3 4 5 1Q6 2 3 4 5 10?
Cycles

Fig. 6 - Results for Transverse Joints, Stress Ratio = - 1 .

10
PAPER 2: B O O T H

been so r a p i d t h a t t h e number o f c y c l e s i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t in c a r r y i n g o u t cumu­


r e m a i n i n g t o c o m p l e t e s e p a r a t i o n was v e r y s m a l l l a t i v e damage c a l c u l a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e m a j o r i t y
compared with t h e number o f c y c l e s a l r e a d y o f t h e f a t i g u e damage i s a c q u i r e d a t low s t r e s s
1 1
applied. ranges" ^ . The endurance l i m i t p l a y s an i m p o r t ­
a n t r o l e in t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c u m u l a t i v e
The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from a s welded j o i n t s damage summation and s i g n i f i c a n t l y influences
t e s t e d a t R = 0 a r e shown in f i g u r e 5 and t h o s e the design l i f e of the s t r u c t u r e .
t e s t e d a t R = - 1 a r e p l o t t e d in f i g u r e 6 . In
both c a s e s , t h e r e s u l t s a r e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s ii) As Welded J o i n t s C a t h o d i c a l l y
o f a p p l i e d s t r e s s r a n g e , c a l c u l a t e d from t h e Protected. Similar r e s u l t s for the c a t h o d i ­
s t r a i n gauge r e a d i n g s . From simple bending c a l l y p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s were o b s e r v e d a t both
t h e o r y , t h e nominal e x t r e m e f i b r e s t r e s s a t t h e s t r e s s r a t i o s . At s t r e s s r a n g e s g r e a t e r t h a n
2
weld t o e was 3% g r e a t e r . a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 0 Nmm" t h e f a t i g u e l i v e s o f
t h e c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d specimens a r e
The b e s t f i t S-N c u r v e s , c a l c u l a t e d by s i m i l a r t o t h e f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g j o i n t s (and
r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , a r e i n c l u d e d in f i g u r e s h e n c e s i m i l a r t o j o i n t s t e s t e d in a i r ) . As t h e
5 and 6 . The r e s u l t s f o r specimens s t i l l under s t r e s s r a n g e i s d e c r e a s e d , however, t h e r e i s a
t e s t , shown a s unbroken in f i g u r e s 5 and 6 , tendency f o r the c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s
were not i n c l u d e d in t h i s a n a l y s i s . The t o e x h i b i t i n c r e a s i n g l y longer f a t i g u e l i v e s
r e s u l t s f o r s i m i l a r j o i n t s t e s t e d in bending than the f r e e l y corroding j o i n t s . More s c a t t e r
l o a d i n g in a i r a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d in f i g u r e s i s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s but
5 and 6 . t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e i s an
endurance l i m i t f o r c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d
Each e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n w i l l now be j o i n t s which i s h i g h e r than t h a t f o r j o i n t s
considered s e p a r a t e l y . t e s t e d in a i r .
/
i) As Welded J o i n t s F r e e l y C o r r o d i n g . As These r e s u l t s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t
shown in f i g u r e 5 , t h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ because the majority of s t e e l offshore p l a t ­
f e r e n c e between t h e S-N c u r v e s f o r f r e e l y c o r ­ forms a r e c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d . They i n d i ­
r o d i n g j o i n t s and f o r j o i n t s t e s t e d in a i r , a t c a t e t h a t e x i s t i n g d e s i g n p r a c t i c e o f assuming
R = 0. Two f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g s p e c i m e n s , how­ a c u t - o f f s t r e s s a s t h a t corresponding t o say
8
e v e r , f a i l e d a t v e r y low s t r e s s r a n g e s , which 2 x 1 0 c y c l e s may l e a d t o an o v e r - c o n s e r v a t i v e
were l e s s than a s t r e s s r a n g e which r e s u l t e d estimate of fatigue l i f e . Much more d a t a a r e
in an unbroken specimen in a i r . I t may be r e q u i r e d b e f o r e use can be made o f t h i s a p p a r ­
t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e r e i s a lower endurance e n t i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h f o r d e s i g n
l i m i t f o r f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g j o i n t s than t h e r e i s p u r p o s e s , but t h e r e s u l t s do show t h a t c a t h o d i c
f o r a i r , but more t e s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in a i r , p r o t e c t i o n may have a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t on
6
a r e required for f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . However, r e c e n t w o r k h a s
point. shown t h a t o v e r p r o t e c t i o n r e s u l t s in an
i n c r e a s e d f a t i g u e c r a c k growth r a t e which may
For t h e j o i n t s t e s t e d a t R = - 1 , t h e S-N l e a d t o reduced f a t i g u e l i v e s . Cathodic p r o ­
curve for the f r e e l y corroding j o i n t s c o r r e s ­ t e c t i o n a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p o t e n t i a l may,
ponds t o l i v e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60% o f t h e j o i n t s t h e r e f o r e , have a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t on f a t i g u e
t e s t e d in a i r . In view o f t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e n g t h but c a r e must be t a k e n t o a v o i d
s c a t t e r in t h e r e s u l t s , i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o p o l a r i s a t i o n to a too negative p o t e n t i a l .
conclude t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s s i g n i f i c a n t .
Furthermore, c l o s e r examination of the sea Examination of the f a i l e d p r o t e c t e d
w a t e r r e s u l t s shows t h a t t h e two S-N c u r v e s a t j o i n t s showed t h a t a white c a l c a r e o u s d e p o s i t
R = 0 and R = - 1 a r e a l m o s t c o i n c i d e n t . - There had formed on t h e immersed s u r f a c e s . T h i s has
7 , 8
i s , however, a s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e S-N been o b s e r v e d e l s e w h e r e and i t h a s been
7 8
c u r v e s o b t a i n e d in a i r a t R = 0 and R = - 1 , s u g g e s t e d * t h a t t h e d e p o s i t may form on t h e
which has been a t t r i b u t e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l c r a c k s u r f a c e s and c a u s e a r e d u c t i o n in f a t i g u e
3
scatter . I n s u f f i c i e n t t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t c r a c k growth r a t e by c r a c k p l u g g i n g . This t e n ­
a t low s t r e s s e s a t R = - 1 t o e s t a b l i s h a com­ t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n may a l s o a c c o u n t f o r t h e
p a r i s o n between t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e a s welded i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e l i f e o b s e r v e d a t low
and t h e f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g j o i n t s . I t is con­ stresses.
c l u d e d t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a p a r t from a p o s s i b l e
r e d u c t i o n in endurance l i m i t o b s e r v e d in s e a iii) As Welded J o i n t s A l t e r n a t e l y Immersed
w a t e r , t h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in S e a Water and Exposed t o A i r . F i g u r e s 5 and
between t h e r e s u l t s o f f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g j o i n t s 6 show t h a t t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e j o i n t s a l t e r ­
and j o i n t s t e s t e d in a i r . n a t e l y immersed in s e a w a t e r and exposed t o a i r
a r e not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e
Although i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t any p l a t f o r m r e s u l t s of the f r e e l y corroding j o i n t s . Insuf­
w i l l be w i t h o u t c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n f o r any f i c i e n t r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e a t low s t r e s s e s
s u b s t a n t i a l length of time, these r e s u l t s t o e n a b l e a p o s s i b l e c u t - o f f t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d ,
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h under f r e e l y but t h e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e b e h a v i o u r i s
c o r r o d i n g c o n d i t i o n s i s not s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f a c o n t i n u o u s l y immersed
t h a n in a i r . I t may b e , however, t h a t t h e c u t ­ joint.
o f f s t r e s s i s reduced in s e a w a t e r and f u r t h e r
long term t e s t s a r e r e q u i r e d . This information The r e g i o n s o f an o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m which

11
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS

400
350

300

200
CNI
E Ground.
E
150

it 18

100
90
X AW air results
80 A toe ground
70

60
• AW
A toe ground constant immersion -
J AW i
50 i i I I i i i I1 l I
4
10 2 3 4 5 105 2 3 4 5 106 2 3 4 5 10?
Cycles

Fig. 7 - R e s u l t s f o r T r a n s v e r s e J o i n t s , As-Welded and Toe Ground.

400
I II I i i i i J I M

350

300

\ l ^— O—
D

200
X o •

150 X
X.
B k O
- V
38
I 18 J / -JL.
1
18 ; \ X
100 Em
X
90
80 mean Class F design curve
mean minus t w o standard deviations, Class F design curve
70 ©CO
Continuous immersion • — R = 0 • -*»-R=-1
60 Intermittent immersion ©—*-R=0 E - H ^ = - 1
Cathodically protected o—•*R=0 • ~^R=-1
50
ti'i I I I
4
10 2 3 4 5 105 2 3 4 5 106 2 3 4 5 107
Cycles

Fig. 8 - Results for a l l t h e As-Welded T r a n s v e r s e J o i n t s .

12
PAPER 2: B O O T H

a r e s u b j e c t e d t o a l t e r n a t e e x p o s u r e and immei— s t r e n g t h improvement t e c h n i q u e s ( e . g . peening,


s i o n s u f f e r from v e r y s e v e r e g e n e r a l c o r r o s i o n TIG d r e s s i n g ) can be used in o f f s h o r e applica­
a t t a c k , more s e v e r e than c o n t i n u o u s l y immersed tions.
regions. I t was o r i g i n a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s
i n t e n s e c o r r o s i o n a t t a c k might a l s o l e a d t o F a t i g u e Crack Growth R a t e
enhanced f a t i g u e c r a c k growth r a t e s and reduced In a welded j o i n t , owing t o t h e p r e s e n c e
12
fatigue lives. However, t h e p r e s e n t r e s u l t s o f i n t r u s i o n s a t t h e weld t o e " p r a c t i c a l l y
i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r a s i x hour i m m e r s i o n / e x p o s u r e a l l o f t h e f a t i g u e l i f e i s s p e n t in c r a c k p r o ­
c y c l e , such c o n d i t i o n s do not r e s u l t in a p a g a t i o n with v i r t u a l l y no c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n
f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h t h a t i s l e s s than t h a t o b t a i n e d phase. I t may, t h e r e f o r e , be p o s s i b l e t o
under c o n t i n u o u s immersion. In p r a c t i c e a r e d u c e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s e a w a t e r on t h e
range of immersion/exposure c y c l e s w i l l e x i s t f a t i g u e l i f e o f a welded j o i n t from r e s u l t s
over the height of a platform as a r e s u l t of showing i t s i n f l u e n c e on c r a c k growth r a t e .
wave and t i d a l a c t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , f u r t h e r
7 8
t e s t s under d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d Information * already e x i s t s regarding
b e f o r e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s can be drawn about t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s e a w a t e r on f a t i g u e c r a c k
t h e e f f e c t o f a l t e r n a t e immersion and e x p o s u r e growth r a t e . These d a t a , however, a r e g e n e r ­
on t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s . a l l y c o n f i n e d t o v a l u e s o f Ak in e x c e s s o f
3- 2
5 0 0 Nmm"" ' . Owing t o t h e s i z e o f t h e i n t r u ­
iv) Ground J o i n t s F r e e l y C o r r o d i n g in S e a s i o n s i n i t i a l l y p r e s e n t a t t h e weld t o e , t h e
Water. The r e s u l t s f o r t h e a s welded and t o e i n i t i a l v a l u e o f AK a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s e
ground j o i n t s , t e s t e d a t R = 0 in a i r and s e a i n t r u s i o n s i s s m a l l e r than t h i s . As t h e
13
w a t e r a r e shown in f i g u r e 7 . In a i r , g r i n d i n g m a j o r i t y of the f a t i g u e l i f e i s spent" at
r e s u l t s in a l a r g e i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e s m a l l c r a c k l e n g t h s and hence a t low v a l u e s
3
s t r e n g t h , with t h e i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e l i f e o f Ak, t h e f a t i g u e c r a c k growth r a t e d a t a
i n c r e a s i n g a s the s t r e s s range i s d e c r e a s e d . p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e a r e only o f l i m i t e d v a l u e
4 5
Other i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ' have shown a t e n d e n c y in p r e d i c t i n g t h e f a t i g u e l i f e o f welded
f o r a f a t i g u e l i m i t t o be a p p r o a c h e d , w e l l joints. F u r t h e r d a t a a t lower v a l u e s o f Ak
above t h e c u t - o f f s t r e s s f o r a s welded j o i n t s . a r e r e q u i r e d b e f o r e t h i s can be a c h i e v e d .

In c o n t r a s t , in s e a w a t e r g r i n d i n g r e s u l t s COMPARISON WITH EXISTING FATIGUE DESIGN RULES


in o n l y a s m a l l i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e l i f e , t h i s T r a n s v e r s e load c a r r y i n g j o i n t s f a b r i ­
i n c r e a s e being a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t o v e r t h e c a t e d with f u l l p e n e t r a t i o n b u t t welds a r e
range o f s t r e s s e s c o n s i d e r e d . No a p p r o a c h t o c o n s i d e r e d a s c l a s s F j o i n t d e t a i l s by c u r r e n t
- 1 4
a f a t i g u e l i m i t was o b s e r v e d . U.K. f a t i g u e d e s i g n r u l e s . For offshore
a p p l i c a t i o n s , i t has been recommended t h a t t h e
This finding i s of considerably p r a c t i c a l mean minus two s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s d e s i g n c u r v e
8
importance. I t i s understood t h a t grinding the i s used with a c u t - o f f a t 2 x 1 0 c y c l e s .
weld t o e i s o f t e n c a r r i e d o u t on welded j o i n t s
f o r o f f s h o r e a p p l i c a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h no a l l o w ­ F i g u r e 8 shows t h e r e s u l t s f o r a l l t h e
a n c e i s made f o r t h i s in t h e f a t i g u e a s s e s s ­ a s welded j o i n t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c l a s s F
ment. I t would a p p e a r t h a t g r i n d i n g r e s u l t s in d e s i g n c u r v e . No f a i l u r e o c c u r r e d a t an
o n l y a l i m i t e d b e n e f i t and t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t be endurance l e s s than t h e c l a s s F d e s i g n c u r v e .
used on f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g j o i n t s t o improve t h e The c l a s s F d e s i g n c u r v e , t h e r e f o r e , p r o v i d e s
f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y , a s can be done an a d e q u a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s .
in a i r .
CONCLUSIONS
The o b j e c t i v e o f g r i n d i n g t e c h n i q u e used C o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e f a t i g u e t e s t s were
was t o remove t h e u n d e r c u t and d e f e c t s ^ 12
a t the c a r r i e d out a t R = 0 and R = - 1 on f u l l p e n e ­
weld t o e and t o produce a smooth t r a n s i t i o n t r a t i o n t r a n s v e r s e l o a d c a r r y i n g j o i n t s under
between t h e p a r e n t p l a t e and weld m e t a l , t h u s e n v i r o n m e n t a l and s t r e s s i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t e n d e d
reducing the gross s t r e s s concentration f a c t o r t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a s t e e l o f f s h o r e p l a t ­
of the j o i n t . In a i r , a s i g n i f i c a n t i n i t i a t i o n form in t h e North S e a .
phase may be i n t r o d u c e d , l e a d i n g t o a marked
i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h and t h e d e v e l o p ­ 1. The S-N c u r v e s (based on s t r e s s r a n g e )
ment o f a f a t i g u e l i m i t . For f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g f o r j o i n t s f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g in s e a w a t e r
j o i n t s , however, i t may be t h a t g e n e r a l c o r r o ­ were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from
sion a t t a c k a s s i s t s the i n i t i a t i o n of a f a t i g u e t h o s e f o r j o i n t s t e s t e d in a i r .
c r a c k by t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o r r o s i o n p i t s . Some
t i m e would be r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o r r o s i o n a t t a c k 2. At high s t r e s s r a n g e s , t h e S-N c u r v e s
t o o c c u r , r e s u l t i n g in a s m a l l i n c r e a s e in f o r c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s were
f a t i g u e l i f e but no a p p r o a c h t o a f a t i g u e l i m i t . not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e
However, by u s i n g c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n t o f o r j o i n t s t e s t e d in a i r . At low s t r e s s
i n h i b i t g e n e r a l c o r r o s i o n a t t a c h and t h e f o r m a ­ r a n g e s , t h e r e appeared t o be a t e n d e n c y
t i o n o f p i t s , t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h may be c o n ­ for the c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s to
siderably increased. F u r t h e r work, t h e r e f o r e , e x h i b i t longer l i v e s .
i s r e q u i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h whether c a t h o d i c p r o ­
t e c t i o n would r e s t o r e t h e i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e 3. The S-N c u r v e s f o r j o i n t s a l t e r n a t e l y
s t r e n g t h t o t h a t o b s e r v e d in a i r . I t would be immersed in s e a w a t e r and exposed t o a i r
u s e f u l t o d e t e r m i n e whether o t h e r f a t i g u e were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from

13
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS

t h o s e f o r j o i n t s t e s t e d in a i r . g r i n d i n g and p e e n i n g , " Welding Institute


Member's R e p o r t 8 / 1 9 7 6 / E .
4. G r i n d i n g t h e weld t o e s r e s u l t e d in o n l y a
s m a l l i n c r e a s e in t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f 6. B o o t h , G . S . : " I n f l u e n c e o f S i m u l a t e d North
freely corroding j o i n t s . This i n c r e a s e Sea E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o n d i t i o n s on t h e Con­
was much l e s s t h a n i s n o r m a l l y o b s e r v e d s t a n t Amplitude F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h o f Welded
in a i r . J o i n t s , " OTC Paper 3 4 2 0 , Houston, 1 9 7 9 .

5. The r e s u l t s were a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d by 7. S c o t t , P.M. and S i l v e s t e r , D . R . V . : "The


c u r r e n t U.K. f a t i g u e d e s i g n r u l e s . i n f l u e n c e o f s e a w a t e r on f a t i g u e c r a c k
p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e s in s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , "
United Kingdom O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS P r o j e c t , R e p o r t 3 / 0 3 , Department o f E n e r g y ,
T h i s work f o r m s p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom 1975.
O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t , commissioned
by t h e Department o f E n e r g y t h r o u g h t h e O f f ­ 8. S c o t t , P.M. and S i l v e s t e r , D . R . V . : "The
shore Energy Technology Board. The r e s e a r c h i s i n f l u e n c e o f mean t e n s i l e s t r e s s on
c a r r i e d o u t w i t h f i n a n c i a l a i d from t h e c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e c r a c k growth in s t r u c ­
E u r o p e a n C o a l and S t e e l Community. t u r a l s t e e l immersed in s e a w a t e r , "
United Kingdom O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h
The a u t h o r i s i n d e b t e d t o h i s c o l l e a g u e s
P r o j e c t R e p o r t 3 / 0 2 . Department o f
a t The Welding I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e
Energy, 1 9 7 7 .
w i t h many a s p e c t s o f t h e work i n c l u d e d in t h i s
paper. 9. American S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g and
M a t e r i a l s : "Standard s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r
REFERENCES s u b s t i t u t e o c e a n w a t e r , " ASTM D 1 1 4 1 - 5 2
(reapproved 1 9 7 1 ) .
M
1. H i c k s , J . G . : A s t u d y o f m a t e r i a l and
s t r u c t u r a l problems in o f f s h o r e i n s t a l l a ­ 10. B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n : "Code o f
t i o n s , " Welding I n s t i t u t e Member's R e p o r t p r a c t i c e f o r c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n , " CP 1021
E/55/74. : 1973.

2. Knight, J . W . : "Corrosion f a t i g u e r e l a t e d 11. Pook, L . P . : "Proposed s t a n d a r d l o a d


t o welded s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s - a l i t e r a t u r e histories for fatigue testing relevant
s u r v e y , " U n i t e d Kingdom O f f s h o r e S t e e l s to offshore s t r u c t u r e s , " National
R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t , R e p o r t 3 / 0 1 , Department E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t Number
of Energy, 1 9 7 5 . 624, 1976.

3. B o o t h , G . S . : " C o n s t a n t Amplitude f a t i g u e 12. Signes, E.G. et a l : "Factors a f f e c t i n g


t e s t s on welded s t e e l j o i n t s performed in t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f welded high
a i r , " U n i t e d Kingdom O f f s h o r e S t e e l s s t r e n g t h s t e e l s , " B r i t . Weld. J . 1 4
R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t , R e p o r t 3 / 0 5 , Department p.108.
of Energy, 1 9 7 9 .
13. Maddox, S . J . : "A F r a c t u r e Mechanics
4. S c h o f i e l d , K . E . : "Improving t h e f a t i g u e Analysis o f the f a t i g u e behaviour o f a
s t r e n g t h o f f i l l e t welded j o i n t s by d i s c f i l l e t welded j o i n t , " Welding R e s e a r c h
g r i n d i n g t h e weld t o e , " Welding I n s t i t u t e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Vol 6 No 5 1 9 7 6 p 1 .
Member's R e p o r t E / 6 0 / 7 5 .
14. B r i t i s h Standards I n s t i t u t i o n : "Fixed
5. K n i g h t , J . W . : "Improving t h e f a t i g u e Offshore S t r u c t u r e s , " Draft f o r Develop­
s t r e n g t h o f f i l l e t welded j o i n t s by ment DD55, 1 9 7 8 .

14
Discussion o n Paper 2

DR R. P. M . P R O C T O R , Corrosion and Protection j o i n t s in a i r t h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y o f


Centre, University of Manchester Institute of evidence supporting the view that the fraction
Science and Technology o f life r e q u i r e d f o r i n i t i a t i o n is n e g l i g i b l e .
I am s u r e that D r B o o t h w o u l d a c c e p t that t h e r e T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t b e h a v i o u r in
is a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n h i s S-N d a t a (which sea w a t e r w o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t .
i n d i c a t e that t h e r e is l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n W h a t is r e q u i r e d , t h e r e f o r e , is a c o r r e l a t i o n
t h e lines in a i r and in s e a w a t e r , and that between fatigue crack growth rate c h a r a c t e r i s ­
c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n m a y h a v e a small b e n e f i c i a l t i c s and S-N c u r v e s f o r j o i n t s in s e a w a t e r in
e f f e c t ) and c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e d a t a (which i n d i ­ the same w a y that h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d f o r j o i n t s
c a t e that t h e c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e in s e a w a t e r loaded in a i r .
can b e an o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e g r e a t e r t h a n that A l t h o u g h t h e r e is an a p p a r e n t d i s c r e p a n c y
in a i r ) and that c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n c a n h a v e between the growth rate tests, which show a
a very detrimental effect. Is t h i s s i m p l y b e ­ maximum acceleration of a factor of six, and
c a u s e h e is m e a s u r i n g p r i m a r i l y c r a c k i n i t i ­ t h e S-N c u r v e r e s u l t s , w h i c h s h o w a r e d u c t i o n
a t i o n in h i s S-N t e s t s b u t c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n in in life o f less t h a n a f a c t o r o f t w o , in m y
crack growth rate tests? Does h e have any o p i n i o n it h a s not yet b e e n s h o w n t h a t t h e s e
e v i d e n c e o n t h e f r a c t i o n o f t o t a l s p e c i m e n life findings are either consistent or incon­
in S-N t e s t s r e q u i r e d f o r i n i t i a t i o n and t h e sistent. T h i s is b e c a u s e m o s t o f t h e f a t i g u e
fraction required for propagation? If t h e d i s ­ life o f a w e l d e d joint is e x p e n d e d at low c r a c k
c r e p a n c y is n o t d u e s i m p l y to d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e l e n g t h s and h e n c e low v a l u e s o f AK. These low
p a r a m e t e r b e i n g m e a s u r e d b y t h e t e s t , w h a t is v a l u e s o f AK a r e , in m o s t i n s t a n c e s , o u t s i d e
it d u e t o ? If t h e d i s c r e p a n c y is d u e to S-N t h e r a n g e o f AK s t u d i e d in t h e g r o w t h r a t e ^
s p e c i m e n s c o n t a i n i n g (for t h e b u l k o f t h e i r work. I w o u l d suggest that t h i s a r e a d e s e r v e s
l i v e s ) v e r y short c r a c k s and d c / d N s p e c i m e n s further study.
c o n t a i n i n g long c r a c k s , w h a t a r e t h e p r a c t i c a l
implications? Is it t h a t , if a n - o f f s h o r e D R N . P A T E L , Brown and Root (UK) Ltd
s t r u c t u r e c o n t a i n s just o n e long c r a c k , t h e T h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t s e s p e c i a l l y in s e a w a t e r
d c / d N d a t a a r e o f g r e a t e r r e l e v a n c e t h a n S-N have been shown not to b e improving due to
data? grinding of welds. T h i s is m i s l e a d i n g as t h e
The general mechanism by which the calcareous r e s u l t s a r e on a log scale a n d as s u c h t h e im­
d e p o s i t forms d u r i n g c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n in s e a p r o v e m e n t c a n b e s u b s t a n t i a l in t e r m s o f f a t i g u e
w a t e r is r e a s o n a b l y c l e a r , b u t its e f f e c t o n life. E n g i n e e r s s h o u l d not b e d i s c o u r a g e d f r o m
corrosion fatigue has been studied very little. u s i n g g r i n d i n g as a m e a n s o f i m p r o v i n g f a t i g u e
I b e l i e v e that t h e r e is e v i d e n c e that t h e life.
d e p o s i t forms less e f f e c t i v e l y at v e r y low tem­
peratures than at, say, 10°C or 20°C. DR B O O T H
For j o i n t s c y c l e d in a i r , b y t o e g r i n d i n g a n
DR B O O T H , in reply i n c r e a s e in life o f a f a c t o r o f a b o u t 10 c a n b e
No measurements of crack growth were made during a c h i e v e d at s t r e s s r a n g e s o f t h e o r d e r o f
the present work. However, previous experimen­ 200 N / m m ^ and a f a t i g u e limit is o b t a i n e d w h i c h
tal i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on w e l d e d j o i n t s in a i r h a v e is at least t w i c e as great as f o r a s - w e l d e d
d e m o n s t r a t e d , b y s e c t i o n i n g s p e c i m e n s , that joints. For freely corroding joints, the in­
f a t i g u e c r a c k s a r e p r e s e n t a f t e r o n l y a small c r e a s e in life w a s 7 0 - 1 0 0 % at a l l s t r e s s r a n g e s
f r a c t i o n ( t y p i c a l l y 5%) o f t h e e x p e c t e d s p e c i ­ studied, but there was no evidence of a fatigue
men endurance. T h i s is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e limit. T h i s i m p l i e s that g r i n d i n g w i l l i n c r e a s e
e x i s t e n c e o f s m a l l slag i n t r u s i o n s at t h e w e l d the f a t i g u e l i f e , b u t n o w h e r e n e a r as g r e a t
toe as a r e s u l t o f t h e w e l d i n g p r o c e s s . These b e n e f i t c a n b e a c h i e v e d as w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d
sharp i n t r u s i o n s h a v e a t y p i c a l m a x i m u m d e p t h for j o i n t s loaded in a i r . H o w e v e r , t h i s r e l a ­
o f 0.4 mm and act as p r e - e x i s t i n g c r a c k s w h i c h t i v e l y small b e n e f i t m a y b e s i g n i f i c a n t a n d
start to p r o p a g a t e as s o o n as c y c l i c l o a d i n g grinding should be encouraged, not discouraged.
starts. Furthermore, fracture mechanics analy­
ses o f w e l d e d j o i n t s c a n b e u s e d t o p r e d i c t M R G. M . R O D R I G U E S , McDermott Engineering
S-N c u r v e s r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e l y a s s u m i n g a n In t h e s i m u l a t i o n o f s e a w a t e r s h o u l d o n e n o t
i n i t i a l d e f e c t size a n d g i v e n f a t i g u e c r a c k in f u t u r e t a k e a c c o u n t of m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s o r
growth rate characteristics. Thus for welded life w h i c h c o u l d h a v e an e f f e c t on t h e c o r r o s i o n

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, L o n d o n , 1981 15


FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS

o f s t e e l e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n in w e l d e d j o i n t s , i.e. b a s e d on t h e n o m i n a l p l a t e
the propagation of crack growth? It is w e l l s t r e s s and n o t i n c l u d i n g t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n ­
known that calcareous deposits can b e produced tration due to the joint geometry.
by marine organisms. Similarly these could As part of the investigation to determine the
p r o d u c e p H c o n d i t i o n s d e t r i m e n t a l to steel cor­ strain gauge position, a strip of strain gauge
rosion and consequently to crack p r o p a g a t i o n . elements was located approaching t h e weld t o e .
The maximum strain measured by the gauge nearest
D R P. M . S C O T T , UKAEA, Harwell t h e weld t o e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 mm d i s t a n t ) w a s
U s i n g a r t i f i c i a l s e a w a t e r in c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e about twice the nominal strain. This figure
t e s t s is a c o m p r o m i s e b e c a u s e t h e b i o l o g i c a l m u s t b e u s e d w i t h c a u t i o n and c a n n o t b e t a k e n as
activity of sea w a t e r could only be simulated a precise measurement of the joint strain con­
in field e x p e r i m e n t s . H o w e v e r , there are some centration factor.
i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t it m a y n o t b e a b a d c o m p r o m i s e . T h e s p e c i m e n s w e r e loaded s u c h that s t r a i n s in
T h e c a t h o d i c r e a c t i o n w h i c h r e s u l t s in t h e e x c e s s o f y i e l d s t r a i n w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n of calcareous deposits on steel l o c a l i z e d r e g i o n at t h e t o e o f t h e w e l d . This
s u r f a c e s , and clearly influences fatigue lives, is i n e v i t a b l e in all t e s t s on a s - w e l d e d j o i n t s
is t h e s a m e in a r t i f i c i a l o r n a t u r a l s e a w a t e r , because of the presence of high tensile residual
although the rate of reaction m a y be different. s t r e s s e s and t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n e f f e c t o f
S u l p h a t e r e d u c i n g b a c t e r i a is a s e r i o u s the joints.
p o t e n t i a l problem as h y d r o g e n sulphide could be
a n t i c i p a t e d to have a large influence on fatigue DR K. S. V I R D I , The City University
life. C a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n is k n o w n t o i m p e d e In v i e w o f t h e l a r g e s c a t t e r o b t a i n e d in f a t i g u e
the g r o w t h of sulphate reducing b a c t e r i a and t e s t s in g e n e r a l , w a s a n y a t t e m p t m a d e to test
s u c h e v i d e n c e as t h e r e is from t h e f i e l d s u g ­ the repeatability of the tests results?
g e s t s t h a t a n a e r o b i c c o r r o s i o n is a r a r e o c c u r ­ W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e line f o r m e a n m i n u s t w o
rence . s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s in F i g . 8 o f P a p e r 2 , do
Further information on the influence of foul­ t h e m e a n s r e f e r to s t r e s s e s o r t o f a t i g u e life?
ing on c o r r o s i o n and corrosion fatigue would be T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s w o u l d lead t o d i f f e r e n t
desirable. a n s w e r s in t h e t w o c a s e s .

M R T . E . E V A N S , British National Oil Corporation DR B O O T H


Those concerned with marine corrosion have known T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s c o n d u c t e d b y t e s t i n g all
for m a n y years that corrosion b e h a v i o u r of t h e s p e c i m e n s in o n e test s e r i e s at d i f f e r e n t
m a t e r i a l s in t h e s e a o f t e n d i f f e r s from t h a t in stresses, rather than testing several specimens
the laboratory, particularly when artificial or at a limited n u m b e r o f s t r e s s e s . This was done
s y n t h e t i c w a t e r is u s e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y . As to o b t a i n an e s t i m a t e o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e S-N
an e x a m p l e m a y b e m e n t i o n e d t h e v e r y d i f f e r e n t c u r v e r a t h e r t h a n an e s t i m a t e o f t h e e n d u r a n c e
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d in s t u d i e s o f i m p i n g e m e n t at a g i v e n s t r e s s w h i c h is o b t a i n e d b y r e p e a t e d
attack of copper alloy condenser tubes when the t e s t s at one s t r e s s .
t e s t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d in n a t u r a l live s e a w a t e r H o w e v e r , w i t h r e f e r e n c e to F i g . 7 o f P a p e r 2 ,
at a c o a s t a l s i t e a n d i n a r t i f i c i a l s e a w a t e r t w o ground s p e c i m e n s w e r e t e s t e d in s e a w a t e r
2

p r e p a r e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y . at a s t r e s s r a n g e o f 2 1 0 N / m m . These gave en­


d u r a n c e s o f 2 5 0 0 0 0 c y c l e s and 3 2 0 0 0 0 c y c l e s ,
T h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e in c o r r o s i o n
w h i c h g i v e s an e s t i m a t e o f t h e r e p e a t a b i l i t y .
b e h a v i o u r in t h e t w o m e d i a a r e n o t f u l l y u n d e r ­
stood, but almost certainly one important factor L i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s o f e n d u r a n c e on
is t h e a b i l i t y o f m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s p r e s e n t in s t r e s s r a n g e (based on l o g a r i t h m i c a x e s ) w a s
natural sea water to influence the nucleation u s e d to e s t i m a t e t h e m e a n S-N c u r v e s d e r i v e d in
and g r o w t h o f c o r r o s i o n p r o d u c t s a n d p r o t e c t i v e the Paper. It w a s a l s o u s e d to o b t a i n t h e m e a n
scales. It s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i s e f f e c t m i n u s two standard deviations design curve
could be an important one influencing fatigue p r e s e n t e d in c u r r e n t s t a n d a r d s , e . g . BS 5400-^
2

c r a c k g r o w t h , o w i n g t o i t s e f f e c t on t h e m o r p h ­ and D D 5 5 .
o l o g y o f t h e c a l c a r e o u s s c a l e t h a t f o r m s as a
result o f cathodic protection. DR N . M . I R V I N E , UKAEA, Culcheth
In s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f S-N d a t a S is t h e
M R D . T . F E R N , McDermott Engineering (London) i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e and N t h e d e p e n d e n t o n e .
Would Dr Booth confirm that the stresses quoted T h u s 'mean m i n u s t w o s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ' refers
on t h e S-N c u r v e s r e f e r t o t h e p l a t e s t r e s s at t o s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f log N .
the toe of the weld?
P R O F E S S O R H . F E S S L E R , University of Nottingham
What v a l u e of strain concentration factor w a s
In T - j o i n t s t h e g r e a t e s t n o m i n a l s t r e s s m a y
m e a s u r e d at t h e t o e o f t h e w e l d ?
o c c u r in t h e c h o r d and t h e c h o r d end o f t h e
W e r e t h e s p e c i m e n s l o a d e d so t h a t t h e y e x p e r i ­
fillet m a y become critical instead o f the brace
e n c e d s t r a i n s in e x c e s s o f y i e l d s t r a i n in t h e
end. Parametric equations are very useful, but
toe of the weld?
d o t h e y take t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e m a x i m u m s t r e s s
into account?
DR B O O T H
T h e s t r e s s e s u s e d in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e S-N
curves were those measured by a strain gauge REFERENCES
15 m m f r o m t h e w e l d t o e . A n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y 1. B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n . Code of
had been performed to ensure that this location practice for fatigue. BSI, London, 1980,
was outside the region of stress concentration BS 5 4 0 0 , Part 1 0 .
produced b y the joint geometry. Thus the results 2. B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n . Fixed off­
w e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l form f o r shore structures. B S I , London, 1978, DD 55.

16
G. S. BOOTH, MA, PhD, MWeldl, The
Welding Institute, and R. HOLMES, BSc,
National Engineering Laboratory

Corrosion fatigue of welded joints under narrow band random


loading

T h i s p a p e r is a n i n t e r i m r e p o r t o f f a t i g u e t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t o n t w o t y p e s of w e l d e d j o i n t u n d e r a
narrow band random stress history. The tests have b e e n performed under environmental conditions
simulating an offshore platform in the North Sea.

The u s e of root m e a n square stress range as a controlling parameter h a s been studied and
comparisons have b e e n drawn between tests performed on joints w h i c h were freely c o r r o d i n g ,
a l t e r n a t e l y i m m e r s e d a n d e x p o s e d or c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d . Finally, the results have b e e n
compared with allowable endurances calculated u s i n g the k n o w n stress history, the a p p r o p r i a t e
fatigue design curve and Miner's hypothesis with 2 / N = 1 . n

INTRODUCTION spectrum with essentially one loading frequency,


As the fatigue b e h a v i o u r of a w e l d e d joint ignoring the response of the structure. A t the
is i n f l u e n c e d (ref. 1 ) b y t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n time these tests were defined, very little
w h i c h cyclic loading takes p l a c e , the need for information was available regarding the stress
f a t i g u e d a t a a p p r o p r i a t e to o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s h i s t o r i e s e x p e r i e n c e d by o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s
in t h e N o r t h S e a h a s b e e n r e c o g n i s e d (ref. 2 ) . a n d it w a s felt t h a t n a r r o w b a n d r a n d o m l o a d i n g
Fatigue tests on simple welded joints in plate p r o v i d e d a u s e f u l f i r s t step i n d e r i v i n g
have already been conducted under constant variable amplitude data for offshore structures.
amplitude loading in environmental conditions
i n t e n d e d to b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e N o r t h S e a This report presents the preliminary
(ref. 3). It is h o p e d t h a t , b y c o m p a r i n g t h o s e results o f tests carried out u n d e r n a r r o w b a n d
r e s u l t s w i t h t e s t s c a r r i e d out i n a i r (ref. 4 ) , random loading in North Sea e n v i r o n m e n t a l
the w o r k will be of assistance w h e n fatigue conditions at the Welding Institute and the
design rules are considered for offshore National Engineering Laboratory. A paper
platforms. (ref. 5) h a s already been p r e s e n t e d w h i c h
d i s c u s s e s some a s p e c t s of t h e N a t i o n a l
H o w e v e r , the m a i n s o u r c e o f c y c l i c l o a d i n g Engineering Laboratory work.
a c t i n g o n a n o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e d e r i v e s from
w a v e a c t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e is not c o n s t a n t a m p l i ­ STRESS HISTORY
tude in nature. It is e x p e c t e d t h a t in a d d i t i o n Wave action, from which the p r i n c i p a l
to the v i b r a t i o n i n r e s p o n s e to t h e w a v e l o a d i n g c y c l i c l o a d s d e r i v e , is e s s e n t i a l l y a n a r r o w
each offshore structure will oscillate at higher b a n d r a n d o m p r o c e s s in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l c y c l e s
frequencies depending on the natural frequency (waves) can be distinguished. In the short
of the platform itself. The actual stress t e r m , t h e p r o c e s s is s t a t i s t i c a l l y s t a t i o n a r y
spectrum experienced by a platform w i l l , and the peak height distribution approaches
t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i s t o f a sum o f the f o r c i n g l o a d the Rayleigh distribution. In the l o n g term,
(ie t h e w a v e l o a d i n g ) a n d t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e t h e p r o c e s s is n o n s t a t i o n a r y b e c a u s e o f c a l m s
s t r u c t u r e (ie t h e r e s o n a n c e b e h a v i o u r ) . storms and seasonal v a r i a t i o n s . A great deal
A l t h o u g h e v e r y e f f o r t is u s u a l l y m a d e to o f i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e r e g a r d i n g t h e l o n g
separate the frequency of the forcing function term distribution of wave heights but because
from t h e r e s o n a n c e f r e q u e n c i e s , t h e r e m a y still the relationship between wave height and load
be a s i g n i f i c a n t w i d e b a n d f r e q u e n c y c o n t e n t in is n o n l i n e a r , w a v e h e i g h t d a t a n e e d d e t a i l e d
the s t r e s s s p e c t r u m e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e p l a t f o r m . a n a l y s i s to e n a b l e a s t r e s s h i s t o r y t o b e
M o r e o v e r , the n a t u r e o f t h e w i d e b a n d s p e c t r u m derived.
may differ considerably between platforms owing
to t h e d i f f e r i n g r e s o n a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Theoretical calculations have been carried
o u t (ref. 6 ) to p r o v i d e t h e l o a d p e r u n i t
Ideally, therefore, tests would have been length acting on cylindrical members of various
carried out under a wide band stress spectrum diameters immersed at various depths as a
with an appropriate frequency content. As result of wave action. These loads would need
t h e r e is n o u n i q u e w i d e b a n d s p e c t r u m a n d n o t o b e i n t e g r a t e d to o b t a i n t h e l o a d a c t i n g a t
standardised stress spectrum for offshore a tubular joint. No account was taken of
s t r u c t u r e s it w a s d e c i d e d to c a r r y out t e s t s s t r u c t u r a l r e s o n a n c e in t h i s w o r k a n d t h u s t h e
u n d e r n a r r o w b a n d r a n d o m l o a d i n g , ie a s t r e s s load histories obtained were narrow band in
nature.

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981


17
FATIGUE STRENGTH OF W E L D E D JOINTS

Fig. 1 .
S y n t h e s i s of
stress history
C / 1 2 / 2 0

"by "breakdown i n t o f o u r
Rayleigh distributions

26,000 cycles 20,000 cycles 115,000cycles 15,000cycles 20,000 cycles


r.m.s 0 347a r.m.s 0799a 'rm.s 1366a r.ms 1366a ' r.ms 0 799a
4,000 cycles
r.m.s 1-960C

Block lengfh 100,000 cycles

• Sea wafer, free corrosion


c Sea wafer, infermiffenf
immersion
• Sea wafer.cafhodic profecfion \ Fig. 3. E f f e c t of
-0-85V Ag/AaClt
e n v i r o n m e n t at h i g h
3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 /
10' 10- 10° 10 mean stress (longi­
Cycles tudinal joints)

18
PAPER 3: B O O T H A N D HOLMES

Detailed examination of the results showed j o i n t s (at t h e W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e ) a n d t r a n s v e r s e


t h a t t h e y c o u l d b e d i v i d e d into t h r e e b r o a d l o a d c a r r y i n g j o i n t s a t the N a t i o n a l E n g i n e e r i n g
groups. A t the s u r f a c e , the l o a d h i s t o r y Laboratory. The specimens w e r e fabricated from
a p p r o x i m a t e d to a R a y l e i g h d i s t r i b u t i o n ; deeply s t e e l to B S 4 3 6 0 : 1 9 7 2 g r a d e 50D a n d f u l l d e t a i l s
immersed (greater than 18m) the load h i s t o r y of the specimen configuration and fabrication
approached a Laplace distribution; and at h a v e b e e n supplied in a p r e v i o u s p a p e r (ref. 7 )
intermediate depths the load history was a at this conference and elsewhere (refs. 3, 4 , 5 ) .
d i s t r i b u t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e two e x t r e m e s . On
t h i s b a s i s , a s e t o f r e s u l t s for a 3.66m Similar test facilities w e r e developed a t
d i a m e t e r m e m b e r i m m e r s e d a t a d e p t h o f 6.10m both laboratories, which involved immersing
w a s selected as representative of intermediate the specimen in a cell through w h i c h sea w a t e r
depth data. This peak height distribution was passed at approximately 5 ° C The environmental
d e n o t e d , the C / 1 2 / 2 0 s t r e s s h i s t o r y a n d the t e s t f a c i l i t y a t the W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e h a s b e e n
results reported in this p a p e r were all obtained d e s c r i b e d i n a n e a r l i e r p a p e r ( r e f . 7) a t t h i s
u n d e r this spectrum. conference; the NEL test facility w a s s i m i l a r .

T h e p r e c i s e s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s u s e d in t h i s The specimens were loaded in cantilever


w o r k w e r e p s e u d o - r a n d o m in the s e n s e t h a t a b e n d i n g a t a f r e q u e n c y of ^/6 H z , u n d e r l o a d
block length of approximately 100,000 cycles control. A t the Welding Institute the C/12/20
was used which was then repeated indefinitely. spectrum of 100,000 cycles w a s generated and
T h e c h o i c e o f a b l o c k l e n g t h of 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c l e s t h e n r e c o r d e d o n a floppy d i s c a n d c o n t i n u a l l y
was arbitrary but was a compromise between a replayed. The NEL test facility involved the
short block length which gives accurate use o f a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r system to generate the
definition of specimen life and a long block r a n d o m d r i v e s i g n a l f o r the s e r v o h y d r a u l i c
l e n g t h w h i c h e n a b l e s h i g h l o a d s to b e i n c l u d e d . actuators. In both laboratories, the stress
For North Sea wave frequencies, 100,000 cycles history experienced by a specimen was analysed
represents approximately 1 week's testing time, p e r i o d i c a l l y to e n s u r e t h a t t h e c o r r e c t p e a k
but also means that peak stresses with a height distribution was achieved.
p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f l e s s t h a n 10~5
will not be represented. Truncation at this A s in t h e c a s e o f the c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e
level will have relatively little effect on w o r k , the tests were carried out u n d e r three
f a t i g u e l i f e (ref. 6 ) . environmental conditions. These were free
corrosion, alternate immersion in sea w a t e r for
Long term peak height distributions can s i x h o u r s a n d e x p o s u r e to a i r f o r s i x h o u r s ,
be synthesised from Rayleigh distributions with a n d c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n at a p o t e n t i a l o f
various amplitudes. Figure 1 shows the method - 0 . 8 5 V w i t h r e s p e c t to a s i l v e r / s i l v e r c h l o r i d e
by which a block length of 100,000 cycles reference electrode.
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e C / 1 2 / 2 0 s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n
w a s c o n s t r u c t e d from f o u r R a y l e i g h d i s t r i b u t i o n s RESULTS
with root mean square amplitudes of values T h e s p e c i m e n s failed b y f a t i g u e c r a c k
A N D 1 9 6
0.347cr , 0.799cr , 1.366 o LT
L T L T • ° LT> g r o w t h from t h e w e l d toe a n d t h r o u g h t h e p l a t e
where o L T i s the r o o t m e a n s q u a r e a m p l i t u d e thickness. A specimen was assumed to h a v e
(ie s e m i - r a n g e ) o f t h e C / 1 2 / 2 0 s p e c t r u m . failed w h e n the maximum stroke o f the a c t u a t o r
was reached. This corresponded to a c r a c k
The tests w e r e carried out u n d e r two through approximately half the plate t h i c k n e s s .
different mean stress conditions. Firstly, B y t h i s s t a g e , h o w e v e r , the c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n
t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t a t zero m e a n s t r e s s , ie r a t e w o u l d h a v e b e e n so r a p i d t h a t t h e n u m b e r
a s t r e s s r a t i o (R = m i n i m u m s t r e s s / m a x i m u m o f c y c l e s r e m a i n i n g to complete separation
s t r e s s ) o f - 1 . S e c o n d l y , i n a n a t t e m p t to would h a v e b e e n small compared w i t h the n u m b e r
r e p r o d u c e the h i g h m e a n s t r e s s e s e x p e r i e n c e d of cycles already accumulated.
b y a w e l d e d j o i n t o w i n g to the p r e s e n c e o f h i g h
tensile residual stresses, tests were also T h e r e s u l t s a r e p l o t t e d o n S-N c u r v e s w i t h
c a r r i e d out u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n : logarithmic axes in figures 2 and 3 for the
l o n g i t u d i n a l j o i n t s and f i g u r e s 4 a n d 5 for t h e
a + 3a T T = a transverse joints. The p a r a m e t e r p l o t t e d o n
mean LT y
t h e s t r e s s a x i s is the r o o t m e a n s q u a r e s t r e s s
where o - m e a n stress r a n g e , ie 2a L T . Additionally, the r e g r e s s i o n
mean l i n e is a l s o d r a w n f o r the c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e
a = root m e a n square stress amplitude free corrosion results, introducing a factor
Li X
a = yield stress o f \J2 to r e d u c e t h e c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e s t r e s s
r a n g e to a n e q u i v a l e n t root m e a n s q u a r e s t r e s s
Additionally, the stresses w e r e truncated range.
to eliminate unrealistically h i g h stresses
causing gross specimen yielding. T h u s , no
2
DISCUSSION
stress greater than approximately 420 N ^ " a
( ) Controlling stress parameter
was applied.
T h e r o o t m e a n square s t r e s s r a n g e w a s
s e l e c t e d f c r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s b u t it is b y
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS no means the only parameter w h i c h could be u s e d
The t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out o n two specimen as the controlling stress p a r a m e t e r . Firstly,
geometries, longitudinal non load carrying t h e r o o t m e a n s q u a r e v a l u e w a s u s e d b e c a u s e it

19
FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS

is u s e d i n t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p o w e r n , w h e r e n is t h e e x p o n e n t i n t h e P a r i s
C/12/20 stress distribution. Each segment of power law. This nth root parameter has a
t h e R a y l e i g h d i s t r i b u t i o n u s e d to s y n t h e s i s e m e c h a n i s t i c b a s i s in t h a t it is d e r i v e d from
the C/12/20 stress spectrum has a characteristic the average increment of crack extension per
p a r a m e t e r , t h e r o o t m e a n s q u a r e v a l u e , w h i c h is cycle. T h i s a p p r o a c h , h o w e v e r , s u f f e r s frcm
u s e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y t o d e r i v e the R a y l e i g h t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e r e is n o u n i q u e v a l u e
distribution. These root mean square values o f n , a l t h o u g h 3 is c o m m o n l y t a k e n , a n d t h a t
a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to t h e r o o t m e a n s q u a r e u n d e r c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e c o n d i t i o n s the f a t i g u e
value of the C/12/20 spectrum itself. crack growth rate characteristics cannot simply
be described by a single line as assumed in the
Secondly, the root m e a n square stress range p o w e r law. F i n a l l y , the u s e o f t h e r o o t m e a n
w a s u s e d fcr conformity w i t h the accepted s q u a r e s t r e s s r a n g e e n a b l e s the d a t a to be
p r a c t i c e of p r e s e n t i n g the results of fatigue presented simply and in a form w h i c h can readily
t e s t s on w e l d e d joints in terms of stress r a n g e . be understood. If, at a future date, reanalysis
in t e r m s o f a n o t h e r p a r a m e t e r is c o n s i d e r e d
I t is a c c e p t e d t h a t o t h e r m e t h o d s o f desirable then this can easily be achieved.
p r e s e n t i n g the d a t a , exist. For example, an
a l t e r n a t i v e p a r a m e t e r ( r e f . 8 ) is t h e n t h r o o t F i g u r e s 2 to 5 a l s o s h o w t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
o f t h e m e a n o f t h e p e a k s t r e s s e s r a i s e d to t h e free corrosion constant amplitude m e a n line,

WO -| 1 — t i l l F i g . k. Effect of
350 e n v i r o n m e n t at R =
300 (transverse joints)

<\, 200
i

i
Q J 150
Constant amplitude
R=-1

a 100 C/12/20 spectrum R=-1


t> 90
£ 80 C
* 70
Sea waterfree corrosion
60 D Sea water, intermittent
50 immersion
V • Sea water,cathodic protection
4.0
2 3 4 5 2 3 U 5 3 U 5
10° 10'
Cycles

WO
350
300

*t 200
Constant amplitude
R= 0
s 0
V

£ 100
90 C/12/20 Omean +30 rms y \ =a

spectrum
SO
70
• Sea water, free corrosion
60
E Sea water, intermittent
50 immersion
• Sea water, cathodic protection
F i g . 5. Effect of
UO
e n v i r o n m e n t at h i g h
H
3 ^ 5 2 3 4 5 3 ^ 5
mean stress (transverse 10 10a
10c
10'
joints) Cycles

20
PAPER 3: B O O T H A N D HOLMES

r e d u c e d b y a f a c t o r of J2 f o r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e types of welded joint under environmental


with the root m e a n square stress range. In e a c h c o n d i t i o n s i n t e n d e d to r e p r e s e n t ' a n o f f s h o r e
case, this line provides a reasonable agreement p l a t f o r m in the North Sea. An artificially
with the experimental p o i n t s and gives further generated narrow band random stress h i s t o r y h a s
s u p p o r t to the u s e o f r o o t m e a n s q u a r e s t r e s s b e e n used and the following conclusions have
r a n g e a s the c o n t r o l l i n g p a r a m e t e r . been drawn:

(b) Effect of environment 1. The r o o t m e a n s q u a r e s t r e s s r a n g e i s a


F i g u r e s 2 to 5 s h o w t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d useful controlling parameter for
to d a t e u n d e r t h e t h r e e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , describing the results.
n a m e l y free c o r r o s i o n , a l t e r n a t e i m m e r s i o n / 2. No significant difference was observed b e ­
exposure and cathodic protection. A m a x i m u m of t w e e n t e s t s c a r r i e d out u n d e r f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g
three results are available for each combination and a l t e r n a t e i m m e r s i o n / e x p o s u r e c o n d i t i o n s .
of specimen geometry, mean stress and environ­ For longitudinal joints tested at b o t h m e a n
ment. W i t h so f e w s p e c i m e n s , it is d i f f i c u l t s t r e s s e s , and for t r a n s v e r s e j o i n t s t e s t e d a t
to d r a w firm c o n c l u s i o n s . For each geometry h i g h m e a n s t r e s s , n o e f f e c t of c a t h o d i c p r o ­
a n d m e a n s t r e s s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e d o e s n o t seem tection was observed compared w i t h free c o r r o ­
to b e a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e sion. F o r t r a n s v e r s e j o i n t s t e s t e d at R = - 1 ,
environments studied. T h i s is to b e c o m p a r e d h o w e v e r , there was evidence that cathodic p r o ­
w i t h the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d u n d e r c o n s t a n t t e c t i o n r e s u l t e d in an i n c r e a s e i n l i f e a t l o w
amplitude loading, where there was no difference r o o t m e a n s q u a r e stress r a n g e s c o m p a r e d w i t h
b e t w e e n free c o r r o s i o n a n d a l t e r n a t e i m m e r s i o n / freely corroding conditions.
exposure. Cathodic protection of joints subjected
3. The r e s u l t s w e r e a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d b y a
to c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g , h o w e v e r , r e s u l t e d
linear cumulative damage summation with
i n a n i n c r e a s e i n l i f e c o m p a r e d w i t h free
2n/N = 1
corrosion a t low s t r e s s e s , but there w a s no
difference at high stresses. The l i m i t e d u s i n g t h e C l a s s F fatigue d e s i g n c u r v e .
results for cathodically protected joints
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
a v a i l a b l e u n d e r n a r r o w b a n d r a n d o m l o a d i n g do
T h i s w o r k f o r m s p a r t of t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m
n o t e x h i b i t a n y i n c r e a s e i n life a t t h e l o w
Offshore Steels Research Project, commissioned
stress ranges.
b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y t h r o u g h t h e O f f s h o r e
Comparison with calculated design curve Energy Technology Board. T h e r e s e a r c h is c a r r i e d
B o t h the t r a n s v e r s e a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l o u t w i t h f i n a n c i a l aid from t h e E u r o p e a n C o a l and
j c i n t g e o m e t r i e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d to be c l a s s F Steel Community.
joint details by current fatigue design rules T h e a u t h o r s a r e g l a d to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e
(ref. 9 ) . U s i n g t h e s t r e s s h i s t o r y o f the assistance o f their colleagues a t the W e l d i n g
C / 1 2 / 2 0 s p e c t r u m , it w a s p o s s i b l e to d e r i v e Institute and the National Engineering
the a l l o w a b l e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s for a n y g i v e n Laboratory.
root m e a n square stress range. This has been
d o n e for the j o i n t s s u b j e c t e d to a l t e r n a t i n g REFERENCES
l o a d i n g u s i n g the m e a n m i n u s t w o s t a n d a r d 1. K N I G H T J.W. C o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e r e l a t e d to
d e v i a t i o n s d e s i g n line (with a c u t - o f f a t w e l d e d steel structures - a literation survey,
8
2 x 1 0 c y c l e s a s in D D 5 ) a n d M i n e r ' s UKOSRP Report 3/01, Department of Energy, 1975.
hypothesis, with £ n / N _ i. F i g u r e s 2 and 4 , 2. H I C K S J.G. A s t u d y of m a t e r i a l a n d
t h e r e f o r e , i n c l u d e a l i n e w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to s t r u c t u r a l p r o b l e m s in o f f s h o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s ,
the d e s i g n l i f e o f a joint s u b j e c t e d to the Welding Institute Members' Report E / 5 5 / 7 4 .
C/12/20 stress spectrum. The m a j o r i t y o f the 3. B O O T H G.S. The influence o f simulated N o r t h
f a t i g u e d a m a g e w a s a c c u m u l a t e d a t l o w and Sea environmental conditions on the constant
intermediate stress ranges and therefore a m p l i t u d e fatigue strength of w e l d e d j o i n t s ,
c l i p p i n g the p e a k s t r e s s e s a t 4 2 0 Nmm"~2 did n o t Offshore Technology Conference Paper 3 4 2 0 ,
s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e the c u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e Houston 1979.
summation. 4. BOOTH G.S. Constant amplitude fatigue tests
It is c l e a r from F i g u r e s 2 a n d 4 t h a t in on welded steel joints performed in a i r , UKOSRP
a l l c a s e s the f a t i g u e e n d u r a n c e a c h i e v e d w a s R e p o r t 3 / 0 5 , D e p a r t m e n t of Energy, 1 9 7 9 .
c o n s i d e r a b l y i n e x c e s s c f t h a t a l l o w e d b y the 5. H O L M E S R. T h e fatigue b e h a v i o u r o f w e l d e d
fatigue design rules. In fact,' no f a i l u r e j o i n t s u n d e r N o r t h Sea e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d r a n d o m
occurred at an endurance less than a factor of loading conditions, Offshore Technology
2 g r e a t e r t h a n the d e s i g n l i f e . For this Conference Paper 3700, Houston, 1980.
n a r r o w b a n d r a n d o m s p e c t r u m , t h e r e f o r e , the u s e 6. P00K L.P. Proposed standard load histories
o f the l i n e a r c u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e s u m m a t i o n f o r f a t i g u e t e s t i n g r e l e v a n t to o f f s h o r e
procedure provides an adequate description of structures, NEL Report 624, 1976.
the results. 7. BOOTH G.S. Constant amplitude corrosion
(d) Future work fatigue strength of welded j o i n t s , Conference
T h i s p a p e r is a n i n t e r i m p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Fatigue in Offshore Structural S t e e l s ,
work currently in p r o g r e s s . T h e r e s e a r c h is Institution of Civil Engineers, 1981.
c u r r e n t l y b e i n g e x t e n d e d to s t u d y the R a y l e i g h 8. DOVER W.D. et al. A fracture m e c h a n i c s
a n d L a p l a c e n a r r o w b a n d r a n d o m s p e c t r a and a l s o a n a l y s i s o f T j o i n t s s u b j e c t to r a n d o m l o a d i n g ,
to c a r r y out n a r r o w b a n d r a n d o m f a t i g u e t e s t s Symposium Integrity of Offshore S t r u c t u r e s ,
in a i r . In t h e l o n g t e r m , it is h o p e d t h a t the I n s t i t u t i o n o f E n g i n e e r s and S h i p b u i l d e r s i n
w o r k c a n be e x t e n d e d to i n v e s t i g a t e a n Scotland, Glasgow 1978.
a p p r o p r i a t e form o f w i d e b a n d r a n d o m l o a d i n g . 9. British Standards Institution, Fixed
O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s , D r a f t f o r D e v e l o p m e n t DD 5 5 ,
CONCLUSIONS
1978.
Fatigue tests have been carried out on two

21
Discussion o n Paper 3

DR G. P. T I L L Y , Transport and Road Research quency would have many advantages. It w o u l d


Laboratory e n a b l e h i g h e r e n d u r a n c e s to b e s t u d i e d , t h e
5
T h e A u t h o r s e x p l a i n that a l t h o u g h o t h e r e x p r e s ­ block length (currently 1 0 cycles) could be
sions can be used, r.m.s. values of stress give i n c r e a s e d and s m a l l e r r . m . s . s t r e s s r a n g e s c o u l d
a simple and convenient representation. T h e y go be studied. Crack p r o p a g a t i o n s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d
f u r t h e r a n d c o n c l u d e that r . m . s . v a l u e s o f in P a p e r 5 h a v e s h o w n that f r e q u e n c y m a y b e an
constant-amplitude data give reasonable agree­ important parameter determining growth rate and
ment with the variable-amplitude data. T h i s is hence m a y influence endurance. T h i s is t h e
not s u p p o r t e d b y F i g s 2-5 w h i c h i n d i c a t e that r e a s o n f o r s e l e c t i n g a f r e q u e n c y o f 1/6 H z and
the constant-amplitude data give a generally thorough justification would be required for
o p t i m i s t i c p r e d i c t i o n . 'There is n o r e a s o n w h y t e s t i n g at h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s .
r . m . s . s h o u l d c o r r e l a t e and it w o u l d b e m o r e The proportion of cycles b e l o w 2 x 1 0 cycle 8

r e a l i s t i c to r e g a r d it as g i v i n g a r u l e o f t h u m b c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e stress d e p e n d s o n t h e r . m . s .
w h e r e b y t h e e n d u r a n c e o b t a i n e d from t h e r . m . s . stress. T h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n o c c u r s at t h e
s t r e s s d i v i d e d b y a f a c t o r o f , s a y , 1.2 g i v e s a lowest r . m . s . s t r e s s and f o r t h e l o w e s t r . m . s .
reasonable lower bound assessment. 2
r a n g e s t u d i e d (60 N / m m ) ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % o f
2
The s e l e c t i o n o f c y c l i c f r e q u e n c y p o s e s e x ­ t h e c y c l e s w e r e b e l o w 14 N / m m (class F d e s i g n
p e r i m e n t a l p r o b l e m s ; t h e f r e q u e n c y should n o t s t r e s s f o r a n e n d u r a n c e of 2 x 1 0 ^ c y c l e s , from
be too high and endurances should not be too DD 5 5 ) .
short. T h e A u t h o r s h a v e o p t e d to u s e a r e a l i s ­ It is i n t e n d e d in t h e f u t u r e t o u s e c o n s t a n t -
tic f r e q u e n c y at t h e e x p e n s e o f h a v i n g v e r y l o w a m p l i t u d e d a t a and a linear c u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e
c y c l i c e n d u r a n c e s and h i g h s t r e s s e s . It is r u l e to c a l c u l a t e e n d u r a n c e s u n d e r n a r r o w - b a n d
s u g g e s t e d that it m i g h t b e p r e f e r a b l e in f u t u r e random loading.
w o r k to c o n s i d e r t h e c o m p r o m i s e o f a h i g h e r The calculated endurances have been estimated
f r e q u e n c y , s a y 1 H z , so that m a x i m u m e n d u r a n c e s using the class F design curve from D D 5 5 . No
could b e r a i s e d from a b o u t 2 x 1 0 ^ c y c l e s to allowance h a s been made for c o r r o s i o n w i t h the
6
12 x 1 0 c y c l e s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspect m a y e x c e p t i o n that c y c l e s o f r a n g e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g
be t h e p e a k s t r e s s e s w h i c h a r e e v i d e n t l y a b o u t to e n d u r a n c e s g r e a t e r than 2 x 10** h a v e b e e n
2
75 N / m m a b o v e m i n i m u m s p e c i f i e d y i e l d for t h e c o n s i d e r e d n o n - d a m a g i n g and h a v e b e e n i g n o r e d .
t e s t s r e p o r t e d in t h e P a p e r . The greatest proportion of cycles which h a s been
In s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s low s t r e s s e s c a n b e s u r ­ i g n o r e d is t h e r e f o r e about 1 0 % .
prisingly damaging. What p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e
s t r e s s e s a p p l i e d in t h e s p e c t r a w e r e b e l o w t h e M R M . J. B A K E R , Imperial College of Science and
2 x 10^ cycle constant-amplitude stress? Technology
It is s u r p r i s i n g that t h e A u t h o r s h a v e n o t W e r e t h e test s p e c i m e n s t a k e n f r o m t h e s a m e c a s t
u s e d t h e i r c o n s t a n t - a m p l i t u d e free c o r r o s i o n of s t e e l ? T a k i n g into a c c o u n t t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e
d a t a to c a l c u l a t e e n d u r a n c e s u n d e r n a r r o w - b a n d v a r i a b i l i t y i n , f o r e x a m p l e , y i e l d s t r e s s and
random loading. Is it n o t a p p r o p r i a t e to do s o ? u . t . s . that c a n o c c u r for s t e e l w i t h t h e s a m e
Endurances have been estimated using the nominal specification, were the test specimens
class F c u r v e from D D 55 ( r e f e r e n c e 9 o f t h e randomized before testing or h a s any attempt
Paper). Has any allowance been made for b e e n m a d e t o c o r r e l a t e the f a t i g u e test r e s u l t s
corrosion? with material properties? D i f f e r e n c e in t h e
ratio of the yield stress to the limited peak
DR B O O T H , in reply 2
stress of 420 N / m m m a y be relevant.
The r e a s o n s f o r u s i n g r . m . s . s t r e s s r a n g e a r e
e x p l a i n e d in t h e P a p e r . W e a g r e e that it m a y DR B O O T H
be p o s s i b l e to p o s t u l a t e a r u l e o f thumb The material used for specimen fabrication satis­
giving a factor relating endurance under fied t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f BS 4 3 6 0 g r a d e 5 0 D .
n a r r o w - b a n d l o a d i n g t o that u n d e r c o n s t a n t The specimens were not deliberately randomized,
amplitude. H o w e v e r , as y e t i n s u f f i c i e n t but w e r e e x t r a c t e d from p l a t e s from d i f f e r e n t
r e s u l t s h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d to m a k e it p o s s i b l e casts. The chemical analysis and mechanical
to suggest a v a l u e f o r t h i s p a r a m e t e r a l t h o u g h p r o p e r t i e s o f each p l a t e u s e d t o f a b r i c a t e
it m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o d o so w h e n f u r t h e r s p e c i m e n s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d at t h e W e l d i n g I n s t i ­
results become available. t u t e and e a c h s p e c i m e n c a n b e r e l a t e d t o an
We a l s o a g r e e that t e s t i n g at a h i g h e r fre­ original plate. Thus the precise yield strength

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, L o n d o n , 1981 23


FATIGUE STRENGTH O F W E L D E D JOINTS

of the material in each specimen could be M R P. L. S T U A R T , British Petroleum


supplied. With regard to the random narrow-band wave
It i s o u r o p i n i o n , h o w e v e r , t h a t m a t e r i a l loading represented by the C/12/20 sample, have
yield strength is u n l i k e l y to influence endur­ t h e A u t h o r s looked at t h e r e a l d a t a w a v e r e c o r d s
ance to a significant effect. The specimens t a k e n in t h e N o r t h S e a (e.g. in t h e BP W e s t S o l e
were loaded in b e n d i n g and thus only the outer­ G a s F i e l d ) and t a k e n t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s into
most regions of the plate were stressed above a c c o u n t in t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l s a m p l e s u s e d ?
the nominal yield; most of the plate thickness
remained below yield. Furthermore, work harden­ M R H O L M E S , in reply
ing w o u l d h a v e r e s u l t e d in p u r e l y e l a s t i c W h e n U K O S R P w a s set u p and s u b s e q u e n t s p e c i f i ­
d e f o r m a t i o n s after the first few cycles. From a c a t i o n s for h a r d w a r e c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g r a n ­
p r a c t i c a l v i e w p o i n t , it i s u n r e a l i s t i c t o e x p e c t dom load s p e c t r a w e r e w r i t t e n , s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s
d e s i g n e r s to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n y i e l d s t r e n g t h s r e c o r d e d from o f f s h o r e r i g s w e r e r a r e . This
within a particular grade of steel. r e s u l t e d in t h e n a r r o w - b a n d r a n d o m s p e c t r u m ,
d e s c r i b e d as t h e C / 1 2 / 2 0 d i s t r i b u t i o n , b e i n g
DR W . D . D O V E R , University College London t a k e n as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t in a n a t t e m p t t o
T h e r . m . s . s t r e s s r a n g e u s e d in t h e P a p e r h a s u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o b l e m s o f r a n d o m l o a d i n g and
n o p h y s i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e in f a t i g u e c r a c k the validity of current design p r o c e d u r e s for
g r o w t h a n d in p r a c t i c e s h o w s t h e c o n s t a n t - the handling of such spectra. N o w that limited
amplitude data to be optimistic. The alter­ s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e , d e v e l o p m e n t s in
n a t i v e is to u s e a weighted average stress the simulation of service stress histories can
r a n g e S ^ d e f i n e d as b e c a r r i e d o u t . S t r e 3 S h i s t o r i e s r e c o r d e d from
p l a t f o r m s in t h e s o u t h e r n s e c t o r m a y n o t b e
S h = n/hg a p p l i c a b l e to t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e d b y p l a t f o r m s in
the northern sector and will also b e a function
w h e r e n i s t h e e x p o n e n t in t h e P a r i s L a w
of the response characteristics of the node
n
da/dN = C ( A K ) and h is a n i n d i v i d u a l s t r e s s
s
from which the stress history w a s recorded.
range. Using this form brings constant-
a m p l i t u d e a n d v a r i a b l e - a m p l i t u d e d a t a on t o o n e
M R R. G. T I C K E L L , University of Liverpool
l i n e i f load i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s a r e a b s e n t .
With reference to the u s e of actual stress
In e s s e n c e t h e w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e r a n g e a p p r o a c h
m e a s u r e m e n t from N o r t h S e a p l a t f o r m s in e s t a b ­
p r o v i d e s a universal curve for each m a t e r i a l .
lishing the variable-amplitude loading history
If t h e d a t a f o r a n y i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e - a m p l i t u d e
d e s c r i b e d in t h e P a p e r , w h e n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
sequence fits on to this curve then one can u s e
Liverpool carried out the study on b e h a l f of
a linear summation technique. Alternatively, the N E L , there were few prototype data available.
i f t h e d a t a d o n o t fit t h e u n i v e r s a l c u r v e , M o s t of t h e m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m m e s w e r e in t h e
s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n is r e q u i r e d as s o m e e n v i r o n ­ early stages of implementation. However, stress
mental/load interaction effects must be occur­ f r o m a n a t u r a l gas p l a t f o r m in t h e s o u t h e r n
ring. N o r t h S e a h a d b e e n a n a l y s e d and t h e o b s e r v e d
d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f s t r e s s r a n g e w e r e in a g r e e m e n t
DR BOOTH w i t h the theoretical model used for the short-
The reasons for using r.m.s. stress range are term stationary probability distribution of
d e s c r i b e d in t h e P a p e r . I f , at a l a t e r s t a g e , stress range. After establishing the stress
an a l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d f o r p r e s e n t i n g t h e d a t a r a n g e b e h a v i o u r f o r o n e s t o r m i n t e n s i t y , it w a s
is f o u n d u s e f u l , t h e r e s u l t s c o u l d b e s u i t a b l y necessary to weight this using the long-term
reanalysed. One of the main drawbacks to the w a v e climate typical of the North S e a . All this
w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e s t r e s s r a n g e a p p r o a c h is t h e w o r k assumed n a r r o w - b a n d q u a s i - s t a t i c r e s p o n s e
definition of the exponent n. For the present and u s e d t h e m e a n u p - c r o s s i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f
s t u d y , it w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t stress range. Six to seven years later one
v a l u e s o f n w o u l d b e t a k e n f o r l o a d i n g in a i r , could be more sophisticated, e.g. modelling
s e a w a t e r (free c o r r o s i o n ) , s e a w a t e r ( c a t h o d i c typical wide-band histories for flexible struc­
protection) and alternate immersion. This m a y t u r e s , b u t in such c a s e s t h e n u m b e r o f i n d e p e n ­
well make interpretation difficult. d e n t p r o b l e m p a r a m e t e r s can q u i c k l y get out o f
hand.

24
H. G. MORGAN, BSc, MSc, PhD, Springfields
Nuclear Power Development Laboratories,
and T. W. THORPE, BSc, Atomic Energy
Research Establishment, Harwell

A n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o c r a c k g r o w t h t e s t i n g i nt h e U K O S R P a n d its
r e l e v a n c e t o t h e d e s i g n o fo f f s h o r e structures

The basic techniques of fatigue crack growth testing are discussed and their application in the
UKOSRP work explained. The e f f e c t s of some fundamental v a r i a b l e s such a s s t r e s s - r a t i o , t h i c k n e s s
and environment are considered and some initial conclusions d r a w n .

INTRODUCTION in crack growth testing. Figure 1 shows


1. The compilation of reference fatigue crack s c h e m a t i c a l l y such a plot obtained for a t y p i c a l
g r o w t h d a t a for the U n i t e d K i n g d o m O f f s h o r e e n g i n e e r i n g steel and shows h o w it c a n be
S t e e l s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t w a s u n d e r t a k e n a t the conveniently divided into three r e g i o n s .
1
United Kingdom Atomic Energy A u t h o r i t y s
laboratories at A E R E H a r w e l l i n Oxfordshire and k. I n t h e r e g i o n o f l o w A K the a p p e a r a n c e o f
SNPDL Springfields, Lancashire. The work was a n apparently distinct threshold for crack
divided into tests on specimens having through- g r o w t h can sometimes be an over simplified v i e w
t h i c k n e s s c r a c k s ( U K O S R P T a b l e 1) a n d t h o s e since a number of practical difficulties exist
having surface cracks (UKOSRP Table 2 ) . This i n the a c t u a l determination of t h i s t h r e s h o l d .
p a p e r w i l l c o n s i d e r the g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h to The most o b v i o u s of these is the p r o b l e m o f
fatigue crack growth testing and some basic accurate measurement of very low growth r a t e s
results obtained on through cracks. A further and the difficulty in establishing d e m a r c a t i o n
p a p e r ( r e f . 1) w i l l d e a l w i t h m o r e c o m p l e x b e t w e e n g r o w t h and no g r o w t h . The d e t e r m i n a ­
variables and with surface cracks. tion of threshold values of stress intensity is
f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d b y the d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e
CRACK GROWTH TESTING v a l u e s o b t a i n e d o n the e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d u s e d ,
with quoted values for BS ^360:50D steel
Introduction r a n g i n g f r o m 2 - 7 M P a / n (refs 2 a n d 3 ) . The
2. A s the n a m e i m p l i e s , c r a c k g r o w t h t e s t i n g currently favoured method is one of s e q u e n t i a l
i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c r a c k load reduction, detailed in ASTM Standard E
propagation, usually under cyclic loading. This 6V7/78T (ref. k).
a s s u m e s the p r e - e x i s t e n c e o f a c r a c k o r c r a c k ­
like defect, and is not usually concerned with 5- At much higher values of stress intensity,
the i n i t i a t i o n o f s u c h d e f e c t s . T h e t e s t another region of non-linearity exists o n the
p r o c e d u r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y the m e a s u r e m e n t o f d a / d N - A K p l o t , t h i s t i m e l e a d i n g t o extrerrre.ly
c r a c k l e n g t h a n d the c h a r a t e r i s a t i o n o f c r a c k rapid growth rates and ultimately to catastro­
growth rate in terms o f the change in crack phic failure. The critical value of s t r e s s
length per load cycle, usually denoted da/dN. intensity when unstable crack growth o c c u r s is
A n u m b e r o f m e t h o d s a r e a v a i l a b l e for c a l c u l a ­ r e p r e s e n t e d b y the s t a t i c o r d y n a m i c ( c y c l i c )
t i n g the g r o w t h r a t e , the m a j o r i t y b e i n g b a s e d f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s o f the m a t e r i a l K j q q r Kjj).
o n the e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s g r a d i e n t
o f the c u r v e o f c r a c k l e n g t h v s n u m b e r o f 6. I t i s h o w e v e r the c e n t r a l r e g i o n w h e r e
cycles. d a / d N i s l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d to A K w h i c h i s o f
m o s t i n t e r e s t i n the a p p l i c a t i o n o f L E F M to
3. I n order that such measurements may be made design problems. This linear relatienship,
a s e a s i l y a n d a c c u r a t e l y a s p o s s i b l e , the t e s t f i r s t r e c o g n i s e d b y P a r i s ( r e f . 5) c a n b e
specimens are usually of relatively simple u n i q u e l y described for a g i v e n set of
design. Comparison of different specimen sizes conditions by an equation in da/dN and AK,
a n d g e o m e t r i e s i s m a d e p o s s i b l e b y the u s e o f k n o w n a s t h e P a r i s l a w or f a t i g u e g r o w t h l a w
theoretical Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics for t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s a n d o f t h e g e n e r a l f o r m :
a n d i t s m o s t u s e f u l p a r a m e t e r , the S t r e s s
I n t e n s i t y F a c t o r K , or the range of S t r e s s da/dN = CAK (1)
Intensity A K . The magnitude of this factor is
a function of applied stress and specimen/crack where n is typically 2-4.
geometry and can be simply considered a s the
d r i v i n g f o r c e for c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n . The combi­ 7. B y s u b s t i t u t i n g for A K i n t e r m s o f s t r e s s
nation of crack growth rate and stress intensity a n d c r a c k l e n g t h , a n d b y i n t e g r a t i n g it i s
r a n g e o n a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t i s the m o s t c o m m o n p o s s i b l e to c a l c u l a t e the n u m b e r o f c y c l e s
way of displaying and assessing data obtained r e q u i r e d t o c a u s e a c r a c k to i n c r e a s e i n l e n g t h

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 25


C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

TABLE 1

68^360.500 steel plates, chemical analyses and mechanical properties

38 m m p l a t e
76 m m p l a t e
Specification
5^0 J
21*f9H/1 2061H

(a) Chemical analysis

C 0.18 m a x . 0.17 0.18 0.18


Si 0.1/0.5 0.35 O.36 0.37
Mn 1.5 m a x . 1.35 1.35 1.38
Nb 0.1 m a x . 0.03 0.03 0.03^
V 0.1 m a x . < 0.01 0.01 < 0.01
S O.O^f m a x . 0.023 0.02*f 0.02*f
P 0.0^ max. 0.037 0.038 0.032

(b) Mechanical properties

Yield stress, M P a 3^+5 m i n . 370 371 351


Ultimate tensile stress, MPa ^90/620 538 5kk 536

Elongation, % 18 m i n . 31 31 k2

Charpy impact value at - 30°C, J 27 m i n 119 113 80

-W(25mm)

8W 3W
(35mm) 70mm (70 m m )
o
|
i-l

C AK
38 m m plate T specimen

7 6 m m plate 'I' specimen

Fig. 3

300

152 I

Fig.l. Cyclic stress intensity factor K 900

cantilever bend specimen

450
152

900
3-point bend specimen

225

152| I

450
axial specimen

Fig.2. Compact ten­ Fig.k.Surface notched specimen


s i o n s p e c i m e n 70mm A l l t h i c k n e s s e s 35mm
a n d 35mm t h i c k All dimensions m m

26
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D THORPE

by a certain increment. I f the l i m i t s o f the 12. Early tests showed a marked effect of sea­
i n t e g r a t i o n a r e c h o s e n w i t h care to r e p r e s e n t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e so a s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e
a n y i n i t i a l d e f e c t p r e s e n t i n the s t r u c t u r e a n d r a n g e o f 5 C - 1 0 C w a s used a s b e i n g r e p r e s e n t a ­
some f i n a l l e n g t h w h e n f a i l u r e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t i v e o f w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s i n the N o r t h S e a f o r
to h a v e o c c u r r e d , t h e n s o m e m e a s u r e od the safe m o s t o f the y e a r .
l i f e t i m e o f a s t r u c t u r e c a n be o b t a i n e d . This
i s a g a i n a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the r e a l s i t u a t i o n 13- Harwell*s preliminary tests also showed
and can be complicated by uncertainties that crack growth rates could increase as cyclic
r e g a r d i n g the s i z e o f i n i t i a l d e f e c t , the f r e q u e n c y d e c r e a s e d a n d an e s t i m a t e o f n a t u r a l
e x t e n t o f c r a c k i n g at f i n a l f a i l u r e a n d b y n o n - w a v e f r e q u e n c y i n the N o r t h S e a s u g g e s t e d t h a t
l i n e a r i t y o f the d a / d N v s A K d a t a w h i c h c a n i f s i m p l e c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g w a s to b e
occur under certain environmental conditions. used, then a frequency of 0.167 H z would be
T h e s e l e c t i o n o f i n i t i a l d e f e c t size i s most representative; this frequency was used
particularly critical since a growing crack for all environmental tests.
w i l l b e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t f o r the m a j o r i t y o f
its lifetime. 14. F u r t h e r c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s w e r e s h o w n to
b e the e x t e n t o f e l e c t r i c a l p o l a r i s a t i o n , the
Experimental details s t a r t e r n o t c h s h a p e a n d the e f f e c t s o f i n t e r ­
8• T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s u s e d at H a r w e l l mittent wetting, these variables are discussed
and Springfields have b e e n described in detail in more detail elsewhere (ref. 1 ) .
e l s e w h e r e ( r e f s 2 , 3» 6 a n d 7) b u t w i l l be
briefly reviewed. P r i o r to the m a i n test 15* T e s t i n g at R = - 1 The essence of a
p r o g r a m m e , a s h o r t p i l o t s t u d y o f some of the f a t i g u e test i s that the s p e c i m e n o r c o m p o n e n t
m o r e o b v i o u s v a r i a b l e s w a s c a r r i e d out at A E R E i s s u b j e c t e d to c y c l i c l o a d i n g , t h a t i s , to a
H a r w e l l a n d from t h i s the m a i n v a r i a b l e s range of stress. T h i s s t r e s s r a n g e m a y be
identified. wholly in tension, wholly in compression, or any
c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e s e t w o . T h e r a t i o o f m i n i m u m
9- M a t e r i a l S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l m a n u f a c t u r e d to to m a x i m u m s t r e s s i s c a l l e d t h e R - r a t i o o f the
B S ^ 3 6 0 : 5 0 0 w a s s u p p l i e d b y the B r i t i s h S t e e l t e s t , t h u s a test at R = 0 w i l l h a v e a m i n i m u m
C o r p o r a t i o n a n d the i n i t i a l m a t e r i a l p e d i g r e e s t r e s s o f 0 , a test at R = 0 . 5 w i l l h a v e a
d e t e r m i n e d at the W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e , C a m b r i d g e . value of minimum stress half that of the
T h i s m a t e r i a l w a s s u p p l i e d i n the form o f hot m a x i m u m a n d so o n . U s i n g t h i s n o m e n c l a t u r e it
r o l l e d , n o r m a l i s e d p l a t e i n t h i c k n e s s e s of i s u s u a l to d e n o t e a test w h i c h h a s a m a x i m u m
76 mm a n d 38 m m . The p r o p e r t i e s of these tensile component exactly equalled b y a c o m p r e s ­
p l a t e s are r e p r o d u c e d i n T a b l e 1. From this s i v e c o m p o n e n t a s a test w i t h R = - 1 • It c a n
p l a t e m a t e r i a l the s p e c i m e n s , s h o w n i n F i g s 2 b e s e e n that the R - r a t i o i s n o t a m e a s u r e o f
a n d 3 were c u t . Because of their asymmetric absolute stress or stress intensity in the
l o a d i n g the compact t e n s i o n s p e c i m e n s , i n t w o component but only a measure of the cyclic
thicknesses, could only be used in tests where loading. The c r a c k g r o w t h t e s t s a t H a r w e l l a n d
the s t r e s s c y c l e s w a s a l w a y s i n t e n s i o n a n d S p r i n g f i e l d s w e r e c a r r i e d out at R - r a t i o s o f ;
t h u s it w a s n e c e s s a r y to d e v i s e two t y p e s o f - 1; 0 ; 0 . 5 ; 0 . 7 a n d O . 8 5 .
I - s h a p e d s p e c i m e n s to a l l o w t e s t s w i t h com­
p r e s s i v e c o m p o n e n t s o f s t r e s s . The h e i g h t / 16. The compact tension specimens u s e d for
w i d t h r a t i o o f t h e s e s p e c i m e n s w a s c h o s e n so R = 0 to R = O . 8 5 t e s t i n g a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s e l f -
that a r e a s o n a b l e r a n g e o f s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y a l i g n i n g a n d n e e d e d no f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n . The
c o u l d be c o v e r e d . I shaped specimens however needed careful
s e t t i n g u p i n the m a c h i n e a n d a l i g n m e n t u s i n g
10. Three specimens configurations were used d i a l g a u g e s or a t t a c h e d s t r a i n g a u g e s . The
in tests with surface notches, cantilever f i r s t f e w m i l l i m e t r e s of g r o w t h w a s m o n i t o r e d
b e n d i n g a n d a x i a l l y l o a d e d at S p r i n g f i e l d s a n d c a r e f u l l y for d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o
t h r e e - p o i n t b e n d i n g at H a r w e l l ( F i g . k). f a c e s o f the s p e c i m e n and a t t e m p t s m a d e to
S t a r t e r n o t c h e s for the t h r o u g h - c r a c k e d c o r r e c t a n y u n e v e n g r o w t h b y s h i f t i n g the
s p e c i m e n s w e r e s p a r k m a c h i n e d a n d for the s p e c i m e n i n the g r i p s . I n s o m e c a s e s it w a s
s u r f a c e - c r a c k e d s p e c i m e n s r o u g h e d out w i t h a i m p o s s i b l e to c o r r e c t this d i s c r e p a n c y a n d w h e n
slitting disc and finished by spark machining t h e c r a c k l e n g t h s o n the t w o f a c e s d i f f e r e d b y
F i n a l m a c h i n e d t h i c k n e s s e s w e r e 35 mm a n d m o r e t h a n 2 mm, the test w a s a b a n d o n e d .
70 m m .
17. Crack length measurement At S p r i n g f i e l d s
11. Environment T h e s h o r t p r e l i m i n a r y test crack measurement was predominantly by optical
p r o g r a m m e at H a r w e l l w a s i n t e n d e d to i n d i c a t e microscope, giving a possible resolution of
w h i c h v a r i a b l e s were m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d b e t t e r t h a n kO u,m, a l t h o u g h s o m e t r i a l s w e r e
resulted in a number of basic experimental c a r r i e d out u s i n g a D . C . p o t e n t i a l d r o p
conditions being identified. T h e s e a w a t e r to technique. This technique was abandoned w h e n
be u s e d w a s s t a n d a r d i s e d o n that o b t a i n a b l e it p r o v e d to h a v e a r e s o l u t i o n n o b e t t e r t h a n
from the E n g l i s h C h a n n e l t h r o u g h A M T E H o l t o n the microscopes. At A E R E , c r a c k l e n g t h s i n
H e a t h a n d w a s s t o r e d i n s t o c k t a n k s at e a c h CTS specimens were determined by D . C . p o t e n t i a l
site, T h i s s e a w a t e r w a s c i r c u l a t e d p a s t the d r o p a n d b y m e a s u r e m e n t of c r a c k m o u t h o p e n i n g
s p e c i m e n s i n p e r s p e x b o x e s at a r a t e o f a b o u t displacement. Both laboratories used A . C .
2 L / m i n and the w a t e r i n the c i r c u i t w a s c h a n g e d p o t e n t i a l d r o p e q u i p m e n t to m e a s u r e c r a c k front
regularly. shape in surface-notched s p e c i m e n s .

27
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

x 10 Hz.
• 1 Hz.
o 0-1 Hz. • 76 mm decreasing Load /
• 0-05 Hz. 3-0 A constant " <j
/ 0
o 38 mm decreasing Load
• - CHELL (ref 11 ) /
61
fo and BOWIE (ref 10) L = f t /
high ,
load / £
range/ P -2 2-5 /
/ +0 /
/
o

/
Z_ o
o ' A / /
o
.y 2 0 ' /*/
00 / /
a E 1A /• /
o
C9 7
/ / I

/V / /w = 3

/
1-5-h
10 o . ^
/V/ //

1-0
0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 >0
10-
10 100
AK MPaym
AK MPa/m Fig.7. Relative crack length a
/W
Fig.5. Fatigue crack F i g . 6 . Fatigue crack
g r o w t h as a f u n c t i o n growth as a function
o f O2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f g r e q u e n c y in
a n d t e m p e r a t u r e in SEAWATER
SEAWATER

° R=0to0-1 °y +
A
R= 0 - 0 - 8 5
A
R=0-5
x R=0-7
• R=0-85

10 | ' " H 1 L_l_I_i_l.


10 100
1 0
AK MPaym 1 0 0 AK MPa/m AK MPaJffi

F i g . 8 . 76mm p l a t e tests Fig.9. 76mm p l a t e tests Fig.10. 38mm p l a t e tests


in AIR in A I R in A I R

28
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D THORPE

18. Fractography and metallography Standard 24. A s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t e s t i n g at R = - 1


t e c h n i q u e s w e r e u s e d to m o u n t and p o l i s h n e c e s s i t a t e d the use o f a n o n - s t a n d a r d s p e c i m e n
s e c t i o n s o f the m a t e r i a l from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t design, and although theoretical c a l i b r a t i o n s
orientations, these were examined b y reflected for the s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r f o r t h i s
light m i c r o s c o p e . Scanning electron microscopy g e n e r a l type o f s i n g l e - e d g e - n o t c h e d s p e c i m e n do
w a s u s e d to e x a m i n e the f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f e x i s t ( r e f . 8 ) t h e y are u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d f o r
specimens, those tested in seawater being i n f i n i t e or s e m i - i n f i n i t e p l a t e s w i t h e i t h e r
cleaned by oxide removal before examination. free e n d r o t a t i o n or p e r f e c t l y - r i g i d e n d
fixing. The finite size a n d i n t e r m e d i a t e e n d
TEST RESULTS c o n s t r a i n t i n v o l v e d w i t h the I - s h a p e d s p e c i m e n s
m e a n t that a n e x p e r i m e n t a l c o m p l i a n c e c a l i b r a ­
Preliminary tests t i o n h a d to b e u n d e r t a k e n to d e t e r m i n e t h e
19• Temperature and dissolved oxygen content m a g n i t u d e o f the g e o m e t r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r
A m o n g the v a r i a b l e s t e s t e d i n the p r e l i m i n a r y i n the g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n for the stress
p r o g r a m m e at A E R E w e r e s e a w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e intensity:-
( 2 0 C and 5 C ) a n d d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a ­
tion. K = cc a / T T a (4)

20. F i g u r e 5 s h o w s that a d e c r e a s e i n s e a w a t e r
t e m p e r a t u r e from 2 0 C to 5 C c a n r e s u l t i n a w h e r e a i s the a p p l i e d s t r e s s a n d a the crack
length.
r e d u c t i o n o f a b o u t a f a c t o r of 2 i n the g r o w t h
r a t e at s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y r a n g e s g r e a t e r t h a n
a b o u t 1 8 - 2 0 M P a / m a l t h o u g h the e f f e c t is m u c h 23- The method of compliance c a l i b r a t i o n h a s
l e s s m a r k e d at v a l u e s b e l o w t h i s . A l s o s h o w n b e e n described in general t e r m s b y other
i n F i g . 5 i s the r e d u c t i o n i n c r a c k g r o w t h w o r k e r s ( r e f . 9) a n d a l s o i n the s p e c i f i c c a s e
rates caused by a reduction in dissolved oxygen o f t h e s e s p e c i m e n s , (refs 3 a n d 7 ) . The r e s u l t s
l e v e l from the n o r m a l 7-8 mg/L to 1 m g / L , t h i s a r e s u m m a r i s e d in F i g . 7 for b o t h 7 6 a n d 3 8 mm
r e d u c t i o n b e i n g e v i d e n t t h r o u g h o u t the r a n g e o f p l a t e s p e c i m e n s a n d is a p l o t o f c o r r e c t i o n
s t r e s s i n t e n s i t i e s t e s t e d b u t l e s s d r a m a t i c at f a c t o r oc v s the n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l i s e d c r a c k
a

higher values. l e n g t h / W , a l s o i n c l u d e d a r e the t h e o r e t i c a l


curves derived by Bowie (ref. 1 0 ) and Chell
( r e f . 1 1 ) for s p e c i m e n s h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h /
21. Frequency I t i s w e l l k n o w n that the c y c l i c
width ratios.
test f r e q u e n c y c a n h a v e a m a r k e d e f f e c t o n
observed crack growth rates in aqueous environ­
m e n t s , a n e f f e c t c o n f i r m e d i n the A E R E p r e l i m i ­ 26. C o m p a r i s o n o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a n d
n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the r e s u l t s o f t e s t s at f o u r the t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s s h o w s t h a t f o r the 3 8 mm
f r e q u e n c i e s are s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . Again little p l a t e s p e c i m e n s good a g r e e m e n t e x i s t s , a n d the
d i f f e r e n c e i s s e e n at l o w v a l u e s o f A K a n d a l s o theoretical calibration was actually used in
b e t w e e n 1 a n d 10 H z . The g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e i n calculating AK. F o r the 7 6 mm s p e c i m e n s
g r o w t h r a t e s is o b s e r v e d w i t h f r e q u e n c y however, with a gauge length/width ratio of
r e d u c t i o n from 1 to 0 . 1 H z a n d at A K g r e a t e r 3 : 1 , the a g r e e m e n t is p o o r a n d i n t h i s c a s e , a
than about 20 M P a / m . least squares regression line drawn through
the e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a was u s e d a s a c o r r e c t i o n
factor.
76,mm plate specimens
22. F i g u r e 8 s h o w s the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d o n
27. A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y in c a l c u l a t i n g the
76 mm p l a t e s p e c i m e n s at R - r a t i o s from 0 to
c y c l i c s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r at R = - 1 i s
O.85. The CTS s p e c i m e n s u s e d for t h e s e t e s t s
the u n c e r t a i n role o f the c o m p r e s s i v e p a r t o f
are a s t a n d a r d c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d the c o m p l i a n c e
the l o a d i n g c y c l e . I f the w h o l e r a n g e o f the
c a l i b r a t i o n for c a l c u l a t i n g the s t r e s s i n t e n ­
a p p l i e d s t r e s s is u s e d to c a l c u l a t e A K
sity factor is already known:
a c c o r d i n g to e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) t h e n the A K for a n y
g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s w o u l d be t w i c e that o f a
AK = (2)
2 s p e c i m e n t e s t e d at R = 0 a n d the e f f e c t o n the
BW
linear relationship between g r o w t h rate and AK
n
(equation ( 1 ) ) would be 2 i.e. about a factor
w h e r e B a n d W a r e the s p e c i m e n d i m e n s i o n s a s
of 8 . F i g . 9 s h o w s the d a t a o b t a i n e d f o r
s h o w n i n F i g . 2 , A P is the a p p l i e d l o a d r a n g e
and the c o m p l i a n c e f u n c t i o n Y is g i v e n a s : - R = 1 t e s t s o n 7 6 mm p l a t e w i t h A K c a l c u l a t e d
u s i n g o n l y the p o s i t i v e p a r t o f t h e l o a d cycle,
s u p e r i m p o s e d o n these for p o s i t i v e - R . It c a n
Y = 29.6( /W) a 0 # 5
~ i85.5( /w) "
a 1 5

b e s e e n that a l t h o u g h the R = - 1 d a t a
g e n e r a l l y lie t o w a r d s the u p p e r b o u n d o f the
+ 655.7( /W) a 2 - 5
- I017( /W)
a 3 - 5
s c a t t e r b a n d , the d i f f e r e n c e i s n e v e r g r e a t e r
than a factor of about 2 . This discrepancy
5 c o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d for by the u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n
+ 638.9(7w)^ (3)
o f A K b y i g n o r i n g the c o m p r e s s i v e p a r t o f the
l o a d i n g c y c l e , but it is c l e a r that it w o u l d
23- The m e a n l i n e d r a w n t h r o u g h the d a t a be e q u a l l y u n r e a l i s t i c to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t the
points in F i g . 8, derived by a linear r e g r e s ­ w h o l e o f the c o m p r e s s i v e c y c l e . It w a s felt
sion analysis, has been used as a reference that w i t h o u t f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e e f f e c t
line in subsequent f i g u r e s . of reversed loading, definite conclusions could

29
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

not be drawn on the discrepancy b e t w e e n R = 0 and w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t the e n h a n c e m e n t o f g r o w t h


R = - 1 data. rates saturates at about R = 0 . 7 * F i g . 13
shows data from R = - 1 tests in seawater and
3§ mm plate specimens i t i s u n u s u a l i n t h a t t h e d a t a l i e s o n the
A i r tests The data obtained from tests on lower bound of the p o s i t i v e - R scatter band and
38 m m C T S t y p e s p e c i m e n s a t R - r a t i o s f r o m 0 t o indeed, very little increase in growth rates
O . 8 5 i s c o m p a r e d to the reference line from the over those seen i n air are observed, p a r t i c u ­
76 m m d a t a i n F i g - 1 0 . It can be seen that very l a r l y at l o w e r v a l u e s o f A K .
g o o d a g r e e m e n t e x i s t s for the two t h i c k n e s s e s ,
a l t h o u g h the t h i n n e r plate e x h i b i t s more scatter Fractography
p r o b a b l y d u e to u n e q u a l c r a c k g r o w t h a n d c r a c k 3 11.. F i g . 1144 s h o w s a p o l i s h e d a n d e t c h e d s e c t i o n
front curvature w h i c h t e n d s to be more o f the m a t e r i a l t e s t e d a n d s h o w s the r e g u l a r
pronounced in thinner specimens. equiaxed grain structure typical of this type
of material. Also visible are inclusions of
29. M a n y of the comments already made about manganese sulphide w h i c h are elongated in the
t e s t i n g w i t h full l o a d r e v e r s a l also a p p l y to direction of rolling.
t h e t h i n n e r p l a t e a n d the e x p e r i m e n t a l c o m p l i a n c e
calibration has already been described. The 32. S c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n m i c r o g r a p h s o f the
r e s u l t s of R = 1 tests are compared w i t h the fracture surfaces of s p e c i m e n s tested in air
76 m m d a t a a n d a l s o w i t h t h e s c a t t e r b a n d f o r a n d s e a w a t e r a r e s h o w n i n F i g s 15 a n d 1 6 . The
p o s i t i v e - R 38 m m t e s t s i n F i g . 1 1 . Again good air test shows that failure is generally
a g r e e m e n t e x i s t s b e t w e e n the d a t a for the two ductile and transgranular with patches of
t h i c k n e s s e s a l t h o u g h a g a i n the R = 1 d a t a tend ill-defined fatigue striations. The specimens
t o l i e o n t h e u p p e r b o u n d o f the 38 m m s c a t t e r t e s t e d i n s e a w a t e r s h o w e d e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e
band. f e a t u r e s a l t h o u g h a t l o w e r v a l u e s o f A K it w a s
possible to d i s t i n g u i s h small p a t c h e s of i n t e r -
30. Seawater tests The results of tests on granular failure.
38 m m p l a t e s p e c i m e n s i n a s e a w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t
a r e s h o w n i n F i g s 12 a n d 1 3 - F i g . 12 s h o w s DISCUSSION
d a t a f r o m t e s t s at f o u r d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i v e - R 33- The behaviour of a sharp crack subjected
r a t i o s and it is clear that a significant t o cyclic l o a d i n g i n a h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t i s
effect of R-ratio exists, with higher R-ratio o b v i o u s l y c o m p l e x , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the
tests showing considerably enhanced growth e n v i r o n m e n t i s u n c o n t r o l l e d a n d i s s u b j e c t e d to
rates. It would appear however that this a large number of v a r i a b l e s . This complexity
e f f e c t i s m o r e n o t i c e a b l e w h e n the R - r a t i o i s i s n a t u r a l l y v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o s i m u l a t e i n the
i n c r e a s e d f r o m 0.1 to 0 . 3 , p a r t i c u l a r l y at laboratory and for this r e a s o n , the constant
lower values of stress intensity factor and a m p l i t u d e c r a c k g r o w t h w o r k c a r r i e d o u t i n the
a l t h o u g h the a m o u n t o f d a t a i s l i m i t e d , i t first p a r t o f U K O S R P c a n n o t g i v e a c o m p l e t e

30
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D T H O R P E

a n s w e r to the p r o b l e m s o f c r a c k g r o w t h i n
large offshore structures. The work does
h o w e v e r s e r v e to i n d i c a t e t r e n d s a n d h i g h l i g h t
a r e a s d e s e r v i n g o f f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n w h i l s t the
d a t a p r o d u c e d i s u s e f u l i n the a s s e s s m e n t o f
possible theoretical analyses of structures and
the p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e i r o p e r a t i n g l i f e t i m e s .

J>k. C o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e t e s t s a r e t h e m s e l v e s a
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n
a l t h o u g h b e c a u s e o f t h i s s i m p l i c i t y a n d the
lack of any interaction effects between cycles,
t h e y a r e u s e f u l f o r e v a l u a t i n g the i m p o r t a n c e
o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s w h e t h e r l o c a l or o n
a large scale. It can be seen from the data
in F i g . 5 that temperature can play a large
p a r t i n d e t e r m i n i n g the r a t e o f c r a c k p r o p a g a ­
t i o n a n d s i n c e it i s k n o w n t h a t e v e n m o d e s t
temperature increases can have a large effect
o n c o r r o s i o n r a t e s , it i s t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s c a n
manifest itself in terms of very m u c h more Fig.lU x U00
r a p i d c o r r o s i o n o f the c l e a n m e t a l s u r f a c e s Optical micrograph shoving n o r m a l i s e d structure
e x p o s e d at the c r a c k t i p . This theory of
dissolution-assisted growth does have its
drawbacks h o w e v e r , particularly since there is
considerable evidence to s h o w that excessive
c o r r o s i o n c a n l e a d t o b l u n t i n g o f the c r a c k
tip with resultant reduction in growth rate
and even complete crack a r r e s t . (Refs 3 and
12) A l t h o u g h it m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d t h a t w a t e r
t e m p e r a t u r e i n the N o r t h S e a m a y b e r e l a t i v e l y
l o w f o r a l a r g e p a r t o f the y e a r , q u i t e
considerable local temperature changes could
o c c u r i n the v i c i n i t y o f h o t r i s e r s o r n e a r
the w a t e r l i n e .

35- The corrosion of metals in an aqueous


e n v i r o n m e n t i s u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d b y the
anodic dissolution reaction:-

M > M 2 +
+ 2e" (5)

36. This reaction must necessarily be comple­


mented by a cathodic reaction, in water either Fig.l? x 2000
oxygen reduction or hydrogen evolution:- F r a c t o g r a p h of s p e c i m e n t e s t e d in a i r showing
d u c t i l e f a i l u r e . A,K = M P a m
^0 2 + H 0 + 2e
2
_
» 20H" (6)

2k +
+ 2e~ > H 2 t (7)

37- I n n e u t r a l s o l u t i o n s , the o x y g e n r e a c t i o n
is generally favoured but in conditions where
solution mixing is i n e f f i c i e n t , local d e p l e t i o n
of oxygen can occur, resulting in a reduced
corrosion rate. I f a n o d i c d i s s o l u t i o n of
m a t e r i a l a t the c r a c k t i p i s a m e c h a n i s m o f
enhancement of crack growth, this reduced
corrosion could be reflected i n the observed
c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e . F i g . 5 d o e s i n fact s h o w
s u c h a r e d u c t i o n w h e n the o x y g e n l e v e l i n the
s e a w a t e r i s a r t i f i c i a l l y r e d u c e d f r o m 7 mg/L to
1 Wg/l.

38. The e n v i r o n m e n t a t the c r a c k t i p c o u l d w e l l


b e c o m e d e p l e t e d i n o x y g e n e v e n i f the b u l k
s o l u t i o n w a s u n c h a n g e d i f f o r i n s t a n c e the c r a c k Fig. 16. x 2000
opening was small and resulted in very little F r a c t o g r a p h o f s p e c i m e n t e s t e d in s e a w a t e r show­
s o l u t i o n r e p l e n i s h m e n t due to ' p u m p i n g ' or i f ing p a t c h e s o f i n t e r g r a n u l a r f r a c t u r e .
c o r r o s i o n p r o d u c t s or o t h e r d e p o s i t s p r e v e n t e d A K = Ik M P a pm

31
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

r e a s o n a b l e a c c e s s to the t i p . This postulated of crack opening allowing better environment


oxygen depletion-controlled corrosion is access and promoting accelerated growth. It is
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the d a t a s h o w n i n F i g . 5 w i t h i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l
r e d u c t i o n s o f the o r d e r o f x 3 b e i n g o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e d a t a for R = 0.1 a n d R = - 1,
i n c r a c k g r o w t h at l o w l o a d r a n g e s a n d t h u s presumably because for a considerable period
small crack openings. At higher load ranges, o f the l o a d i n g c y c l e , t h e c r a c k a t R = 0.1 is
1
that is higher maximum stress intensity, where effectively 'closed to the e n v i r o n m e n t , s o
crack openings are larger and pumping conse­ m a k i n g i t m o r e s i m i l a r to t h e m o r e p o s i t i v e
q u e n t l y m o r e e f f e c t i v e , the e f f e c t s o f r e d u c e d closure of the R = - 1 test, whilst the
oxygen concentration are very much l e s s . reversed loading of this latter test p o s s i b l y
1
provides better 'pumping .
39- The dependence of fatigue crack growth rate
in corrosive environment on cyclic loading 43. C o n v e r s e l y , the effect of R-ratio a p p e a r s
frequency is well k n o w n and it is thus no to s a t u r a t e a t a b o u t R = 0.7, since there is
surprise to observe a strong frequency effect negligible further enhancement if the r a t i o is
f o r B S 4-360:50D i n s e a w a t e r . The data for four r a i s e d t o 0.83. S i n c e the c o r r o s i o n r e a c t i o n
f r e q u e n c i e s are s h o w n i n F i g . 6 a n d i t c l e a r t h a t occurring w i t h i n the crack i s time d e p e n d e n t ,
1 1
the s e a w a t e r h a s v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t o n g r o w t h it m a y w e l l b e t h a t the time t h e c r a c k i s o p e n
rates for frequencies higher than 1 H z . A at R = 0.7 i s s u f f i c i e n t for the r e a c t i o n t o
r e d u c t i o n i n f r e q u e n c y to 0.1 H z h o w e v e r r e s u l t s proceed a s fast a s possible and that b e y o n d
in accelerated growth at values of A K greater t h i s i s i s t h e s p e e d o f the r e a c t i o n i t s e l f ,
t h a n a b o u t 19 M P a / m w h i l e a r e d u c t i o n to p r o b a b l y i n t h e f o r m - o f the d i f f u s i o n v e l o c i t y
0.05 H z results in a further slight enhancement. of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g ions w h i c h is the rate
I t i s c l e a r t h e r e f o r e t h a t i t w o u l d b e u n w i s e to controlling step.
carry out accelerated fatigue tests at u n r e a l i -
stically h i g h frequencies, particularly since 44. A s previously discussed, two t h i c k n e s s e s
0.1 to 0.02 H z is a reasonable representation of of m a t e r i a l from the same cast were tested i n
the a v e r a g e w a v e f r e q u e n c y i n t h e N o r t h S e a . a i r , 76 m m a n d 38 m m , t h e d a t a f o r t h e s e t e s t s
i s s h o w n i n F i g s 8, 9, 10 a n d 1 1 . It might be
40. I n b o t h F i g . 3 a n d 6 depicting the effects argued that the thicker material would s h o w
of oxygen concentration, temperature and h i g h e r c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s t h a n t h e 38 m m p l a t e
frequency, very little enhancement of growth due to i n c r e a s e d d i f f i c u l t i e s i n o b t a i n i n g a
o v e r t h a t s e e n i n a i r i s observed' a t v a l u e s o f uniform microstructure and due to the i n c r e a s e d
A K b e l o w a b o u t 20 M P a / m a l t h o u g h i t s h o u l d b e likelihood of large non-metallic inclusions.
noted that these data were obtained at a stress T h e d a t a s h o w s h o w e v e r that n o s i g n i f i c a n t
ratio of 0 . 1 . That seawater enhancement of difference e x i s t s , indeed the data obtained
growth only occurs at higher stress intensities f o r the t h i c k e r p l a t e e x h i b i t c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s
c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e fact t h a t t h e s e h i g h e r scatter t h a n the thinner m a t e r i a l . It has b e e n
stress intensities invariably result in s u g g e s t e d ( r e f . 3) that the 76 m m d a t a a r e b e s t
correspondingly larger crack openings, thus represented b y two Paris equations:
a l l o w i n g b e t t e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l a c c e s s to t h e
1 2
crack tip region and probably resulting in more d a / d N = 3.26 x 10" A K 5 # 2 ?

effective mixing of the crack tip s o l u t i o n .


1 1
This effect of improved access is supported by d a / d N = 2.44 x 10~ AK " 2 6 7

the r e d u c e d e f f e c t s o f s o l u t i o n v a r i a b l e s a n d
the g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s o b s e r v e d with a point of inflection occurring at a A K
at h i g h e r l o a d r a n g e s ( F i g . 3 a n d 6 ) . o f a b o u t 25 M P a y & i . A n u m b e r o f p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s
have b e e n suggested for this b u t it w o u l d s e e m
41. F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r the e f f e c t s o f that the most likely e x p l a n a t i o n i s that it i s
difficult environmental access is provided by only w h e n the stress intensity r e a c h e s t h i s
the d a t a f o r t e s t s at d i f f e r e n t R - r a t i o s . level that the crack tip plastic zone i s o f
F i g . 10 a n d 11 s h o w s a i r d a t a o b t a i n e d a t s u f f i c i e n t s i z e to a l l o w h o m o g e n e o u s f l o w o f
H a r w e l l a n d S p r i n g f i e l d s a t five R - r a t i o s . material at the crack tip, with fatigue crack
A l t h o u g h a d e g r e e o f s c a t t e r e x i s t s the d a t a growth by a striation mechanism. P r i o r to
are generally very close together and there is t h i s , t h e r e l a t i v e size of p l a s t i c z o n e a n d
no obvious trend with increasing R-ratio. This material g r a i n size cause l o c a l constraint o f
suggests that the mechanism of crack growth i n m a t e r i a l f l o w w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t c r a c k g r o w t h
this material is not dependent on R-ratio, and is more crystallographic. This is consistent
electron fractography confirms that no gross w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t the s m a l l e s t s t r i a t i o n
differences exist. spacing observed in this material is of the
o r d e r o f 0 . 1 - 0 . 2 u-m - the a p p r o x i m a t e g r o w t h
42. The effects of R-ratio in seawater tests rate at the point of inflection.
i s h o w e v e r quite p r o n o u n c e d ( F i g s 12 a n d 13)
w i t h i n c r e a s e s i n g r o w t h r a t e o f u p to x 6 b e i n g 45. Ductile failure of low-carbon mild steels
o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n R = 0.1 and R = O.85. Again has been investigated by a number of workers
for l o w e r R - r a t i o s , v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t o f s e a ­ ( r e f s 12 a n d 13) a n d the f e a t u r e s s e e n o n t e s t s
w a t e r i s s e e n a t A K < 20 M P a / m a l t h o u g h t h e c a r r i e d o u t f o r U K O S R P are e n t i r e l y i n a g r e e ­
high-R tests show their greatest enhancement in ment with these other investigations. F i g . 15
this region. T h e s e r e s u l t s a g a i n p o i n t to shows that failure in air is almost exclusively
larger crack openings or longer effective times ductile w i t h faint fatigue s t r i a t i o n s b e i n g

32
PAPER 4: M O R G A N A N D THORPE

f o r m e d a t v a l u e s o f A K > ~ 18 M P a / m . Failure to characterise more fully t h i s r e g i o n and to


in seawater tests is also ductile a l t h o u g h some attempt to d e t e r m i n e whether a distinct
e v i d e n c e o f the c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c n a t u r e o f threshold exists below which no measurable
crack e x t e n s i o n at lower v a l u e s of A K is provided g r o w t h o c c u r s , the e f f e c t s o f different
b y the appearance of p a t c h e s of intergranular environments on such a threshold will also be
fracture. studied. A s part o f the same p r o g r a m m e , an
i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s to be m a d e a s t o the applic­
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ability of Linear Elastic fracture Mechanics to
46. I t i s c l e a r f r o m the r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d the g r o w t h o f v e r y s h o r t c r a c k s . A better under­
t h a t p r o b a b l y the m o s t i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e i n standing of these two effects might have a
determining crack growth under simulated North considerable effect on design philosophy.
S e a c o n d i t i o n s i s the s t r e s s r a t i o . This is
particularly evident in situations which result 50. It has also b e e n suggested that the
in low values of AK where low R-ratios (0.1 a p p l i c a t i o n , to r e a l s t r u c t u r e s , o f c r a c k g r o w t h
a n d - 1) s h o w v e r y l i t t l e e n h a n c e d g r o w t h i n data obtained in constant amplitude testing can
seawater but R-ratios of 0 . 7 - 0 . 8 5 can show be misleading and a further investigation i s to
increases of x 6 over air growth r a t e s . If b e c a r r i e d o u t a t H a r w e l l to m e a s u r e g r o w t h r a t e s
p l a t f o r m d e s i g n i s to b e a i m e d at t h e s e l o w in tests w i t h realistic load spectra.
A K r e g i m e s t h e n it i s c l e a r l y v i t a l t h a t a
reasonable estimate of R-ratio is considered. 51. T h i s d a t a w i l l be more directly comparable
A t h i g h e r A K ( i . e . > 25 M P a / m ) the R - r a t i o to the e n d u r a n c e d a t a o n w e l d e d j o i n t s w h i c h i s
effect is much reduced and all seawater tests t o b e o b t a i n e d at b o t h the W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e a n d
s h o w g r o w t h r a t e s w h i c h are f a s t e r t h a n i n a i r , the N a t i o n a l E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y .
a fact w h i c h should be considered if for
i n s t a n c e a n e s t i m a t e o f s a f e l i f e t i m e i s to b e
m a d e o n a m e m b e r f o u n d to c o n t a i n a r e l a t i v e l y ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
large crack. It has been suggested that a n T h i s w o r k f o r m s p a r t of the U n i t e d K i n g d o m
u p p e r b o u n d o f x 6 o f the a i r g r o w t h be u s e d Offshore Steels Research Project, commissioned
when designing offshore structures and while b y the D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y t h r o u g h t h e O f f s h o r e
t h i s w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e s a f e f o r the v a s t Energy Technology Board. T h e r e s e a r c h is c a r r i e d
m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s , it c o u l d a l s o i n c e r t a i n o u t w i t h f i n a n c i a l aid f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n C o a l a n d
circumstances be very conservative and thus Steel C o m m u n i t y .
expensive.
REFERENCES
47. A n o t h e r p o s s i b l y i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e i s the 1. THbRPE T and MORGAN H.G. This Conference.
local conditions of temperature since 2. S C O T T P.M a n d S I L V E S T E R D . R . V . Interim
c o n s i d e r a b l y e n h a n c e d g r o w t h c a n o c c u r for a technical Report UKOSRP 5/02. 1977
modest temperature increase. W h i l s t the b u l k 3. J O H N S O N R, M O R G A N H . G . a n d B R E T H E R T O N I .
of any offshore structure is certainly immune Interim technical Report UKOSRP 3/07- December
from such temperature fluctuations, areas 1980.
a r o u n d h o t r i s e r s o r n e a r the w a t e r l i n e c o u l d 4. A.S.T.M. A S T M S t a n d a r d E 647/78 T .
well be considered areas where h i g h growth 5. P A R I S P . C . a n d "ERDOGAN F . J. o f B a s i c
rates might be possible and should be designed Engineering (Trans ASME Series D ) 85. 1963
accordingly. p.89.
6. S C O T T P.M. a n d S I L V E S T E R D . R . V . Interim
48. T h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n the c r a c k g r o w t h Technical Report UKOSRP 3/03 1977-
w o r k a r e r e a s s u r i n g i n one a s p e c t h o w e v e r , 7. JOHNSON R and BRETHERTON I. Interim Tech.
t h e r e w o u l d a p p e a r to b e n o s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t R e p o r t U K O S R P 3/0^+ 1979-
o f t h i c k n e s s i n the r a n g e t e s t e d . It should 8. R O O K E D.P. and CARTWRIGHT D.J. Compendium
b e e m p h a s i s e d h o w e v e r t h a t the t e s t s o n 76 m m of stress intensity factors. HMSO 197^
plate were only performed in a i r and while 9. K N O T T J.F. Fundamentals of F r a c t u r e -
t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t t h a t g r o w t h Mechanics, Butterworths London 1973-
rates would be radically different in sea­ 10. B O W I E O . C , F R E E S E C.E. and N E A L D.M. ASME
w a t e r , some e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n f i r m a t i o n i s P u b l i c a t i o n 73-APM-C 1973-
perhaps necessary. 11. CHELL G.G. Central Electricity Research
L a b o r a t o r i e s C E G B R e f . 6 1973 RD/VN236/73-
49. I t h a s b e e n s t r e s s e d e a r l i e r t h a t the 12. M O R G A N H.G. and BRETHERTON I. Interim
low stress intensity regime is of particular Technical Report UKOSRP 3/08, 1980.
i m p o r t a n c e a n d for t h i s r e a s o n , a n e w 1 3 . A I T A C R . a n d W E E R T M A N J. M e t T r a n s JOA p 5 3 5
programme o f work h a s commenced at Springfields 1979.

33
T. W. THORPE, BSc, A RANCE, D. R. V.
SILVESTER, BSc, and P. M. SCOTT, BSc, PhD,
Atomic Energy Research Establishment,
Harwell, and H. G. MORGAN, BSc, MSc, PhD,
Springfields Nuclear Power Development
Laboratories

T h e effect o fNorth S e a service conditions o n fatigue crack


growth in structural steel

This paper d e s c r i b e s the U . K . O . S . R . P . t e s t s , c o v e r i n g f a t i g u e crack g r o w t h e x p e r i m e n t s on BS 4 3 6 0 :


50D s t r u c t u r a l steel in both air and sea w a t e r . The c r a c k g r o w t h rates of t h r o u g h - t h i c k n e s s c r a c k s
a n d s u r f a c e c r a c k s are d e s c r i b e d and the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of such data to growth of a c t u a l w e l d i n g
d e f e c t s is d i s c u s s e d .

INTRODUCTION specimens unless stated otherwise.


1. F a t i g u e crack g r o w t h of w e l d f a b r i c a t i o n
defects is known to control a significant 4. It was important in t e r m s of both costs and
f r a c t i o n of the f a t i g u e life of w e l d e d steel t i m e s c a l e s to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r h i g h e r cyclic
joints. In a s e a w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t the rates of loading frequencies than those e x p e r i e n c e d in
c r a c k g r o w t h are s e n s i t i v e to a range of testing the N o r t h S e a , 0.1-0.2 H z , could be m e a n i n g f u l l y
v a r i a b l e s , in p a r t i c u l a r the c y c l i c stressing employed in corrosion fatigue testing in
frequency. H e n c e it w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t , time seawater. C y c l i c f r e q u e n c y was found to h a v e a
c o n s u m i n g and e x p e n s i v e to conduct u s e f u l l y long strong effect upon crack growth rates under
t e r m c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e e n d u r a n c e (or S - N ) tests freely c o r r o d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , F i g . 1 ( r e f . 2 ) ,
o n all types and sizes of t u b u l a r joints u n d e r and all subsequent tests^ in seawater were
r e a l i s t i c service c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h included the t h e r e f o r e carried out at a f r e q u e n c y of 0 . 1 - 0 . 2
time dependent f a c t o r , c o r r o s i o n . Measurement Hz.
of crack p r o p a g a t i o n rates to a large extent
o v e r c o m e s this d i f f i c u l t y and p r o v i d e s a viable 5. The influence of g e n e r a l environmental
method for evaluating the chemical and variables was examined including seawater
e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l e f f e c t s of s e a w a t e r c o r r o s i o n on t e m p e r a t u r e , o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n and a l k a l i n i t y
corrosion fatigue properties. Corrosion fatigue w i t h , in g e n e r a l , second o r d e r e f f e c t s on c r a c k
endurances may be obtained by combining the p r o p a g a t i o n rates (Fig. 2 ) . However, a change
c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n data on s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , the of t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m 5 to 20 °C r e s u l t e d in a
stress analyses of various tubular joint d o u b l i n g of the g r o w t h r a t e s . The e f f e c t s of
p r o f i l e s and the p r e d i c t i v e m e t h o d s of linear the more important variables are described
elastic fracture mechanics. separately below.

2. This paper r e v i e w s the crack g r o w t h data Effect of Mean Stress on Crack Propagation
o b t a i n e d for BS 4 3 6 0 : G r a d e 50D s t e e l . The Rates
propagation rates of through-thickness cracks 6. A tubular joint subjected to fatigue
h a v e been m e a s u r e d u n d e r a w i d e range of typical s t r e s s e s could e x p e r i e n c e a w i d e r a n g e of m e a n
in-service conditions. The applicability of stresses depending upon a combination of
s u c h data to the g r o w t h of m o r e r e a l i s t i c c r a c k structural loading, residual welding stresses
s h a p e s w h i c h could d e v e l o p from a c t u a l w e l d i n g and post weld heat t r e a t m e n t . A s e r i e s of tests
d e f e c t s w a s d e t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g the crack under freely c o r r o d i n g c o n d i t i o n s in seawater
g r o w t h rates of s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l s u r f a c e cracks u s i n g R v a l u e s in the r a n g e -1 to + 0.85 (a
u n d e r a smaller range of test c o n d i t i o n s . The m e a s u r e of the m e a n stress d e f i n e d as the ratio
m a i n results of this i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p o s s i b l e of m i n i m u m over m a x i m u m l o a d ) w e r e c a r r i e d o u t .
a p p l i c a t i o n s are s u m m a r i s e d and the remaining T h e s e revealed that an i n c r e a s e in the R r a t i o
p r o b l e m s in this field are o u t l i n e d . (i.e. increasing the tensile mean stress),
e n h a n c e d the crack p r o p a g a t i o n rate ( F i g . 3 ) ,
CRACK PROPAGATION STUDIES but this effect saturated for values of R
b e t w e e n 0.5 and 0.7 (refs. 3 , 4 , 5 ) . It was
Introduction p o s s i b l e to e n c o m p a s s all t h e s e s e a w a t e r data by
3. The e x p e r i m e n t a l details of the tests an u p p e r b o u n d i n g line, d e s c r i b e d by t r a n s l a t i n g
c a r r i e d out have been d e s c r i b e d in the previous the m e a n air data line x 6 in the c r a c k g r o w t h
p a p e r at this c o n f e r e n c e ( r e f . 1 ) , w h i c h a l s o rate d i r e c t i o n .
i n c l u d e s the results of the crack p r o p a g a t i o n
tests conducted in air. In the following The E f f e c t of C o r r o s i o n P r e v e n t i o n M e a s u r e s on
s e c t i o n s of this p a p e r , the r e s u l t s described Crack Growth
were obtained from through-thickness cracked 7. The effect of the two m e t h o d s of o f f s h o r e
C o m p a c t T e n s i o n ( C T ) or S i n g l e E d g e N o t c h ( S E N ) c o r r o s i o n p r e v e n t i o n , c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n and

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 35


C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

painting, on crack propagation were studied a c a t h o d i c r e a c t i o n in w h i c h c a l c a r e o u s d e p o s i t s


(refs. 4,5,6). w e r e p r e c i p i t a t e d in the c r a c k . These precipi­
t a t e s b l o c k e d and w e d g e d open the c r a c k thus
8. E x a m p l e s of the d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t e s t s r e d u c i n g the e f f e c t i v e AK.
u n d e r c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n at - 0 . 8 5 V and - 1 . 1 V
( w - r . t . A g / A g C l or S t a n d a r d C a l o m e l E l e c t r o d e as
i n d i c a t e d ) , a r e g i v e n in F i g s . 4 and 5 . In The Effect of Discontinuous Immersion on Crack
general low levels of cathodic protection Growth
r e d u c e d c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s at n e g a t i v e a n d low 10. The parts of conventional offshore
p o s i t i v e R r a t i o s , the o p t i m u m p o t e n t i a l being s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h are s u b j e c t to f a t i g u e l o a d i n g s
- 7 0 0 to - 8 0 0 mV ( w . r . t . to A g C l or S.C.E.). c a n also be a r e a s s u b j e c t to e i t h e r seaspray
H i g h e r l e v e l s of c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n r e s u l t e d in a n d / o r i n t e r m i t t e n t i m m e r s i o n by either w a v e s or
enhancement of crack propagation rates from tides. A s h o r t series of tests w e r e carried out
T 1 -
this level often with a k n e e in the o t h e r w i s e to i n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t of such c o n d i t i o n s on
linear relationship between log d a / d N a n d log f a t i g u e crack g r o w t h rates. The results are
A K i n t h e r a n g e of A K, 10 to 20 MPa/nT. This s h o w n in F i g . 6.
knee became more pronounced with increasing
positive R ratio and increasing cathodic 11. T h e e f f e c t of i n t e r m i t t e n t immersion at R =
polarisation (Figs. 4 and 5). Cathodically -1 w a s found to be a f u n c t i o n of the r e l a t i v e
protected specimens exhibited more frequent l e n g t h s of the a l t e r n a t i n g wet and dry p e r i o d s
cleavage modes of failure on the fracture ( r e f . 7 ) . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the results was
s u r f a c e , ( m a i n l y i n t e r g r a n u l a r at less t h a n 20 complicated by lack: of temperature control
MPa^/m^ m a i n l y t r a n s g r a n u l a r a b o v e this v a l u e ) , d u r i n g the dry p h a s e s . In g e n e r a l it could be
i n s t e a d of the m o r e u s u a l d u c t i l e t r a n s g r a n u l a r said that the p r e s e n c e of dry p e r i o d s could
f a i l u r e s , (ref. 6 ) . c a u s e crack r e t a r d a t i o n and even c r a c k arrest
b e c a u s e of b l u n t i n g of the crack tip by c o r r o ­
9. A series of s p e c i m e n s w e r e c o a t e d with s i o n p i t t i n g . The crack g r o w t h rates w e r e w i t h i n
p a i n t to e x a m i n e the e f f e c t of this m e t h o d of the scatter band of those measured during
c o r r o s i o n p r e v e n t i o n on c r a c k g r o w t h ; it s h o u l d , unprotected, continuous immersion tests, Fig. 3.
h o w e v e r , b e n o t e d that the p a i n t did not e x c l u d e
seawater f r o m the c r a c k ( r e f . 5 ) . The crack 12. The tests c o n d u c t e d u n d e r spray c o n d i t i o n s
p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e s of t h e s e s p e c i m e n s w e r e v e r y r e s u l t e d in crack g r o w t h rates s l i g h t l y h i g h e r
similar to those of unpainted ones under than similar, fully immersed tests. This
i d e n t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , e x c e p t that they e x h i b i t e d difference was also attributed to the higher
a long i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d b e f o r e the c r a c k s b e g a n than u s u a l s p e c i m e n t e m p e r a t u r e (15°C), during
to p r o p a g a t e . T h i s b e h a v i o u r w a s a t t r i b u t e d to the spray tests, due to the absence of a
t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the p r o t e c t i o n c u r r e n t in c o n t i n u o u s flow of cold s e a w a t e r at 5 to 10°C
the painted specimens, which made more effective around the s p e c i m e n s ( r e f . 8 ) .

1 1 1 I I I II I -I 1—1 1 I I I I^ 1 1—I I I 11 Ij 1—I—I 1 I I 111 1 1 1—I I I LL


10 C
AK = 50 MPa/m R = 0 to 0 2
Sine or t r i a n g u l a r
AK = 30 MPa/m" wavefor m

10 X 12Ni-5Cr-3Mo Maraging steel


o 5 Ni " Cr - Mo-V steel
• C - M n - L i n e pipe s t e e l , x 65
Crack growth rates
C-Mn - S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , B S A 3 6 0 grade 50D equal those in air
EN 55C T u r b i n e rotor steel

r 5 i i i i i i i i I i i i i i i i I _J l I 1 I ' » ' I l l I 11
10
10 ' 10"' 10~ 1
Frequency Hz 1 100

Fig.l. Frequency dependence of corrosion fatigue crack propagation of several


ferritic steels immersed in 3 or 3 . 5 % NaCl s o l u t i o n or seawater

3 6
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T A N D M O R G A N

Increase i n c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n Medium Frequency 7


Temperature Oxygen
7
Cathodic PH
^ * potential
rate w i t h respect to a i r
Hz mg02/L
0 X1 X2 X3

,-0.65/

1-10
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^
WWWWWN
L\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\l
6.5

K\\\\\\\N
k\\\\\\\\\\\N
k\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^ I
15%NaCl
^dilute
seawater

Fig.2. Comparative effects of environmental variations o n fatigue crack growth


rates ( 01)

3x 10"' 1 1 1—I I T 3x '


~EE2 r
" "T-T
KEY
R = 0TO0-1 • = -1
O R = -1
R = 05
o R= 010 01
x R = 07
A R=05 + R=085
x R=07 MEAN AIR DATA LINE
10"' + R^=085 MEAN AIR DATA LINE X6
MEAN AIR DATA LINE BSA360 50D STEEL
MEAN AIR DATA LINE X6 TESTED AT 5-10°C
BSA360 50D STEEL 01 Hz (sine)
TESTED AT 5-10°C 0 85 V(Ag/AgCl )
0 1 Hz (sine)
- 0 65V(Ag/AgCl)

10"

10"'

10-9
100
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR,AK, MPa/rrT CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPq/m

Fig.3. 38 m m plate axial tests in s e a water Fig.U. 3 8 m m plate axial tests in seawater at
at R = - 1 t o O . 8 5 a n d f r e e l y c o r r o d i n g R = -1 t o 0 . 8 5 and - 0 . 8 5 v (Ag/AgCl) (• S.C.E.)

37
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

The Growth of Semi-Ellitpical Surface Cracks thickness or elliptic, considered here, as


13. All the above results were obtained using indeed could the distribution of cathodic
CT or SEN specimens. Such specimens have protection potentials. Therefore experimental
planar, through-thickness cracks, whereas the comparison of the growth of through-thickness
cracks observed during the fatigue of welded and surface elliptical cracks was considered
tubular joints are semi-elliptical in shape for essential.
large portions of the fatigue lives. These
differences have led to a consideration of 15. As explained in the previous paper, the
several important factors which must be present method of presenting crack growth data,
understood before one could successfully apply the "da/dN v K" plots of Fig. 3 etc. , use a
the large volume of CT and SEN specimen data to cyclic crack tip stress intensity factor origi­
the growth of more realistic elliptic crack nally calculated by various theoretical methods
shapes in tubular joints. or measured from compliance or photoelasticity
experiments. Several different theoretical
14. There are several different possible stress intensity calibrations have been
corrosion and metallurgical factors that can published for semi-elliptical surface cracks in
enhance fatigue crack growth rates, but the finite thickness plates, and it was necessary to
rates of the corrosion processes will depend determine which was the most accurate
upon the environment near the crack tip. calibration.
Theoretical studies (refs. 9, 10) have indicated
that large changes in the composition of 16. To test the accuracy of the various stress
solutions near the crack tip are possible, and intensity calibrations for elliptical cracks in
such changes would depend upon ease of access of bending, a series of tests was undertaken in
bulk solution to the crack interior, the shape which specimens containing semi-elliptical
of the crack, the pumping action of the crack surface cracks of various aspect ratios were
during fatigue, etc. All of these factors could fatigued in either three point or cantilever
differ in the two types of cracks, i.e. through- bending (refs. 5,8). The progressive change in

CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPaJffT CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, A K, MPo/rrT

Fig. 5 . 3 8 m m p l a t e a x i a l t e s t s in sea Fig. 6 . 3 8 mm plate axial tests in sea water


w a t e r at R = - 1 t o O . 8 5 a n d - 1 . 1 0 V (Tidal i m m e r s i o n ) at R = - 1 to 0.85
( A g / A g C l ) (•S.C.E.)

38
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T A N D M O R G A N

c r a c k s h a p e and the rates of crack g r o w t h both by the existence of an unique re ' o n s h i p 1

o n the s u r f a c e and at the i n t e r i o r centre of the between crack aspect ratios and the relative
crack, (the " i n - d e p t h " g r o w t h ) , were measured crack depth, as has been reported by other
v i s u a l l y from s p e c i m e n s u r f a c e o b s e r v a t i o n s and workers (refs. 13, 1 4 ) .
b e a c h m a r k s on the fracture s u r f a c e and by A . C .
potential drop. W h e n e v a l u a t i n g the stress i n ­
18. T h e same u n i q u e crack a s p e c t ratio/crack
tensity factors for these cracks the best
depth relationship was also evident from
s o l u t i o n was found to be that of K o t e r a z a w a and
s p e c i m e n s w i t h s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l c r a c k s t e s t e d in
M i n a m i s a k a ( r e f . 1 1 ) but it was a l s o found that
3-point b e n d i n g and freely c o r r o d i n g in s e a w a t e r
t h e f i n i t e w i d t h c o r r e c t i o n factor a c c o u n t e d for
(ref. 8). T h e crack growth data for these a n d
a s u b s t a n t i a l part of the v a r i a t i o n in s t r e s s
the cantilever bend specimens is plotted in
i n t e n s i t y factor with crack g r o w t h (ref. 1 2 ) .
F i g s . 9 and 1 0 . The results a p p e a r e d to e x h i b i t
17. The results for crack growth in air a s m a l l e r R r a t i o d e p e n d e n c e than t h o s e of the
o b t a i n e d have been plotted in the n o r m a l m a n n e r previous CT and SEN through-thickness crack
for both s u r f a c e and i n - d e p t h c r a c k g r o w t h in s p e c i m e n s , but f u r t h e r work w o u l d be r e q u i r e d to
F i g s . 7 and 8 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The crack g r o w t h confirm this. A g a i n the i n - d e p t h c r a c k g r o w t h
r a t e s in both t h r e e - p o i n t and c a n t i l e v e r b e n d i n g rates appeared a n o m a - lously low c o m p a r e d to
s h o w e d quite good a g r e e m e n t w i t h the results of previous data, but nevertheless within
the CT and SEN tests, although there still experimental scatter. An a p p r o x i m a t e in-depth
a p p e a r s to be a slight o v e r - e s t i m a t i o n of stress K c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r w a s d e r i v e d f r o m the a i r
i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r s at the deepest point of the d a t a , e q u a l to about 0 . 8 , and a p p l i e d to the
cracks. T h i s w o u l d seem to i n d i c a t e a slight corrosion-fatigue in-depth data. The latter
e r r o r in the i n - d e p t h K c a l i b r a t i o n factor w h i c h t h e n a g r e e d w e l l w i t h the through-crack data.
w o u l d h a v e to be borne in m i n d w h e n e x a m i n i n g A l l the s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e d a t a
the c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e d a t a . The c r a c k g r o w t h w a s w i t h i n the "6x m e a n a i r d a t a " u p p e r b o u n d
r a t e s w e r e o b s e r v e d to be i n d e p e n d e n t of i n i t i a l d r a w n for the C T a n d S E N s p e c i m e n t e s t s .
c r a c k aspect r a t i o . This b e h a v i o u r was m i r r o r e d

—i— 1 1 I IIII I 1 1 I I I I 3x10" i—i i i i ii i i i


KEY KEY 1—r
-INITIAL ASPECT R INITIAL ASPECT R
RATIO (c:a) RATIO RATIO ( c : a I RATIO
1:1 2:1 4:1
1:1 2:1 4:1
0.1 • O 0-1 '
0-5 • ( 3-Pt BEND TESTS) • 0-5 ( 3 - Pt. BEND TESTS)
0-7 J A A 0-7^
- 1 (CANTILEVER BEND) + - 1-(CANTILEVER BENDING)
MEAN AIR DATA LINE MEAN AIR DATA LINE FOR
FOR BS4360:50D STEEL USING BS4360: 50D STEEL USING
.SEN AND CT SPECIMENS AT ROOM SEN AND CT SPECIMENS AT
TEMPERATURE ;-UR*0-85 ROOM TEMPERATURE; -1 * R ^ 0-85
SCATTER BAND OF
SEN AND CT DATA

10"

o
tr
o

< 10"

J L i i i i I 10" —1 I I / M M J I I I I II
1 10 100 1 A
10 100
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, A K, M Pa V"rrT
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPaVm

Fig.7. Crack growth results along the surface Fig.8. Crack growth results for the deepest
for semi e l l i p t i c c r a c k s in 38 m m t h i c k p l a t e s p o i n t o f s e m i e l l i p t i c c r a c k s in 38 m m
s t r e s s e d in b e n d i n g in a i r p l a t e s s t r e s s e d in b e n d i n g i n a i r

39
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

19. T h e a m o u n t of d a t a a c c u m u l a t e d for s e m i - a c c e l e r a t e d by a rise in solution temperature


elliptical crack growth under cathodic (see F i g . 2 ) .
p r o t e c t i o n is l i m i t e d but s o m e t r e n d s c a n be
d i s c e r n e d in F i g . 1 1 . T h e R = 0 . 1 , t h r e e - p o i n t 21. There h a v e been many p o s s i b l e mechanisms
b e n d d a t a a r e at the b o t t o m limit of the s c a t t e r suggested for the i n t e r a c t i o n of c o r r o s i o n and
b a n d for t h e t h r o u g h - t h i c k n e s s data s h o w i n g very fatigue, among them erabrittlement by s u b s t i ­
m u c h l o w e r g r o w t h r a t e s t h a n t h e R = 0 . 1 , CT t u t i o n a l h y d r o g e n , g r o w t h of i n t e r n a l d e f e c t s by
specimen tests. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d the R = - 1 , i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e of h y d r o g e n , strain-assisted
cantilever tests exhibited somewhat higher a n o d i c d i s s o l u t i o n of the crack t i p , e t c . They
g r o w t h rates than the corresponding SEN tests. all rely on the s p e c i e s evolved or d i s s o l v e d in
F u r t h e r w o r k is c u r r e n t l y in hand to e x p a n d this the crack tip a r e a . F r o m the t h r o u g h - t h i c k n e s s
work. crack tests it is p o s s i b l e to g a t h e r some
i n d i c a t i o n of the likely m e c h a n i s m . H i g h levels
DISCUSSION of cathodic p r o t e c t i o n favour the e v o l u t i o n of
20. It h a s b e e n s h o w n that t h e p r e s e n c e of h y d r o g e n , e s p e c i a l l y in the d e a r e a t e d c o n d i t i o n s
seawater can e n h a n c e crack growth rates in expected at the c r a c k tip. High levels of
s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s by a m a x i m u m f a c t o r of about c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n have a l s o resulted in an
s i x at c y c l i c f r e q u e n c i e s t y p i c a l of sea w a v e s . increase in c r a c k growth rates over those
The precise value of this factor depends m e a s u r e d under free c o r r o s i o n or with a little
p r i n c i p a l l y on t h e m e a n s t r e s s or R r a t i o of the cathodic polarisation. This would indicate the
fatigue cycle. C o r r o s i o n is both a t i m e a n d i n v o l v e m e n t of h y d r o g e n in tests at the more
temperature dependent electrochemical process n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l s and the i n c r e a s e d o c c u r r e n c e
and so t h e m a g n i t u d e of its c o n t r i b u t i o n to of cleavage u n d e r these c o n d i t i o n s also suggests
c r a c k a d v a n c e in e a c h c y c l e d e p e n d s u p o n both hydrogen embrittlement. In a d d i t i o n it should
the rate of and the time available for be noted that for the first f e w days or even
corrosion. This would explain the deleterious w e e k s of m a n y of the t e s t s , there existed a
e f f e c t of a r e d u c t i o n in c y c l i c f r e q u e n c e a n d is s u b s t a n t i a l p e r i o d of crack p r o p a g a t i o n which
one reason why crack growth rates are w e r e c l e a r l y not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of e q u i l i b r i u m

10 100
10 100
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK,MPa/m
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, AK, MPa Vm

Fig.9. C r a c k growth r e s u l t s a l o n g t h e s u r f a c e Fig.10. C r a c k growth r e s u l t s f o r t h e d e e p e s t


p o i n t o f semi e l l i p t i c c r a c k s i n 38 mm t h i c k
f o r s e m i e l l i p t i c c r a c k s i n 3 8 mm t h i c k p l a t e s
p l a t e s s t r e s s e d i n bending in seawater
s t r e s s e d in bending i n seawater

40
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T A N D M O R G A N

propagation (ref. 4 ) . This build-up of the vironment, (particularly oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) ,


corrosion effect is strong evidence for a a r i s i n g from d i f f e r e n c e s in the c r a c k s h a p e and
h y d r o g e n erabrittlement p r o c e s s . from the p u m p i n g a c t i o n under c y c l i c s t r e s s . The
solution composition within a crack can be
22. The p r e s e n c e of a m i n i m u m in the growth g r e a t l y m o d i f i e d from the b u l k c o m p o s i t i o n ( r e f .
rate e n h a n c e m e n t at low p o s i t i v e R r a t i o s as the 10, 1 5 ) but such m o d i f i c a t i o n s could be i m p e d e d
p o t e n t i a l is m a d e mc**e c a t h o d i c than - 0 . 6 5 V, by the carbonate buffer in s e a w a t e r and the
the free c o r r o s i o n p o t e n t i a l , can be e x p l a i n e d pumping action of the crack during fatigue.
in terms of two competitive processes e.g. H i g h R r a t i o s , for e x a m p l e , m a y w e l l a l l o w the
a n o d i c d i s s o l u t i o n and h y d r o g e n embrittlement. c r a c k tip r e a c t i o n s to p r o c e e d more quickly,
As the cathodic protection potential is s i m p l y due to the greater e a s e of d i f f u s i o n of
d e c r e a s e d from - 0 . 6 5 V, the a n o d i c dissolution s p e c i e s into and out of the c r a c k w h e n it is
process w i l l b e c o m e less f a v o u r a b l e and h y d r o g e n held wide open. Theoretical estimates show
evolution, not oxygen reduction, will be these factors to h a v e a large influence on
f a v o u r e d in the c a t h o d i c r e a c t i o n s in the c r a c k . o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p o t e n t i a l distribution
Since these two p r o c e s s e s h a v e o p p o s i n g e f f e c t s in a s t a t i c c r a c k ( r e f . 1 6 ) .
on crack g r o w t h r a t e s , the p o t e n t i a l dependent
balance between the two would explain the 24. In p a r a g r a p h 1 4 , p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s in
minimum in c o r r o s i o n fatigue crack growth at crack tip chemistry between through-thickness
about - 0 . 7 2 0 V. H o w e v e r this m i n i m u m can be c r a c k s and s u r f a c e cracks w e r e d i s c u s s e d . It
e l i m i n a t e d by f a t i g u e c y c l i n g at h i g h R r a t i o s c a n be seen that such d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d h a v e an
w h i c h are p r o b a b l y m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the important influence on the applicability of
conditions near a non-stress relieved weld. through-thickness crack growth d a t a to w e l d e d
joint defects. The use of specimens with
23. It might be thought that the various semi-elliptical cracks as a model of welded
corrosion processes might easily be changed joint defects was considered a reason- able
e i t h e r by changes in the c h e m i s t r y of the e n - simulation. The use of cantilever or
t h r e e - p o i n t b e n d i n g in the f a t i g u e tests a r i s e s
f r o m both e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and the
f 1
fact that the stress at the hot spot in
t u b u l a r joints is o f t e n p r e d o m u n a n t l y a b e n d i n g
stress.

25. T h e c l o s e a g r e e m e n t of C T , SEN a n d s u r f a c e
f l a w e d s p e c i m e n c r a c k growth data in a i r was
expected, provided that for e a c h specimen an
accurate c a l i b r a t i o n of the cyclic crack tip
stress intensity factor w a s available. The
in-depth K calibration for semi-elliptical
c r a c k s w o u l d , by comparison w i t h CT d a t a , s e e m
to be imperfect but, for the purposes of
e x a m i n i n g the r e l a t i v e effects of c r a c k g r o w t h
enhancement by seawater, the agreement was
considered adequate.

26. O n this basis a comparison of g r o w t h rates


u n d e r free c o r r o s i o n c o n d i t i o n s s h o w e d very g o o d
agreement between the different types of
specimen. This would indicate that for c r a c k s
of t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s , ( > 1 0 mm d e e p ) , c o n d i t i o n s
at the crack tip of a freely c o r r o d i n g crack
w e r e s i m i l a r r e g a r d l e s s of crack s h a p e . Hence
t h e u s e of a "6x mean air d a t a " u p p e r limit for
crack growth rates under free corrosion
c o n d i t i o n s is c o n s i d e r e d a w e l l p r o v e n factor to
allow for the effect of s e a w a t e r on fatigue
crack growth of large defects in as-welded
tubular joints.

27. For the case of crack g r o w t h w i t h c a t h o d i c


protection, insufficient data have been
accumulated to read across from CT and SEN
s p e c i m e n s to s e m i - e l l i p t i c s u r f a c e d e f e c t s . In
t h e c a s e of s u r f a c e cracks the r e d u c e d crack
g r o w t h rates for R = 0.1 in the t h r e e - p o i n t bend
1 10 100
tests seem to contradict the enhanced crack
CYCLIC STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR,AK,MPa/m
g r o w t h rates for R = -1 c a n t i l e v e r bend tests
Fig.11. C r a c k g r o w t h r e s u l t s for semi w h e n c o m p a r i n g them to t h r o u g h - t h i c k n e s s crack
e l l i p t i c c r a c k s in 3 8 m m p l a t e s , s t r e s s e d d a t a (Fig. 1 1 ) . In the case of the tests w i t h
in b e n d i n g , c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d at R = 0.1 and cathodic protection, significant
0.85V (wrt A g / A g C l ) in s e a w a t e r c a l c a r e o u s d e p o s i t i o n was present on m u c h of the
fracture surface. A s in many cases w i t h the C T

41
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

s p e c i m e n s , this c o u l d b l o c k and w e d g e o p e n the (5) There is a l s o c l o s e a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n crack


c r a c k , r e d u c i n g the e f f e c t i v e K and thereby propagation rates for t h r o u g h - t h i c k n e s s cracks
account for the retarded crack growth rates. a n d s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l s u r f a c e c r a c k s both in air
This process would be less effective under and under freely corroding conditions in
tension/compression, R = -1, loading. The seawater. Further work is in progress to
f a c t o r "6x m e a n a i r d a t a " u p p e r limit m a y be too d e t e r m i n e the i n f l u e n c e of c a t h o d i c protection
s e v e r e for c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d s u r f a c e s e m i - o n the g r o w t h of s e m i - e l l i p t i c c r a c k s .
e l l i p t i c a l c r a c k s , p a r t i c u l a r l y for low p o s i t i v e
R r a t i o s w h i c h are p r o b a b l y r e l e v a n t to s t r e s s T h e a g r e e m e n t s u m m a r i s e d in c o n c l u s i o n ( 5 ) has
relieved welded joints. H o w e v e r , m o r e w o r k is underlined the r e l e v a n c e of corrosion-fatigue
r e q u i r e d to c o n f i r m this v i e w . c r a c k g r o w t h d a t a to c r a c k g r o w t h in tubular
joint w e l d m e n t s for s i m i l a r ranges of crack tip
28. T h e w o r k of M a r t i n and o t h e r s ( r e f . 1 7 ) h a s stress intensity.
s h o w n t h e p r e s e n c e of m a c r o s c o p i c c r a c k s for a
considerable f r a c t i o n of the f a t i g u e l i v e s of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
welded tubular joints. The corrosion fatigue T h i s w o r k forms part of the U n i t e d K i n g d o m
crack growth data reported here is clearly Offshore Steels Project, commissioned by the
relevant to the a s s e s s m e n t of the e f f e c t s of Offshore Energy Technology Board. The r e s e a r c h
seawater corrosion on that fraction of the h a s been c a r r i e d out w i t h f i n a n c i a l aid from the
tubular joint fatigue lives w h e r e macroscopic E u r o p e a n C o a l and S t e e l C o m m u n i t y .
cracks exist. Before a complete understanding
REFERENCES
of the c r a c k g r o w t h p h a s e of a t u b u l a r joint*s
1. MORGAN H . G . and T H O R P E T.W.
f a t i g u e l i f e can be g a i n e d , s e v e r a l p o i n t s in
This Conference.
our , understanding of corrosion fatigue crack
2. SCOTT P.M. D e v e l o p m e n t s in F r a c t u r e
growth require clarification. In particular,
M e c h a n i c s - 1. Chapter 7, Ed. G.G. Chell.
the e f f e c t on c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n in the s e a w a t e r
Applied Science Publishers Ltd, 1980.
environment at very low levels of stress
3. J O H N S O N R. a n d B R E T H E R T O N I. F a t i g u e data
i n t e n s i t y and for short c r a c k s ( ^ 1 m m ) , has
from c o n s t a n t load a m p l i t u d e tests on
not b e e n a d e q u a t e l y covered. The other main
BS 4 3 6 0 : 50D s t e e l in air and s e a w a t e r . UKOSRP
a r e a w h e r e f u r t h e r data are s t i l l r e q u i r e d is
Report 3/04, 1979.
that of fatigue crack growth rates under
4. SCOTT P.M. a n d S I L V E S T E R D . R . V . The
variable load amplitudes, since such load
influence of mean t e n s i l e stress on c o r r o s i o n
spectra are the type of loading actually
fatigue crack g r o w t h in s t r u c t u r a l steel
experienced in the N o r t h Sea. Work on both
immersed in sea w a t e r . UKOSRP Report 3/02,
these areas is about to commence at the
1977.
1
authors laboratories.
5. J O H N S O N R. et a l . The e f f e c t s of s e a w a t e r
c o r r o s i o n on f a t i g u e c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n in
CONCLUSIONS BS 4 3 6 0 : 5 0 D s t e e l . UKOSRP Report 3/06, 1979,
(1) Fatigue crack growth rates in freely a l s o as paper 15, P r o c . of E u r o p e a n O f f s h o r e
corroding structural steel in s e a w a t e r are a Steels Research Seminar, W . I . , Abington,
m a x i m u m of s i x times l a r g e r than t h o s e o b s e r v e d Cambridge, Nov. 1978.
in a i r at t e s t i n g f r e q u e n c i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of 6. J O H N S O N R., M O R G A N H . G . and B R E T H E R T O N 1.
sea w a v e l o a d i n g . H i g h R r a t i o s h a v e no e f f e c t I n t e r i m t e c h n i c a l report on U K O S R P . Table 1
o n c r a c k g r o w t h rates in air but result in the corrosion fatigue tests. To be p u b l i s h e d as a
maximum crack growth rates observed in UKOSRP r e p o r t .
seawater. 7. MORGAN H.G. AND B R E T H E R T O N I, The i n f l u e n c e
of i n t e r m i t t e n t i m m e r s i o n on f a t i g u e crack
(2) L o w l e v e l s of c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n reduce p r o p a g a t i o n in BS 4 3 6 0 G r a d e 50D steel in
the fatigue enhancement effect of s e a w a t e r at n a t u r a l sea w a t e r . To be p u b l i s h e d as U K O S R P
l o w s t r e s s r a t i o s . A p o t e n t i a l of -0.720 V wrt Report.
Ag/AgCl appears to be the most beneficial. 8. T H O R P E T.W., RANCE A., S I L V E S T E R D.R.V. and
H i g h e r l e v e l s of c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n r e s u l t in SCOTT P.M. I n t e r i m t e c h n i c a l report on U K O S R P .
f a s t e r c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s , w h i c h in c o m b i n a t i o n Table 2 tests. To be p u b l i s h e d as a U K O S R P
w i t h h i g h R r a t i o s , e x c e e d the air c r a c k g r o w t h report.
r a t e s by the f a c t o r of six and e v e n more for a 9. TAUNG R.J. and C.HARN0CK W . Materials
l i m i t e d r a n g e of K b e t w e e n 10 and 20 M P a m. Science a n d E n g i n e e r i n g , 3 5 , 1 9 7 9 , 2 1 9 .
1 0 . T U R N B U L L A. and T H O M A S J . G . N . N P L DMA
(3) Precipitation in fatigue cracks of Report No. A ( l l ) , 1979.
c a l c a r e o u s c a t h o d i c r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s can retard 11. K O T E R A Z A W A a n d M I N A M I S A K A
crack growth, particularly at low R ratios. Stress intensity factors for s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l
This process may also be more effective in surface cracks in b e n d i n g . J. S o c . M a t e r . S c i .
retarding the g r o w t h of s e m i - e l l i p t i c surface J a p . 26 ( 2 8 9 ) O c t . 1 9 7 7 , 9 1 5 .
era c k s . 1 2 . H 0 L D B R 0 0 K S.J. and D O V E R W . D . The stress
intensity factor for a deep surface crack in a
(4) Intermittent immersion and changes in finite p l a t e . Engineering Fracture Mechanics,
seawater chemistry and temperature have a 12, 1979, 3 4 7 .
r e l a t i v e l y s e c o n d o r d e r e f f e c t on c r a c k g r o w t h , 13. P I E R C E W . S . and S H A N N O N J . L . Surface-crack
w h i c h , (apart from h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s and more shape change in b e n d i n g fatigue using an
acidic environments), are often beneficial. i n e x p e n s i v e resonant f a t i g u i n g a p p a r a t u s .

42
PAPER 5: T H O R P E , R A N C E , SILVESTER, S C O T T , M O R G A N

J o u r n a l of t e s t i n g a n d E v a l u a t i o n 6, 1 9 7 8 , 1 8 3 . 1 7 . M A R T I N J. P a p e r 32
1 4 . SMITH J.A., P E T E R S O N M . H . and B R O W N B.F. McDONALD A. and THOMSON J.F. P a p e r 34
C o r r o s i o n , 26 ( 1 2 ) , 1 9 7 0 , 5 3 9 . W Y L D E J. P a p e r 36
15. B R I S T O L P. F a t i g u e of o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s : D I J K S T R A O . D . and HARTOG J. P a p e r 35
effect of s e a w a t e r on crack p r o p a g a t i o n in P r o c e e d i n g s of the S e m i n a r on E u r o p e a n O f f s h o r e
structural steel. Ref. 17. S t e e l s R e s e a r c h , W e l d i n g Inst. A b i n g t o n ,
16. T U R N B U L L A . to be p u b l i s h e d . Cambridge, Nov. 1978.

43
Discussion o n Papers 4 and 5

DR W . D . D O V E R , University College London P a p e r s 4 and 5 e m p h a s i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f


It is i m p o r t a n t t o r e a l i z e that a l l l a b o r a t o r y threshold stress intensities. These are very
t e s t s h a v e s o m e l i m i t a t i o n s in t h e w a y t h e y d i f f i c u l t to d e t e r m i n e , first b e c a u s e at t h e
r e d u c e t h e b e h a v i o u r e x p e c t e d in a s t r u c t u r e . start o f a n y p r e c r a c k e d s p e c i m e n f a t i g u e t e s t
In t h e U K O S R P p r o g r a m m e t h e r e a r e t h r e e m a i n an a p p a r e n t t h r e s h o l d will a l w a y s b e o b s e r v e d
types: while the measured crack growth rate accelerates
(a) c r u c i f o r m s p e c i m e n s w h e r e o n e h a s e f f e c t i v e l y u p t o t h e P a r i s l i n e , and s e c o n d b e c a u s e t h e
taken a slice through the saddle point c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s at t h e t h r e s h o l d
9 1 0
(b) p r e c r a c k e d s p e c i m e n s w h e r e o n e h a s an i d e a l ­ ( I O " m / c y c l e o r 1 0 " m / s at 0.1 H z ) a r e
ization of the crack extremely low.
(c) t u b u l a r j o i n t s w h e r e o n e is c l o s e to t h e W i t h r e g a r d to c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e t e s t s t o
real geometry. s i m u l a t e c a t h o d i c a l l y - p r o t e c t e d s t r u c t u r e s , it
H o w e v e r , f o r t y p e s (a) and (c) t h e t e s t s a r e is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e that in a n y r e a l
c o m p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f t i m e a n d o n l y f o r t y p e structure, particularly with impressed current
(b) is t h e d a m a g e a c c u m u l a t i o n at t h e s a m e r a t e s y s t e m s b u t a l s o to some e x t e n t w i t h s a c r i f i c i a l
as it is in s e r v i c e . T e s t s o f t y p e (b) w i l l anode systems, certain parts of the structure
d e f i n e t h e effect o f a c o r r o s i v e e n v i r o n m e n t , w i l l a l w a y s n e c e s s a r i l y be o v e r p r o t e c t e d a n d
v a r i a b l e a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g and so o n . T e s t s o f w i l l o p e r a t e at s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r p o t e n t i a l s
t y p e (c) w i l l s h o w t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t m o d e l than -0.85 V (Ag/AgCl).
that w o u l d b e n e e d e d f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n ­ A factor of 6 was the maximum acceleration of
t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s from t y p e (b) t e s t s to t h e c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s o b s e r v e d in s e a w a t e r c o m p a r e d
complete structure. with air data. It is only u n d e r o p e n c i r c u i t ,
T h e r o l e o f type (a) t e s t s is limited t o t h e freely corroding conditions, with cathodic
a s s e s s m e n t o f s e c o n d a r y f a c t o r s , such as w e l d p r o t e c t i o n and o v e r p r o t e c t i o n , t h a t a c c e l e r ­
toe g r i n d i n g , and is n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e o f t h e a t i o n s o f g r e a t e r t h a n one o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e
h i g h cost o f t e s t i n g t u b u l a r j o i n t s . However, can b e observed.
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t y p e (a) t e s t s is n o t e a s y T h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n S-N a n d c r a c k g r o w t h
b e c a u s e o n e n e e d s to d e v e l o p t h e f r a c t u r e rate data and the effect on corrosion fatigue o f
m e c h a n i c s m o d e l for t h i s s p e c i m e n g e o m e t r y so t h e c a l c a r e o u s d e p o s i t that f o r m s d u r i n g c a t h o d ­
that t h e r e s u l t s c a n b e r e a d a c r o s s to t h e full ic p r o t e c t i o n in s e a w a t e r a r e s t i l l n o t y e t
structure. fully understood.
T y p e (b) t e s t s s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d on s u r f a c e
cracked specimens under variable-amplitude DR S C O T T , in reply
loading. Recent d e v e l o p m e n t s in c r a c k s i z i n g , I am g r a t e f u l t o D r P r o c t e r f o r u n d e r l i n i n g
s t r e s s a n a l y s i s o f s e m i - e l l i p t i c a l c r a c k s and some i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s r e l a t i n g to t h e e f f e c t s o f
a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a b l e - a m p l i t u d e loading h a v e led c o r r o s i o n and c a t h o d i c p o l a r i z a t i o n on f a t i g u e
to a s i t u a t i o n such that it is n o w p o s s i b l e to crack growth. Work has been done on t h e effects
c o n d u c t t e s t s on s u r f a c e c r a c k e d s p e c i m e n s a n d o f c a t h o d i c p o l a r i z a t i o n to m o r e n e g a t i v e v a l u e s
fully evaluate the results. Paper 5 has shown than the optimum -0.85 V ( A g / A g C l ) . The maximum
some o f t h e first r e s u l t s u s i n g a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e f a c t o r o f 6 on c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s is g o o d d o w n
new techniques. It is a s i g n i f i c a n t a d v a n c e on to p o t e n t i a l s as low as -1.1 V b u t h y d r o g e n
p r e v i o u s w o r k and t h e n e x t p h a s e o f t h e p r o ­ e v o l u t i o n at m o r e n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l s h a s l a r g e r
g r a m m e i n c o r p o r a t i n g v a r i a b l e - a m p l i t u d e loading adverse effects on fatigue crack growth. Poten­
s h o u l d p r o v i d e an e v e n b e t t e r e s t i m a t e o f t h e t i a l s as low as -1.1 V are v e r y u n l i k e l y in
e f f e c t o f c o r r o s i o n on f a t i g u e crack g r o w t h . practice.
T h e r e m a i n i n g p r o b l e m is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e
fracture mechanics model for the application of P R O F E S S O R H . F E S S L E R , University of Nottingham
t h i s d a t a to t u b u l a r j o i n t s . The differences between the crack propagation
r a t e s o f t u b u l a r j o i n t s and flat p l a t e s m a y b e
d u e t o c h a n g e s in t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
DR R. P. M. P R O C T E R , Corrosion and Protection
t u b u l a r j o i n t s as t h e y c r a c k . This seems to
Centre, University of Manchester Institute of
call f o r m o r e t e s t s o f t u b u l a r j o i n t s .
Science and Technology
I am in b r o a d a g r e e m e n t w i t h the d a t a presented
DR SCOTT
in P a p e r 5.
I agree completely. The meaning o f ' c h a n g e s in

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981


45
C R A C K G R O W T H I N S T R U C T U R A L STEELS

Crack growth
specimen 1 3 .

100

20 - x
\ 40 60 \ . 80 100*

Load
Specimen Condition N end of test range

13 Air 5x10 6
270 kN
- 1 0 0 \- L Surface crack length
D Brace diameter Sea water
16
with c p .
4-3 x 1 0 6
240 kN +- - +•
Sea water
17
free corr.
4-3 x 1 0 6
240 kN o—o
Fig. 1. Strain and crack measurements during fatigue tests
1
the load d i s t r i b u t i o n , h o w e v e r , must be c a r e ­ higher value o f A K to b e m a i n t a i n e d for a given
fully considered. If m a j o r c h a n g e s in l o a d crack l e n g t h , and h e n c e h i g h e r r a t e s of crack
d i s t r i b u t i o n , o t h e r t h a n in t h e v i c i n i t y o f propagation and shorter fatigue lives in joints
the c r a c k , o c c u r for a significant fraction of where all t h i c k n e s s e s have been scaled up.
the fatigue life, there will be a major problem One c a n n o t expect to get saitsfactory predic­
in f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s b a s e d m o d e l s o f c r a c k tions of fatigue b e h a v i o u r in t u b u l a r joints
g r o w t h d u e to c o m p l i a n c e e f f e c t s on s t r e s s i n ­ from fracture mechanics approaches, unless one
tensity factors. In t h i s c a s e , a c c u r a t e v a l u e s takes into account the stress gradients into
of stress intensity could not be computed w i t h ­ the thickness and a r o u n d the tubular joint,
out i n d i v i d u a l c o m p l i a n c e c a l i b r a t i o n s f o r e a c h
geometry. W h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s is a m a j o r p r o b ­ DR 0. H. B U R N S I D E , Southwest Research Institute,
lem c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f r o m San Antonio, Texas
fully strain gauged joints. With regard to e l l i p t i c a l f l o w s , it is m y under­
s t a n d i n g that in t u b u l a r j o i n t s t h e r e are m u l ­
IR 0 . D . D I J K S T R A , TNO-IBBC, Delft tiple crack initiation s i t e s . T h e s e are c i r ­
Figure 1 gives the results of strain m e a s u r e ­ c u l a r or e l l i p t i c a l and g r o w to link i n t o a
m e n t s on l a r g e Dutch tubular joint t e s t s . The single crack which propagates simultaneously
m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e t a k e n at t h e h o t s p o t s o f t h e t h r o u g h t h e t h i c k n e s s a n d a r o u n d t h e w e l d at t h e
joints during the fatigue tests. The most toe. If e x t e n d e d to t u b u l a r n o d e s , d o e s t h e
r e m a r k a b l e is t h e d i f f e r e n c e in b e h a v i o u r for w o r k in P a p e r 5 c o n s i d e r g r o w t h o n l y a f t e r t h i s
t h e c a t h o d i c a l l y p r o t e c t e d s p e c i m e n (16) a n d link-up h a s o c c u r r e d ? If s o , is the p e r i o d from
the non-protected specimen (17). The cathod­ t h e time o f m u l t i p l e i n i t i a t i o n s t o g r o w t h i n t o
ically protected specimen has a relatively a single flow small compared with total life,
later initiation but a faster crack growth. and h e n c e c a n it b e n e g l e c t e d ?
T h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s to t h e e n d o f t h e t e s t
were the same for both specimens. DR SCOTT
In the p r e d i c t i v e c r a c k g r o w t h c a l c u l a t i o n s on
DR SCOTT t u b u l a r j o i n t s r e f e r r e d to in P a p e r 5, o n l y
This is v e r y interesting work. More corrosion s i n g l e c r a c k s o f f i x e d or v a r y i n g g e o m e t r y w e r e
fatigue data for tubular joints are needed so considered. U n d o u b t e d l y , s o m e j o i n t s and load­
that it is p o s s i b l e to resolve some of the ing m o d e s lead to m u l t i p l e i n i t i a t i o n and s u b ­
issues relating to how cracks grow and how they sequent coalescence, of c r a c k s , but other types
are affected by sea w a t e r corrosion and cathodic do n o t . M u l t i p l e i n i t i a t i o n and c o a l e s c e n c e
protection. m a y be d i f f i c u l t to m o d e l and o n l y f u r t h e r w o r k
c a n d e m o n s t r a t e w h e t h e r o r n o t t h i s w o u l d lead
PROFESSOR F.M. BURDEKIN, University of t o s i g n i f i c a n t i n a c c u r a c i e s in f a t i g u e c r a c k
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology growth calculations.
I should like to clarify the question of effects
of thickness on fatigue behaviour. Paper 4 DR N . M . IRVINE, UKAEA, Culcheth
finds no effect of thickness changes on r a t e s of Examination of tubular joint S-N performance
crack propagation, as m e a s u r e d in fracture reveals significant effects of g e o m e t r y and load
mechanics tests. In w e l d e d joints in full-scale c a s e for t h e same hot spot stress. However, the
structures, the effect of scaling up thickness use of t h i s m e t h o d against lower bound fatigue
as compared with laboratory specimens will be to design curves is e s s e n t i a l for d e s i g n p u r p o s e s -
increase the absolute size of any zones of although these design curves may well introduce
stress concentration. This is t u r n causes a plate thickness as a p a r a m e t e r in t h e future.

46
N. M . I R V I N E , PhD, BSc, S a f e t y a n d Reliability
Directorate, United Kingdom A t o m i c Energy
Authority

Review of stress analysis t e c h n i q u e s used in U K O S R P

The United Kingdom Offshore Steels Research Project has used steel models, acrylic models,
photoelastic and finite element analyses to deduce stress levels and distributions in simple
tubular connections. The methods are described and reviewed. In particular peak or "hot spot"
stress is defined for welded steel connections, and comparison with analytically derived values is
given.

The anomolous case of high ft ratio connections is then examined and the performance of semi
empirical parametric equations for peak stress concentration factor is critically examined for this
case.

1. INTRODUCTION It was originally intended to carry out the


1.1 General Background analysis of all joints by thin shell finite
One of the most influential factors affecting elements, but it quickly became clear that
the fatigue life of an offshore structure is the acrylic modelling of the more complex joints
magnitude of the stress at each connection of would be more cost effective, and hence all
the steel tubes which make up the supporting three-brace and overlapping two-brace joints
jacket. It is important, therefore, that any have been analysed by this method.
stress analysis used should give reliable
results. This paper describes the various The range of joints to be studied was extended
physical model stress analysis methods used beyond the fatigue test programme to determine
within the United Kingdom Offshore Steels the influence of two major effects: 'out of
Research Project (UKOSRP). plane' braces and internal stiffening rings.

The UKOSRP stress analysis programme consisted Table 1 gives the overall set of cases studied.
of four parts:- Figure 1 shows the nomenclature used for
(a) Static strain gauge tests on steel welded tubular connections in this paper.
joints, which would subsequently be tested in
fatigue, 2. STRESS ANALYSIS METHODS
(b) finite element analysis of these joints, 2.1 Steel Joints
(c) static strain gauge tests on acrylic The selection of joints for fatigue testing was
model joints, and made on the basis of covering the widest
(d) a photoelastic study of weld profiles, as possible practical range of parameters within
featured on the steel model tubular joints. reasonable cost constraints. Although simple
T-joints are not common in offshore structures,
Throughout the work, unit load cases have been their behaviour gives a clear insight into the
taken, which could then generate other more response of more complex tube connections and
complex load conditions by superposition. The these were used to study variations in /3 and r .
three main load cases for each brace were:- To reduce stress concentrations in actual
(a) axial load on the brace, offshore structures, the chord radial
(b) a moment applied to the brace in the deformation must be kept small which tends to
reference plane containing the brace and chord lead to either low y values or stiffeners.
centre line ('in plane' or 'longitudinal' Since this project does not cover the effects
bending), of stiffeners in fatigue, it is limited to
(c) a moment applied to the brace in the fairly low y values, and a value of about 12 has
plane containing the brace centre line but been taken as representing the minimum practical
perpendicular to the reference plane ('out of value of bending steel plates to tubes. The
plane', 'transverse' or 'lateral' bending). K-joints are intended to study the effect of
adjacent brace and overlapped braces on joint
The joints were freely supported at the end behaviour and two values of r have been used.
faces of the chord in all but the steel model
analysis (but reacted torsion loads in case (c)). All the joints, ranging in chord diameter from
The steel models have fixed end conditions, 168 mm to 1830 mm, have been made to standard
which are corrected for when comparison is made offshore fabrication procedures (1,2,3)
with the other stress analysis data. although for the smallest joints it has not

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 47


STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

TA^LE 1 Stress Analysis Study Cases

Chord dia of
Chord dia on
Joint other steel
fully gauged
Refer r joints to be Analysis Methods Remarks
steel joint
-ence fatigue tested
(mm)
(mm)

Tl .53 .51 168, 1827 - Finite elements,


Acrylic Model
Photoelasticity
T2 .53 .86 914 (r = 1) 168 Finite Elements
T3
T4
.53
1
.28
1
914
457 -
168
Finite Elements
Finite Elements
T4.5
T5
1
1
.71
.55
168
457 - Finite Elements
Finite Elements,
Acrylic Model
T6 .25 .39 914 (r = .5) 457 Finite Elements
T7 .25 .28 914, 1827 457 Finite Elements

Kl .53 .86 168 Finite Elements 2 braces d = 90°, 4 5 0


C = .114
K2 .53 .5 457 Finite Elements
K3 .53 .51 457 168 Finite Elements, 2 braces 6 = 90°, 45°
Acrylic Model C = -.236 (overlap)
II
K4 .53 .86 457 (r = .78) 168 Acrylic Model
K5 .53 .86 168 Acrylic Model 3 braces 6 = 135°, 90°, 45°
C = .114
K6 .53 .5 457 Acrylic Model II

K7 .53 .51 457 168 Acrylic Model 3 braces Q = 135° 90°, 45°
C = -.236 (overlap)
K8 .53 .86 457 (T = .78) 168 Acrylic Model

VI .53 .51 - - Acrylic Model 2 braces at 90° round chord


circumf.
V2 .53 .51 Acrylic Model 2 braces at 45° round chord
circumf.
f
SI .53 .51 — - Finite Elements, Tl with two internal ring |
Acrylic Model stiffeners

48
PAPER 6: I R V I N E

been possible to scale down the weld size. The calculating stresses in tubular joints is the
smaller joints have been welded only from the finite element method. Cost considerations
2
outside to AWS Dl.1.75 . The larger 1830 mm ruled out the possibility of three dimensional
chord diameter joints, where internal welding analysis and attention was directed to thin
is possible have been made taking an amalgam of shell elements.
offshore practice, with a minimum external weld
leg length of a quarter of the brace wall The chosen programme had to fulfil the following
thickness, t, and internal and external blend­ requirements:
ing fillet radii of t/2. (a) Substructuring facilities should be
available
Tolerances on dimensions are based on offshore (b) The programme had to have full technical
practice, but make allowance for the different support readily available
constraints on model testing to those required (c) A suitable range of shell elements was
in a structure. In general, the variation in needed.
diameter and out of roundness are less than 1%
of the tube diameter. Angles are within VP and After careful appraisal of the available
tube centre lines intersect within 1 mm of the systems, ASAS, written by Atkins Research and
nominal intersection. The largest variation Development, Epsom, was chosen for the work,
occurs in tube thickness. The variation within using the isoparametric semi-Loof thin shell
a given tube is about 3% (although it rises up element developed by I r o n s ^ K
to 10% in some instances), but the variation of
the average tube thickness from the nominal is The analysis was aimed at demonstrating the
high (up to 15%) especially on the smaller tube suitability of thin shell elements for tubular
sizes, mainly because tube thickness is not a joints and was supported by a series of com­
controlled parameter in the manufacturing pro­ parisons with acrylic strain gauged models
cedure (which is controlled on weight). On the which were intended to cover some of the more
1830 mm diameter chord specimens, thickness difficult features, such as the deep inter­
tolerances were within 2%. section thickness for large diameter braces,
the short length to thickness ratios which
Chord lengths on the largest specimens were occur in overlapped sections of overlap brace
somewhat shorter than desirable, due to joints and the presence of stiffening rings.
limitations on plate size.
Use was made of planes of symmetry and anti­
It was not practical to extensively strain symmetry in each joint to reduce the mesh size
gauge all the steel joints, and a selection Although this resulted in the need for addi­
was made so as to give as big a range of tional load cases, there is a net cost saving
geometry as possible, with usually the largest since the finite element solution cost varies
joint with any given set of geometric parameters at some power of the number of nodes making up
chosen to most closely model that found in the problem.
practice. In some cases a smaller joint has
also been fully gauged to indicate size effects. In general, all the results were obtained using
The remaining joints have check gauges to con­ material properties of steel (Youngs Modulus,
firm they are behaving as expected, with addi­ E = 210 GPa, Poisson ratio v = . 3 ) . However,
tional strip gauges and miniature gauges in where comparisons were made with acrylic models,
some instances to study the stress distribution properties of acrylic were used (E = 3.3 GPa,
close to the weld toe. v = .36). Since results were to be expressed
as stress concentration factors the effect of
The T-joints have flanges welded to the tube variations in E is not important. Comparisons
ends and are held in test frames which (unlike between analyses with v- .3, and v - .36
the rest of the stress analysis) are intended to indicate that the effect of Poisson ratio
approximate to a fixed end condition on the differences is small.
chord. This is to limit deformation during
fatigue testing, and thus allowing an increase The preparation of data and presentation of
in the test frequency. Loading is applied by results from the analysis has been discussed by
a hydraulic actuator to the brace through a Parkhouse^), j i l l not be covered here. It
a n c w

flange connection. Bending loads are applied should, however, be noted that the results of a
by a hydraulic actuator set up perpendicular to finite element analysis are very extensive
the brace axis. including displacements, stresses, and strains
at all the nodes making up the analyses joints,
Each K-joint is supported by a pin through the features not found without considerable addi­
chord at one end, and the braces attached to tional effort in other methods. The advantage
links or actuators. This system means that no of this, and the addition of extra load cases
load is carried on the chord perpendicular to at little extra cost in finite element work,
the chord axis, and the brace forces in this depends upon the use to which the results are
direction must balance. A combination of basic put. With well defined peak stress locations
load cases is thus required for comparison with much of this material will be unused, but in
steel joint results. more complex joints, where behaviour is
difficult to predict, the wide range of
2.2 Finite Element Analysis information provided greatly increases com­
The only adequate purely analytical method for prehension of the problem.

49
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

2.3 Acrylic Model Tests a i =



1 + v g
2 a
C
2 +ve i
Testing of Acrylic Models of tubular joints (1 -v ) 2
(1 - y 2 )
provides a number of advantages:
(a) Acrylic has a low Youngs Modulus, and a
°1 , 2 are the principal stress concentration
hence lower loads are required to produce a factors
given strain. Very simple systems of pulleys € €
1 , 2 are the principal strain concentration
and weights are adequate. factors
(b) Manufacture is cheap and rapid, since the and v is Poissons ratio (.36 for acrylic)
tubes may be obtained 'off-the-shelf. The
brace ends are machined by a single point Inevitably, the use of strain gauges means that
cutter of chord radius and bonded to the chord. there is some possibility of not having a gauge
(c) Welds may be excluded (or added, if at the peak stress location on the joint. To
desired, by gluing on acrylic 'welds' machined overcome this, stress coat brittle lacquer was
to shape). sprayed onto the specimens prior to strain
(d) Strain gauges may be fitted before gauging. The cracks produced under load give
assembly which enables strain data to be a very vivid picture of the strain distribution
obtained at locations which are inaccessible on across the whole of the specimens, enabling peak
welded joints. stress locations to be determined.

The joints studied by this method included a Experimental errors in the results will occur
simple T-joint (Tl), providing a comparison with due to inaccuracies in the gauge positions,
finite element results to determine a suitable errors in the model dimensions, eccentricity of
mesh size and demonstrate the validity of thin the applied loads, errors in the gauge factors
shell assumptions, and further models as out­ of the strain gauges and drift in the instru­
lined in section 2.2 to study particular mentation. An analysis of these factors showed
analytical modelling difficulties. They also that the greatest possible error in the
include the large bulk of the multi-brace joints, measured strains was either a percentage error
which were more cost effectively studied by this of + 13.5% for the axial loading case and
technique. + 10.5% for the bending cases, or an absolute
strain error of + 0.1, whichever is greater.
It is found that acrylic creeps under load, but
the rate of creep decreases with time. One 2.4 Photoelastic T e s t s 6

minute after applying the load the rate of Ten T-joints were analysed all of the same
creep is 3 % per minute. The strain gauges are basic non-dimensional parameters (Table 1,
always read one minute after load application joint T l ) . To provide a direct comparison with
and two or more increments and decrements of other methods, the first case had no weld pro­
load are used to confirm that the material is file. Other profiles were the same as the
then behaving linearly. Pieces of acrylic tube minimum weld profiles required for the steel
were used to determine the Youngs Modulus after joints with both single and double sided weld­
one minute of load, and this was found to be ing. The three main loading cases of brace
3.3 GPa. axial load and in-plane and out of plane bend­
ing were studied.
After assembly, the specimen was mounted in a
test frame. The ends of the chord were The models were made in Araldite CT200 and 6 0 %
supported by flexible transparent PVC diagram by weight of hardener HT907, and assembled
webs which were designed to react shear and from four precision castings, made using slate-
torsion loads while applying neither bending epoxy moulds.
moment at the chord ends nor restraint against
warping of the chord cross-section. Each T-joint had a chord outside diameter of
127 mm. Careful dimensional checks were made
The three main loading cases were then applied on them before testing. Variation in tube
to the free end of the brace. Axial load was diameter and out-of-roundness did not exceed
applied by a screw jack, the load being 1% and tube thickness variations did not exceed
monitored by a ring gauge dynamometer. In 6% in the region of the intersection.
plane and out of plane bending moments were
applied by a horizontal beam which was bolted All models were suspended from a steel frame on
to the free end of the brace. Down load was long pivoted links. These links were connected
applied to one end of this beam by dead weights to the chord by a shaft through the links and
while an equal up load was applied to the other end cap. This arrangement made axial loads in
end by dead weights acting through a centrally the chord due to thermal expansion or model
pivoted beam. deformations negligible. Loads were applied to
the brace by weights attached to flexible steel
Along lines of symmetry, strain gauge pairs cables which passed over pulleys. Couples were
were used to obtain principal strains, and applied by attaching opposed arc segments to
elsewhere principal strains and directions were the brace end. The arc centres coincided on
obtained from strain gauge rosettes. The strain the brace axis. This arrangement eliminated
concentration factors have been converted to changes in the applied couple due to rotation
stress concentration factors using the relations. of the brace.

50
PAPER 6: I R V I N E

To reduce deformations due to the weight of a Nominal stresses arise due to the tubes behav­
model the brace and chord were filled with oil ing as beams, and may be calculated by frame
and the model was completely immersed in the analysis of the structure. Away from connec­
oil. The density of the oil was less than that tions this gives an accurate assessment of
of the model material and the correct weight stress levels.
balance for the chord was achieved by trapping
a segment of air inside the chord by correctly Geometric stresses result from the differences
positioned vent-holes in the chord end caps. in deformation between the chord and brace
The effective weight in oil of the brace, end under load. For example, in a T-joint under
cap and steel attachment was counter-balanced axial tensile brace load, the brace extends
by an additional upward force on the brace. A only very slightly, whereas the circular cross
small separate load was required for this section of the chord becomes significantly
purpose for the bending load case models; for elongated to a pear shape section. This can
the axially loaded models the appropriate easily be seen on many of the steel tubular
allowance was made in the main load. specimens which have been tested in the UK
Offshore Steels Research Project. The
Slices were cut from each loaded model by means differences in deformation require the tube
of a thin high-speed cutting wheel with a walls to bend so that the chord and brace
diamond impregnated edge. A soluble oil coolant remain in contact at the weld. They also cause
was used during the cutting operation and the (in the case of axial brace load) a maldistri­
surface quality of the slices was such that no bution of the nominal membrane stresses round
further treatment or dressing was required. the brace circumference. Since the brace is
The slices were typically 2.5 mm thick, relatively rigid, an axial load causes it to
experience having shown that in models of this move away from the chord, pulling the chord wall
size stress gradients through the thickness of with it. At the crown, the chord wall displaces
such slices are negligible. easily (ie it is not very stiff), whereas at the
saddle, chord displacement is more difficult.
In the models with direct load along the brace Because the saddle is stiffer most of the brace
axis slices were taken from the reference plane axial load is carried at this point, giving
(plane 1) to include approximately 65 mm of the stress concentrations due to maldistribution
brace, 75 mm of the chord outside the brace and in nominal stress alone of about 2.
the central part of the chord, and from the
plane perpendicular to the reference plane Wall bending stresses decay away fairly linearly
(plane 2) to include approximately 65 mm of the in an axial direction on the brace for a dis­
brace and a 90° portion of the chord. Similar tance of . 8 V r t , and subsequent recovery to
plane 1 slices only were cut from the in plane become negligible at about 5/rt. Membrane m a l ­
bending models and plane 2 slices only from the distribution recovers much more slowly and takes
out of plane bending models. some 3 brace diameters to fully disappear. In
the chord, it is very difficult to define a
Several difficulties arose in the tests, due to linear region for stress decay, but over about
an apparent effect of the oil on the fringes at 5° of arc, the stress is fairly linear.
the surface of the tubes, and due to the gross
distortion of the tubes. These problems were Notch stresses arise because of the finite
eventually overcome by considering either an thickness of the tube walls and weldments.
additional model with a compressive load (for Near the weld, the chord wall 'gives* slightly
the axial case) or opposite sides of the joint near the surface due to the adjacent brace wall
(for bending cases) where the stresses should bending, rather like a localised hinge. This
be equal and opposite, and taking the mean of effect is not propagated far through the wall
the two readings. The overall error in the thickness, however, and thus leads to a local
results is now expected not to be more than region of three-dimensional stresses. The
12% at any location. sharper the notch at the weld toe, the less the
restraint to surface hinge behaviour and the
3. DETERMINATION OF PEAK STRESS LEVELS higher the notch stresses.
3.1 General
This section is based on a large amount of data * For those familiar with ASME codes for pressure
on stress analysis of tubular joints obtained vessels, nominal stresses in this paper would
within the UKOSRP programme, all of which cannot be ASME 'primary stresses', geometric stresses
be quoted in this section. Experimental support would be ASME 'secondary stresses' and notch
for the statements made will be found in UKOSRP stresses would be ASME 'peak stresses'. M a l -
Interim Reports. distributed membrane stresses are ASME 'local
Primary-Membrane stresses'. Pressure vessels
Stresses in tubular connections arise from three have machined welds but this is not so
main causes; there is the basic structural generally in offshore structures, and the
response of the joint to the applied load variable notch stresses are thus built into
(nominal stresses), the need to maintain com­ the fatigue data for structures, whereas
patibility between the tubes (geometric stresses) notch stresses are considered as an input
and highly localised deformations in part of stress in pressure vessels.
the tube wall (notch stresses)*.

51
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

It has recently become apparent from a study of estimation from distribution near the weld toe
a wide range of parameters on steel joints that is unnecessary. Secondly, following on from
the size of notch stress regions also appear to this, that this stress be compatible with the
be a fraction of V"rt, and a maximum value for stress that would be used on a fracture mech­
T and X-joints of .2CV"rt is now agreed for use anics analysis of crack growth at such a weld
7

by the various European programmes. toe such as given by Gurney : which for plates
is the hot spot stress described in the first
3.2 The definition of hot spot stress point. Thirdly that, practically, this stress
The various stress analysis methods are able to be experimental reproducible, which is not
cope to a varying extent to each of the main possible if it is measured in the highly vari­
stress types (Fig 2 ) . This section considers able "notch stress" region near the weld toe,
how the results for each analysis method may be where local variations of overall weld geometry
used to determine stresses for actual welded and weld bead size can have influence. Stresses
steel connections. In general, the required inside the notch region are undoubtably impor­
stress for fatigue calculation's is the stress tant in describing fatigue crack initiation and
level at the weld toe excluding notch stresses. early growth at the hot spot, but these pheno­
mena form only a small part of the total fatigue
This approach to the definition of effective life of a tubular joint. Such stresses decay
fatiguing stress known more usually as "hot rapidly as crack growth takes place into the
spot" stress rests on three arguments. Firstly welded joint from the weld toe.
that such a stress should be compatible with
those used on that plate specimens, where the Accordingly, the linear stress distribution
notch region exists over a length proportional found outside the notch region on a tubular
to plate thickness. The "nominal" stress at the joint is extrapolated to the weld toe to
weld toe is easily calculated from geometrical obtain experimental values of tubular joint hot
considerations, and thereby hot spot stress spot stress. The use of this method was evolved

Fig 2. Models o f brace/chord i n t e r s e c t i o n and


corresponding peak s t r e s s e s

52
PAPER 6: I R V I N E

from the above considerations and from examin­ Technical Working Party on Tubular Joint Testing
ation of stress distribution obtained experi­ to be as follows for X and T joints (Fig 3 ) .
mentally in the weld toe region of tubular
joints. This definition of hot spot stress is Chord saddle: between a maximum of the greater
now held to be the most realistic expression of 0.2 V r t or 4 mm from the weld toe to a minimum
the fatigue crack growth inducing stress acting of 5° of arc from the weld toe.
on a tubular joint.
Chord crown: between a maximum of the greater
A further point relates to the form of expres­ 0.2 V r t or 4 mm from the weld toe to a minimum
sion used for the extent of the notch region of 0 . 4 " V r t RT where R, T are chord outer radius
(0.2"/"rt). Weld dimensions on a tubular joint and wall thickness respectively.
welded to AWS standards (as is customary on
structural member connections) are related to Brace saddle and crown: between a maximum of
brace thickness and therefore the size of the the greater of 0.2V" rt or 4 mm from the weld
notch region resulting should also scale with toe to a minimum of 0 . 6 5 V " rt.
increasing joint size. (Indeed as joint size
increases a measurement taken inside the notch These expressions have all been derived from
region very near the weld toe becomes increas­ experimental data.
ingly dependent on the shape of the toe weld
bead and will describe only crack initiation A further difficulty that can arise in certain
and growth in the vicinity of that particular locations of certain tubular joints is that
feature, which in a large joint is only one of stress obtained perpendicular to the weld toe
many weld runs). may not be the maximum principal stress, which
is not so directed. In these cases, where
The extent of the linear stress regions on rosette gauges have to be used to discern this
tubular joints has now been agreed by the ECSC phenomenum, the value of stress quoted as the

Fig 2. Models of brace/chord i n t e r s e c t i o n and


corresponding peak s t r e s s e s

53
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

hot spot stress, is taken as the (conservative) is effectively stiffened against bending ( 8 , 6 ) 9

value of extrapolated maximum principal stress. for welds with fillet radii, the length is
shorter. As a result of this the stress pattern
3.3 Stresses obtained by analysis obtained along the brace may be moved so that
Following from the above definition of hot spot the peak on the model results occurs on the weld
stress the methods of generating hot spot
stress values from the various stress analysis
methods employed are now described. a = 0 . 2 - / r t but not
3.3.1 Strain gauged steel models
smaller than 4 mm
In the case of strain gauge techniques on steel
models, a smooth surface is required on which
to attach the gauge, and hence two or more
gauges are used and values extrapolated to the
toe from the region of stress linearity. The B2 * 0.65 N / T T
extrapolation method requires care, since the
innermost gauge should be as near the weld to
as possible, to reduce extrapolation errors,
but outside the notch region, and the outmost
gauge should be in the region where the decay
in geometric stress is still linear.

3.3.2 Strain gauged acrylic models Range of l i n e a r s t r e s s


Acrylic models usually have no weld, and results d i s t r i b u t i o n extends from
are extrapolated, again using two gauges, to A to B
the weld toe. The weld tends to act as a
stiffener to the brace wall for an effective Fig 3. Locations o f strainguages f o r l i n e a r
length which depends on the weld profile. For e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o weldtoe t o determine
straight sided welds, about half the leg length s t r a i n concentration f a c t o r

TABLE 2
Performance of semi-empirical equations in stress concentration factor (SCF)
calculations for high P tubular joints

SCF

Joint No • y P j r a Load Case Experimental* Smedley j Gibstein Kuang


1
» j-
Tl ; 13.35 1.0 1.0 17.09 OPB 9.5 6.01 i 6.74 6.41

T2 | 13.35 1.0 0.71 17.09 OPB 6.3 4.27 j 4.50 4.73


• - f • \
5.94 C ; 5.54
13.35 1.0 1.0 : 10.49 AX 4 3 2

TIT 6.3
4.81 S i
i ;
4.30 C
T18 13.35 | 1.0 ! 0.71 j 10.49 AX 3.7
3.41 S
2.70 3.51
1 ' ?
5.90 C
T37 14.28 1.0 1.0 j 10.67 AX 8.0 4.58 5.85
5.14 S
j
27-29DX 14.28 1.0 1.0 i 10.0 AX : 3.0 3.40 - -

30-38DX 14.28 « 1.0 0.55 j 10.0 AX 2.7 +


2.18 - -

KEY T l , etc T j o i n t s tested as part of UKOSRP


14
DX X j o i n t s tested as part of Dutch ECSC programme
OD Outside diameter
WT Wall t h i c k n e s s
OPB Out o f plane brace bending
AX A x i a l brace loading
S Value at saddle p o i n t
C Value at Crown p o i n t
* Average v a l u e over the s e r i e s o f j o i n t s tested
+ Strain concentration factor
J o i n t s e r i e s T l , T 2 , T 1 7 , T18 have chord dimensions 168 mm 0/D x 6.3 mm W/T
J o i n t s e r i e s T 3 7 , 27-38 DX have chord dimensions 457 mm 0/D x 16 mm W/T

54
PAPER 6: I R V I N E

at a distance of the effectively stiffened They should be moved in towards the weld toe
length from the nominal tube surface connection, rather than away from it with the corrollary
and the stress then at the weld toe gives the that analytically obtained valves without
required stress level for the weld toe. Alter­ correction now under-predict at the saddle.
1
natively the factor 3 / (1 + x / y ) " , given by For the in plane bending case where the stress
9
Wordsworth can be used where x = weld leg is essentially zero by symmetry this is
length on chord. unimportant: however it affects the higher SCF
values found in axial and out of plane bending
A special problem can occur on the brace, since loads.
at the saddle, or at an angled brace/chord
intersection at the crown, the inner wall meets However for axial loads this problem is
the chord before the outer wall. Strains alleviated by a complication caused by the
measured on the outer wall near this area can change in stress distribution around the chord
be affected by the increased brace wall stiff­ brace intersection. For increasingly high p
ness, leading to a dip in the strain behaviour. joints, stresses at the saddle fall, whilst
As this effect would usually occur within what those some 30° or more around the intersection
would on a steel joint be a weld, it is of no continuing to the crown rise. This is caused
major consequence but makes acrylic model by the relative inflexibility of the chord at
results somewhat more difficult to interpret. its saddle point (which is now the neutral axis
of chord bending) compared to the cases where
3.3.3 Photoelastic results p is smaller. (Up to approximately P = 0.85,
Photoelastic models have none of the problems the reverse is this case). Thus the position
associated with stress extrapolation, since of the hot spot changes to a point between the
results may be measured at any location, and saddle and the crown, but nearer to the crown.
even in the region which simulates the weld. Hence the modelling disparity at the saddle
ceases to be of importance but care must be
3.3.4 Finite element results taken to identify the position of peak stress
Superficially by far the least accurate model­ as predictions at saddle and crown are both
ling is the use of thin shell finite elements. too low.
The elements lie in the middle surface of the
tube wall, and the tubular connection is made However for out of plane bending the hot spot
along the intersection curve of the brace and remains very near the saddle and the modelling
chord middle surface. Stresses are calculated inadequacy then results in SCF values being
from a membrane stress and a moment at the underpredicted.
middle surface, and free surface stresses
obtained by calculating the bending stress due In the case of X-joints, further difficulties
to the moment and adding on the membrane stress. arise because the load transfer across from one
This results at the intersection in peak free brace to the other opposite as in welded con­
surface stresses 'on the brace' which actually struction, is interrupted by the presence of
lie inside the chord wall. One fairly obvious the small portion of chord between, which
step was to move the resulting stress pattern results in local bending stresses which are not
on the brace so that the peak value occurred picked up in analytical models.
at the trub chord outer surface, assuming the
chord wall to be rigid. In fact, the local Some examples are given in Table (2) of actual
surface hinge effect (notch stresses) implies and predicted SCF values in high ft connections.
that the chord is not so rigid as this step These use recognised semi-empirical equations
would suggest, and a somewhat smaller movement 12
developed by K u a n g , H G i b s t e i n and Smedley .9

of the stress pattern is necessary. The first two are based on thin shell finite
element work and the authors specify that the
A review of this problem for all the stress range of parametric validity does not extend
10
analysis methods described is given by I r v i n e . beyond § - 0.85: however in practice this
restriction is not always observed. Smedley's
4. THE CASE OF SIMPLE TUBULAR JOINTS WITH equations are quoted as viable up to P = 1 ,
LARGE BRACES and are based on acrylic model data: however,
The geometry of tubular T-joints with/3 = 1 has these equations can be adjusted for use with
been analysed as part of UKOSRP. Though this high p connections, by slightly lowering the
geometry is not usual in offshore structures, value of p to take account of brace "narrowing"
p - 1 X-joints have been used and the general at the weldment at the saddle point.
problem of the stress analysis of high P joints
can be expressed in terms of the UKOSRP T 5. COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF STRESS ANALYSIS
geometries. The basis of the problem is the The tubular connection type Tl where P = =0.5 T

inadequate modelling of the weldments at the (Table 1) can be used to illustrate the
saddle. Fig (4) illustrates the shortcomings difference in performance between the stress
of the analysis models in this region: this now analysis methods used. When the brace is loaded
has a crucial difference to lower p connections in tension, peak stresses are found at the
in that idealised intersections are now beyond saddle point B on the chord side of the weld.
the actual weld toe rather than behind it. This was also found for a steel model tested
Therefore the previous comments on "shifting" by Djikstra and Hartog, (13), whose results
analytic stress distribution should be reversed. are reproduced in Fig 5. Corresponding brace

55
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

• Welded S t e e l Model

~ Acrylic Model
F i n i t e elements
A c r y l i c model
O O Thin Shell Finite Element

Brace Weld Toe M o d e l


Stesl model (Dutch
specimen No 5)
Photoelastic

p=0-5

Alternative Thin Shell Finite


Element Arrangement
O O
Chord Weld Toe

Brace Weld Toe

Steel model r e s u l t s are corrected


- O - r ^ O o o —
f o r s t r a i n to s t r e s s concentration
f a c t o r and f o r d i f f e r e n t # v a l u e

WELD PROFILE
p=10

Fig 4. Brace-chord saddle connection i d e a l i s a t i o n


by a c r y l i c and f i n i t e element modelling methods

F i n i t e elements
a c r y l i c models Fig 6. J o i n t T l : brace s t r e s s a n a l y s i s method
s t e e l model (Dutch
specimen No 5
stresses are shown in Fig 6. The physical
Photoelastic
model corresponding most exactly in shape to
5 the steel welded model is the photoelastic
model with single sided welds (to correspond
to actual profiles obtained) quoted by Clayton
( 6 ) . Also taken from this publication are the
corresponding acrylic model and finite element
analysis results. As expected, the closest
agreement with steel data comes in that order,
particularly so for stresses in brace (Fig 6 )
where the absence of welds in the acrylic
Steel model r e s u l t s c o r r e c t e d model affects the local stiffness of the brace
rather more than the chord. Finite element
for s t r a i n to stress concentration
results, suffering from lack of physical thick­
factor & d i f f e r e n t ^ value
ness (though not stiffness) from the thin shell
formulation used, tend to be further displaced
towards the chord-brace mid-surface inter­
section and, though still conservative, will
in general be the most inaccurate of the
methods used in this critical region.

6. CONCLUSIONS
To provide the offshore structural designer
with effective stresses experienced at the weld
toes of tubular steel welded connections,
analytical models can be used to give data that
is generally accurate when compared to the hot
spot stress whose basis and definition is
described herein. Acrylic model work has been
found in particular to be reliable, cheap and
Fig 5. J o i n t T l chord s t r e s s a n a l y s i s method flexible. Photoelasticity and steel modelling
of comparison give the ability of modelling weldments in

56
PAPER 6: I R V I N E

detail and the former method allows the 5. PARKHOUSE J G 'Computer Aided Analysis of
extraction of stress data from any part of the Tubular Joints' Offshore Steels Symposium,
connection, rather than at points where strain Cambridge, November 1978.
gauges have been affixed: stresses in the 6. CLAYTON A M 'Effect of Weld Profile on
interior of the structure can also be determined. Stresses in Tubular T-Joints'. UKOSRP Interim
Finite element analyses can significantly over- Report 2/03. August 1977.
predict brace stresses. 7. GURNEY T R. 'The influence of thickness
of the fatigue strength of welded joints'
However care should be taken for connections Behaviour of Offshore Structures Conference
where P> 0.85, particularly for out of plane Paper 41, London August 1979.
bending loads as the resultant stress can be 8. WORDSWORTH A C 'The Experimental Determin­
underpredicted analytically. As a corollary, ation of Stresses at Tubular Joints' BSSM/RINA
parametric validity range of P should be Joint Conf. on Measurement in the Offshore
recognised when using semi-empirical equations Industry. September 1 9 7 5 .
to obtain values of hot spot stress concentration 9. WORDSWORTH A C and SMEDLEY G P. 'Stress
factor. concentrations at unstiffened tubular joings'.
European Offshore Steels Research Seminar
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Paper 31, November 1978.
All of the work described in this paper was 10. IRVINE N M. 'Comparison of the perform­
undertaken as part of the United Kingdom ance of the stress analysis methods used in
Offshore Steels Research Project (UKOSRP). UKOSRP in the region of the chord brace inter­
The project was commissioned by the Department sections'. UKOSRP technical Interim report
of Energy through the Offshore Energy Technology 2/08 May 1979.
Board and has received financial aid 11. KUANG A B, POTVIN A B, LEICK R D,
from the European Coal and Steel Community. KAHLICH J L. 'Stress Concentration in Tubular
Joints' Soc. Petroleum Engs. Jnl, August 1977,
8. REFERENCES pp287-299.
1. API Recommended Practice for Planning 12. GIBSTEIN M. 'Parametrical stress analysis
Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore of T joints' European Offshore Steels Research
Platforms RP2A Seventh Ed 1976. Seminar Paper 26, November, 1978.
2. AWS Structural Welding Code Dl. 1-75 13. DIJKSTRA 0 D and HARTOG J. 'Dutch part of
(Rev 7 6 ) . large scale tubular joint fatigue test
3. DEPT OF ENERGY. Guidance on the Design and programme'. European Offshore Steels Research
Construction of Offshore Installations. Second Seminar Paper 35, November 1978.
Ed 1977. 14. DIJKSTRA 0 D and DE BACK J. 'Fatigue
4. IRONS B. 'The Semi-Loof Shell Element' strength of welded tubular T and X joints'
Chapter 11 in Finite Elements for Thin Shells Paper OTC 3696, 12 annual Offshore Technology
and Curved Members. Ed by ASHWELL D G and Conference, Houston, May 1980.
GALLAGHER R H Wiley 1977.

57
A. C W O R D S W O R T H , M I M e c h E , Lloyd's
Register of Shipping

Stress concentration factors a t K a n d K T tubular joints

The p a p e r r e v i e w s t h e "background t o , a n d t h e m e t h o d o f , u s i n g a c r y l i c m o d e l s for d e t e r m i n i n g stress


c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s ( S . C . F . s ) at t u b u l a r j o i n t s .

The t h i r d part o f a s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m m e t o d e v e l o p p a r a m e t r i c e q u a t i o n s f o r o b t a i n i n g h o t
spot S.C.F.s at t u b u l a r j o i n t s is d e s c r i b e d . T h i s p a r t o f t h e p r o g r a m m e covers u n s t i f f e n e d , n o n -
overlapped, K and KT joints under three basic loading conditions. The p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d
f o r m u l a e for T , X a n d Y j o i n t s are e x p a n d e d , i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e test r e s u l t s , t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e a d d i t i o n a l b r a c e s at K a n d K T j o i n t s .
INTRODUCTION particular interest. This p r o c e d u r e r e q u i r e s
1. T h e w e l d e d joint b e t w e e n i n t e r s e c t i n g large and very expensive test frames e t c . Costs
t u b u l a r m e m b e r s is a c o m m o n d e t a i l in c u r r e n t can b e reduced by testing geometrically similar
types of fixed offshore steel structures. s m a l l s c a l e s t e e l test s p e c i m e n s b u t t h e r e are
F a t i g u e f a i l u r e s o f some o f t h e s e j o i n t s h a v e t h e n p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s s u c h as t h e
o c c u r r e d d u r i n g s e r v i c e , a n d it h a s b e e n avoidance of excessive welding distortion, and
n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s for t h e t h e c o s t s in t e r m s o f t i m e a n d m o n e y are s t i l l
avoidance of such failure 1 - 5 - Tn general, the high.
p r e f e r r e d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is as f o l l o w s : -
A much cheaper technique has been
(a) Establish the expected loading spectrum developed. Briefly, this consists of m a n u f a c t ­
for the specified design life. uring scale models of the joints from
commercially available acrylic t u b i n g , applying
(b) Determine the range of nominal loads the relevant loading conditions, and m e a s u r i n g
a n d cyclic s t r e s s e s i n t h e t u b u l a r m e m b e r s o f t h e the resulting strains by electric resistance
structure. strain gauges after preliminary assessment o f
the strain distribution b y a b r i t t l e l a c q u e r .
(c) Estimate the range of cyclic stresses F e a t u r e s o f t h e t e c h n i q u e are t h e l o w cost i n
at t h e h o t spot a d j a c e n t t o t h e a t t a c h m e n t t e r m s o f b o t h t i m e and m o n e y a n d t h e w a y i n
welds between each tubular member. w h i c h t e s t s p e c i m e n s can b e m o d i f i e d t o e x a m i n e
the various types of joints.
(d) Undertake a cumulative damage
c a l c u l a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e a l l o w a b l e S-N c u r v e The basic technique o f utilising scale
and the Palmgren-Miner h y p o t h e s i s . models to determine stress distributions has
b e e n t h o r o u g h l y d e v e l o p e d at t h e L l o y d ' s
S t a g e (c) o f t h e p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e s Register of Shipping's Research Laboratory over
the application o f an appropriate stress t h e y e a r s and h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o
c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r (K) t o t h e r a n g e s o f pressure v e s s e l s , engine components and ship
n o m i n a l s t r e s s e s to d e t e r m i n e t h e r a n g e s o f t h e structures.
h o t spot s t r e s s e s f o r e a c h j o i n t . The
p r i n c i p a l p r o b l e m o f c a r r y i n g out t h i s s t a g e is 2.1 Properties of Acrylic and Specimen
t h e l a c k o f r e l i a b l e d a t a on s t r e s s Construction. Thin w a l l transparent
concentration factors for the different a c r y l i c t u b i n g is c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e i n a
g e o m e t r i e s a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f j o i n t s and r a n g e o f s i z e s from 2 5 m m t o 300 m m d i a m e t e r
modes of loading on the braces and chord and w i t h w a l l thicknesses from 3 m m to 6 mm.
members.
The acrylic material creeps under load
ACRYLIC MODEL TESTS b u t t h e rate o f c r e e p d i m i n i s h e s r a p i d l y w i t h
2. The most direct method of determining time. This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d
t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s at t u b u l a r joints is t h o r o u g h l y a n d it h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t ,
by manufacturing full scale test specimens and p r o v i d e d all m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e m a d e at a g i v e n
a p p l y i n g the r e q u i r e d l o a d s t o t h e m , u s u a l l y b y time after application of the load, stress
hydraulic jacks. The general stress distribut­ c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s e s t a b l i s h e d o n an a c r y l i c
i o n can b e d e t e r m i n e d , in q u a l i t a t i v e t e r m s , b y m o d e l do n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h o s e
the use o f a b r i t t l e l a c q u e r a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e d on s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s .
measurements can then b e made b y attaching
r e s i s t a n c e s t r a i n g a u g e s at t h e p o i n t s o f Acrylic has several attributes which

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, L o n d o n , 1981 59


STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

m a k e it e m i n e n t l y s u i t a b l e for the construction T h e t u b e s are a s s e m b l e d b y g l u e i n g


of structural models. them together with Tensol N o . 7 c e m e n t , a two
p a r t a d h e s i v e w h i c h is e j e c t e d f r o m a s y r i n g e
The moderately low Young's Modulus o n t o t h e b u t t ends o f t h e t u b e s p r i o r t o
3.3GPa m e a n s t h a t o n l y s m a l l l o a d s are bringing the two surfaces together. A certain
necessary to produce measurable strains. Test a m o u n t o f s k i l l is r e q u i r e d h e r e s i n c e it is
r i g s f o r a p p l y i n g a n d r e a c t i n g the l o a d s can n e c e s s a r y t o use s u f f i c i e n t g l u e t o a v o i d a i r
therefore b e b o t h cheap and l i g h t , and the b u b b l e s in t h e j o i n t w i t h o u t u s i n g t o o m u c h s o
l o a d s t h e m s e l v e s can b e a p p l i e d b y d e a d w e i g h t that significant glue fillets are produced.
or by screw jack. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e U s u a l l y n o a t t e m p t is m a d e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e
M o d u l u s is n o t s o l o w t h a t t h e r e i n f o r c i n g weld fillets. H o w e v e r , if it is r e q u i r e d t o
effect of the strain gauges has any significant i n c l u d e e i t h e r w e l d fillets o r t h e v e r y m u c h
e f f e c t on t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s . larger fillets that occur on cast steel joints
t h e y c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d by a c r y l i c f i l l e t s
T h e m a t e r i a l is e a s i l y cut a n d m a c h i n e d glued into p l a c e .
and component parts may b e glued together to
produce homogeneous specimens. 2.2 Test R i g s . At the Lloyd's R e g i s t e r o f
Shipping's Laboratory the facilities for
When a particular design of tubular testing plastic models consist basically o f a
j o i n t is t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d , an a c r y l i c t e s t U M x U . 5 M s t r o n g f l o o r w i t h an a r r a y o f t a p p e d
s p e c i m e n is m a d e a t a m o d e l s c a l e c h o s e n t o b e h o l e s in it a n d a s e l e c t i o n o f s t e e l c h a n n e l s
compatible with the standard tube sizes with p i c k up holes drilled at u n i f o r m p i t c h e s .
available. Using such simple construction equipment a
range o f space frame rigs c a n b e e a s i l y b u i l t
The joint ends of the individual tubes up to accommodate t h e majority o f test
are m a d e b y f r e t s a w i n g t h e m t o r o u g h l y t h e specimens and their leading arrangements.
r e q u i r e d p r o f i l e s a n d t h e n m a c h i n i n g t h e m on a
universal mill using a single point cutter set The test frame provides the anchorages
at t h e r e l e v a n t r a d i u s . In t h i s w a y t h e for supporting the loading e q u i p m e n t , loads
required curves o f intersection are themselves being applied via l i n k s , s t r i n g s ,
automatically produced to give accurate joints. p i v o t e d b e a m s a n d p u l l e y s as r e q u i r e d . A
t y p i c a l t e s t set up is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 .
If internal or external stiffening
r i n g s o r w e b s a r e t o h e i n c l u d e d in t h e d e s i g n 2.3 Strain Measurements. The primary object o f
t h e y are m a d e f r o m a c r y l i c s h e e t . Acrylic sheet m o s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s is to d e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m
is a l s o u s e d t o f o r m a n y t u b e s w h i c h are or hot spot s t r e s s e s , and t h e s e can b e
required with very large diameter to thickness accurately measured by resistance strain gauges.
r a t i o s w h i c h are not c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e .

Fig. 1. KT Joint in a test rig.

60
PAPER 7: W O R D S W O R T H

Before this can h e done the location o f the b e i n g allowed between the application o f each
" h o t s p o t s " m u s t h e f o u n d so t h a t t h e g a u g e s can increment and the recording o f the strains.
h e f i t t e d at t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n s . Measurements are made under both increasing
and decreasing loads to demonstrate elastic
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e o b j e c t i v e it behaviour.
is s o m e t i m e s u s e f u l f o r a d e s i g n e r t o k n o w t h e
general strain in qualitative terms so that an T E S T PROGRAMME
informed estimate of the effects of modificat­ 3. A p p l i c a t i o n s for the t e c h n i q u e
ions t o the design etc. can b e m a d e . described above have arisen from three m a i n
sources v i z : -
S t r e s s c o a t b r i t t l e l a c q u e r is u s e d t o
i n d i c a t e b o t h t h e "hot s p o t " p o s i t i o n a n d t h e (i) United Kingdom Offshore Steels Research
overall strain distribution. T h e l a c q u e r is Project (UKOSRP)
sprayed onto the specimen and allowed to dry.
W h e n l o a d is t h e n a p p l i e d , t h e l a c q u e r c r a c k s (ii) Lloyd's Register of Shipping's internal
at a g i v e n s t r a i n a n d t h e s p r e a d o f t h e c r a c k s test programme.
with increasing load thus gives a v i v i d p i c t u r e
of the overall strain distribution. Strain (iii) Ad hoc tests for oil companies etc.
contours can b e p l o t t e d b y m a r k i n g t h e extent
o f t h e c r a c k s at v a r i o u s l o a d i n c r e m e n t s w i t h I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r joint is
a chinagraph pencil while stress trajectories o f l i m i t e d u s e a n d it is o f m o r e g e n e r a l
can be obtained by drawing lines normal to the assistance to designers if a series o f joints
cracks. are examined under a range of loading c o n d i t i o n s .
The r e s u l t s o f s u c h an e x e r c i s e c a n t h e n b e
Resistance strain gauges are glued to c o n d e n s e d a n d p r e s e n t e d e i t h e r g r a p h i c a l l y o r as
t h e s p e c i m e n s at t h e "hot s p o t s " a n d at o t h e r empirical equations. For design purposes the
points where quantitative results are required. l a t t e r f o r m o f p r e s e n t a t i o n is p r e f e r a b l e s i n c e
W h e r e t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a i n g r a d i e n t a the equations can b e handled b y computers w h i c h
n u m b e r o f 1 m m gauges are used so that the are essential t o t h e fatigue analysis o f
measurements can b e extrapolated into the joint offshore structures.
corners. Where strain gradients are both very
high and n o n - l i n e a r , strings o f up t o t e n gauges T o d a t e , t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e set c f
w i t h g a u g e l e n g t h s o f 0.5 m m a n d e l e m e n t s at empirical equations which c o v e r , T.Y.K. and K T
1 mm pitch may b e used. joints has b e e n developed by Kuang ( 6 ) .
However, the assessment o f all currently
C y a n o a c r y l a t e a d h e s i v e is u s e d f o r available empirical equations shows that the
g l u e i n g t h e g a u g e s in p l a c e . Strain gauge S . C F . s calculated from them vary considerably.
terminal pads are usually not attached to the Furthermore, many types o f complex multi-brace
specimens s i n c e , due to their relatively high joints and m o d e s o f loadings h a v e n o t b e e n
stiffness, they would locally reinforce the investigated and this imposes limits on reliable
acrylic and influence the strains therein. fatigue calculations. A comprehensive investig­
ation covering all the common types o f joints
2.k Test P r o c e d u r e . As remarked e a r l i e r , the and loading conditions was t h e r e f o r e embarked
loads are applied either b y a screw j a c k , which u p o n b y L l o y d ' s R e g i s t e r of S h i p p i n g . The
is m o n i t o r e d b y a r i n g g a u g e d y n a m o m e t e r , o r b y programme contains four major parts which are
dead weights. C a l i b r a t i o n s t r a i n g a u g e s are b e i n g completed in t u r n . Each successive part
f i t t e d t o t h e t u b u l a r m e m b e r s at p o s i t i o n s examines joints o f increasing complexity of
remote from t h e joints w h e r e the strain distrib­ joint g e o m e t r y . It w a s h o p e d t h a t a t h o r o u g h
u t i o n is u n d i s t u r b e d a n d c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d understanding o f the simple joints obtained
using basic theory. from the earlier parts of the p r o g r a m m e , together
w i t h t h e w o r k d o n e u n d e r c o n t r a c t for t h e
The normal strains measured by these U n i t e d Kingdom. O f f s h o r e S t e e l s P e s e a r c h P r o j e c t ,
gauges are compared with the calculated strains w o u l d i n d i c a t e an e f f e c t i v e l i n e c f i n v e s t i g a t ­
to verify the effective Young's Modulus of the ion for the progressively more complex joints
acrylic. encountered later in the programme.

The brittle lacquer tests are usually The parts of the programme are as
done first. T h e s t r e s s c o a t l a c q u e r is a p p l i e d
as p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s e x c e p t t h a t , follows:-
in o r d e r t o a v o i d c r a z i n g o f t h e a c r y l i c , n o
a l u m i n i u m u n d e r c o a t is a p p l i e d . (i) T and X type joints.

T h e strain gauges are connected to a (ii) Y and oblique X joints.


1 0 0 c h a n n e l data, l o g g e r w h i c h applies a peak
g a u g e c u r r e n t o f 5mA t o each g a u g e , energisation (iii) (a) n o n - o v e r l a p p e d K and K T joints.
being for only 20 m s . The low gauge currents (b) j o i n t s w i t h out-of-plane braces.
a n d short energisation times prevent any (c) o v e r l a p p e d K a n d KT 1
joints.
significant temperature r i s e s , with their
(iv) Joints stiffened by internal webs and
associated errors. L o a d is a p p l i e d i n t w o or
frames.
three increments with intervals of one minute

61
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

Fig 3a BALLANCED AXIAL LOAD

View on 'A'

Fig 3b OUT-OF-PLANE BENDING MOMENT


PAPER 7: W O R D S W O R T H

E a c h b r a c e o f e a c h joint is s u b j e c t e d (b) Out-of-~plane B e n d i n g M o m e n t . For this


t o a x i a l l o a d , o u t - o f - p l a n e b e n d i n g m o m e n t and mode o f loading equal out-of-plane bending
in-plane bending moment separately. From the m o m e n t s a r e a p p l i e d t o each b r a c e i n t h e s a m e
S.C.F.s m e a s u r e d u n d e r t h e s e s i m p l e l o a d i n g direction. T h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t s act in t h e
c o n d i t i o n s t h e S.C.F.s u n d e r c o m p l e x l o a d i n g s plane of the transverse centreline o f each b r a c e .
can be determined by superposition. P a r t s (i) This loading can occur w h e n , for e x a m p l e , the
a n d (ii) o f t h e p r o g r a m m e h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e d v e r t i c a l f o r c e s from a w a v e a c t o n a h o r i z o n t a l
a n d t h e r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d as p a r a m e t r e e q u a t i o n s K joint.
in R e f . 7 - The n o n - o v e r l a p p e d K a n d K T j o i n t s
w i t h w h i c h p a r t ( i i i ) (a) is c o n c e r n e d are
(c) In-plane Bending foment. T h i s t e r m is
discussed below.
used to describe the loading condition w h e n equal
b e n d i n g m o m e n t s are a p p l i e d to e a c h b r a c e o f a
K joint, or the two outer braces o f a KT joint,
NON-OVERLAPPED K AND KT JOINTS
in the common plane of the b r a c e and chord
V. T h e t e r m s K a n d K T are u s e d t o d e s c r i b e
centrelines. T h e l o a d i n g can e i t h e r b e s y m m e t r i c
t h e t y p e s o f joint i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 2.
or asymmetric.(Fig.3B).
T h e s e j o i n t s are c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d o n s p a c e
f r a m e s t r u c t u r e s s u c h as o f f s h o r e s t e e l j a c k e t
K o r K T j o i n t s may b e l i k e n e d t o Y
structures. T h e y can b e s u b j e c t e d t o m a n y t y p e s
joints to which additional braces have b e e n
of complex loading conditions but the three
subsequently added. The e f f e c t s o f t h e s e
conditions w h i c h are the most common a r e : -
additional braces were assumed to b e twofold.
F i r s t l y , if t h e original brace o n l y is l o a d e d ,
(a) "Balanced" axial l o a d on the b r a c e s .
the addition of the further b r a c e or b r a c e s
This t e r m is u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e l o a d i n g
s t i f f e n s t h e c h o r d a n d , may t h e r e f o r e r e d u c e t h e
c o n d i t i o n s h o w n in F i g u r e 3a w h e r e t h e t w o
S . C . F . s as c o m p a r e d t o Y j o i n t s . Secondly, if
b r a c e s o f a K j o i n t are l o a d e d a x i a l l y , o n e in
t h e a d d i t i o n a l b r a c e s are also l o a d e d , t h e c h o r d
t e n s i o n a n d o n e in c o m p r e s s i o n , t h e m a g n i t u d e
d e f o r m a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from t h i s m a y e x t e n d t o
o f t h e l o a d s b e i n g s u c h t h a t n o n e t t force is
the original brace and therefore superimpose
applied normal to the chord. In the case o f a
additional stresses which modify further the
K T j o i n t t h e t w o o u t e r b r a c e s (A a n d C ) o n l y are
o r i g i n a l Y joint S . C . F . s . W h e t h e r t h e s e l a t t e r
loaded. This t y p e o f l o a d i n g t e n d s t o o c c u r due
are increased or decreased as a result of this
to the "racking" o f a complete offshore jacket
s e c o n d e f f e c t d e p e n d s on t h e r e l a t i v e d i r e c t i o n s
structure.
o f l o a d in t h e t w o b r a c e s .

Balanced' axial load


Out-of-plane B.M.

ja^2 "

Crown q
00

1
1
g/D g/D

Fig 4 TYPICAL K JOINT S.C.F. v. g/D

Y-16 p=0,5
r=o.s e =e =45°
A B

63
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

It w a s c o n s i d e r e d desirable to q u a n t i f y The greatest chord saddle S.C.F. occurs


these t w o effects separately so that the adjacent to brace A a n d , b a s e d on the nominal
empirical equations for the K and K T joint s t r e s s in b r a c e A.
S . C . F . s c o u l d b e w r i t t e n i n a form, t h a t w o u l d
allow users to m o d i f y them t o suit variations
of the three basic loading cases.
1.7 + 0.73~
[sin
The following test procedure was there­
+ 8
fore adopted. (0.012Y)* / 3 R
°-Win 6 V sin ^ A
+
° - ™ % J

Y
joints w e r e first constructed a n d
\sin e B /

tested to determine their S.C.F.s. These


m e a s u r e d S . C . F . s w e r e u s e d as d a t a w i t h w h i c h Chord crown position
the K joint results were later compared. They
w e r e also c h e c k e d against t h e S.C.F.s p r e d i c t e d Kc w h i c h is g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n 3A
b y the Y joint parametric equations which are r e p r e s e n t s t h e S . C . F . at t h e c r o w n o f a Y j o i n t
given in the appendix to verify that there were d u e p r i m a r i l y , t o t h e l o c a l shell b e n d i n g O-P t h e
no significant discrepancies. Additional braces chord w a l l . It w a s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h i s
w e r e then fitted to these Y joints to convert e q u a t i o n c o u l d b e u s e d as a b a s i s f o r t h e K
them to K o r K T joints with particular brace joint S.C.F.s at t h e c h o r d c r o w n . In the e v e n t ,
toe separations. These w e r e tested with each a satisfactory formula could not b e developed in
brace o f a particular specimen separately this w a y and an e n t i r e l y n e w f o r m u l a w a s t h e r e ­
loaded by axial load, out-of-plane bending f o r e w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s : -
moment and in-plane bending moment. The S.C.F.s
at t h e o r i g i n a l b r a c e w e r e m e a s u r e d f o r b o t h When 6 A > 6 E

t h e c a s e s w h e n it w a s t h e l o a d e d b r a c e , a n d
a l s o f o r t h e c a s e s w h e n it w a s t h e n o n - l o a d e d 6 5

brace. The s e c o n d b r a c e w a s t h e n cut o f f and K c - - 1.1 Y °- T sin 6 A (g/R) °'° 5 / e

its end re-machined before glueing b a c k onto 1

the chord to form a K joint with a different sin 9


B
brace toe separation and the tests then repeated.
In all cases t h e b r a c e s on a given joint w e r e 0.25 _ D 2
x (1.58
of equal diameter and wall thickness.
This S.C.F. i s , like t h e chord saddle
The experimental results were analysed S.C.F., based on the nominal stress in brace A.
and t h e f o l l o w i n g expressions derived for t h e
calculation o f S.C.F.s from t h e basic d i m e n s i o n ­ W h e n u s i n g t h e s e e q u a t i o n s t h e S.C.F.s
al parameters given in P a r a . 7 . s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d at b o t h s a d d l e a n d c r o w n
p o s i t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h is t h e g r e a t e r . T h e
k.l K Joint - Balanced Axial Load. a b i l i t y t o c a l c u l a t e S.C.F.s at b o t h p o s i t i o n s
Chord saddle position f o r t h i s m o d e o f l o a d i n g is u s e f u l i f e i t h e r i n -
p l a n e B.M. o r o u t - o f - p l a n e B . M . a r e a l s o a p p l i e d .
When 6. = 6^ T h e f o r m e r B . M . g i v e s r i s e t o s t r e s s e s at t h e
A -D c r o w n a n d t h e l a t t e r s t r e s s e s at t h e s a d d l e a n d
. 1.7 + 0.73~ these must be combined with the stresses
K == [ Y T3 (6.78 - 6,
a r i s i n g f r o m t h e b a l a n c e d a x i a l l o a d at t h e
g / 3 R + k
corresponding positions. Furthermore, if
Cl - (0.01*,) °' }
s t i f f e n i n g is t o b e a d d e d t o a j o i n t t o r e d u c e
fl-0.1 d - 3 + 1.3g/R)j t h e balanced axial l o a d i n g peak S.C.F. the
optimum type of stiffening depends on the
position of the peak S.C.F. which should t h e r e ­
The three parts of this equation in
fore be k n o w n .
square brackets refer to:-

h.2 KT Joints Balanced Axial Load. Identical


(i) The S.C.F. for a Y joint.
equations to those given above may b e applied
t o a K T joint w h e n t h e outer t w o b r a c e s only
(ii) The reduction in the Y joint S.C.F.due
are loaded. In this case the dimension g
to the " c a r r y - o v e r " effect from the load (of
represents the distance b e t w e e n the toes of the
opposite sign) in the adjacent b r a c e .
outer braces.

(iii) The reduction o f the Y joint S.C.F.due


h.3 K Joints - Out-of-plane B.M. Equal B.M.
to the addition of a second b r a c e . This
applied to both braces
reduction was found to be small, usually only
a b o u t 3%> a n d t h i s t e r m is i g n o r e d h e r e a f t e r
if e A - e B
t o a v o i d i m p l y i n g a g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y t h a n is
to be expected from the equation. 2

When 0 > 8_, the nominal


A stress, , K s = [ T6
Y (1.6 - 1.15B ) 5
sin 1 , 3 5 + 3
ej
A JD JD
in brace B = a s i n 6„ S / 2 R + U5
- A
ft
A [l + (O.Ol6 6) Y °- l
1 + 2g/R
s i n 6. 0.1
B J

64
PAPER 7: W O R D S W O R T H

Once again, the three terms in square 1+.6 Brace Stresses . The tests on T joints
b r a c k e t s r e f e r t o (i) t h e Y j o i n t S . C . F . ( i i ) showed that w h e n T>0.U, the m a x i m u m stresses
the carry-over function (iii) the reinforcing occurred o n t h e chord side o f t h e j o i n t s .
e f f e c t w h i c h is o n c e a g a i n s m a l l b u t is p e r h a p s
significant for KT joints. v E q u a t i o n 1 0 A gives t h e b r a c e S . C . F . as
a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h o r d S.C.F. This very
simple equation tends to be unconservative w h e n
I F 9 > 9
A B
K_<K and conservative when K _ > K
B c or s B c o r s.
5
K S = ("YTB ( 1 . 6 - 1.156 )]
Limited measurements o f brace S.C.F.s
„2 were made on t h e K and K T joints and these
1.35 + 3
sin 9
A +
indicated that equation 10A would tend to b e
c o n s e r v a t i v e w h e n it w a s s i g n i f i c a n t , i . e .
w h e n K >'K

w
B c o r s.

U.7 Weld Fillet Effect. With one exception a l l


the tests o n K a n d K T joints w e r e done o n t e s t
f_i - o.i 1 +2
s / R
- 1 s p e c i m e n s w i t h o u t f i l l e t s at t h e c r o t c h . It is
shown in Ref.8 that t h e introduction o f a
k.k KT Joints - Out-of-plane B.M. 6 = 9
A n
fillet transposes t h e stress d i s t r i b u t i o n , b y a
Equal B.M. applied to all three b r a c e s . distance o f about h a l f the fillet l e g l e n g t h ,
away from t h e crotch. This h a s t h e e f f e c t o f
K =|JTS (1.6 - 1.15B )] 5 reducing t h e peak S.C.F. predicted b y t h e
equations given h e r e i n and equation 1 1 A h a s b e e n
1.35 + proposed to correct for this effect in T j o i n t s .

g/2R Tests w e r e done on a single acrylic K


2/e\ - (o.oi6 3)
0 3
Y
+ 0
- ^ s i n 1
- 3 5 +
^e ] A
joint with fillets and the results i n d i c a t e d
that t h e correction given b y e q u a t i o n 1 1 A w a s
o f t h e right o r d e r for this type o f joint
1 + 2g/Rt 2 although the actual correction varied slightly
|"l - 0.1
for t h e different types of loading. In view
of the limited data available from this one
The m a x i m u m chord side S.C.F. occurs
j o i n t it is n o t p r o p o s e d to m o d i f y e q u a t i o n
at t h e saddle o f brace B.
11A until further work on filleted joints h a s
been completed.
^ • 5 K and KT Joints - In-plane Bending. For
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e S.C.F.s u n d e r i n - p l a n e b e n d i n g
CONCLUSION
moment on t h e t w o braces o f a K joint the
5. T h e empirical equations which w e r e
equation for the peak S.C.F. for a Y j o i n t ,
originally developed t o predict S.C.F.s for
e q u a t i o n 9 A is u s e d as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . T e s t s
T and Y joints have been extended b y t h e u s e o f
showed that the reinforcing effect o f a second
additional f u n c t i o n s , to cover K and K T joints
b r a c e added t o a Y joint t o form a K was
under certain loading conditions. The
negligible
resulting equations are somewhat lengthy b u t
their form allows them t o b e manipulated t o
Similarly, t h e carry-over effect from
c o v e r l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s for w h i c h t h e y a r e
one brace t o another was very small.
i n c o r r e c t as t h e y s t a n d . F o r e x a m p l e , (i)
Axial loads in t h e braces which are not i n
The S.C.F. for equal symmetric in-plane
balance. (ii) Out-of-plane bending moments
bending on both braces o f a K joint was
which are either not equal o r not in t h e same
determined a s : -
direction. (iii) Axial tension in both o f the
o u t e r b r a c e s i n a K T joint b a l a n c e d b y a x i a l
6 1 5
v o.T5 Y ° - T 0
- 8
< 1 . 6 B * W ) B i n ' " compression centre brace.

Y Sy Sg i ns i n 6 2/ 02 /
11 + + R 2RT
[l + 0.2 J T h e e q u a t i o n s are a l s o a m e n a b l e t o
simplification at the direction o f t h e u s e r .
The carry-over function of

2
These latest equations are currently
1 + y g sin 6 / 2 R
0.2 being considered by the Societies Offshore
Services Group with a view to including t h e m in
is s m a l l w h e n v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f their fatigue analysis programme. The p r e v i o u s ­
the general accuracy of the basic Y joint l y d e t e r m i n e d T , Y and X j o i n t e q u a t i o n s h a v e
equation. It is t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t , f o r b e e n in use for some t i m e .
p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n is
simplified to the original Y joint equation, The next part of t h e test programme
i.e. w i l l seek t o quantify the effects o f i n t e r n a l
stiffeners in t h e chord.
0 -
1.5-1.
V °- 7 5
Y T 8
(i.6e - }
o.7e )sm
2

65
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS K g =YT8(6.78-6.1*2^)sin ( 1
- 7 +
°' 7 3
\ 1A.
The Author wishes to thank t h e Societies
Committee, Technical Director and Chief Crown position
Surveyor for permission to publish this paper.
He w o u l d also like to thank Messrs. J.Dolding K = K f
+ K K" 2A.
and A . Nestor for their skilled assistance in c c o c
the Laboratory, and other colleagues for their
helpful comments. K = (0.7+ 1.37Y M l - 6 ) ) ( 2 s i n ° ' e - sin^e) 3A 5

NOMENCLATURE K = T(8- /2y)(a T

8 B/sinO) sin 0 UA.


1. brace diameter/chord diameter,
Y chord radius/chord t h i c k n e s s ,
J
brace thickness/chord thickness, 1 - / 2 Y
T
distance between t h e toes o f t w o
g 1
braces. K" = 1.05+ 3 0 T ^ ( 1 . 2 - B ) ( C O S V 1
0.15) 5A.
acute angle b e t w e e n b r a c e and chord,
a chord length/chord radius,
T chord thickness X joints. Saddle Position. Chord side.
x weld leg length on t h e chord side.
K S . C . F . at c h o r d s a d d l e . K=1.7YTB(2.U2 - 2.28B - ) 2 2
S i n * 2 ( l 5
- l k M
\ ^

K = S . C . F . at c h o r d crown. B. Out-of--plane Bending on Brace. T and Y


S . C . F . at b r a c e . joints,

S . C . F . at w e l d t o e .
Saddle position. Chord side.

REFERENCES K g = Y T 8 (1.6 - 1.158 ) s i n 5 ( 1


* 3 5 + 6 }
e JA^

X joints. Saddle position. Chord


1. SMEDLEY G.P. T h e avoidance o f fatigue side.
failures in offshore structures. P r o c . 1 . 1 . W .
and Metals Technology Conf. Sydney 1 9 7 6 . K = (1.56 - 1.U6BW * 2 1 5
" l k M )
e *±
s Y T B

2. ATSUTA T. E T A L . . Failure design o f an


offshore structure. O.T.C. Paper N o . 2 6 0 7 ; 1 9 7 6 . C. In-plane Bending M o m e n t . T.Y a n d X j o i n t s .

3. M A R S H A L L P.W. F a i l u r e m o d e s o f Crown p o s i t i o n . Chord side.


offshore platforms. Part I I I . Nat.Structural
1 1 5 1 6 8
Engineering Conference Wisconsin 1 9 7 6 . K =0.75Y°- Y°- (1.68 -
c
6 8 0 2 5
- O . T B ^ B i n - - - ^
E
h. MADDOX N.R. Fatigue analysis for
9A.
deepwater fixed b o t t o m p l a t f o r m s . O.T.C. Paper
No.2091 19lh. D. Brace side. For main modes o f loading.

5. BULL A . O . AND WALKER R.C Stresses K = (1 + 0 . 6 3 K ) 10A.


experienced b y an o f f s h o r e mobile drilling unit.
B c or s
O.T.C. Paper No. 1 ^ 0 1 9 7 1 .
E. Weld Leg Length Correction.
6. KUANG J.G. E T A L . Stress concentrat­
ions in tubular joints. O.T.C. Paper N o . 2205 K
t = K
s (
° r K
c 11A,
1975.

7. WORDSWORTH A . C . A N D SMEDLEY G.P. Stress


c o n c e n t r a t i o n s at u n s t i f f e n e d t u b u l a r j o i n t s .
European offshore steels research seminar. NOTE. W h e n 8> a b o u t 0 . 9 8 t h e S . C . F . at t h e
Cambridge 1 9 7 8 . s a d d l e p o s i t i o n is c r i t i c a l l y d e p e n d a n t o n t h e
extent t o w h i c h t h e b r a c e is cut b a c k . For the
8. WORDSWORTH A . C . The experimental ideal geometry when 8 = 1 . 0 the chord saddle
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s t r e s s e s at t u b u l a r j o i n t s . positions w i l l b e diametrically opposite each
B.S.S.M./R.I.N.A. Conference. Edinburgh 1 9 7 5 . other, and t h e outer surface o f the brace then
meets t h e chord tongentially. This a l l o w s t h e
efficient transfer o f load and hence low S.C.F.s,
and it is t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n f o r w h i c h t h e
APPENDIX empirical equations are applicable.
9. Empirical equations for the estimation
of S.C.F.s at T . Y a n d X j o i n t s . ( R e f . 7 ) . In p r a c t i s e t h i s does n o t u s u a l l y
o c c u r , s i n c e it i n v o l v e s t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f a
A. Axial Load on Brace. T and Y joints. large amount o f w e l d m e t a l . I n t h e s e c a s e s it
is s u g g e s t e d t h a t , in t h e e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n s
Saddle position. Chord side. for K 8 is p u t e q u a l t o O . 9 8 w h e n e v e r & > 0 . 9 8 .
9

66
Discussion o n Papers 6 and 7

DR I R V I N E , Paper 6 c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e m b r a n e and b e n d i n g s t r e s s .
Even on the simplest of tubular connections, the A f u r t h e r a s s u m p t i o n is that t h i s c r a c k g r o w t h
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e w e l d b e g i n s on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e o f t h e m o d e . A l l
r e g i o n , is e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x a n d t h e m a x i m u m w o r k in U K O S R P u s e d t h e hot spot s t r e s s c o n c e p t ,
v a l u e o f s t r e s s on a n y t u b u l a r c o n n e c t i o n w i l l b o t h in s t r e s s a n a l y s i s and f a t i g u e t e s t i n g
be yield. At t h e s h a r p c o r n e r w h e r e t h e last of t u b u l a r j o i n t s .
weld toe meets the parent plate the geometry P r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e on h o t spot s t r e s s e v a l u ­
discontinuity, especially when coupled with the a t i o n c a n b e e x t e n d e d from t h e s i m p l e j o i n t s
further discontinuity of weld toe defects, will a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d to cover t h e c o m p l e x c o n n e c ­
a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y g i v e r i s e t o a local v a l u e o f t i o n s as u s e d o f f s h o r e w i t h f e a t u r e s s u c h as
s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r so h i g h a s to bi-planar bracing, overlapped bracing and
produce yield stress locally. In t h e h o t spot i n t e r n a l s t i f f e n i n g , and t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s
r e g i o n (which is so c a l l e d b e c a u s e o f t h e p o s ­ application of complex loading, where accurate
s i b l e local h e a t i n g p r o d u c e d b y l a r g e - s c a l e hot spot s t r e s s v a l u e and p o s i t i o n m a y b e
c y c l i c p l a s t i c i t y ) t h e zone o f y i e l d s t r e s s w i l l d e d u c e d o n l y from d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e o f s t r e s s
be largest. It is t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y to s e l e c t distributions around the weld toe for each load
from t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n o n a t u b u l a r joint case. (The h o t spot does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o c c u r
a v a l u e o f s t r e s s that is d e f i n a b l e , e x p e r i m e n t ­ at t h e c r o w n o r s a d d l e p o s i t i o n s e v e n f o r s i m p l e
a l l y r e p e a t a b l e and w h i c h c a n b e u s e d as t h e T-joints.)
s t r e s s input to a f a t i g u e e n d u r a n c e e s t i m a t i o n . In e s s e n c e , w h e n t h i n shell a s s u m p t i o n c a n b e
A n e a r l y a p p r o a c h to t h i s p r o b l e m u s e d t h e justified for all potential areas of fatigue
p u n c h i n g s h e a r a p p r o a c h w h i c h is d i f f i c u l t t o d a m a g e s u c h t h a t c r a c k g r o w t h is d o m i n a t e d b y
link to f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s c o n c e p t s o f f a t i g u e membrane and bending stresses, through-thickness
c r a c k g r o w t h as it i m p l i e s c o m p l e t e l y s h e a r - s t r e s s e s c a n b e i g n o r e d and h o t spot s t r e s s c a n
g e n e r a t e d c r a c k g r o w t h w h i c h is o b s e r v e d , in b e r e g a r d e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
m o d e I I I , o n l y in t h e final s t a g e s o f t u b u l a r stress controlling fatigue e n d u r a n c e . However,
joint f a t i g u e c h o r d f a i l u r e w h e n c o n s i d e r a b l e w h e n t h i s is n o t t h e case a n d e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e
through-thickness cracking has occurred. large s h e a r s t r e s s e s c a n b e a n t i c i p a t e d (as i n
T h i s a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n f o l l o w e d b y t h e hot overlapped braced connections) there is a case
spot s t r e s s a p p r o a c h w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s that for e x a m i n i n g o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s . As yet experi­
c r a c k g r o w t h b e g i n s o n t h e s u r f a c e in t h e r e g i o n m e n t a l d a t a o n f a t i g u e c r a c k g r o w t h in s u c h
o f h i g h e s t s t r e s s and c a n b e d e s c r i b e d b y m o d e I c o n n e c t i o n s is s p a r s e and s e e m s to w a r r a n t
fatigue crack growth. A high tensile surface further investigation.
s t r e s s d e v e l o p s c r a c k s from w e l d t o e d e f e c t s
and such a s t r e s s is a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e m b r a n e P R O F E S S O R H . F E S S L E R , University of Nottingham
and b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s and is q u o t e d as t h e sum­ Could Mr Wordsworth clarify t h e method o f e x t r a ­
m a t i o n o f t h e m e m b r a n e and e x t r e m e f i b r e p o l a t i o n u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e S C F v a l u e s g i v e n in
s t r e s s e s at t h e s u r f a c e , d e f i n e d in such a w a y Paper 7?
as to a v o i d i n c l u s i o n o f t h e local w e l d t o e o r T h e f a i l u r e s w h i c h i n i t i a t e d at t h e i n s i d e o f
n o t c h c o n c e n t r a t i o n e f f e c t s w h i c h r a i s e this t h e b r a c e a n d at t h e c r o w n o f o v e r l a p p e d b r a c e s ,
s t r e s s to y i e l d at t h e w e l d t o e . S u c h a s t r e s s as r e p o r t e d in P a p e r 6, are in a g r e e m e n t w i t h
can b e u s e d to p r e d i c t e a r l y s t a g e s o f c r a c k p h o t o e l a s t i c r e s u l t s as i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 1,
g r o w t h but c a n b e c r i t i c i z e d , on a f r a c t u r e which shows the principal stresses around t h e
m e c h a n i c s b a s i s , as n o t r e c o g n i z i n g t h e d i f f e r ­ f i l l e t s o f an o v e r l a p p e d 9 0 ° / 4 5 ° K j o i n t . This
e n c e b e t w e e n c r a c k g r o w t h i n d u c e d b y axial a n d m o d e l w a s a n a l y s e d b y Little.-'-. T h e p r o p o r t i o n s
b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s and i g n o r i n g s h e a r s t r e s s are d / D = 0 . 5 3 , D / T = 2 5 . 6 , t/T = 0.5 w i t h c i r ­
d r i v e n c r a c k g r o w t h m o d e s s u c h as m o d e I I , w h i c h c u l a r f i l l e t s r = t/2 w i t h a n e c c e n t r i c i t y o f
m a y b e p r e s e n t if a n y s i g n i f i c a n t t h r o u g h - +D/4. T h e joint w a s u n d e r b a l a n c e d a x i a l l o a d ­
t h i c k n e s s s t r e s s e s can b e l o c a l l y s u p p o r t e d , ing w i t h t h e 4 5 ° b o r e in t e n s i o n . Stress
and t h e m o d e III crack g r o w t h . indices are multiples o f the mean axial stress
At p r e s e n t , h o t spot s t r e s s b a s e d fatigue in t h e 4 5 ° b r a c e . T h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s in t h i s
endurance prediction using a design S-N c u r v e is joint o c c u r s i n s i d e t h e 90° b r a c e at t h e c r o w n .
in w i d e s p r e a d u s e . Its u s e a s s u m e s that f a t i g u e
c r a c k g r o w t h is p r e d o m i n a n t l y - m o d e I, a r i s i n g M R W O R D S W O R T H , in reply
from w e l d t o e d e f e c t s and d r i v e n b y a The method of extrapolation consisted of extra-

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd,•London, 1981


67
STRESS A N A L Y S I S O F T U B U L A R J O I N T S

An

Fig. 1

p o l a t i n g the natural curve of the stress d i s t r i ­ s o - c a l l e d n o t c h r e g i o n is r e l a t e d to t h e m e m b e r


b u t i o n to the tube intersection. The natural thicknesses only, instead of the value a =
curve, which m a y or m a y not be a straight line, 0 . 2 / ( r t ) g i v e n in P a p e r 6. This can be clarified
was established by the u s e of three or m o r e b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l case o f a v e r y
s t r a i n g a u g e s p o s i t i o n e d beyond t h e limit of the large joint w h e r e t h e r a d i u s r a p p r o a c h e s i n ­
notch concentration. finity while the thickness remains finite. The
I u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e f a i l u r e d e s c r i b e d in f o r m u l a t h e n s u g g e s t s that t h e n o t c h r e g i o n
P a p e r 6 o c c u r r e d at t h e j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e w o u l d also a p p r o a c h i n f i n i t y , w h i c h is in d i s ­
outer surfaces of two overlapped braces. At this a g r e e m e n t w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n s from p l a t e t e s t s .
p o s i t i o n , u n d e r b a l a n c e d a x i a l load, t h e w e l d T h e f o r m u l a e g i v e n f o r t h e l a r g e r d i s t a n c e from
w o u l d b e subject to almost p u r e s h e a r . Under t h e weld t o e are a l s o d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r s t a n d .
t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e d e c i s i o n as t o w h e t h e r t o O n e would e x p e c t t h i s d i s t a n c e to b e d i r e c t l y
use m a x i m u m principal stress, stress normal to related to the wavelength of the stress distrib­
the weld t o e , or some intermediate stress on the u t i o n in t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e m b e r , w h i c h is f o r t h e
S-N c u r v e is o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e . I consider b r a c e side o f t h e o r d e r of / ( r t ) .
that some fatigue testing should be done to What w a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e f o r m u l a e q u o t e d in
resolve this question if appropriate parametric P a p e r 6?
e q u a t i o n s are to b e d e v e l o p e d for this style of Should the principal stress or the stress
joint. p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e w e l d t o e b e u s e d as t h e h o t
spot s t r e s s ?
M R G. M . R O D R I G U E S , McDermott Engineering There are two reasons why the stress component
W i t h r e g a r d t o S C F s from e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e w e l d t o e s h o u l d b e u s e d as
d e r i v e d f r o m t e s t m o d e l s , i n * v i e w o f t h e fact t h e hot spot s t r e s s .
that n o n e of these formulae take into account (a) O n l y t h e s t r e s s c o m p o n e n t p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
t h e i n f l u e n c e in p e a k s t r e s s (hot spot s t r e s s ) the w e l d t o e r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e s t o w a r d s t h e
r e l i e f f r o m a d j o i n i n g j o i n t s in t h e v i c i n i t y weld t o e .
( f l e x i b l e s t r u c t u r e e f f e c t ) is D r I r v i n e j u s t i ­ (b) During m o s t o f t h e f a t i g u e life t h e c r a c k s
fied to claim accuracy to 2 0 % error? propagate along the weld and consequently
As Lloyd's Insurance Agent, has M r Wordsworth the s t r e s s n o r m a l to t h e w e l d w i l l d e t e r m i n e
had f e e d b a c k from p l a t f o r m s operating in t h e the c r a c k g r o w t h .
North Sea to justify t h e h i g h accuracy in SCFs The following practical difficulties will arise
that others confidently claim? w h e n the p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s h a s t o b e u s e d .
(a) Hot spot s t r e s s e s a r e n o r m a l l y found b y
IR A . W . V A N B E E K , Shell Internationale superposition of stresses due to axial brace
Petroleum My BV, The Hague load a n d in and o u t o f p l a n e b e n d i n g . Super­
The experimental determination of hot spot position of principal stresses with different
stresses u s e s an extrapolation t e c h n i q u e , where o r i e n t a t i o n is n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e .
t w o p o i n t s a r e d e f i n e d at d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e s (b) T h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s m a y v a r y
from t h e w e l d t o e at t h e c h o r d s i d e as w e l l as at d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e s from t h e w e l d a n d m a y
t h e b r a c e s i d e o f t h e w e l d a n d at t h e c r o w n a s vary during the stress cycle.
well as the saddle point. The formulae given
for these distances are difficult to understand DR I R V I N E , in reply
from a t h e o r e t i c a l point of view. All the expressions developed are essentially
One would expect that the distance giving the e m p i r i c a l , all b u t t h e ( 5 ° o f a r c ) e x p r e s s i o n

68
D I S C U S S I O N O N PAPERS 6 A N D 7

b e i n g b a s e d o n t h e f a c t o r J (rt) b e i n g linked to DR IRVINE


the w a v e l e n g t h o f b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s in a t u b e o f For the use of appropriate methods (i.e. para­
r a d i u s r and t h i c k n e s s t. Regarding a tubular metric equations with parametric validity range
joint at t h e c o n n e c t i o n as b e i n g , c r u d e l y , a t u b e or a p a r t i c u l a r s t r e s s a n a l y s i s e x e r c i s e ) o n e
a t t a c h e d to a p l a t e leads to t h e e x t e n t o f t h e would expect accuracy generally to w i t h i n
local n o t c h s t r e s s e s , w h i c h a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y - 1 0 % , w i t h a c e r t a i n t y that i n a c c u r a c i e s w i l l
b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s , b e i n g a l s o linked t o 7 ( r t ) . not e x c e e d 2 0 % .
T h e r e is o b v i o u s l y a m i s m a t c h w i t h s i m i l a r a g r e e ­ SCF analysis can b e difficult b e c a u s e o f the
m e n t s d e v o t e d to p l a t e a l o n e . These experiences local w e l d g e o m e t r y i n c l u d e d in t h e a c u t e a n g l e
m a y e v e n t u a l l y b e s u p e r s e d e d b y t h o s e w h i c h are and b e c a u s e o f t h e s h e a r s t r e s s e s t h a t m u s t b e
more appropriate. However, the proposal of present. For this latter reason t h e u s e o f
u s i n g (0.4 x p l a t e t h i c k n e s s ) as t h e e x t e n t o f f a t i g u e d e s i g n c u r v e s based on l o n g i t u d i n a l
n o t c h s t r e s s h a s n o t , in t h e g e o m e t r i e s e x a m i n e d stress m a y be inappropriate but t h e , admittedly
so f a r , p r o d u c e d a s e r i o u s d i s c r e p a n c y from s p a r s e , d a t a a v a i l a b l e suggest t h a t s u c h f a i l ­
that g i v e n b y 0 . 2 y ( r t ) . ures are conservatively described by conven­
E x p e r i m e n t s c a r r i e d out at t h e W e l d i n g I n s t i ­ tional fatigue design curves. The smallest
t u t e h a v e i n d i c a t e d that w h e n t h e w e l d t o e is a n g l e e x a m i n e d in U K O S R P is 4 5 ° .
rotated with respect to the maximum principal
s t r e s s , f a t i g u e c r a c k g r o w t h is n o t c o n s e r v a ­ MR WORDSWORTH
t i v e l y d e s c r i b e d u s i n g t h e s t r e s s r e s o l v e d to t h e To m y knowledge there has been n o tendency to
w e l d t o e , and m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s should reduce the number of different joint t y p e s .
still b e u s e d . The maximum principal stress has S C F s at t h e j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r n a l w a l l
b e e n shown in U K O S R P to r i s e s h a r p l y to t h e w e l d o f t h e b r a c e and t h e e x t e r n a l w a l l o f t h e c h o r d
toe even if n o t p e r p e n d i c u l a r to i t . Further­ w h i c h h a v e b e e n m e a s u r e d on a c r y l i c m o d e l s a r e
m o r e , in some g e o m e t r i e s e x a m i n e d c r a c k a d v a n c e u s u a l l y l o w e r t h a n at t h e e x t e r n a l j u n c t i o n .
can m o v e away from t h e w e l d t o e to b e p e r p e n d i c ­ H o w e v e r , t h e w e l d n o t c h p r o f i l e at t h e i n n e r
u l a r to t h e m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s . In a d d ­ j u n c t i o n is p r o b a b l y m o r e s e v e r e t h a n at t h e
i t i o n r e s o l v e d to w e l d t o e s t r e s s e s c a n n o t deal outer junction and so, possibly, a more severe
w i t h p u r e s h e a r at t h e w e l d t o e . S-N c u r v e w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h i s p o s i t i o n .
In a n y c o m b i n a t i o n o f in and out o f p h a s e
a p p l i e d l o a d s , all that c a n b e e s t i m a t e d is t h e M R J. G. P A R K H O U S E , Atkins Research & Develop­
maximum excursion of maximum principal stress ment
over the wave cycle considered. A n a l y s i n g t u b u l a r j o i n t s is e x p e n s i v e . T h e cost
depends on the accuracy required, but I would
DR E . C . H A M B L Y , Consulting Engineer e x p e c t t h e a n a l y s i s o f a real u n c r a c k e d j o i n t ,
M y q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e to w o r k I h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d i f it w e r e w o r t h a n a l y s i n g , t o c o s t a c l i e n t
in as a c o n s u l t a n t to N o b l e D e n t o n $ A s s o c i a t e s £ 1 0 , 0 0 0 - 5 0 , 0 0 0 (including c o m p u t i n g a n d p e r s o n ­
Ltd. Reference 2 describes a stress analysis nel) .
of a complex o v e r l a p p i n g j o i n t . T h i s h a d to b e F i n i t e e l e m e n t a n a l y s i s is e x p e n s i v e , a n d is
c o m p l e t e d in f o u r d a y s and w a s c a r r i e d out u s i n g recommended only when necessary. Offshore
a space frame analysis with plate simulation. s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r s should b e n e f i t w h e r e p o s ­
What r a n g e o f e r r o r d o t h e A u t h o r s c o n s i d e r s i b l e from an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b e h a v i o u r
should b e a s s u m e d f o r SCFs f o r t h e j o i n t s o f s i m p l e T and K j o i n t s and b e h e a r t e n e d t h a t :
d e s c r i b e d in P a p e r s 6 and 7? If it is less m o r e c o m p l e x j o i n t s m a y h a v e s i m i l a r a n d in
t h a n 1 2 0 % , w h a t is t h e b a s i s for t h i s ? m a n y c a s e s lower s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s
What w e r e t h e c o s t s o f f i n i t e e l e m e n t a n a l y s e s than the simpler ones. P a r t i c u l a r c a r e is a d ­
for t h e t y p e s o f j o i n t d e s c r i b e d ? v i s e d w h e n s t i f f e n e r s are p r e s e n t , as t h e y c a n
Is t h e p r e s e n t d e s i g n a p p r o a c h u s i n g SCFs introduce stress concentration problems of their
p r o v e n for t h e i n s i d e o f a c u t e a n g l e j o i n t s own.
w h e r e t h e g e o m e t r y is c o m p l e x a n d w e l d i n g and
inspection are difficult? REFERENCES
H a s t h e r e b e e n a trend among d e s i g n e r s to 1. F e s s l e r , H . and L i t t l e , W . J . G . Elastic
adopt the m o r e e f f i c i e n t joint g e o m e t r i e s ? Is s t r e s s e s d u e to axial loading o f a t w o - b r a c e
this leading to a r e d u c t i o n in t h e n u m b e r o f t u b u l a r K joint w i t h and w i t h o u t o v e r l a p .
types? J. S t r a i n A n a l y s i s , 1 9 8 1 , J a n . , 6 7 - 7 7 .
2. E d w a r d s , A . J . et a l . F a t i g u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
for o c e a n t o w a g e . Paper p r e s e n t e d to O f f ­
shore Technology Conference, H o u s t o n , 1 9 8 1 .

69
K. J. MARSH, DPhil, ME, National Engineering
Laboratory

T h e fatigue strength o f tubular w e l d e d joints

After giving some reasons for the necessity for large-scale testing of welded joints under
realistic loading conditions, the overall scope of the work at NEL and WI in this part of the
UKOSRP programme is outlined. The test rigs (and testpieces) at both establishments are described
and some of the results discussed particularly concerning the observed 'thickness effect'. Finally
a summary of the benefits arising from the work so far is given, together with suggestions for
further work.

INTRODUCTION on tubular welded joints of a variety of


1. Earlier papers in this Conference have geometries, in a range of sizes, and in differ­
described the UK Offshore Steels Research ent loading modes, although naturally it is not
Project (UKOSRP) programme in general and some necessary to test every combination of these.
of the work on small-scale or simpler test-
pieces. This session is concerned with the UKOSRP PROGRAMME
fatigue strength of realistic steel tubular 4. There are three different geometries of
welded joints, similar to those used in the con­ tubular joint being investigated in the pro­
struction of offshore platforms, and covers work gramme. All joints involve a chord member which
carried out at both the National Engineering is usually of larger diameter than the one, two
Laboratory (NEL) and the Welding Institute (WI). or three brace members, the joints being
described respectively as T-joints, K-joints
2. In many fields of mechanical engineering, and KT-joints. For T-joints, three different
starting perhaps with the aircraft industry but modes of loading are being investigated: axial
increasingly so in more general fields, the loading in the brace member (with the chord
design and development process for engineering free to bend and bulge), in-plane bending of the
components or structures incorporates a proto­ brace member with respect to the chord (both
type testing phase. Thus when the designer has modes at NEL) and out-of-plane bending (at WI) .
done his best on the preliminary designs, a In addition, K- and KT-joints are tested under
prototype is built, whether it be a vehicle, or axial and out-of-plane loading at WI.
a crane, or an engine, and testing and develop-^
ment are carried out to evaluate and improve 5. Finally there are four different sizes of
this prototype. In recent years such testing joints. The largest size, which is intended to
for static or particularly fatigue strength represent offshore welding practice realisti­
under service loading conditions has been cally, has a chord member of 1.8 m diameter,
increasingly assessed by simulation testing in 75 mm thick, as shown in Fig. 1. These joints
the structural test laboratory using advanced are manufactured by an experienced offshore
servo-hydraulic testing equipment and NEL has structure fabricator, to normal offshore stan­
been very active in this area (refs 1 and 2). dards, including stress-relieving. In this case
only, the joints are made as a double-T or H
3. However, in the field of offshore struc­ configuration to suit the special test rig.
tures, this prototype testing phase is, of
course, not possible; the designer must get it 6. The cost of these testpieces, some of which
right at the design stage. It is therefore weigh about 30 tonne, is extremely high, so that
particularly important that he does have it is not feasible (or necessary) to test large
adequate design data to work from. Although numbers. Hence the bulk of the work is carried
much useful information can be obtained from out on a range of smaller sizes, namely 0.9 m,
fatigue tests on simple materials testpieces, as 0.45 m and 0.17 m chord diameters. In each case
has already been described, this needs to be several brace/chord diameter ratios are tested.
balanced by data from tests on more realistic Subsidiary investigations, such as the effect of
specimens such as welded steel testpieces. In static compressive loading in the chord member,
particular there has been in the past a great the effect of stress ratio (R = 0 or R = -1) and
lack of fatigue data on tubular welded joints, the effect of variable-amplitude loading, are
and those available have been-derived mainly mainly carried out on the smaller testpieces.
from small testpieces. To provide a comprehen­ About 200 tubular welded joints in all form the
sive design basis, therefore, the UKOSRP pro­ first phase of the UKOSRP programme of which
gramme includes a large number of fatigue tests about 130 are being tested at NEL.

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 71


ENDURANCE OF TUBULAR SPECIMENS
PAPER 8: M A R S H
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
PAPER 8: M A R S H
E N D U R A N C E OF TUBULAR SPECIMENS

Fig. 10. Axial-loading fatigue test on a 1.8 m diameter double-T joint

1000

Endurance- Cycles

Fig. 11. Results of fatigue tests on unstress-relieved


tubular welded joints of various sizes

76
PAPER 8: M A R S H

7. Fig. 2 shows the in-plane bending test rig member, giving cyclic axial loading.
for 0.17 m chord diameter T-joints. The hori­
zontal loading actuator at the left of the pic­ RESULTS
ture applies cyclic loads to the end of the 13. Constant-amplitude fatigue tests on all
brace member, the chord member being clamped at sizes of joints are well advanced and have been
each end but free to bend or bulge. In this reported at the European Seminar (ref. 3) at
case the brace/chord ratio is 1.0. A basically the Welding Institute in 1978, and the BOSS
similar test rig is used for T-joints of either Conference (ref. 4) in London in 1979. Random-
0.45 or 0.90 m chord diameter, incorporating a loading tests on tubular joints simulating wave
larger capacity loading actuator, as shown in loading conditions should commence very shortly.
Fig. 3. In this case the testpiece shown is of Subsequent papers by Mr A McDonald from NEL and
0.45 m chord diameter with a brace/chord ratio Dr G Wylde from WI will present latest results
of 1.0. in detail but in general terms the results so
far may be summarized in Fig. 11, which covers
8. T-joints tested in the brace axial-loading the joints up to 0.9 m diameter, all of which
mode can be tested in servo-hydraulic fatigue are tested in the as-welded condition. (The
machines. Fig. 4 shows a fatigue test on a 1.8 m diameter testpieces, being stress-
0.17 m chord diameter testpiece in a ±250 kN relieved, give an S/N line which is not immedi­
machine. The loading actuator in the base of ately comparable with these.) It can be seen
the machine applies the load through the verti­ that there is a distinct size effect, the S/N
cal brace member to the chord member, clamped lines becoming progressively lower with increas­
at its ends to the crosshead. Similarly, the ing size or thickness of testpiece. In particu­
larger joints are tested in a ±2.5 MN fatigue lar, the results for the 0.9 m diameter chord
machine as shown in Fig. 5, the loading actuator testpieces, shown together with the ±(2 standard
in this case being in the crosshead of the deviations) band, in terms of the stress range
machine. The testpiece shown is of 0.9 m chord at the 'hot spot', can be seen to be lower than
diameter. All these T-joint rigs are at NEL. the currently accepted design line at long
endurances. This has given rise to much dis­
9. Turning now to the test rigs at WI, Fig. 6 cussion about a revision of the design S/N line;
shows an out-of-plane bending test on a 0.17 m the situation is not straightforward, since the
T-joint. (The actuator at the bottom-left S/N line for the stress-relieved 1.8 m diameter
applies static axial-compressive loading to the testpieces shows quite a pronounced beneficial
chord member, where necessary.) effect from stress-relieving, being somewhat
higher than the line for the unstress-relieved
10. Fig. 7 shows the axial test rig for 0.17 m 0.9 m testpieces shown. There are, however, as
joints, with a test on a non-overlap KT-joint. yet insufficient data to quantify this effect
Compressive loads are applied to two braces conclusively.
through actuators of 80 and 100 kN capacity,
tensile loads being reacted in the third brace. CONCLUDING REMARKS
14. The work on tubular welded joints in UKOSRP
11. On a larger scale Fig. 8 shows the 0.45 m so far has had a number of benefits.
axial test facility, again with a non-overlap
KT-joint on test. The first diagonal brace a It has provided validation, over a wide
takes a 500 kN compressive force, the right- range of geometries, of various analytical or
angle brace takes a 300 kN compressive force and empirical stress distribution predictions.
the third leg (diagonal) reacts the tensile
forces. b It has considerably increased the volume of
fatigue data on tubular welded joints for design
12. Finally, at NEL again, we come to the purposes, particularly in the case of the
largest joints, those of 1.8 m chord diameter, larger, more realistic joints where very few
shown earlier in Fig, 1. Because of the size of data previously existed.
the joints and the load requirements, the test-
pieces were designed in the double-T or H con­ c It has allowed studies of crack propagation
figuration, with the loading actuators acting in tubular welded joints and the assessment of
between the corresponding ends of the two devices for detecting and monitoring the growth
chords, as in Fig. 9, thus eliminating the need of cracks.
for a high strength supporting test rig. The
whole testpiece floats on needle-roller bearings d It has highlighted the importance of various
at each corner, which have been shown to provide aspects, such as the effect of stress relief,
negligible restraint to deflection. The test and particularly the necessity for obtaining
shown is a bending test, where the two loading some data from testpieces of realistic size,
actuators, one on either side of the brace mem­ manufactured to realistic offshore practice,
ber, are operated 180° out of phase, thus apply­ rather than relying wholly on data from model
ing an in-plane bending to the two chord members size testpieces.
with respect to the connecting brace. Axial
brace loading requires much greater load 15. However it is clear that further work needs
capacity and Fig. 10 shows one of the two to be done to quantify the trends shown more
special ±5 MN load capacity actuators being set fully. Obvious gaps in the initial programme
up. In this case, the two actuators are oper­ are tests on tubular joints in a sea-water
ated in phase, one on each side of the brace environment and tests on repaired, rewelded

77
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

tubular joints (possibly underwater weld This paper is presented by permission of the
repairs). In particular it can now be seen that Project Management, UK Offshore Steels Research
more data are needed on the larger testpieces, Project, and of the Director, National
and at longer endurances. Processes used in the Engineering Laboratory, Department of Industry.
offshore industry to prolong fatigue endurance, It is Crown copyright.
in particular weld treatment and node stress-
relieving, require further quantification. Much REFERENCES
effort has been spent in developing both the 1. MARSH K.J. Full-scale testing - an aid to
test rigs and expertise in carrying out the the designer. Journal of the Society of
initial programme. This should be capitalized Environmental Engineers, 1974, 13(4), 15-22.
upon by extending the programme to complete a 2. MARSH K.J. The new strong floor structure
thorough understanding of fatigue in offshore testing building at NEL. International Journal
structures. of Fatigue, 1979, 1(1), 3-6.
3. Select Seminar on European Offshore Steels
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S Research at the Welding Institute, Abington
This work forms part of the United Kingdom Hall, Cambridge. UK Department of Energy,
Offshore Steels Research Project, commissioned Offshore Steels Research Project/Commission of
by the Department of Energy through the Offshore the European Communities, Coal and Steel
Energy Technology Board. The research is carried Community, 1978.
out with financial aid from the European Coal and 4. BOSS '79. Proceedings of the Second
Steel Community. International Conference on Behaviour of
Offshore Structures. BHRA Fluid Engineering,
Cranfield, Beds, 1979.

78
J. G. W Y L D E , P h D , BSc, T h e W e l d i n g Institute,
a n d A. M c D O N A L D , BSc, A R C S T , National
Engineering Laboratory

M o d e s o ffatigue crack d e v e l o p m e n t a n d stiffness


measurements inwelded tubular joints

This paper describes some modes of fatigue crack development which have been observed in welded
tubular joints tested at The Welding Institute and at The National Engineering Laboratory as part of
the United Kingdom Offshore Steels Research project. Crack developments in T-joints having various
diameter to wall thickness ratios tested under axial brace loading and in-plane and out-of-plane
bending moments are described. In addition the crack development in an overlap K-joint subjected
to out-of-plane bending is presented. The numbers of cycles to end of test are compared with those
to first visual cracking and it is shown that the majority of the fatigue life of a tubular joint is
occupied in the propagation of visual cracks. Finally, measurements of actuator displacement on
T-joints subjected to in-plane and out-of-plane bending are described. These results indicate that
specimen stiffness is retained until the final stages of the fatigue life.

1. INTRODUCTION dimensions, and of the purpose built test frames


The basic fatigue results obtained from used to carry out the fatigue tests on the w e l ­
the tests on welded tubular T, K and KT-joints ded tubular joints have been described in pre­
tested as part of the UKOSRP have been presen­ vious p a p e r s ^ T h e basic details of
ted in the previous p a p e r ^ ) . These data are specimens specifically referred to in this paper
presented in the form of maximum initial extra­ are listed in table 1.
polated hot spot strain range v. the number of
cycles to the end of test. This information 2.1 Measurements of surface crack growth
can be used to establish suitable S-N curves All specimens were inspected visually at
for the design of structures incorporating wel­ regular intervals during the fatigue test and
ded tubular joints. However, additional all details of surface crack development were
measurements are being taken during the fatigue recorded. Visual inspection was carried out
tests which, it is hoped, will provide a more with the aid of a liquid soap solution and a
complete understanding of the fatigue behaviour magnifying glass. In this fashion cracks were
of tubular joints. frequently detected when they were between 1 mm.
and 3 mm. in length. In some instances however,
The additional measurements reported in usually when cracking occurred at some location
this paper relate to the various modes of away from the anticipated initiation site, they
fatigue crack development which have been ob­ were somewhat larger when first observed. As a
served in the joints, variations in specimen further aid to crack detection and crack growth
stiffness in the presence of a fatigue crack, monitoring, miniature electrical resistance
and some indication of the proportion of total strain gauges were positioned along the antici­
fatigue life spent in the propagation of pated line of cracking, as close to the weld
readily detectable cracks. It is hoped that toe as practicable. The dynamic strain range
this information will provide some guidance on each of these gauges was monitored regularly
for engineers and designers who have to apply throughout each test and variations in the out­
the raw fatigue S-N data to structures where put frequently indicated the presence of a
individual joint loading is determined by over­ fatigue crack. Once surface cracks were obser­
all structural response. The measurements of ved their development was recorded until the
the variations in joint stiffness in the pre­ end of test.
sence of a fatigue crack, and the corresponding
percentage of the total fatigue life of the 2.2 Measurements of specimen stiffness
joint will provide some indication of when During each fatigue test the stroke of
structural response is likely to be affected each actuator was monitored at regular inter­
and when load shedding onto other nodes might vals using a steel rule. In all instances the
occur. The results should also be of interest test frames were relatively stiff with respect
to those involved in structural monitoring to the specimen. Consequently measurement of
since they will help in assessing the signifi­ actuator stroke can be taken as a fair estima­
cance of any fatigue cracks found in a struc­ tion of the actual specimen deflection.
ture.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS 3.1 Basic observations of crack growth
The details of specimen geometry and Table 2 gives details of the numbers of

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 79


E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

Table 1. Specimen Details

Specimen Joint Chord dimensions (mm) Loading Test


P
Series Type Diameter Thickness Mode House

702 T 168 6.3 1.0 0.71 o-p-b T.W.I.


•t tt tt
703 0.53 0.86 tt

tt tt tt tt
704 0.51 tt

tt tt tt
705 1.0 0.71 tt

tt tt
709 o/lap K 0.53 0.51 tt

625 T 457 16 0.25 0.39 tt

17 T 168 6.3 1.0 0.71 axial N.E.L.


tt tt tt
19 T 0.53 0.86 i-p-b
tt
E1 T 914 32 0.5 1.0 tt

mean radius of brace cylinder


" chord

wall thickness of brace cylinder


it h o r d
C

o-p-b = out of plane bending

i-p-b = in-plane bending

Table 2. Number of cycles at various stages during fatigue test

Specimen Hot spot


N]_ N 2 N 5 N %
x N ^
No. strain range

702/1 1430 3.8 X 1 0


1.2 X IO 6
2.3 X 1 0 I6.5 52.2
l
702/2 1290 6.4 X 6.1 X 105 1.7 X 10° 3.8 35-9
702/3 1580 1.9 X 4-7 X 8.8 X 1 0
21.6 53-4
1 0
5
i o
i 6
6
703/1 885 4.0 X 4.5 X 10 9-1 X 10° 4-4 49.5
6.6 l(p
io4 X 105 X 10° 62.1
703/2 1465 x 8.7 1.4 4.7
704/1 1470 9.8 X io4 5.6 X 1.9 X 1 Q
5.2 29.5
1 0
l l
704/2 1220 3.5 X 1 0
2.1 X 10° 4-5 X 10° 7.8 46.7
l
704/3 1390 3.6 x l<>5 4.0 X 10° 6.5 X 10° 5-5 6I.5
705/1 1370 1.1 X 1 0
7.2 X 2.0 X 10° 5.5 36.0
l 1 0
l 6
705/2 1520 4.6 X 105 1.1 X 2.0 X 10 25.0 55-0
705/3 1710 8.0 X 104 3-4 X 1 0 8.8 X 10 0
9.1 38.6
6
623/1 677 1.0 X 10° 4.8 X 10 6
1.5 X 107 6.7 52.0
623/2 1490 2.7 X 104 2.0 X 105 6.3 X 10 5 4-3 31.7

N-| = first visual crack detection


N2 = through thickness cracking
N3 = end of test

Table 3. Surface Crack lengths - Specimen No. 703/1

Crack Lengths (mm) CHECK


Cycles x 10 A B C D E F G H NO.

3.98 1-3 1
4.97 1-3, 4-5 2
8.83 1-7 3
12.20 8 1 4
20.65 10 5 5
25.51 12 7 6
27.26 12 11 2 7
27.95 12 15 3 8
30.79 12 15 6 9
33.89 12, 28-30 22 10 10
36.33 12. 28-30 25 14 11
37.32 12, 25-30 28 18 12
38.80 12, 24-30 30, 33-37 20 13
40.49 12, 23-30 42 23 14

80
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D

Table 3. Continued

5 CHECK
Cycles x 10 A B c D E F G H I J
NO.

42.14 12, 23-30 44 25 15


42.95 47 26 5 16
43.67 52 26 8 17
44.56 52 31 8 18
47.84 57 35 10 19
50.26 58 38 11 20
52.58 61 40 13 21
54.21 65 40 13 22
55.94 66 43 13 23
57.35 68 45 13 5 6 24
58.27 69 46 13 5 6 25
59.07 71 47 13 5 6 26
60.78 74 48 13 7 6 27
62.20 74 48 13 8 6 28
63.22 74 51 13 8 6 29
64.55 75, 78-80 51 15 8 6 30
65.31 52 15 8 6 31
66.97 54 15 8 6 5 32
68.71 12, 23-30, 52-57 54 15 8 6 5 33
69.44 12, 23-30, 52-60 75, 78-80 54 15 11 6 34
70.13 12, 23-30, 42-62 75, 78-80 57 15 15 (6) 35
71.54 12, 23-30, 37-62 57 15 15 9 36
72.25 12, 23-30, 37-62 58 15 16 9 2 37
73.94 12, 23-30, 35-62 58 15 17 10 8 38
74.64 12, 23-30, 32-62 58 15 18 12 10 39
75.64 12, 23-62 75, 78-80 58 15 18 17 12 40
76.35 12..23-62 75, 78-80 21 15 41
78.04 12..23-62 25 21 42
79.45 12..23-62 28 29 43
80.20 12..23-62 75, 78-87 28 32 44
81.03 12..23-62, 71-90 34 36 45
82.01 12..23-62, 70-85 75, 78-92 35 42 46
82.69 12..23-62, 68-90 75, 78-96 38 42 1 47
83.43 12..23-62, 65-90 100 40 46 7 48
84.49 12..23-62, 65-90 101 44 50 8 49
85.01 12..23-62, 65-90 102 46 51 11 5 50
85.76 12..23-62, 65-90 102 14 10 51
86.51 12..23-62, 64-90 102 20 13 52
86.74 46 51 22 15 53
87.26 48 51 23 16 54
88.58 60 60 29 21 55
88.90 62 63 31 22 56
89.33 65 67 34 25 57
89.63 69 70 36 28 58
90.23 72 77 37 31 59
90.87 78 82 43 31 60

Table 4. Surface crack lengths - Specimen No 19/12

Crack lengths (mm) CHECK


Cycles x 10 A B C D E NO.

1.57 20 0 - - - 1
1.63 23 0 - - - 2
1.83 30 0 - 3
1.98 37 17 18 - - 4
2.48 95 73 18 - - 5
2.53 110 101 18 20 18 6

81
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

Table 5. Surface crack lengths - Specimen No. 17/1

Crack lengths (mm)


Cycles x 10 Quadrant CHECK
AB BC CD DA NO.

1.35 — 24 23 1
1.39 24 26 2
1.40 28 30 3
1.53 - 29 39 4
1.58 - 29 47 5
1.61 -- 29 51 6
7
1.63
1.66
- 29
29
53
60 8
1.70 -- 29 64 9
1.73 29 73 10
1.86 -19 29 99* 11
2.00 25 30 133* 12
2.03 25 33 143* 13

* Includes growth into quadrant CD.

Table 6. Surface crack lengths - Specimen No. 709/2

Cycles A B C D E F G H CHECK
NO.

2.86 x 1 0 5
27-29 1
3.66 3-6, 27-29 2
4.52 2-9, 27-29 3
5.83 1-9, 27-29 4
6.08 1-9, 21-29 5
8.43 11, 21-29 6
9.08 1 12, 19-30 7
9.57 1 13, 19-30 8
1.02 x 1 0 6
2 15, 18-30 9
1.10 2 30 10
1.16 3 30 11
1.21 6 30 12
1.30 6, 12-16 30 13
1.35 8, 10-17 30 14
1.41 17, 19-21 30: 35-36 15
1.46 22 30, 35-38 16
1.52 22, 25-28 39 17
1.60 32 45 5 18
1.65 33 50, 57-59 6 19
1.69 34 52, 57-59 7 20
1.77 41 74 9 21
1.81 45 85 4 22
1.88 48 85 10 23
1.95 48 94 17 24
1 .96 48 105 22 25
1.99 48 110 22 26
2.06 48 110 25 27
2.11 60 117 29 12 28
2.17 65 124 30 22 29
2.22 73 126 33 31 30
2.26 73 136 39 22 4 31
2.27 75 136 42 27 12 32
2.28 75 142 44 32 15 33
2.30 75 143 45 44 30 34
2.31 75, 85-100 145 50 36 35

82
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D

applied cycles at various stages during the 4 and 8 per cent of the total life, i.e. at a
fatigue life of a number of specimens. The very early stage in the fatigue test, and con­
stages reported are crack detection, the attain­ sequently the majority of fatigue life was oc­
ment of a through thickness crack (where this cupied in the propagation of visual cracks.
could be confidently estimated) and end of test. This observation is consistent with the
The lives to crack detection, N-|, correspond to 4
v i e v / ^ ' ' ^ that because of the presence of
first visual crack detection and are conse­ small defects at the toes of a welded joint in
quently subject to some degree of scatter cor­ the form of slag inclusions, and the presence of
responding to the length of crack at detection. a stress concentration due to the weld shape,
An attempt was made to eliminate this scatter by the initiation period for a welded joint is
using an alternative definition for first crack­ negligible and the entire fatigue life is oc­
ing, corresponding to a 10 per cent variation in cupied in crack propagation. In conventional
output on the highest reading strain gauge. simple welded specimens it is unusual to detect
However, since cracks invariably initiated at fatigue cracking visually as early as 10 per
varying distances from the closest strain gauge cent of the total lifetime. Possibly in welded
these values were also subject to scatter and tubular joints the relatively high stress con­
are not presented here. centration factors which are present due to the
overall joint geometry in addition to the stress
The attainment of a through thickness crack, concentration existing, due to the presence of
N 2 , represented a closely defined point during the weld, serve to accelerate the initial stages
the life of each tubular joint. On the smaller of crack growth such that cracks may be detected
joints of 168 mm. chord diameter loaded under visually at an earlier stage in the fatigue
out-of-plane bending of the brace, the chord life.
ends were closed with solid plates. On the ma­
jority of these specimens the chord was pres­ The figures quoting the percentage of life
2
surized to 5 lbs/in with air. A pressure gauge to through thickness cracking indicate that on
was fitted to the system and a loss of pressure average this occurred at approximately 45 per
could be taken to indicate that through thick­ cent of the total life. Observations made with
ness cracking had occurred. On the remaining the aid of the liquid solution whilst maintain­
specimens the chord ends were not closed and the ing the internal pressure, and also of the re­
attainment of a through thickness crack could sulting fracture surfaces after the test, indi­
only be estimated from the dynamic strain range cated that once a through thickness crack had
measured on those strain gauges close to the occurred, the ligament over the remainder of the
centre of the crack. By plotting the output crack length broke through in a relatively small
from these gauges against cycles for specimens number of cycles to form a through thickness
with internal pressure, and examining the strain crack over almost the total surface crack length
response at the known point of through thickness before any significant additional surface crack
cracking, it was found that this corresponded to growth occurred.
a minima on the strain range v. cycles curve.
This feature was used where possible to estimate The fatigue lives N-| and N3 are plotted
the cycles to through thickness cracking on against the initial extrapolated hot spot strain
other specimens. range on logarithmic axes in figures 1 and 2 for
some of the 168 mm. and 457 mm. diameter joints.
The end of test criterion varied between Also shown on these figures are the API(5) X-X
each test series. In some instances it was de­ 1
and X^-X" curves and the British standard Draft
termined by the limit of actuator stroke. On for Development DD 55^6) Q curve for comparison
other joints the fatigue test was terminated 1
As discussed in the previous paper^" ), for
when the secondary cracks propagating away from joints of these dimensions the results for the
the weld toe had reached a length equal to the end of test condition fall on the safe side of
chord radius. Finally on some joints tested all of the existing design S-N curves for tubu­
under axial loading, complete brace separation lar joints. However, both figures indicate
was achieved. Since the rate of crack propa­ that if an alternative design criterion were
gation invariably accelerated rapidly towards selected, for example if a fatigue limit design
the end of each test these variations are not was used, i.e. if it were required that no
thought to be significant in terms of the num­ cracks should form during the service life of
ber of cycles to end of test, particularly when the structure, then the margin of safety would
plotted on logarithmic axes. be reduced considerably.

Also shown in table 2 are the numbers of 3.2 Modes of surface crack development
cycles to first visual crack detection and to The surface fatigue crack growth develop­
through thickness cracking expressed as percen­ ments for various joints are shown in figures
tages of the cycles to the end of test. 3-6. These figures show the line of crack
Clearly there is some scatter in these data, growth in relation to the weld toe. The num­
however, the results show some clear trends. bers quoted alongside the crack refer to the
The figures giving the first visual cracking as inspection number and the corresponding actual
a percentage of thu end of test show that in crack lengths are listed in tables 3-6. The
only four of the examples quoted was first vis­ surface crack growth developments for three T-
ual cracking not detected within the first 10 joints subjected to out-of-plane and in-plane
per cent of the total life. In the majority of bending and axial brace loading are presented
instances cracks were detected visually between in figures 3-5 and the corresponding actual

83
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

84
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D

•60

Fig. 3. Surface crack development in T-joint subjected to out-of-plane bending


(Specimen No. 703/1)

ig. 4. Surface crack development in T-joint subjected to in-plane bendin


(Specimen No. 19/12)

85
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

Fig. 5. Surface crack development in T-joint subjected to axial loading


(Specimen No. 17/1)

Fig. 6. Surface crack development in overlap K-joint subjected to out-of-plane bending


(Specimen No. 709/2)

86
PAPER 9: W Y L D E A N D M c D O N A L D

n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
12\
11 I
10
9
8
7
6 Through-thickness cracking
5
4U crack
First visual
detection
3\
2
1 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 100%
•i J J » » • '> i I i J u i I i—i—LL—J—LL LL -j

2 468 10. 12 % 16 18 20 22 2L 26 28 30 32 3U 36 38 40 42 U 46
s
Cycles x 10
Fig. 7. Actuator displacement on 168 mm. diameter T-joint subjected to
out-of-plane bending (Specimen No. 704/2)

Through-thickness r
r First visual cracking
crack detection

10 12 H
Cycles x10 16 6 18 20 22 24 26
Fig. 8. Actuator displacement on 914 mm. diameter T-joint subjected to
in-plane bending (Specimen No. E1A).

87
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

crack lengths in tables 3-5. In each case the monitoring the dynamic response of the struc­
cracks initiated at the weld toe in the chord ture to artificially induced vibrations during
member and propagated around the weld. In the service.
two joints subjected to applied bending moments
there was some crack branching with secondary 4. CONCLUSIONS
cracks propagating away from the weld into the In addition to the basic fatigue results
chord. The cracks initiated at different loca­ expressed in terms of hot spot strain range v.
tions under each loading mode. Under out-of- cycles to failure, the following conclusions
plane bending the fatigue crack initiated close have been drawn from observations of crack de­
to the saddle point, and under in-plane bending velopment and specimen deflection during the
it initiated at the crown. Under axial loading fatigue tests.
there was multiple cracking at various loca­
tions around the weld toe. 1. Fatigue cracks were detected visually in
the majority of tubular joints tested at less
Figure 6 shows the mode of crack develop­ than 10 per cent of the total life.
ment in an overlap K-joint subjected to out-of-
plane bending. In this instance there was mul­ 2. Tubular joints can sustain long fatigue
tiple crack initiation in the chord along the cracks with relatively little loss of stiffness.
weld toe. The initial small cracks joined to Virtually no change in stiffness was observed
form a long crack which propagated around the prior to through thickness cracking and it was
weld toe before branching into the chord at a only in the final 10 per cent of life that the
number of locations around the brace circum­ stiffness reduced significantly.
ferences.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work forms part of the United Kingdom
3.3 Variation of specimen stiffness
Offshore Steels Research Project, commissioned
Figures 7 and 8 show measurements of ac­ by the Department of Energy through the Offshore
tuator displacement on T-joints subjected to Energy Technology Board. The research has been
out-of-plane and in-plane bending. Both carried out with financial aid from the Euro­
figures show the same variation in displace­ pean Coal and Steel Community.
ment with cycles. They show that the d i s ­
placement remained virtually constant until REFERENCES
through thickness cracking occurred. On the 1. McDONALD A. and WYLDE J.G. Experimental
specimen subjected to out-of-plane bending results of fatigue tests on welded tubular
this occurred at 47 per cent of the total life joints. Conference on Fatigue in Offshore
and on the specimen loaded under in-plane ben­ Structural Steels. Inst. Civil Engineers, Feb­
ding at 80 per cent of the total fatigue life. ruary 1981.
Furthermore in both examples it was not until 2. MARSH K. The fatigue strength of tubular
the final 10 per cent of the total life that welded joints, ibid.
there was a significant increase in specimen 3. MADDOX S.J. An analysis of fatigue cracks
deflection and consequently loss of specimen in fillet welded joints. International Journal
stiffness. of Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 11, No. 2, April
1975.
This observation is significant in rela­ 4. MADDOX S.J. Assessing the significance of
tion to a tubular joint within a structure with flaws in welds subject to fatigue. Welding
some degree of structural redundancy. The fact Journal, Vo. 53, No. 9, September 1974, pp;
that joints can sustain very large fatigue 401S - 409S.
cracks with relatively little loss of stiffness 5. API Recommended Practice for Planning, De­
suggests that in a structure where the load on signing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Plat­
a joint will be governed to some extent by forms. API RP 2A, Eleventh edition, January
structural deflections the loading will not de­ 1980.
crease until the joint contains a very long 6. British Standard Institution. Draft for
crack. This would seem to severely limit the Development: Fixed Offshore Structures,
scope for detecting early fatigue cracking by DD55:19780

88
A. M c D O N A L D , BSc, A R C S T , National
Engineering Laboratory, and J. G. W Y L D E ,
PhD, BSc, T h e W e l d i n g Institute

10 E x p e r i m e n t a l results o f fatigue t e s t s o nt u b u l a r w e l d e d j o i n t s

The most recent results of the tubular joint test programme of UKOSRP are presented together
with the published data obtained from similar tests carried out in the Netherlands. The UK
tests were carried out on specimens ranging in chord diameter from 168 mm to 1830 mm and in
wall thickness from 6 mm to 76 mm subjected to axial in-plane bending and out-of-plane bending
modes of loading. The change of fatigue strength with chord dimensions is illustrated and the
implications of this with regard to current design codes is discussed.

INTRODUCTION 4. Table 1 lists the dimensions, geometry and


1. One of the main objectives of UKOSRP has mode of loading of all specimens tested and
been to investigate the size effect on the also the organisation undertaking the tests.
fatigue performance of tubular welded joints. It will be noted that the majority of specimens
Much of the current philosophy on the design are of T construction with parameters as
of offshore structures is based on the data illustrated in Fig. 1. Some K-joints were also
presented by the American Welding Institute in tested, with and without overlap of the brace.
1972 (1) which although gathered from many
sources was principally acquired from the 5. The chemical composition and mechanical
results of tests on small scale tubular properties of the materials used is listed in
welded joints. As more data became available Tables 2 and 3.
it was possible to modify the AWS curve, and
the Q curve of BSI (2) is such a modification. INSPECTION
6. Rigorous inspection of all joints was
2. There is a need for continuing re­ carried out. Overall dimensions and squareness
appraisal, and m^re accurate fatigue data in and concentricity of brace and chord members
the region of 10 cycles and beyond is were held to close limits to ensure that the
required. The work to date has done much to joints would fit the test rigs and that the
improve knowledge in th^s critical region mode of loading was kept as true as possible.
with tests up to 2 x 10 cycles or more on Extensive NDT surveys were also carried out
realistic sizes of tubular joints. This using dye penetrant and ultrasonic methods and
paper presents the fatigue results of tests on all defects were noted and related to subse­
a range of sizes of joints which includes quent failures where appropriate.
chord dimensions of 1830 mm diameter x 76 mm
thick, 914 mm diameter x 32 mm thick, 457 mm STRAIN GAUGING
diameter x 16 mm thick and 168 mm diameter x 7. Every specimen was strain gauged prior to
6.3 mm thick. The range of geometric para­ testing. One specimen in each geometry had an
meters includes ratios in the range 1 - array of rosette and T-gauges to allow a full
0.25 and ratios also in the range 1 - 0.25. strain distribution around the weld toe to be
All these tests were carried out at constant determined and the remainder had sufficient
amplitude in air, however random load tests gauges to check for axiality of loading and
have commenced and when phase 1 of the Project correct nominal and "hot-spot" strains.
is completed a significant input of data to Miniature gauges applied between 1 - 2 mm from
design curves will have been made. the weld toe gave some measure of strains in
the "notch" region but were primarily used to
SPECIMEN DETAILS assist in the indication of crack initiation.
3. The specification for the fabrication of Many details of the strain gauging on these
all the specimens for UKOSRP was originally specimens have already been given (3, 4, 5 & 6).
drawn up to ensure that they represented, as
closely as possible, typical current North Sea TEST RIGS & PROCEDURE
practice. The method of construction of all 8. Most of the test were carried out in
sizes of specimen has already been described purpose-built rigs incorporating servo-
in some detail (3, 4, 5) and will not be hydraulic actuators of varying capacities, with
repeated in this paper, except to re-emphasise the remainder carried out in standard servo-
the fact that the size of the largest speci­ hydraulic machines. Details of the rigs have
mens places them in the category of requiring already been given (3, 4, 5) but Figs. 2 & 3
post-weld heat treatment as per design code. are included to give an indication of the type

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 89


E N D U R A N C E OF TUBULAR SPECIMENS

Table 1. Description of Specimens Tested

Chord
Specimen Joint Dimension Loading Test
Number Type mm Mode Laboratory
D T
p

17/1 T 168 6.3 1 1 AX NEL


17/3
17/4
17/2 AX*
17/12 AX*
17/6 IPB
17/7
17/8
17/9 IPB*
17/10 IPB*
17/11 IPB*

18/1 T 168 6.3 1 0.71 AX NEL


18/5
18/7
18/8
18/9
18/12
18/15
18/2 AX*
18/11 AX*
18/4 IPB
18/6
18/10
18/13
18/14
18/16

19/11 T 168 6.3 0.53 0.86 IPB NEL


19/12
19/13

20/4 T 168 6.3 0.53 0.51 AX NEL


20/11
20/8 AX*
20/1 AX*
20/2 IPB
20/5
20/6

701/1 T 168 6.3 1 1 OPB WI


701/2
701/3
702/1 0.71
702/3
703/1 0.53 0.86
703/2
703/3
704/1 0.51
704/2
704/3
705/1 1 1 OPB*
705/2 OPB*
705/3 OPB*

707/1 0/LK 168 6.3 0.53 0.86 OPB WI


707/2
709/1 0.51
709/2
711/1 N 0/LK 0.86
711/2

90
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E

Table 1. (Continued)

Chord
Specimen Joint Dimension Loading Test
Number Type mm Mode Laboratory
D T P T

710/1 N 0/LK 168 6.3 0.53 0.86 AX WI


710/2

37/3 T 457 16 1 1 AX NEL


37/5
37/9
37/1 IPB
37/7
37/13
37/8 IPB*
37/10 IPB*

38/1 T 457 16 1 0.55 AX* NEL


38/2 IPB
38/3
38/6

621/1 T 457 16 1 1.0 OPB WI


621/2
621/3
622/1 0.55
622/2
622/3
623/1 0.25 0.39
623/2
623/3
624/1 0.28
624/2
624/3

630/1 N 0/LK 457 16 0.54 0.50 AX WI


630/2
636/1 N 0/LKT
636/2
626/1 0/LK

E-B T 914 32 0.5 1 AX NEL


E,C
E } A IPB
E } D
E^B 0.275 AX
E^C
E^A IPB
E D
2
F*A 0.24 0.5 AX
FJB
IPB
FJC
FJD
F C AX
2
F D
2
F A
IPB
2
F B
2
H18 T 1830 76 0.25 0.25 AX NEL
H20 0.5 0.5
H21
H22 0.25 0.25 IPB
H23
H25 0.5 0.5
*With additional compressive end load in chord. AX Axial
0/L Overlap NEL National Engineering Laboratory IPB In plane bending
N 0/L Non Overlap WI Welding Institute OPB Out of plane bending

91
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

Table 2. Chemical Analysis of material as supplied by


British Steel Corporation

Chemical ;analysis, percentage


Material
C Si Mn P S

50C 0.18 0.18 1.33 0.030 0.029


50D 0.15 0.40 1.35 0.014 0.005

Table 3. Mechanical Properties of material as supplied by British Steel


Corporation.

Yield Charpy V notch


Tensile
Material stresg, Elongation, energy at 0 C,
Strength,
N/mm percentage J
N/mm

50C 465 616 26 59


50D (Typ)* 387 557 28 111 (at -20°C)

* Typical properties for 76 mm thick material.

Table 4 . Fatigue Test Results.

Chord Hot-spot N
Specimen Strain
Diameter Strain Range Number of cycles to
Number Ratio
mm AE failure
10
168 17/1
17/3
17/4
1049
798
1624
-1 2.05
5.9
2.0
x
x
x 10°
t
5

17/2 780 2.0 x 10 Unbroken


5.75 107 Retested
17/2 1540 x
17/12 1100 1.18 x lot
17/6 1529 9.97 x 1 0
6
10°
17/7 1057 5.16 X
17/8 885 6.59 x 10°
6

17/9 1566 1-55 x 10


1028 2.0 x Unbroken
17/10 6 1 0

17/10 1727 1.75 x 10° Retested


17/H 1714 1.87 x 10 6

18/1 1421 5.42 x 105


18/5 856 2.0 x Unbroken
x 10
k
18/5 1418 I.64 Retested
18/7 1000 5.4 x
18/8 707 1.5 x Unbroken
18/8 1649 4.22 X 61 0
Retested
18/9 1560 2.7 x 10$
18/12 1826 2.56 x 51 0

18/15 1152 5.45 x 51 0

18/2 976 2.0 x 51 0


Unbroken
18/11 1105 1.49 x 51 0

18/4 1584 1.97 x 71 0

895 6.1 x 6 1 0
Unbroken
18/6 Retested
1474 1.86 x 6 1 0
1 0
18/6 6
1674 2.51 x 10°
18/10
2574 2.65 x 10°
18/13
1955 1.1 X
18/14 5 1 0
1154 8.5 x 1 0
18/16 6 6

701/2 1750 0 8.5 x 10 1 0


Retested
6
701/3 1210 2.5 x 1 0
6
702/1 1450 2.5 x 10°

92
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E

Table 4 . (Continued)

Chord Hot-spot
Specimen Strain
Diameter Strain Range Number of cycles to
Number Ratio
mm Ae failure

168 702/2 1290 0 1.7 x 10


702/3 1580 8.8 x 10 5
703/1 885 9.1 x 1 0
6
703/2 1465 1.4 x 10°
703/3 1180 8.4 x 10°
704/1 1470 1.9 x 1 0
6
704/2 1220 4.5 x 1 0
6
704/3 1590 6.5 x 1 0
6
705/1 1570 2.0 x 10°
6
705/2 1520 2.0 x 10
705/3 1710 8.8 x io5
707/1 1190 1.6 x lof
707/2 1160 4.0 X 10°
709/1 1500 1.3 x 10°
709/2 1110 2.5 x 10°
711/1 950 1.2 x 10
711/2 1510 1.7 x 10'

457 37/3 1570 -1 1.53 x 6 1 0

37/5 814 1.5 x 1 0


6
37/9 511 8.73 x 10°
37/1 1090 5.0 X 1 0

37/7 519 1.44 x 761 0

37/13 677 1.44 x 10°


37/8 1090 1.53 x 1 0
6 6
37/10 758 6.18 x 10
37/12 1610 3.34 x 105

38/4 882 6.78 x 1 0


6
x 10
38/5
38/8
38/1
38/7
655
1160
900
1170
2.88
3.91
5.86
1.56
x
10*

X 10°
X 10°
l
38/2 650 5.0 X
1 0

38/3 858 1.7 x 6


38/6 550 5.32 x 10°

621/1 785 0 1.2 x 10°


621/2 1190 8.1 x 1 0
6
621/3 592 9.7 x 10°
622/1 1560 3.7 x 1 0

622/2 795 1.5 x 6


10°
622/3 585 5.9 x 10°
10
623/1
623/2
624/1
624/2
677
1490
852
1610
1.5
6.5
4-5
7.5
x
X
107

x 10°
x 10$
l
5
624/3 1215 2.9 x 10

630/1 780 1.2 x

914 459 -1 2.0 x 107 Unbroken


1060 8.79 x 6 1 0
Retested
E]C 665 2.52 X
10°
E
1 A 326 26.19 x 10°
E^D 461 4.9 x 106
E B 2
373 6.35 x 10 6

EC 2 304 1.53 x 107


EA 2 192 2.0 x 1 0
Unbroken
*E A 9.0 5
IO-^ Retested
2 447 X

* Early crack initiation of this retested specimen would perhaps indicate


the crack was produced in the late stages of the original test

93
E N D U R A N C E OF TUBULAR SPECIMENS

Table 4- (Continued)

Chord . 1 Hot-spot , . N
Diameter
mm
q

Eier* Strain Range


Ae
q

1
Ratio"* Number of cycles to
failure
6
E D 2 341 3.32 X 10
F-jA 308 2.0 X 107 Unbroken
P]_A 1170 2.4 X 10? Retested
F ^ 340 2.0 X Unbroken
F]B 580 3-33 X 10° Retested
F C X 267 2.0 X 10? Unbroken
FxC 1080 2.45 X 10 Retested
F^D 549 8.89
l
X 10°
6
F C 2 720 2.75 X 10
F D 2 486 2.0 X 1 0 7 Unbroken
F2D 1455 2.5 X 10 Retested
6
F A 2 875 2-13 X 10
66
F B 2 694 7.32 X 10
H 18 654 1.25 X io«
H 20 875 7.4 X 10
21 6
H 624 4.34 X
H 22 I664 1.10 X
K
H 23 425 2 X Unbroken
H 23 1331 3.6 X io5 Retested

Table 5« Results of regression analysis


on tubular joint fatigue test
results based on the equation
NAe = C
311

Co--efficients of
Chord equation
diameter
mm m C

168 7.20 5.91


457 4:51 3.04
914 3.39 6 . 4 2 X 1CK
1830 3.35 6 . 6 3 x 109

94
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E

m
of construction used. On the 1830 mm diameter N Ae = C
chord specimens tested at NEL, two actuators
were housed between the chord members, one at Where N = endurance at end of test (cycles xlO^)
each end of the H construction and thus no Ae = "hot-spot" strain range (x 10~°) and
reaction frame was required. C and m axe constants.

Mean lines were calculated for the UK results


9. The first stage in the testing procedure
and are included in the appropriate figures.
for each specimen was a comprehensive static
The values for m and C are given in Table 5-
loading exercise. This involved increasing
the load in small increments to check for
DISCUSSION
axiality of applied loading. Full incremental
static tests up to the maximum load in the 1 4 . An analysis of the data presented in Figs.
subsequent fatigue cycle were carried out 4 & 5 would indicate that neither mode of load-
until linearity of the strain gauge readings nor applied stress ratio appears to have a
indicated complete shakedown of any residual significant effect on the results, and that the
stresses. In most cases there was little chosen method of presentation would seem to be
evidence of the presence of residual stresses. justified.

1 5 . Figs. 4 & 5 contain data at the two stress


10. During the fatigue tests dynamic strain
ratios investigated and points appear fairly
recording was employed to ensure that the
evenly distributed about the mean line although
required "hot spot" strain range was achieved
all the unbroken specimens were tested at R = - l
in the specimen. The fatigue tests were
as indicated in Fig. 4»
carried out at constant amplitude at various
frequencies ranging from 1 Hz to 15 Hz
1 6 . An analysis of the data presented in Fig. 6
according to the capabilities of the test
shows that the results from the F2 series of
rigs. All tests carried oi*t at the Welding specimens (p = 0.25, T
= 0^25) are consistently
Institute were performed at an applied stress high. Such joints are probably better represen­
ratio of R = 0 and all tests at the National ted by the brace diameter since they behave more
Engineering Laboratory were carried out at like the smaller joints.
R = -1.
17• All but one of the results from the
RESULTS Netherlands (where R = 0) shown in Fig. 6 fall
11. The results of all the tests carried out below the mean UK line, apparently indicating a
at NEL and WI are listed in Table 4 and significant effect of stress ratio. This is con­
plotted in Figs. 4 - 7 , where they are trary to current opinion which suggests that
presented in terms of "hot-spot" strain range residual welding stresses are so high that
and cycles to end of test. The "hot-spot" applied stress range is always totally tensile
strain range is obtained by a method of and damaging. Since this does not appear to be
extrapolation from two strain gauges placed at the case for this size of specimen perhaps
such a distance from the weld toe that they further work by both laboratories concerned will
lie within the linear part of the strain be re uired to investigate this difference.
gradient measured outwards from the weld toe.
This method of presentation has now generally 18. When the most up to date results of UKOSRP
been adopted by other workers in the field were last published (6) the hot spot strains
throughout Europe, and has been described in for the 1850 mm diameter joints were not
previous work (6). The end of test is measured by the currently adopted method of
usually a rig dependent parameter. Out-of- extrapolation. These results have now been
plane bending of T-joints normally generated adjusted and are shown in Fig. 7-
cracks propagating into the parent chord
material, and the tests were stopped when the 1 9 . With most of the results now available
length of the secondary crack in the chord from the Project, Fig. 8 shows a slightly more
i a m e t e r
was equal to the brace 4 « Tbe tests consistent picture of the differences that exist
on the 1830 mm diameter joints were stopped in fatigue endurance with varying size of joint.
when the crack had propagated approximately
180 around the weld toe, and other tests 20. Fig. 8 shows that the 1850 mm diameter
were frequently stopped because of unacceptable joints, which are stress relieved, have an
side load on the actuator bearings or limit­ improved fatigue performance compared to the
ation of actuator stroke. 914 mm diameter joints.

12. The results are plotted separately 21. In Figs. 4-8 the results are compared with
according to chord diameter in Figs. 4 - 7 the AWS and DD55Q design curves. The results
and the most recent results obtained in the for the 168 mm diameter joints all fall well
Netherlands (7) are also included on the on the safe side of the design lines, but above
appropriate figures. endurances of 2 x 10° cycles, a few results
from the larger sizes either fall very close to
13. For each size of specimen, a linear the lines or below them. Above 2 x 1 0 cycles, 6

regression analysis was carried out on the the AWS - XX curve must be considered to be
data to obtain the best fit Ae - N curve unsafe, and even the use of the Q curve in this
on the basis that it would take the form region would have to be carefully considered.

95
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS
PAPER 10: M c D O N A L D A N D W Y L D E
E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

"l—i—i—r-r- -I 1—I I l |
-i 1 r

• NEL R = -1
X W.I. R = 0
A TNO R = 0
2000
A TNO R = -1

<
tr
S 1000
cr
o
i
UJ
o 500

z
2

2 200

-L i i i i 1
s
10 io 6
10*
ENDURANCE - N cycles

Fig 5 Fatigue Results: Chord Dia 457mm x 16mm Wall Thickness

• 1 1 • 1 i i |

• NEL R =-1
<
£ 2 000
</>
- A TNO R= 0
o
cr

i
1000 • •
A
jr 500

o
a.
in
"^-^BjC
DD55Q
200

. 1 1 . 1 j i i i. . . 1 1 1 Li .J 1 1 1 J.-1 J 1 1
10 5
10* 107
ENDURANCE - N cycles

Fig 6 Fatigue Results: Choard Dia 914mm x 32mm Wall Thickness

98
PAPER 10: McDONALD AN D WYLDE

-l 1 1 1—I i i |

• NEL R r - 1

2000

o
cr
u
z 1000
i

< 500
cr
<
cr
DD 5 5 Q

200
O
X

JL -I 1 1—I I I i I _I I I L. -j i t_
6
105 10 107
ENDURANCE - N cycles

Fig 7 Fatigue Results: Choard Dia 1830mm x 76mm Wall Thickness

T i 1—i—i i i i i i—i—i—i i i

2000

DD550 - H
200

o
x

i i i1 -I I I t i l l I I I I I I I -I i i_
10* 10 6
10*
ENDURANCE - N cycles

Fig 8 Comparison of Mean S - N Curves

99
E N D U R A N C E OF T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES
2 2 . Hot spot strain range is a reasonable 1. The design of new tubular structures.
method of characterising the fatigue performance American Welding Society. Structural Welding
of welded tubular joints. This applies to Code Dl.1.72 Section 10.
joints of varying geometries subjected to differ­ 2. British Standards Institution. Draft
ent modes of loading providing the joint dimen­ f©r Development: Fixed Offshore Structures
sions are similar although there is some evidence DD55: 1978.
that where /? and T are small, the brace diameter 3. MARTIN T. The fatigue strength of
may be the dominant parameter. welded tubular T-joints with a large diameter
ratio. Select Seminar, European Offshore
2 J . Within the range of joint sizes investi­ Steels research held at The Welding Institute.
gated, there is a reduction in fatigue strength Paper No. 32 (November 1978).
as chord dimensions are increased. 4. McDONALD A & THOMSON J.F. The fatigue
strength of large scale welded tubular T-
2 4 . At endurances greater than 2 x 10 cycles, joints. Ibid, paper No. 34.
there are several results below the design lines. 5. WYLDE J.G. Preliminary results of
static and fatigue tests on tubular T-joints
ACKNOWLEIJGEiyENTS subjected to out-of-plane bending moments.
Ibid, paper No. 36.
2 5 . This work forms part of the UK Offshore 6. WYLDE J.G. & McDONALD A. The influence
Steels Research Project, commissioned by the of joint dimensions on the fatigue of welded
Department of Energy through the Offshore tubular joints. Second International Conference
Energy Technology Board. The research has on behaviour of offshore structures. Paper No.
been carried out with financial aid from the 42 (August 1979).
European Coal and Steel Community. 7. DIJKSTRA O.D. & de BACK J. Fatigue
strength of tubular T- and X- joints. Twelfth
26. The authors would like to thank the staff annual offshore technology conference. Paper
of the Service Loading Division of the OTC 3696 (May 1980).
National Engineering Laboratory and the Off­
shore Laboratory at the Welding Institute for
their assistance in working out results and
carrying out the tests.

100
Discussion o n Papers 9 and 1 0

M R J. G. P A R K H O U S E , Atkins Research and and t r y i n g to p r e d i c t t h e f a t i g u e life o f j o i n t s


Development in s i m p l e l o a d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n s m a y b e m i s ­
Is it p o s s i b l e that t h e b r a c e d i s p l a c e m e n t s directed. In g e n e r a l a r e s e r v i c e c r a c k s long a n d
s h o w n in F i g s 7 and 8 o f P a p e r 9 i n c l u d e a s h a l l o w o r short a n d d e e p w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n t l y
s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e f l e x i b i l i t y l a r g e r e f f e c t on joint s t i f f n e s s ?
of the testing rig?
C a n t h e A u t h o r s e x p l a i n w h y in F i g . 5, w h e r e DR W Y L D E
each q u a d r a n t s h o w n is p r e s u m a b l y e q u a l l y A joint in a s t r u c t u r e m a y b e s u b j e c t e d t o a
loaded, c r a c k i n g is n o t o b s e r v e d at all in o n e combination of applied loading m o d e s ; c o n s e ­
q u a d r a n t at f a i l u r e , a f t e r 13 t i m e s as m a n y q u e n t l y t h e h o t spot m a y b e r e m o v e d f r o m i t s
c y c l e s as it t o o k f o r t h e first q u a d r a n t to l o c a t i o n u n d e r s i m p l e loading a n d t h u s m o d e
crack? In a n o t h e r q u a d r a n t a n e a r l y c r a c k of c r a c k d e v e l o p m e n t m a y b e d i f f e r e n t . However,
seems to h a v e f o r g o t t e n to g r o w . Does the as t h e f e a t u r e s o f long s h a l l o w c r a c k s h a v e
major crack attract the load? b e e n o b s e r v e d u n d e r each o f t h e t h r e e l o a d i n g
m o d e s c o n s i d e r e d I feel that it is l i k e l y to
DR W Y L D E , in reply be retained under mixed mode loading, and
T h e test r i g is s t i f f in r e l a t i o n to t h e s p e c i m e n t h e r e f o r e that t h e s t r u c t u r a l m o n i t o r i n g
and c o n s e q u e n t l y I b e l i e v e that t h e m e a s u r e d t e c h n i q u e is l i k e l y to b e m o s t v a l u a b l e in
values of displacement are a fair indication detecting the presence of large cracks and
of s p e c i m e n d e f l e x i o n . I w o u l d e s t i m a t e that damaged or missing braces.
the c o n t r i b u t i o n from r i g d e f l e x i o n is less f
I w o u l d like to e c h o D r C o w l i n g s p l e a f o r
t h a n 5% o f t h e m e a s u r e d v a l u e , and t h i s w o u l d m o r e d e t a i l s o f c r a c k i n g w h i c h h a s o c c u r r e d in
remain constant during the test. service.
O n c e a c r a c k f o r m s in a joint t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s c h a n g e s and t h e load in P R O F E S S O R H . F E S S L E R , University of Nottingham
other areas m a y be reduced. This m a y account The arbitrariness of the definition of hot point
for t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s . It is a l s o p o s s i b l e that s t r e s s could b e a v o i d e d if t h e p e a k e l a s t i c
small c r a c k s e x i s t e d in o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e strain were obtained b y the best p o s s i b l e
joints which were not detected. e x t r a p o l a t i o n and c o n v e r t e d i n t o a r e a l s t r e s s
using the material stress-strain curve.
DR M . J. C O W L I N G , University of Glasgow
R e f e r r i n g to F i g s 7 a n d 8 o f P a p e r 9, w h i c h s h o w MR P. F I S H E R , Lloyd's Register of Shipping
that t h e s t i f f n e s s o f a T joint in i n d e p e n d e n t W i t h r e g a r d to c r a c k g r o w t h e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g
in and out o f p l a n e b e n d i n g d o e s n o t c h a n g e a s e r v i c e , as t a r as m o s t s t r u c t u r e s a r e
great deal u n t i l w e l l i n t o t h e life o f t h e joint c o n c e r n e d a n y c r a c k d e t e c t e d is u s u a l l y r e p a i r e d
I w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h e c r a c k g r o w t h o b s e r v e d in or at least c r a c k s t o p p e r h o l e s a r e d r i l l e d .
t h e s e s i m p l e load c o n f i g u r a t i o n s (i.e. t h e T h e r e f o r e in s e r v i c e crack g r o w t h e x p e r i e n c e
o c c u r r e n c e in m a n y c a s e s o f v e r y long s h a l l o w is m i n i m a l in t h e U K s e c t o r o f t h e N o r t h S e a .
cracks) represents correctly the crack growth
o b s e r v e d in t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l loading MR K. G U P T A , Conoco UK Ltd
s i t u a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e real s t r u c t u r e in W i t h r e g a r d to Figs 7 and 8 o f P a p e r 9, d o e s
the real environment. the d u c t i l i t y o f steel p l a y a p a r t ?
The whole science of vibration monitoring of
s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h a p p e a r s to b e g a i n i n g DR W Y L D E
a c c e p t a n c e as an i n s p e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e f o r The total displacement shown will b e m a d e up
o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s , d e p e n d s on s i g n i f i c a n t of a n u m b e r o f c o m p o n e n t s a n d c e r t a i n l y t h e
c o m p l i a n c e c h a n g e s in t h e s t r u c t u r e a c c o m p a n y i n g m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s will i n f l u e n c e t h e
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a m o u n t s o f d a m a g e to t h e measured displacement.
structure. H e n c e t h e r e is an i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t
crack g r o w t h is d i f f e r e n t in t h e real s t r u c t u r e DR N . M . I R V I N E , UKAEA, Culcheth
and p r o d u c e s g r e a t e r c o m p l i a n c e c h a n g e s t h a n T h e c u r r e n t h o t spot stress d e f i n i t i o n a g r e e d b y
are o b s e r v e d in a r t i f i c i a l l a b o r a t o r y ECSC Working Groups shows a fundamental
experiments. d i f f e r e n c e o v e r p r e v i o u s m e t h o d s in t h a t it
If t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n is c o r r e c t then t h e e f f o r t r e c o g n i z e s that t h e n o t c h s t r e s s r e g i o n s c a l e s
that is g o i n g into d e t e r m i n i n g t h e f a t i g u e life w i t h joint size and that S C F s o b t a i n e d a r e

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, L o n d o n , 1981 101


E N D U R A N C E O F T U B U L A R SPECIMENS

i n d e p e n d e n t o f a b s o l u t e j o i n t s i z e as is t h e DR WYLDE
case when they are obtained analytically or Certainly many of those factors will influence
by the u s e of parametric equations. f a t i g u e p e r f o r m a n c e o n b o t h t h i c k and t h i n
joints. In p a r t i c u l a r t h e e f f e c t s o f
DR G. E D W A R D S , Shell Research KSEPL, The Hague g e o m e t r i c f a c t o r s such as m i s a l i g n m e n t and
M y q u e s t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e fact t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t angular offset can give rise to high
f a t i g u e l i f e m a y s t i l l r e m a i n in a t u b u l a r j o i n t additional stress concentration factors which
w h e n c r a c k g r o w t h is w e l l d e v e l o p e d . would reduce fatigue strength.
In a n o p e r a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n , w h e n a c r a c k is
f o u n d , a d e c i s i o n m u s t b e m a d e as t o w h e t h e r o r M R D . T . FERN, McDermott Engineering (London)
n o t r e p a i r m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t . T h e r e s u l t s in I have been involved with fatigue life appraisal
P a p e r 9 i n d i c a t e t h a t it c o u l d b e p o s s i b l e in and t h e r e p a i r o f t w o m a j o r j a c k e t s t r u c t u r e s
t h e f u t u r e t o j u s t i f y n o n - r e p a i r (for s a y a o f s i m i l a r d e s i g n in t h e N o r t h S e a . O n e w a s
year or t w o ) on a fatigue b a s i s . H o w e v e r , to i n s t a l l e d in 1 9 7 5 and t h e o t h e r in 1 9 7 7 . Both
d o t h i s , a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e u l t i m a t e h a v e s u f f e r e d f a t i g u e d a m a g e and r e p a i r m e a s u r e s
strength of the cracked joint would be needed. in t h e form o f b o l t e d c l a m p s and n e w m e m b e r s w e r e
Could the Authors comment on the problems of installed during 1980.
assessing the ultimate strength of a cracked One aspect involved two types of similar
joint following a fatigue test? Have they X - j o i n t on t h e t w o p l a t f o r m s . T h e c h o r d is o f
o b t a i n e d a n y i n f o r m a t i o n in t h i s a r e a ? 24 in d i a m e t e r a n d t h e b r a c e s 1 2 ^ / 4 in d i a m e t e r .
F a t i g u e c a l c u l a t i o n s s u g g e s t that t h e j o i n t s on
DR WYLDE t h e first s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e e x h i b i t i n g c r a c k s ,
I agree that the residual static strength of but inspection showed no cracking. However, the
t h e j o i n t s w i t h a l a r g e f a t i g u e c r a c k is o f s e c o n d set o f j o i n t s in t h e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e h a d
great importance. No tests have been carried b e e n s t i f f e n e d e x t e r n a l l y to e n h a n c e t h e f a t i g u e
out at t h e W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e t o m e a s u r e r e s i d u a l life. Data which became available between
strengths b e c a u s e the test rigs are not designed the two designs showed that there w a s a fatigue
to s u p p l y t h e m a g n i t u d e o f l o a d s n e c e s s a r y . p r o b l e m at t h e X - j o i n t a n d so t h e d e s i g n e r s added
Some w o r k on this h a s b e e n carried out b y t h e e x t e r n a l ring s t i f f e n e r s . The stiffened
Det N o r s k e V e r i t a s . ^ joints cracked. S u b s e q u e n t t e s t s s h o w e d that
the X-joint w a s fairly f l e x i b l e ; adding stiffeners
DR IRVINE m a d e it less f l e x i b l e . The computer analysis
C r a c k d e p t h is c o n t r o l l e d b y c r a c k l e n g t h w h i c h a s s u m e d r i g i d j o i n t s - a c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n on
is r e s t r i c t e d b y t h e p e a k e d s t r e s s f i e l d at t h e most offshore structures. When the true flexi­
h o t spot w h i c h f a l l s o n e a c h s i d e on t h e s i t e b i l i t i e s w e r e t a k e n into a c c o u n t , t h e o r i g i n a l
of initial crack p r o p a g a t i o n . T h i s is a b a s i c j o i n t w a s s h o w n to h a v e a h i g h e r t h e o r e t i c a l
geometrical effect which distinguishes crack f a t i g u e l i f e , and so it w a s c o n c l u d e d that joint
growth development b e t w e e n tubular and p l a t e flexibility must be taken into account.
w e l d e d specimens,- i r r e s p e c t i v e o f d i f f e r e n c e s D r i l l i n g t h e t i p s o f c r a c k s w a s t r i e d on b o t h
b e t w e e n offshore and onshore loading and p l a t f o r m s and found t o b e e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t .
environment. T h u s loss o f s t i f f n e s s w i l l s t i l l T h e d i v e r h a s great d i f f i c u l t y f i n d i n g t h e
be v e r y gradual u p to t h r o u g h thickness c o r r e c t p o i n t to d r i l l and d i f f i c u l t y d r i l l i n g
cracking. the hole. T h i s is n o l o n g e r r e c o m m e n d e d as a
With r e g a r d to r e s i d u a l static s t r e n g t h , r e l i a b l e m e t h o d o f s t o p p i n g t h e c r a c k on a
Gibstein^ has presented accounts of static structure under water.
testing of fatigue damaged T joints. He found T h e c r a c k s on t h e t w o s t r u c t u r e s w e r e s i m i l a r
that static strength remaining was 0 . 2 4 - 0 . 4 0 % to t h o s e f e a t u r e d in P a p e r 9; in p a r t i c u l a r t h e
of calculated undamaged static strength. His o u t - o f - p l a n e test on a T - j o i n t (Fig. 3 o f P a p e r
end o f l i f e f a t i g u e f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n w a s t h a t 9) b e a r s a s t r i k i n g r e s e m b l a n c e to t h e w o r s t
80-90% of the weld toe periphery was surface cracked joint.
cracked. A l l r e p a i r s so far h a v e b e e n b y b o t t l e d c l a m p .
U n s t a b l e f r a c t u r e c a n o c c u r in b a d l y d a m a g e d New designs for clamps incorporating metal/metal
t u b u l a r j o i n t s - o n e o f t h e H j o i n t s t e s t e d at and m e t a l / g r o u t / m e t a l f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s and long
N B L e n d e d i t s life t h i s w a y b y fast f r a c t u r e in high-strength preloaded bolts have been used.
the brace which was 5 0 % through cracked. Such So far t h e s e h a v e p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e r e i n f o r c e ­
a f a i l u r e w a s o f m o d e I t y p e (bending a n d m e m ­ m e n t to t h e d a m a g e d s t r u c t u r e and t h e y a r e
b r a n e s t r e s s i n d u c e d ) a n d f a i l u r e s in t h e c h o r d e x p e c t e d to c o n t i n u e t o d o s o .
w o u l d b e o f m o d e III t y p e (shear s t r e s s i n d u c e d ) , Further repairs are planned. At present the
but a l l e x p e r i e n c e in t h i s c a s e is t h a t it w i l l f
c l i e n t s p h i l o s o p h y is t o add r e i n f o r c i n g c l a m p s
b e d u c t i l e in n a t u r e . t o j o i n t s w h e r e t h e p r e d i c t e d f a t i g u e lives a r e
low, I b e l i e v e that P a p e r s 9 and 1 0 m a y c h a n g e
M R T . B O K A L R U D , Det Norske Veritas this philosophy.
F r o m t h e w o r k d e s c r i b e d in P a p e r 1 0 it s e e m s
t h a t t h e r e is t h i c k n e s s e f f e c t on t h e DR W Y L D E
fatigue strength. Is t h e r e a n y r e a s o n t o W i t h r e g a r d to t h e X - j o i n t p r o b l e m , w h e r e a d d i n g
suspect that the size effect can be increased by reinforcement has produced a cracking problem
other fatigue governing factors? Thinking of w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y o n l y e x i s t e d on p a p e r , in a n y
c o r r o s i o n , w e l d g e o m e t r y , m i s a l i g n m e n t s , load structural analysis the stresses predicted will
configuration and other boundary c o n d i t i o n s , d e p e n d on t h e f l e x i b i l i t i e s a t t r i b u t e d to t h e
when heavy thicknesses are working together various joints. In t h i s i n s t a n c e a s s u m i n g r i g i d
w i t h o t h e r n e g a t i v e f a t i g u e f a c t o r s c a n it b e j o i n t s p r e d i c t e d h i g h s t r e s s e s b u t in fact t h e
expected that the thickness effect will increase? j o i n t w a s f l e x i b l e and t h e s e h i g h s t r e s s e s did

102
D I S C U S S I O N O N PAPERS9 A N D 1 0

|lll|l!l!|i!!l|nil|ll!!|!lll llllijl 111111! 11


1 3 3 41 5| 6 71 8j 9 10 2 3 m 5 6 7
8 9
JiilllUllllJllUllllUllllll milmiliiiiii lllllllllllllllllllllllllll llllllllllllllllllllllll milnnhii

Fig. 1. W e l d 'detail at h o t spot Fig. 2. Specimen 3 5 : weld detail at h o t spot


(cracked)

n o t o c c u r in p r a c t i c e . Adding stiffeners has DR D . G. O W E N , Heriot-Watt University


r e d u c e d joint f l e x i b i l i t y a n d t h u s i n c r e a s e d My question relates to the d e f i n i t i o n of the
t h e a c t u a l s t r e s s e s at t h e j o i n t . One must h o t spot s t r a i n r a n g e , w h i c h is t h e p a r a m e t e r
always b e cautious when adding external used for the presentation of the fatigue results
s t i f f e n e r s t o a t u b u l a r n o d e as t h e s e m a y in P a p e r 1 0 . T a b l e 4 a p p e a r s t o s h o w t h a t
t h e m s e l v e s i n t r o d u c e p o i n t s o f h i g h s c f d u e to n o m i n a l l y i d e n t i c a l test c o n d i t i o n s , as d e s c r i b e d
local c h a n g e s o f s t i f f n e s s . in t e r m s o f h o t spot s t r a i n r a n g e , m a y e x h i b i t
D u r i n g f a t i g u e t e s t s it w a s found that t h e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s in t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s
crack s e l d o m p r o p a g a t e s n o r m a l to t h e c h o r d to f a i l u r e . Can this scatter of results b e
s u r f a c e b u t m o r e u s u a l l y at an a n g l e . T h i s is p a r t l y a t t r i b u t e d to t h e fact t h a t a n e x t r a ­
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e case w i t h long c r a c k s w h e n t h e p o l a t e d v a l u e is u s e d r a t h e r t h a n a n a c t u a l h o t
p l a n e s t r e s s type o f f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e is o b s e r v e d . spot s t r a i n r a n g e m e a s u r e d c l o s e t o t h e w e l d
C o n s e q u e n t l y e v e n i f t h e c r a c k t i p at t h e root? Do the Authors envisage any r e f i n e m e n t
s u r f a c e c a n b e l o c a t e d a n d a h o l e d r i l l e d at in t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f h o t spot s t r a i n r a n g e i n
t h i s p o i n t , t h i s w i l l n o t r e m o v e t h e full c r a c k t h e light o f t h e i r r e s u l t s ?
tip.
T h e r e is a n e e d f o r d a t a on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e MR McDONALD
of cracked joints which have been repaired. Early examination of stresses on joints showed
a w i d e s c a t t e r o f v a l u e s at t h e w e l d t o e
MR G. R. LANG, Mobil Research and Development measured b y an array of gauges around t h e
Corporation, Dallas circumference of the toe. Frequently cracking
In P a p e r 10 t h e A u t h o r s s h o w e d that t h e r e s u l t s s t a r t e d s o m e d i s t a n c e from o n e o f t h e s e g a u g e s
from t h e D u t c h t e s t s f e l l b e l o w t h o s e from t h e and t h e s t r e s s v a l u e at the p o i n t o f i n i t i a t i o n
U K O S R P t e s t s and i n d i c a t e d ( p a r a g r a p h 17) that was thus unknown. T h e only w a y t o d e s c r i b e
this w a s a result of the effect of stress ratio. t h e g l o b a l o r g e o m e t r i c stress f i e l d is b y t h e
W o u l d t h e y c o m m e n t o n w h e t h e r o r n o t this m e t h o d o f e x t r a p o l a t i o n , and that h a s t o b e t h e
d i f f e r e n c e m i g h t r a t h e r b e a r e s u l t o f t h e lack s t r e s s v a l u e u s e d f o r t h e S-N c u r v e .
o f w e l d p r o f i l e c o n t r o l in t h e D u t c h t e s t s ? As T h e r e is n o r e f i n e m e n t e n v i s a g e d at t h i s s t a g e ;
2
a result of these tests, the A P I has adopted however, the limitations associated w i t h this
a lower set "of S-N c u r v e s (e.g. X' and K') for approach are realized, discussions are c o n t i n u i n g
w e l d p r o f i l e s w h i c h fail t o m e r g e s m o o t h l y w i t h and if o t h e r m e t h o d s of p r e s e n t a t i o n s e e m
the b a s e m e t a l . appropriate they will be used.

M R M c D O N A L D , i n reply MR PARKHOUSE
The Dutch specimens were m a d e according to It is k n o w n that the parameter that describes
A P I s p e c i f i c a t i o n and I w o u l d n o t e x p e c t that the degree of distress at a c r a c k t i p is n o t
t h e i n c o r r e c t w e l d p r o f i l e is t h e c a u s e o f t h e the stress t h e r e , b u t (nominal stress x /crack
lower Dutch r e s u l t s . Having seen the Dutch length). It is n o t so c o m m o n l y known that the
s p e c i m e n s I t h i n k that t h e g e n e r a l w e l d s h a p e tip o f a n o t c h - a toe of a weld, for example -
is v e r y s i m i l a r t o that o f t h e s p e c i m e n s t e s t e d is s i m i l a r l y distressed even b e f o r e cracking
in t h e U K . according to (nominal stress x / n o t c h size)
where notch size is r e l a t e d to p l a t e thickness.
IR 0 . D . D I J K S T R A , TNO-IBBC At p r e s e n t there is n o t a n a m e for such a
F i g u r e s 1 and 2 show a w e l d p r o f i l e o f t h e large parameter like stress intensity factor, but there
Dutch joints. probably will be soon. The importance of this

103
ENDURANCE OF TUBULAR SPECIMENS

is that there is a size effect for uncracked tested at 15 Hz and large specimens at high load
notched weld toes just as there is for cracks, at 1 Hz.
so weld toe performance is also sensitive to
plate thickness. REFERENCES
1. Gibstein, M.B. Parametric stress analysis
DR K. S. VIRDI, The City University, London of T-joints. European Offshore Steels
At what frequency were the tests described in Research Seminar, Cambridge, 1978, IX/P26.
Papers 9 and 10 carried out? It could be that Welding Institute, Abington, 1980.
the frequency of testing has little or no 2. American Petroleum Institute. Recommended
influence on the fatigue life. practice for planning, designing and
constructing fixed offshore platforms, 11th
MR McDONALD edn. API, Washington, DC, 1980, RP-2A.
The test frequency was in the range 1-15 Hz.
Normally small specimens at low load were

104
A M. C L A Y T O N , BSc(Eng), M I M e c h E , Risley
Nuclear Power Development Laboratories,
UKAEA, Risley

Prediction o fcrack growth intubular joints—an alternative


design approach

The design of tubular joints for offshore structures against fatigue has in the past largely relied
on S-N curves derived from small scale model tests. After a review of S-N failure data and its
use in design this paper considers the mechanics of fatigue crack growth, to show areas where these
more complex techniques can provide a basis for the better appreciation of the importance of the
parameters involved. It is concluded that whilst S-N failure data is likely to remain the main
design tool, the use of crack growth data will eventually provide support for extrapolation of the
data to larger sizes and longer lives than can be economically considered in experimental work. It
will also provide a means of considering the significance of existing defects.

INTRODUCTION was difficult because, apart from weld toe stress


1. Papers given so far in this Conference have concentrations, high local stresses also were
been concerned with separate aspects of the UK produced by the local wall bending of the chord
Offshore Steels Project Research Program: and braces at the intersection. Marshall pro­
1 1
endurance of weldments, fatigue crack growth, posed 'T' and K curves to correlate the vari­
tubular joint stress analysis and tubular joint ous geometric parameters which could affect the
endurance. This paper attempts to show how all local bending stresses based on a concept of
1
this information can be brought together to 'punching shear used in static strength calcu­
produce new design guidelines for offshore lations, alternatively, where detailed infor­
structures fatigue assessment. mation on stresses in a tubular connection were
1
known, the 'hot spot stress could be used.
2. The presentation of fatigue data has tradi­ This was the peak stress in a member, normal
1
tionally been in the form of S-N curves, plots and "adjacent to the weld toe. The objective
of stress range against the number of cycles to was to include local bending stresses but ex­
failure at that stress range. However, as will clude weld effects incorporated already in the
be apparent from some of the presentations al­ curve and a more formal way of achieving this
ready given, fracture mechanics ideas have be­ objective has already been considered in this
come increasingly used in understanding fatigue Conference. The hot spot stress range/cycles
1
behaviour. This paper attempts to show what are to failure curve was designated the 'X curve
the advantages and shortcomings of the traditio­ and was also used as the basis for the Depart­
nal approach, and how an understanding of the ment of Energy's Guidance Notes 'Q' Curve (ref
mechanics of fatigue crack growth can confirm 2).
and extend conventional design methods. This
mechanistic understanding can also show which 5. To a large extent, the simplicity of the
of the many parameters involved in offshore approach had been destroyed by the need to carry
structure design are the most significant in out detailed stress calculations to calculate
affecting the fatigue endurance life. the 'hot spot' stress, and it was not long be­
fore various parametric equations were developed
OFFSHORE STRUCTURE S-N CURVES FOR TUBULAR JOINTS relating this stress to the geometric variables.
3. The first S-N curves used for offshore con­ Most of these equations had clear limits of
struction were developed from onshore welded validity, but they were quickly used as a method
fabrication design curves by Marshall (ref 1) of assessing which nodes were limiting the fati­
and justified using results of model tests of gue life of the structure, so that these criti­
tubular joints and pressure vessels. In 1972 cal nodes could be analysed in more detail.
they were incorporated in the AWS and API off­
shore design codes in the form of 'T', 'K' and 6. Thus a 'parametric equation' giving hot
1
1
'X curves. spot stresses and the 'X curve provided a
simple tool for offshore design.
4. The basic simplicity of onshore design lay
in having S-N curves for a range of common 7. The method clearly depends on a number of
welded features. Using a nominal member stress, assumptions. The 'X' curve covers the whole
these curves took account of weld stress concen­ fatigue process to failure which involves crack
trations and weld imperfections and enabled fat­ growth from the weld toe through the parent
igue life to be quickly assessed. In a tubular metal and round the welded connection. The use
connection, the use of a nominal member stress of the curve assumes that the test data on

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 105


PREDICTION O F C R A C K G R O W T H IN TUBULARJOINTS

which i t i s based i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f any MECHANICS OF FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH


p a r t i c u l a r node i n a s i m i l a r e n v i r o n m e n t under 11. In essence, fatigue cracks may be classi­
similar loads. As a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , t h i s t e s t fied into three stages of development: initia­
d a t a base was v e r y l i m i t e d , b e i n g m a i n l y based tion, propagation and failure. This automati­
o n v e r y s m a l l ( l e s s t h a n 12mm w a l l t h i c k n e s s ) cally will involve considerable increase in the
tubular connections o f simple in-plane design amount of data, but will provide a logical
tested under constant load amplitude cycles i n framework for understanding and hence extrapo­
air. T h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e UK O f f s h o r e lating, and interpreting fatigue behaviour.
S t e e l s Research P r o j e c t , w i t h i t s European p a r t -
ers has g r e a t l y extended t h a t d a t a base t o look Initiation
a t m u c h l a r g e r j o i n t s ( u p t o 75mm w a l l t h i c k ­ 12. In the case of welded fabrications, it has
ness) , i n c l u d i n g t e s t s i n sea water and under long been recognised that during cooling of the
v a r i a b l e a m p l i t u d e , and t h i s has l e d t o a num­ weld metal microvoids some .2-.4mm deep will be
b e r o f a r e a s w h e r e i m p r o v e m e n t s c o u l d b e made formed at the weld toe. In a formal sense,
to the o r i g i n a l 'Q' curve. F i g u r e 1 shows t e s t 1
therefore, there is no crack 'initiation , just
r e s u l t s f r o m t h e UKOSRP p r o g r a m m e . These show growth and failure. However, these small micro-
a reduction i n fatigue l i f e a t a given h o t spot voids take a significant time to grow before
s t r e s s r a n g e w i t h s i z e , a n d a somewhat steeper they can be detected visually or by change in
slope o f the l a r g e r tube data than t h a t i n d i ­ output of a strain gauge placed near the weld
cated i n the 'X-curve'. A t lower stress l e v e l s , toe. If the microcrack lies in a local stress
the e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f t h i s data would suggest the concentration, such as that at the toe of a
r e s u l t s may be u n c o n s e r v a t i v e . D i j k s t r a ( r e f 3) weld, it may be totally surrounded by a region
has r e c e n t l y argued t h a t t e s t s i n seawater a l s o of yielded material. Under such circumstances,
have shown a s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n l i f e , even it would very quickly grow to the size of the
where t h e r e i s c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n . yielded zone. On the other hand, if the yielded
zone due to the local geometric stress concen­
1
8. I t i s a l s o assumed t h a t t h e ' h o t s p o t s t r e s s tration is smaller than the initial microcrack,
characterises the tube stress f i e l d during the it will have very little effect.
whole o f the growth o f a crack from s t a r t o f
l i f e t o f a i l u r e , and t h a t parametric equations 13. Weld toe grinding has two effects: it
are an adequate way o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h i s s t r e s s . again reduces the sharp geometry and reduces
I t i s n o t c l e a r f r o m t h e a p p r o a c h how t h e w e l d the stress concentration, but also removes the
p r o f i l e f i n i s h would a f f e c t the l i f e . microcracks provided it is deep enough, and
thus induces true crack initiation. Both these
1
9. F i n a l l y i t i s assumed t h a t ' f a i l u r e i s a effects extend life.
clearly definable point. I n t h e UKOSRP p r o ­
gramme 3 d e f i n i t i o n s o f f a i l u r e a r e u s e d . 'Nl' Crack growth
corresponds t o the f i r s t indications o f cracking 14. A significant amount of the data presented
(by v i s u a l measurement o r s t r a i n gauges), ' N 2 ' at this Conference has been crack growth data
i s cracking through t h e tube w a l l and 'N3' i s relating the crack extension per cycle (da/dn)
end o f t e s t , w h i c h i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n to the 'stress intensity factor 1
range AK.
i n s t i f f n e s s , o r p u l l o u t o f t h e c r a c k e d member.
Nl would c o r r e s p o n d t o e x c e p t i o n a l l y good o n ­ 15. Crack extension in fatigue results from
s h o r e i n s p e c t i o n , N3 t o f a i l u r e t o p r o v i d e a intense plastic deformation at the tip of the
structural load path. I n t h e d a t a shown i n F i g ­ crack. The magnitude of this deformation, and
u r e 1 , N3 h a s b e e n u s e d ; t y p i c a l l y one t h i r d hence the crack growth rate, depends upon the
o f N3 i s s p e n t t o N l a n d t w o t h i r d s t o N 2 . A t crack tip strain field, which is a function of
N2, t h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t change i n s t i f f n e s s the applied stress range and the size of the
and thus no l o s s o f l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . In disturbance to this stress caused by the crack
a n o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d w i t h some r e d u n ­ (ie the crack and component geometry). AK is
d a n c y , a change i n s t i f f n e s s w o u l d cause t h e the functional relationship of stress range and
load p a t h t o be a l t e r e d , r e d u c i n g t h e load geometry to the strain concentration. In parti­
c a r r i e d o n t h e f a i l i n g member, w h i c h w o u l d p r e ­ cular, AK applies where the local crack tip
sumably s i g n i f i c a n t l y e x t e n d t h e l i f e above N 3 . plastic zone is sufficiently small that its b e ­
I t i s o n t h i s b a s i s t h a t N3 i s u s u a l l y c h o s e n haviour is controlled by the surrounding
as t h e l i f e f o r d e s i g n . elastic stress field. In fatigue this situation
applies at higher stresses than under static
10. A p a r t f r o m t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e S-N c u r v e load due to structural shakedown which quarters
has a number o f o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s , due t o t h e the plastic zone size compared to the equivalent
v e r y s i m p l i c i t y w h i c h makes i t s u c h a u s e f u l static case.
design t o o l . For example, long term t e s t s are
time consuming and expensive. Data has t o be 16. It is worth pointing out that the integra­
e x t r a p o l a t e d t o cover t h e v e r y h i g h c y c l e range tion of crack growth rate for a flat plate -from
or t o a l l o w f o r time dependent secondary e f f e c t s some initial length (for example the weld micro­
such as c o r r o s i o n and t h e r e i s no c l e a r way o f crack size) to a final crack length (where
d o i n g t h i s w i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g f a t i g u e mechan­ 'failure' occurs) for a given stress range leads
isms. A f t e r i n s p e c t i o n , where a known f l a w h a s directly to a log/log S-N curve of inverse slope
to be assessed as t o i t s f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y b e ­ to the log/log da/dN vs AK plot. The slope in
fore the next inspection, a more c o m p re h ensi ve crack growth data is frequently about 3. For
model o f f a t i g u e growth must be developed and such a case, a plot of crack length against the
t h i s i s now c o n s i d e r e d . number of cycles shows an initial very slow

106
PAPER 11: CLAYTON

Fig 1 S-N Curves from API RP2-A (X X*) and Dept of Energy Guidance Notes (Q) compared with
f

UKOSRP tubular joint test failure results. • X and X are for improved profile and as welded
connections respectively.

|brace|

no of cycles

Fig 2 Variation of crack length with cycles Fig 3 Development of a fatigue crack in the
in an edge cracked plate (schematic). (r,s,t) plane. (a) Crack in chord wall and
r,s,t directions. (b) Stress distribution
around development of crack.

107
PREDICTION OF CRACK G R O W T H IN TUBULARJOINTS

change in crack length, which rapidly increases crack growth which then increases the AK at the
as failure is approached, figure 2. In the case initial endurance stress level to cause further
of a tubular joint, the situation is more com­ growth. The continuing downward slope of the
plex, but efforts are now being expended to S-N curve takes this into account. In time,
carry out a similar integration process. corrosion pitting in sea water would induce high
strains and crack growth at lower stresses, and
17. In general a fatigue crack grows normal to a modified X-curve allowed for this by continu­
the direction of the maximum principal stress. ing the curve at the original slope, the impli­
In many loading configurations of simple tubular cation being that once growth can occur, sea
joints this is along the weld toe of the con­ water does not increase the growth rate. It is
nection (figure 3 ) . Usually, the crack starts extremely difficult to simulate tubular joint
very close to the highest stress location (the crack geometry and the very low stress levels
hot spot) and then its surface growth is along in a laboratory specimen to provide a similar
a decreasing stress path. However, for many ingress of sea water to the crack tip, and the
situations, the initial stress does not decrease tests on tubular joints in sea water with and
significantly for J of the intersection length, without cathodic protection reported in the
and the hot spot stress level is an adequate Dutch p a r t o f the European programme indicating
representation of the stress field. Since, in accelerated crack growth will need further sup­
practice the stress 90° round the intersection portive work in the UK.
is fixed by other considerations (in pure in-
plane or out-of-plane bending, it will be zero, 21. Crack opening occurs only under tensile
under axial load, the chord crown stress is stress? compressive,stresses press the crack
largely controlled by beam bending behaviour), faces together and do not induce strain concen­
the whole initial stress field is dictated by trations at the crack tip. However, some years
the hot spot stress which gives it its good ago the Welding Institute proposed that welding
characterising role in fatigue. produces residual tensile stresses of yield mag­
nitude which keep the crack open over the whole
18. The major component of stress through the cycle. This is the justification of the use of
tube wall is due to tube wall bending, which stress range in the S-N curve and most of the
produces roughly equal but opposite stresses on data on tubular joints at different applied
the inner wall to those near the weld toe, and stress ranges appears to confirm this concept.
hence a neutral axis near the centre of the wall Post weld heat treatment of some of the larger
thickness. Crack growth inwards is therefore joints in the UK Offshore Steels Research Pro­
very restrained, and relies on extensive surface ject seems to have relieved these residual
growth to move the neutral axis before through stresses and on tests which go from tension to
thickness cracking can occur. As a result there equal compression in each cycle, there appears
appears to be a minimum necessary crack length from the limited data available to be an improve
for a given depth growth which produces crack -ment in fatigue life compared with non heat
shapes ranging from a semi-circular shape for treated joints. Shot peening of welds is a fur­
small defects to an aspect ratio of (length/ ther extension of residual stress control which
depth) of about 10 at breakthrough of the chord induces a residual compressive stress on the
wall. If it were assumed that crack length surface, reducing crack growth. This process
growth showed a response similar to the simple may also hammer flat weld microcracks.
crack in a plate, depthwise growth would be
much more linear with number of cycles, figure 22. Whilst most tubular joint tests are carried
4, and this is observed in the tests reported out under constant amplitude loading, some tests
in the previous session. have been conducted under load spectra, ideally
representing sea conditions and the response of
19. The slow inwards growth causes cracks to the structure in the region of the node. Miners
remain visually tight, which results in the num­ Law of cumulative fatigue damage for a number of
ber of cycles to the first visible crack to be different stress ranges can be shown to follow
large, in spite of considerable surface length. directly from the da/dN vs AK relationship pro­
The same effect is partially responsible for vided each cycle is independent. In the case
the stiffness of the joint remaining high for of random loading, it may be shown that linear
much of life. This stiffness maintains the cumulative damage assumptions result in a mean
original stress field around the connection for effective stress range given by
considerable crack growth (except very near the
m in
crack itself, of course) and accounts for the N Aa = ZAa
initial hot spot stress field characterisation mean
being applicable throughout most of life. where EAo* is the sum of all the individual
stress ranges in the spectrum, which can fre­
20. The early X-curves showed a decreasing slope quently be determined analytically, and m is
for low stress ranges. Below some endurance the slope of the da/dN vs AK plot. It should
level, constant stress range tests show no crack be noted, however, that a previous large cycle
growth. In fracture mechanics terms, there is sets up a compressive residual stress which re­
some threshold AK level below which the crack duces the effect of a following smaller cycle.
extension would be less than one atomic lattice Some care must therefore be taken in the choice
spacing and no growth would occur. Since in of spectra and a study into typical true spectra
practice the structure sees a spectra of differ­ found in offshore structure nodes is being con­
ent stress ranges, the larger ones will cause ducted within the UKOSRP project.

108
PAPER 11: CLAYTON

Failure the wall thickness of the failed member and the


23. The choice of failure point is largely de­ fatigue life at a given stress range. As noted,
termined by the requirement GIn the design of most of the data on which current design codes
a non-redundant structure, no loss of stiffness are based was on wall thickness of less than
could be tolerated, which would probably limit 12mm; a body of data for wall thicknesses of
life to N 2 . In a redundant structure, as al­ 16mm and 32mm has now become available, and shown
ready noted N3 is frequently employed. However, a continuing decrease in life compared to smaller
for inspection, it is necessary to find a crack wall thickness tests„
so that it can be repaired before reaching these
failure sizes The aim here may be a crack cor­
9
26. A number of explanations have been put for­
responding to a life of N l , although to what ward to account for this, (figure 5 ) Since AK
0

extent offshore inspection could determine such is a function of crack size absolutely, but the
a narrow crack in the large welded areas of con­ stress distribution can be scaled on size, an
cern is an open question. increase in size means that the crack is physi­
cally longer whilst it is at a given stress level
24. As far as crack growth analysis is concerned, and would thus grow more rapidly With the deve­
0

there will be difficulty in following crack beha­ lopment of theoretical methods of calculating
viour as breakthrough of the chord wall occurs, tubular joint crack growth, it should be possible
where the highly constrained through crack b e ­ to test the significance of this Q

comes a growing through-wall slit? even if


these problems can be overcome, the loss of
stiffness towards N3 results in stress redistri­
butions which it would clearly be uneconomic to
consider Crack growth analysis, at best, there­
0

fore is unlikely to go beyond N 2 0

SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF TUBULAR JOINT DESIGN


RELATED TO CRACK MECHANICS
Size effect
2 5 One of the main features found in the UKOSRP
9

programme has been the significance of size on


life* A reasonable correlation exists between

to
w
<D depth growth length growth| crack becomes
c predominates predominates a through
o wall slit

r
all bending strain

04
Q) Fig 5 Effect of size on crack growtho
* 10 A given crack length a in the same nominal
C
fd strain field is at a higher strain level
in a larger connection. The yield zone r
is shorter than a in a small connection,
0) but may be larger than a in a larger
1
connection ( r ) .
M
O
U
O

N2
no of cycles
Fig 4 Variation of crack dimensions with
cycles in a tubular joint (schematic) Curve a
0

denotes max. crack depth into chord wall. Curve


b is the min. necessary length to permit depth-
wise growth. The actual length. Curve c, does
not increase significantly until b reaches the
initial length, after which length increases in
a similar manner to a flat plate. After break­
through, the crack grows more slowly due to loss Fig 6 Welded connections (a) with and
of stiffness. (b) without profile control.

109
PREDICTION OF CRACK G R O W T H IN TUBULAR JOINTS

27. A s noted earlier, the yielded zone at the toe of complex offshore nodes would prove an enor­
of a weld due to the weld geometry stress concen­ mous task. Furthermore, even in the UKOSRP
tration may be smaller or larger than the micro- joints, information on some of the inputs (such
crack size. If it is smaller than the microcracks as residual stress) is not obtainable and must
in a small joint, due to the scaling of the stress be surmised from the results of tubular joint
field with size, it will become larger than the tests.
microcracks in a larger joint. Cracks might be
expected to grow very rapidly in such a high 31. For most design purposes, therefore, fail­
strain field to the yield zone depth, and thus ure data correlated in the form of the S-N
the effective initial crack size would become a curve will remain in use. The value in study­
function of joint size a This phenomena is being ing crack growth lies in two directions.,
investigated using photoelasticity 0 The process Firstly, it provides a basis of understanding
appears reasonable from tubular joint results, the fatigue process so that the importance of
since the size effect is only strongly apparent the geometric loading, material and environ­
up to N l , beyond Nl size does not seem very mental parameters can be assessed. From this
important„ Some explanation which considers the experimental data can be extrapolated in a
early growth is therefore indicated. logical manner Secondly, it provides a means
0

of assessing the significance of any defects


Weld profile found during in service inspection.
28o Recent editions of American Codes for Off­
shore Structures (refs 5,6) have accounted for 32o There is still considerable further analy­
the lower lives found in the larger European tical and experimental development needed to
tests by considering 'good* and 'bad' weld pro­ fully achieve these goals.
filing, figure 6. Conceptually the idea appears
to be that by producing a concave weld profile
which blends into the brace and chord tubes the REFERENCES
weld toe stress concentration is reduced and lo M A R S H A L L P W„ B a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s for
life is improved. Blending in this context tubular joint design in Offshore Structures.
appears to include the use of a small TIG weld WRC Bulletin 193, April 1974.
bead at the toe of the larger metal arc weld. 2. UK DEPT OF ENERGY. Offshore Installations?
The reduction in stress concentration produced Guidance on design and construction. HMSO,
by this process is currently being studied using London 1978.
photoelasticity. 3. DIJKSTRA O D and DE BACK J Fatigue a

strength of welded tubular T and X joints.


CONCLUSIONS 12th Offshore Technology Conference, Houston
29. The analysis of growth of a fatigue crack 1980, Paper 3696.
in a tubular connection is a complex process in 4. DOVER W D, HOLDBROOK S J and HIBBERD.
which the stress distributions (including resi­ Fatigue life e s t i m a t e s for tubular w e l d e d T -
dual stresses), the initial flaw size and shape, joints using fracture m e c h a n i c s . Select
the material behaviour and effects of environ­ Seminar on European Offshore Steels Research,
ment all need to be known. The calculations Cambridge 1978.
assume elastically controlled crack plastic zone 5. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE. Recommended
sizes and need to be pursued in a step-by-step p r a c t i c e for p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t ­
basis taking account of variations in AK along ing fixed o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s , 1 9 8 0 . RP2A
the whole of the crack front with time to deter­ 11th edition.
mine the change in crack shape as growth occurs. 6. AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY. Structural
Finally, crack growth beyond the stage where Welding Code D l l 0 0

large stress redistributions occur further


complicates the analysis. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The ideas p r e s e n t e d here have arisen from
309 If all the input data were available for discussions and work carried o u t b y those
tubular connections, such analysis would still organisations represented w i t h i n the U K O f f ­
not be a practical approach to fatigue design. shore Steels R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t . Although this
In fact, the generation of much of the basic paper does n o t necessarily reflect their v i e w s ,
data itself for the simple T and K joints tested t h e a u t h o r w o u l d l i k e to e x p r e s s p a r t i c u l a r
in the UKOSRP programme has been time consuming t h a n k s to D r N I r v i n e , D r P S c o t t a n d
and expensive; to repeat the process for a set D r B. T o m k i n s , a l l o f t h e U K A E A .

110
Discussion o n Paper 1 1

DR G. EDWARDS, Shell Research KSEPL, The Hague MR CLAYTON


My question concerns the initial defect size In the tubular joints tested in UKOSRP there
one assumes in carrying out a fracture mechanics has been little change in stiffness until
fatigue life prediction. The Paper implies cracks have grown through the wall thickness,
that a defect of the size of the local weld and this implies little change in stress other
notch stress field will develop rapidly. Would than that which would be predicted by fracture
this therefore be a suitable initial defect size mechanics. The problem is not the stress
to assume for a conservative lifetime prediction? redistribution, but knowing the original
Does the Author have any feel for how the size (uncracked) stress field, both along the weld
of this notch region compares with typical toe and through the thickness. This has been
defect sizes resulting from the welding process? determined in the UKOSRP joints, but a crack
growth analysis requires similar data for each
MR CLAYTON, in reply node to be analysed.
The idea is that if a local region at the weld
toe were to exceed yield stress, a crack would DR W. J. HARRIS, London Centre for Marine
rapidly propagate through the region, and an Technology, Imperial College of Science and
elastic fracture mechanics analysis could be Technology
made using the yield zone size as the initial It is most important to arrive at a common
crack size for crack growth calculations. If definition of hot spot stress. I would suggest:
this size is less than the size of defects (a) crack propagation characteristics based on
which could be expected at weld toes (say 0.5 mm) AK = C c / a w h e r e i s t h e

then the initial crack size would clearly be thresholds e e> °e


plain endurance limit and a is the
this value rather than the yield zone size. characteristic intrinsic crack size
e

Studies of yield zone size in welded joints (b) nominal stress a , distance x from crack
x
are currently being made to determine the tip length a
significance of the yield zone size. a ^ a/(a/x)
x

(c) in uncracked material a = A//(x + a ) x e


MR M. GILLAMS, Petro-Marine Engineering Hence a common definition of hot spot stress
It has been suggested that the major difficulty would be given by extrapolating strain gauge
in predicting the growth of fatigue cracks is values (see Fig.l).
the assessment of the stress levels as they
become redistributed around the joint. If MR CLAYTON
this is so, may I suggest that an analysis of Whatever definition is used for hot spot stress,
the crack growths observed during the UKOSRP it must also be used by the designer making use
would help understanding of the nature of the of the data. I would question the ease with
stress redistributions that take place as a which from either a parametric equation or a
tubular joint cracks.

Strain g a u g e stresses

Fig. 1

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, 1981


111
PREDICTIONOFCRACKGROWTHINTUBULARJOINTS

thin shell finite element analysis such hot MR CLAYTON


spot stresses as suggested by Dr Harris could be My aim was to introduce the principles involved
derived. The idea is fairly complicated and in determining different forms of crack growth
requires further consideration. through life. Professor Fessler's comments are
completely accepted and it would be interesting
PROFESSOR H. FESSLER, University of Nottingham to obtain growth data for the second case he
Mr Clayton's analysis of bending and tension has considered. This again points to the
and how they affect crack propagation in tubular importance of detailed stress analysis fpr
joints is very promising but care is needed fracture mechanics assessment.
when quantifying and extending these concepts.
The saddle stress distribution through the MR R. G. HOUSTON, CJB-Earl and Wright Ltd
thickness agrees with his assumption. However, The fact that fatigue failure generally results
in K joints the greatest stresses occur in the from a crack propagating from the toe of the
plane of symmetry (e.g. T2 in reference 1 ) . fillet of a weld implies that the root of the
The distribution through the chord at these weld is less sensitive. Therefore, why does
sections includes tension as well as bending. the industry not concentrate, by the use of
fracture mechanics, on defining larger
allowable defects in the root area, thus avoiding
unnecessary repair?
T3 Assuming that the same levels of stress apply
for, say, a mild steel and a high tensile steel
detail, does the tens,ile strength of the steel
have any influence on the rate of crack growth?

REFERENCE
1. Fessler, H. and Little, W. J. G. Elastic
stresses due to axial loading of a two-brace
tubular K joint with and without overlap.
J. Strain Analysis, 1981, Jan., 67-77.

112
P. J. FISHER, MIMechE, Lloyd's Register of
Shipping

S u m m a r y of current design and fatigue correlation

Early fatigue life estimation methods based on the punching shear concept and blanket factor
techniques together with the S-N curves used are summarised. Current fatigue design employing
parametric stress concentration factors, an updated punching shear concept and alternative
approaches with the current S-N curves being used in the UK and USA are discussed. This includes
comment on present knowledge with respect to size effects, weld profile control, weld improvement,
post weld heat treatment and the effects of sea water. Early results of work being carried out
by Lloyd's Register of Shipping, part funded by the Department of Energy, on correlation of some
North Sea platform secondary member fatigue cracking with current design by comparitive studies of
approach, stress concentration factors and S-N curves, are given.

INTRODUCTION 4. S-N curve XX. In the early seventies the


1. Prior to 1970, fixed steel platforms were S-N curves used were taken directly from
essentially designed on member strength only. those presented in AWS D1.1 (ref.2). These
After the loss of Sea Gem in 1965, the discovery curves were consistent with an as welded profile
of cracks on other mobiles and fatigue cracking that merged smoothly with the adjoining base
on southern North Sea gas platforms in the metal. The preferred S-N curve was the XX
early seventies, it is no surprise that fatigue curve (see Fig.3) which was used in conjunction
is now a major consideration in the design of with the peak hot spot stress either on the
most offshore structures. brace or chord side of the saddle weld deter­
mined from detail joint finite element analysis
EARLY FATIGUE DESIGN or test. Because of the many different joint
2. Before discussing current tubular joint configurations in a typical platform, an alter­
fatigue design it is worthwhile to summarise native empirical method in AWS D1.1, to estimate
the methods used during the seventies. Typical chord lives, was widely used.
fixed steel platforms for the Gulf of Mexico
area could generally be designed against fatigue 5. Punching shear concept. In this method
by limiting joint static stresses, API RP 2A two S-N curves were available. TT for single
(ref.1). For the North Sea, where the wave brace joints and KK for a simple K type
spectrum was different (see Fig. 1) and could connection (see Fig.3). Both curves had a
result in one quarter of the life against the stress concentration factor built in but the
Gulf of Mexico spectrum, a more detailed brace nominal stresses had to be modified to
approach was required. Experience shows that obtain an equivalent acting stress range. This
most fatigue cracking in tubular joints occurs was achieved by using a formula that required
in the saddle weld between the brace and chord axial, in-plane and out-of-plane load differ­
members (see Fig.2) and generally only lives at entiation. Simplified chord blanket factors
these positions are estimated. were commonly used as in the Lloyd' s early
fatigue analysis method.
3. Method of analysis. Early fatigue
analyses were generally limited to the quasi- 6. The KK curve was widely used for multi-
static/deterministic approach. This involved brace joints but for a brace with predominant
the determination of joint stress range spectra, out-of-plane bending the TT curve would have
either a straight line based on a storm stress been more appropriate. Use of the KK curve
range assuming a linear variation or non linear could result in a life some 15 times greater
spectra derived by considering a range of wave than that from the TT curve. Since the
heights, the latter being more realistic. The critical loading for most primary joints is
number of wave directions used depended on the in-plane this did not adversly affect their
overall configuration of the structure, for a design and the punching shear concept was a
symmetrical fixed platform two were normally very useful tool, in fact it was all that was
considered. The stress spectra obtained were available at that time for the chord. However,
used in conjunction with the S-N curve to some out-of-plane fatigue cracking in secondary
estimate fatigue life using the Miner summation structure was partly due to the KK curve being
(cumulative fatigue damage analysis). used instead of TT.

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 113


S U M M A R Y OF CURRENT DESIGN

North Sea

20 ,

15
Life r 26 years(S-N curve Q)

JC 10 Damage plots
en

>
5 L Life = 99 years

2 4 6
10° 10 10 10 10 10 200 Stress range N/mm 2

50 100 J150
Exceedances/50 years
3 7.5 12 Wave height m

Fig. 1 Comparison of wave spectra

Brace failure Chord failure

Fig.2 Fatigue failure types

114
PAPER 12: F I S H E R

7. Guidance Notes. On publication of the the findings. Other UKOSRP and ECSC projects
DOE guidance (ref.3), the S-N curves therein are investigating the effects of PWHT, sea
were generally adopted in the UK. The Q, water and weld profile improvement so that
K and T curves were variations of the AWS XX, these may be quantified.
KK and TT curves (see Fig.3). For the punching
shear concept, although the Guidance Notes 14. With fixed steel platforms now being
referred to the AWS for T and K punching shear designed for water depths up to 300 m and
relationships, the notes also stated that stress considering the general increase in topside
concentrations had been allowed for in the T loading, dynamic effects are becoming more
and K curves. This led in some instances to important. This can be accounted for in
the T and K curves being used with unmodified deterministic analyses but more and more
brace nominal stresses. platforms are being checked by full dynamic
analysis.
8. Brace life. Both the. AWS D1.1 and the
Guidance Notes required the brace to be checked 15. There are several UKOSRP and ECSC projects
when the punching shear concept was used to investigating an alternative method for estimat­
estimate the chord life. In the AWS D1.1 ing fatigue life based on a fracture mechanics
1
the D'D curve was used in conjunction with approach.
the brace nominal stress. Until the late
seventies the most widely used method in the UK Stress concentration factors
for estimating brace lives was that given in 16. Parametric equations. Using stress
the Guidance Notes. The method employed blanket concentration factor parametric equations, brace
geometric factors in conjunction with S-N curve and chord hot spot stresses can readily be
F. This curve was based on the BS 153 class F calculated from the brace nominal stresses.
flat cruciform joint detail and the geometric The equations have separate terms for axial,
factors were obtained from the results of early in-plane and out-of-plane bending stresses.
tubular joint tests carried out at Sheffield Probably the most comprehensive and widely used
University. are those by Kuang et al (ref.4). These
equations are based on the results of an
9. Weld profile improvement. From the extensive joint finite element analysis study
Guidance Notes the Q curve could be used for the and cover T, X, K and KT type joint configura­
brace with an improved profile, achieved by toe tions. Marshall (ref.5) and Gibstein (ref.6)
grinding, on the brace side of the saddle weld. have also produced parametric equations based
The same geometric factors as used with curve F on finite element analysis.
were employed. Due to the different slopes of
curves F and Q, the life increase varied depend­ 17. The Wordsworth/Smedley equations (ref.7)
ing on the stress range level. are at present limited to simple T and X type
joints but work is continuing to cover other
10. There was one other tubular joint S-N joint configurations. These equations have
f f
curve in AWS D1.1 namely E E which could be been derived from the results of acrylic model
used in conjunction with the brace nominal testing carried out as part of the UKOSRP
stress to estimate lives of complex joints programme. Comparing equations, e.g. Kuang
(i.e. with gusset plates and ring stiffeners). and Wordsworth, for the same joint configuration
This curve did not feature in the Guidance can show differences in stress concentration
Notes and was not generally used in the UK. (see Fig.4). For the joint configuration shown
and for some values of /3(r brace rad./R chord
11. During the seventies although it was rad.) different lives can result depending on
considered that post weld heat treatment (PWHT) which set of equations are used.
would give some improvement in fatigue life, due
to a reduction in residual tensile stresses, no 18. To use parametric equations fatigue analy­
actual benefit was given. On the other hand it ses have become more sophisticated. They must-
was also thought that the effects of a sea water differentiate between axial, in-plane and out-
environment might reduce life but again this was of-plane loading, each joint has to be catego­
not allowed for. With respect to weld profile rised correctly, and planes defined. However
improvement, apart from the brace life increase this has led to a more accurate prediction of
given for brace weld toe grinding in the fatigue life. Equations are available for T,
Guidance Notes, already discussed, no other X, K and KT single plane joints but further work
quantifiable benefit was given. is required to extend the range to cover complex
multi-brace joints and also to include the
CURRENT FATIGUE DESIGN effects of stiffening - gussets/ring stiffeners.
General
12. The mainstay for fatigue analysis is still 19. Hot spot stress. A difficulty is defining
the deterministic approach using a Miner cumula­ a standard hot spot stress so that the stresses
tive damage summation as outlined previously. measured in tests, calculated in finite element
However, a significant advance in fatigue life studies and derived by using parametric
estimation has been achieved by the introduction equations are compatible. The conventional
of parametric equations. definition is the stress normal to the weld at
the toe, including the effect of the brace/chord
13. As results become available from UKOSRP, intersection but excluding the influence of the
ECSC and other tubular joint test programmes, weld itself. As part of the UKOSRP programme,
revised S-N curves are being proposed reflecting comparitive studies are being carried out on

115
S U M M A R Y OF CURRENT DESIGN

2000

1 I i 1 1 1 1 i
2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 io 10 10
Cycles

Fig. 3. S-N curves

25
. Wordsworth/Smedley
SCF — — — Kuang et al
chord
V [ hord rad.\_ ,
c
?

20 0 \chord t. /"
«Wbrace t.\ = 0.8
' \chord t.J
0 (chord/brace angle)

15

10

In-plane bending

0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0


/3 (brace rad./chord rad.)
Fig.4. SCF comparison (T joint)

116
PAPER 12: FISHER

experimental (including full scale testing) air but that there may well be a penalty for
and theoretical hot spot stresses, using joints in the splash zone. For fixed platforms
parametric equations to derive a standard hot now being installed there are normally no brace
spot definition. to chord joints in the splash zone, apart from
vertical X bracing, but for other structures a
Current S-N curves penalty might be significant.
20. Revised punching shear concept. The AWS
and DOE empirical punching shear curves which 26. Other UKOSRP and ECSC projects are
are still current and can be used for estimat­ investigating the benefit of weld profile
ing chord lives have already been discussed. improvement - grinding, peening and TIG
In the API RP 2A eleventh edition (ref.1), dressing. Booth (ref.12) has demonstrated a
S-N curves are presented and the punching shear significant increase in endurance for toe
concept uses a single S-N curve KK (see Fig.5) grinding and hammer peening. The grinding
which overcomes the earlier problem of joint removes defects and undercut whilst peening
selection. However, the revised cyclic punch­ builds in compressive stresses and may also
ing shear stress range formula, which in some eliminate defects. Where it is not possible to
respects is more difficult to apply than increase wall thickness to improve fatigue life,
parametric equations, must be incorporated in Lloyd's give an increase in life of two for toe
any computer analysis. grinding or carefully controlled peening.

21. An XX curve is also presented in the API Dynamic analysis, alternative approach
which is similar to the AWS XX and DOE Q curves 27. Dynamic amplification. For structures
(see Fig.5). These three curves are those with natural periods less than three seconds,
currently used in conjunction with the peak hot dynamic effects are not normally considered
spot stress, usually derived from parametric since waves with periods less than this do not
equations, to estimate the critical fatigue life significantly affect fatigue life. Where the
be it in the brace or chord side of the saddle period of the first mode of vibration is over
weld. For the complex joints where the three seconds, dynamic effects are considered.
equations do not apply, stress concentrations In deterministic analysis this can be achieved
can be determined by joint finite element by the appropriate factoring of stress ranges.
analysis or test (e.g. acrylic model). Dynamic amplification factors are obtained by
simple dynamic analysis of the structure.
22. Profile control. In the API the XX and
KK curves are to be used only where the weld 28. Dynamic analysis. For deep water plat­
profile merges smoothly with the adjoining base forms (2uXT300~mT^nnore detailed dynamic
metal. Where there is no such profile control, approach is required such as a stochastic
1
curves X'X and K'K' (see Fig.5) are to be used. fatigue analysis. In this nominal stress
1
Curves XX and X'X are included in the S-N curve ranges are determined from a dynamic spectral
comparitive study presented later. There are analysis of the platform and a probability
two other curves in the API, D'D' (see Fig.5) distribution (scatter diagrams) of the seas
1
and E'E which are similar to the same designat­ producing these ranges is considered. The
ed curves in the AWS already discussed in early maximum probable stress range inclusive of
fatigue design. stress concentration factor is evaluated from
an assumed Rayleigh distribution of stress
23. Size effect. The hot spot S-N curves were range. Two limitations of the method are
derived from small specimens mainly plate, with that a single predetermined wave steepness is
wall thicknesses up to 12 mm. The results of used and water surface profile effects are neg­
the full scale testing to date show for some lected. Fatigue lives are computed using the
32 mm thickness specimens test lives that fall Miner cumulative damage summation. Typically
just below the existing XX/Q curves - Dijkstra a platform would be sized using a deterministic
(ref.8). This is believed to be due to a approach, possibly with dynamic amplification,
thickness effect and has been investigated by then checked by a full dynamic analysis.
Gurney (ref.9). Test and theoretical work is
continuing which could lead to a revision of 29. Alternative approach. This method using
the Q curve or an additional curve as per the linear elastic fracture mechanics to estimate
API XX and X'X' curve. fatigue life is being developed, Tomkins
(ref.13). Life is estimated based on the crack
24. Work is being carried out within the rate of propagation but clearly the resultant
UKOSRP and ECSC programmes, De Back et al life would also depend on the time to crack
(ref.10) and Booth (ref.11), to investigate initiation. This method is not used at present
the effects of PWHT and sea water on fatigue for design but may be particularly useful for
endurance. It is eventually hoped to give checking cracks discovered in platforms that
some benefit for PWHT but since this is likely could not be repaired immediately due to bad
to be dependent on stress ratio (min./max. weather conditions.
stress) it will require modifications to exist­
ing computer fatigue analysis programs. FATIGUE CORRELATION STUDY
General
25. Work on the effects of sea water show 30. This study is funded jointly by the Depart­
generally that with cathodic protection the ment of Energy and Lloyd's Register of Shipping.
fatigue life obtained is much the same as in The primary objective of the study, which was

117
S U M M A R Y OF CURRENT DESIGN

10' 10* 10 10 10 10 10 c
10
Cycles
Fig. 5. S-N curves

Fig. 6 Typical stress spectrum and damage plot

118
PAPER 12: F I S H E R

Table 1. Factors affecting fatigue life and isolation. Information is supplied by the
its estimation platform operators and every effort is made
to obtain the correct environmental criteria
Environmental and condition of the platform prior to any
Water depth - tides cracking. As results from fatigue tests
Wave spectra - heights, exceedances, become available, particularly those funded
directionality by the UK Government, these will be incorporat­
Wave periods - associated with wave heights ed into the overall programme.
Current - magnitude and direction
Soil conditions - foundation stiffness Correlation study of cracking
32. To date four North Sea platforms, which
Loading (external and internal) have experienced some cracking, have been
Wave force coefficients - C and C
n M
considered. All the cracking initiated in the
., D M weld toes on either the brace or chord sides of
Wave theory
Slamming - effect on C^ the tube to tube saddle joints. Only one of
Roughness - effect on C^ these platforms suffered cracking in primary
joints. For this platform it was clearly
Overall structural configuration shown that the cracking was not due to fatigue
Piling - stiffness varies with wave height but to some other cause.
Fatigue stresses 33. Another of these platforms which experi­
Joint configuration enced only superficial cracking had joints
Weld shape - profile strengthened by extensive in-plane and out-of-
Weld surface - as welded, ground, peened plane external stiffening. Since there are no
Residual stress - fabrication, welding, PWHT parametric equations covering this type of
Alternating stress - degree of axial, in-plane joint the study of this particular platform was
and out-of-plane bending somewhat limited. Further work could be
Stress concentration factor - parametric carried out using detail joint finite element
equations analysis or stress concentrations obtained by
Dynamic amplification test (acrylic/photo-elastic modelling).

started in 1977, is to ensure that the safety 34. For the remaining two platforms, cracking
standards in the Guidance Notes with respect occurred in secondary joints but was confined
to fatigue are updated using the accumulated to the first horizontal levels above and below
experience gained in the North Sea. Under the the waterline. In some cases vertical loading
study North Sea platforms with known fatigue was more critical than lateral when including
cracks in members and other uncracked platforms the increase in wave loading caused by the
are considered to check the validity of current plating around the conductor slots. In one
fatigue analysis techniques. case there was an increase in wave loading due
to a build up of marine growth on the horizon­
31. In the study of a particular platform all tal level in question. For both platforms the
the factors in Table 1 are considered there­ cracking essentially occurred in simple T type
fore maintaining an overall balance rather than connections with wall thickness up to 25 mm.
concentrating on an individual parameter in

Table 2. Estimated fatigue lives of cracked joints

Cracki nq Peak 1
Life (yrs .) using
Loading S-N curve
damage
Joint Joint Brace (B) predominance
stress 2
No. Type or Discovered DOE 2
API 3
API 4
range Z
Chord (C) (yrs) API
N/mm 2
Q f DM)' KK
X X'
1 K B 3 Out-of-plane 434 0.2 0.1 112 -
II II II 407 0.3 0.2 9.0
2 T C 3
ti 0.2
- 0.4
3 T C 3 II
II
II
II II
483 0.3
0.5
- 28
4 T C 3 300 0.9
1.8 0.7
-
0.9
5 T
T
B 6 In-plane
II II
130
3.0 1.1
-
1.1
6
7 X
C
C
6
6 Out-of-plane
114
76 14.0 4.5
- 0.0

Notes: 1. Based on S-N curve Q.


2. SCFs from parametric equations, T and X type joints - Wordsworth/Smedley,
K type joint - Kuang et al.
3. Brace nominal stresses used.
4. Revised punching shear concept.

119
S U M M A R Y OF CURRENT DESIGN

3 5 . Definition of member failure. The cracking fatigue using early blanket type factors. These
on the two platforms in question, when factors, particularly for axial and out-of-plane
discovered, varied from minor surface cracking loading, were much lower than the more realistic
to complete detachment. It is considered that SCFs that would be obtained using parametric
an appropriate general definition for correla­ equations.
tion purposes would be 30-40% through thickness
cracking. This is typical damage for much of 3 9 . As far as is known the profiles on the
the secondary joint cracking being investigated. cracked joints merged reasonably with the base
In tubular joint fatigue testing this is also metal. However, lives are also shown for the
f f
representative of end of test in that deflect­ X X curve, which covers joints where no such
ions become excessive and loading unbalanced. profile exists. Lives for high peak damage
However, for primary joints, in a structure with stresses are fairly similar to Q as expected
limited redundancy, this degree of damage would (see Fig.5) the difference increasing as the two
normally be in excess of that acceptable to a curves diverge with reducing peak stress. For
Certifying Authority. more normal life joints the peak stresses would
f f
not be this high and the X X curve would give
3 6 . Discussion of results. Table 2 shows a much reduced life.
estimated lives for typical cracked joints, the
lives were calculated using Lloyd's determinis­ 4 0 . Lives for the API D D brace curve and the
f f

tic fatigue approach (ref.14). The program revised punching shear KK curve are also shown
uses parametric equations in conjunction with for comparison. The revised punching shear
S-N curve Q to derive lives based on a Miner concept gives similar results to the original
summation, for typical stress spectrum and AWS concept, discussed earlier, in that for
damage plot see Fig. 6 . The Q curve used is a predominant in-plane loading it gives a conser­
98?o probability of survival curve. The mean vative estimate relative to Q but for predomin­
curve would result in lives some 3 to 4 times ant out-of-plane loading it can be optimistic.
greater than those shown and would give reason­ The exception to this is joint 7 which has a ft
able correlation with the time to crack dis­ ratio (r/R) of 1 . 0 and hence a relatively low
f f
covery for most joints. The Q curve is based hot spot SCF. The D D curve gives a very
on specimens up to 1 2 mm thickness which is high life for joint 1 (brace) but this would
typical for these joints. For joint 7 where be covered in some respects by a chord life of
the correlation is not good it is thought that 0 . 7 years using the revised punching shear KK
the cracking was caused by excessive deflection curve (result not shown in table).
due to earlier cracking of other adjacent
joints. Comparitive study of S-N curves
4 1 . As part of the fatigue correlation work,
3 7 . For one of the platforms the early cracking comparitive studies are being made of stress
was mainly due to the close proximity of the concentration factors and S-N curves. Table 3
horizontal level in question with the waterline shows some early results of an S-N curve com­
and the build up of marine growth which signifi­ paritive study being carried out, the 8 joints
cantly increased wave loading in the vertical considered are typical of North Sea platforms.
direction. Wave slam was investigated but the The lives quoted are based on the total damage
effect was found to be small compared with considering two wave directions and four wave
other wave forces. heights to derive the stress spectra.

38. The other platform was designed against 4 2 . The fatigue lives shown in Table 3 have been

Table 3 . Estimated fatigue lives comparing S-N curves

1
Peak Life (yrs.) using S-N curve
Brace (B)
Joint Joint damage
or
No. Type stress 2
Chord (C) DOE AWS 2
API Z
API 2
API 3

range f
Q XX XX X X« D'D'
N/mm^

1 K C 113 7.9 7.7 6.2 3.3


2 T
K
C
B
107
99
12.3
17.9
12.6
19.7
9.9
14.9
4.9
7.0
-
56
3
4
5
K
T
C
B
153
86
20
28
19.6
34
16
24
8.0
10.5
-
191
6 KTC C 83 38 50 33 14 -
7 KTC B 82 48 66 42 17 >1000
8 T C 112 60 71 52 22 -
Notes: 1. Based on S-N curve Q.
2. SCFs from parametric equations, T and X type joints - Wordsworth/Smedley, KTC and
K type joints - Kuang et al.
3. Brace nominal stresses used.

120
PAPER 12: FISHER

estimated using Lloyd's deterministic fatigue ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


program. For the three S-N curves, DOE Q, I am indebted to the Society for permission
AWS XX and API XX, used where the weld profile to publish this paper and to my colleagues for
merges with the base metal and in conjunction their help in its preparation.
with the peak hot spot stresses the lives are
fairly similar. This is to be expected consid­ REFERENCES
ering the similarity of the three curves (see 1. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE Planning,
F i g . 5 ) . However, the difference can be as much Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
as 30?o on life which is significant when Platforms, API RP 2A, Eleventh Edition,
designing for a particular life. January 1980.
2. AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY Structural Welding
4 3 . The API X'X curve, where there is no weld
1
Code-Steel, AWS D1.1-80.
profile control, gives approximately 30-40?o of 3. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY Offshore installation:
the life with profile control, for the joints Guidance on design and construction, second
considered. As for the cracked brace joints edition 1977.
1
the API D'D curve, using brace nominal stresses, 4. POTVTN A. B., KUANG J. G., LEICK R„ D . and
gives much higher lives than the hot spot curves. KAHLICH J.L. Stress concentration in tubular
These brace lives may be covered by lower chord joints, Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal,
lives, using the punching shear concept, but August 1977.
these were not calculated. 5. MARSHALL P.W. A Review of Stress Concentra­
tion Factors in Tubular Connections, Shell
CONCLUSIONS CE-32 Report, April 1978.
4 4 . With respect to the chord life punching 6. GIBSTEIN M. Parametrical stress analysis of
shear method, including the revised concept, T-Joints, European Offshore Steels Research
although this is generally satisfactory for Seminar Paper 26, November, 1978.
most joints it has been shown to be optimistic 7. WORDSWORTH A.C. and SMEDLEY G.P. Stress
for some joints with predominant out-of-plane concentrations at unstiffened tubular joints,
loading. A current brace life method considered European Offshore Steels Research Seminar Paper
also gave higher lives than would be obtained 31, November 1978.
using a hot spot XX/Q S-N curve in conjunction 8. DIJKSTRA O.D. and HARTOG J. Dutch part of
with SCFs from parametric equations. the large scale tubular joint fatigue test
programme, European Offshore Steels Research
4 5 . In the correlation study, for the cracking Seminar Paper 35, November, 1978.
in wall thicknesses up to 25 mm, reasonable 9. GURNEY T.R. The influence of thickness on
correlation both for the brace and chord was the fatigue strength of welded joints,
obtained using the DOE Q curve and parametric Behaviour of Offshore Structures Conference
equations. It is considered that at present Paper 41, London, August 1979.
the most reliable method of predicting fatigue 10.DE BACK J., DORTLAND W., WILDSCHUT H.
life is using a hot spot curve in conjunction and VAN LEEUWEN J.L. Fatigue behaviour of
with parametric equations, providing differ­ welded joints in air and sea water, European
ences in the various sets of equations can be Offshore Steels Research Seminar Paper 5,
allowed for. The three current hot spot curves November 1978.
AWS XX, DOE Q and API XX all give relatively 11. BOOTH G.S. Constant amplitude fatigue tests
similar lives. performed on welded steel joints in sea water,
European Offshore Steels Research Seminar
4 6 . Early full scale test results are indica­ Paper 9, November 1978.
ting that for the thicker specimens (32 mm) 12. BOOTH G.S. Constant amplitude tests per­
there is a size effect and a revised lower formed on welded joints in air, European
life curve is required. The API already has Offshore Steels Research Seminar Paper 4,
lower life curves but these are for as welded November 1978.
profiles that do not merge smoothly with the 13. TOMKINS B. An analysis of the fatigue
parent metal. Clearly some resolving is endurance of tubular T joints by linear
required and in fact AWS, DOE and API all have elastic fracture mechanics, European Offshore
draft proposals pending to revise the relevant Steels Research Seminar Paper 20, November 1978.
fatigue sections. 14. LLOYD'S REGISTER OF SHIPPING Fatigue
analysis of fixed steel platform welded tubular
4 7 . It is hoped that when the fatigue section joints, Fatigue Appendix, issue 5, July 1980.
in the DOE Guidance Notes is revised some
account of the effects of post weld heat
treatment and sea water will be included.

121
J. R. PETRIE, MSc, FIMarE, F I M e c h E ,
D e p a r t m e n t of Energy

1 3 Relationship o fG u i d a n c e N o t e s a n dapplicability t o offshore


design

A review and brief history of the information concerning fatigue of offshore structures as given in
the Department of Energy's guidance notes for the design and construction of offshore installations,
the methods used in preparation of these proposals, and implementation of them to both new and
existing offshore structures. The latest proposals for amendment to the guidance on fatigue matters
is not available at this time but it is hoped that the author will be able to give a verbal
presentation of these proposals, which have been derived from the latest research, at the seminar.

INTRODUCTION identify those areas or methods of construction


of the structure where critical inspection was
1. The Department of Energy's consideration of
considered necessary.
criteria to combat fatigue on offshore installa­
tions working or placed on the United Kingdom GUIDANCE NOTES
Continental Shelf began in 1973 when the first
3. The need for more explicit information
Guidance Notes on design and construction
pertaining directly to offshore installations
(Reference 1 ) were being written. These
arose primarily because of the nature of the
Guidance Notes were designed to complement the
service loading. The main feature of the North
Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey)
Sea which distinguishes it from other offshore
Regulations 1974- (SI 289) (Reference 2) and to
locations is that whilst the occasional very
lay down the minimum standards which the Depart­
high loads still occur there axe in addition a
ment considered necessary to ensure compliance
large number of intermediate magnitude loads.
with the Regulations.
The installation is therefore exposed throughout
2. It was recognised that the exploration for, its life to cyclic stress changes which can lead
and extraction of, oil and gas from the Contin­ to failure from fatigue cracking. Wave action
ental Shelf in the North Sea had led to over a 20 year life will result in about 10®
increasing demands on the steel platforms used cycle of stress changes. This is probably the
for this work. The Department of Energy, being predominant cause of fatigue in offshore
required under the Mineral Workings Act to installations, causing damage and possible
provide for the safety, health and welfare of failure of parts of the installation.
persons on offshore installations and generally
4. Mention has already been made of the
for the safety of such installations and preven­
requirement for fatigue information concerning
tion of accidents on or near them, had to ensure
the original design assessment. The areas which
that the design, construction and reliability of
are prone to damage as a result of fatigue must
structures were satisfactory. Thus there was a
also be identified to enable adequate survey
clear need, in the absence of adequate or suit­
requirements to be laid down in order that the
able information, to give as much guidance as
annual and major survey requirements should
possible on the various problems associated with
enable early discovery and thereby determine the
fatigue, to confirm fatigue design methods, 1©
extent of any fatigue damage at the earliest
provide information to validate designs, and to

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, London, 1981 123


F O R M U L A T I O N OF G U I D A N C E NOTES

opportunity to ensure that essential repairs can assumed load spectra, SN curves and stress con­
be carried out quickly and prevent disastrous centration factors.
consequences.
11. This then was the extent of the 1974
5« In the 1974 edition of the Guidance Notes, guidance on fatigue which whilst identifying
(Reference 3 ) which was of course based on the certain areas and items which had to be taken
state of the art existing in 1973> "the Section into consideration, did not in any way indicate
on fatigue ran to about half a page. how such consideration should be made. It was
however implicitly understood that there was a
6. This half page indicated that full con­
lack of detailed information in the 1974 publi­
sideration should be given to the effects of
cation and the most important requirement was
fatigue, particularly in the design of joints
that of updating the fatigue analysis.
and in the case of steel structures the welded
connections. 12. It was laid down that this analysis should
be brought up to date each time renewal of cer­
7. The scope of the analysis was based on an
tification was sougjht and additionally if
assessment of those components which were not
experience suggests that a fresh fatigue invest­
essential to the stability and integrity of the
igation was desirable. This latter could be
structure and which were accessible for inspec­
based on the improvement of analysis parameters
tion and repairs, such components needing only
since the last fatigue assessment was made.
an "approximate analysis". However, a full
cumulative damage fatigue analysis was required 13* The Department's original intention was to
for those components which were established as keep the Guidance Notes up to date by issuing
being essential to the stability and integrity amendments from time to time. However, it was
of the structure or for which it was impractic­ felt that/this could not be achieved at that
able to carry out inspection and repair. particular time and in 1976 it was decided, as
Additionally all members and joints in the there were a large number of changes to be made
splash zone were included. to the Guidance Notes, to issue a Second Edition
which duly came out in late 1977*
8. The analysis was to be based on suitable SN
curves and stress concentrations factors 14« For this Second Edition we felt that we had
appropriate to the curves being used. These more information available on which to base the
factors could be derived by empirical methods or fatigue guidance and the Department conscripted
calculated by an accurate analysis. a number of persons who were involved in the UK
Offshore Steel Research Programme to contribute
9. Mention was also made of the matters which
to the entry. Thus in the 1977 edition of the
had to be specially considered such as stress
Guidance Notes the fatigue section extended to
fluctuations caused by the dynamic effect of
3l3 pages of notes, 2 pages of SN curves, 6 pages
waves, variation in buoyancy due to wave action
of various figures concerning non-tubular joints
or flooding of submerged members, the effects of
and a number of references for the user to
member vibration in the splash zone; any special
consider.
weld profile treatment such as grinding or
peening; and the quality of materials and weld 15* It was felt that although the 1977 edition
consumables. of the Guidance Notes was more informative and
consequently would be more useful to those
10. An effective factor of safety of two was
people concerned with the design and certifica­
then added by the statement that the results of
tion of offshore installations, it was still not
the analysis should show a probable life of not
in any way considered to be a final and defini­
less than double the period for which certifica­
tive statement. It was therefore still made
tion was sougjht, due allowance being made for
clear that calculations and data relating to the
corrosion fatigue and any inaccuracies in the
fatigue life of an offshore installation should

124
PAPER 13: PETRIE

be updated in the light of experience and/or 20. This drafting panel is led by Dr Brian
research indicated the need generally or for any Tomkins of the Marine Technology Support Unit at
installation in particular. Harwell as co-ordinator and includes representa­
tives from the Welding Institute, a major
RESEARCH
operator, a designer and Petroleum Engineering
16. Since 1977 the research and development
Division. Their primary task is to examine the
programme concerning fatigue has progressed ! f
existing Department of Energy Q curve and con­
rapidly and although a large number of papers
sider if a revised fatigue curve is justified in
have been given at various seminars and
view of the results of the research carried out
symposia, these have tended to cover only small
under the United Kingdom Offshore Steel Research
specific parts of the United Kingdom Offshore
Project. To give a wider base, and therefore a
Steels Research Project and though recommenda­
more fully considered and definitive result, the
tions have been given from time to time, these
drafting panel is also going to take into con­
have been limited to those particular areas of
sideration other work, among which will be a
research. This, of course, further indicates
study carried out by Lloyd's Register of
that fatigue is not a single area of considera­
Shipping on fatigue correlation, the recent
tion but rather that a large number of items
modifications to the United States Design Codes
have to be considered to enable a fatigue life
(API RP 2A and AWS D1.1), any other current data
to be promulgated. Indeed this can be seen from
available from American research programmes, and
the range of papers that are to be given at this
some work carried out in Holland. All are to be
symposium.
considered very carefully by the panel before
17* Having then had two editions of Guidance accepting the criteria for inclusion in the work.
Notes, the latest now being three years old and However there is a problem in that the various
containing inadequate information having regard research programmes, whilst all being concerned
to the present day state of the art concerning with fatigue problems, are not necessarily con­
fatigue, it was clearly necessary to provide an ducted in the same way or under the same condi­
amendment to update the Guidance Notes. tions. For example it is often unclear as to
whether the specimens have been post weld heat
18. It was therefore requested that the
treated or not.
Steering Group for the fatigue research prepare
a draft report for consideration by the Depart­ CONSULTATION
*•
ment. However it was found that this was
21. When any changes to the Guidance Notes are
impractical bearing in mind the very large
proposed, (and such changes may be suggested or
amount of information that had to be considered,
proposed by anyone, either as individuals or
correlated, and processed to end up with
organisations) a draft amendment is drawn up by
reasonable Guidance Notes.
the Petroleum Engineering Division of the
19. It was consequently decided that a drafting Department of Energy. The proposed amendments
panel should be constituted with the sole are then the subject of consultation with
function of considering the report by the organisations in the United Kingdom representa­
Steering Group and all other relevant criteria tive of the persons who will be affected by any
relating to fatigue and produce a detailed such changes. In effect such proposals are sent
revision of the fatigue sections of the Guidance to the United Kingdom Offshore Operators Asso­ 1

Notes. To complement these proposals the ciation, the International Association of


drafting panel also has to prepare a supporting Drilling Contractors and the six Certifying
document which would give the full technical Authorities appointed by the Secretary of State
justification for the proposed amendments. for Energy for, in the first instance, written
comments.

125
F O R M U L A T I O N OF G U I D A N C E NOTES

22. For simple amendments the proposal is the latest methods of calculation for fatigue
usually sent without any back-up material but life have an anticipated life of less than that
for an amendment such as that for the fatigue required by the Guidance Notes, ie less than 20
section of the Guidance Notes, a full technical years. The resultant action will again have to
justification is also issued to give a clear be carefully considered but certainly in the
understanding of the background reasons for the first case will include surveys to ensure that
proposals. no significant deterioration has taken

23« Sometimes the consultation procedure is place.

taken as a means to inform third parties of in­ 26. It must be stressed that careful considera­
tended actions and little else, thougji the tion will be given to each particular case and
relationship between the Department and industry that in all probability discussions will be held
is such that there is usually a very useful ex­ between the owner, the certifying authority and
change of views, and suggested modifications to the Department of Energy to agree an approach.
the original proposal are generally made as a
CONCLUSION
result of written comments and discussion, and a
better document is evolved. 27 • In conclusion, although there have been
considerable advancements in the problem of
APPLICATION OF NEW CRITERIA
fatigue and its assessment, the state of the art
24• The question of application of new Guidance is such that further advancements can still be
Notes always arises. There is no problem con­ made. There are continuing improvements in the
cerning installations that are still at the very understanding of loading resulting in fatigue
early design or conceptual, stage, but there can damage, the effect of profiling and post-weld
be problems with "existing" installations, ie heat treatment to mention a few. There is also,
those that have completed designs and are in the of course, the second phase of the United
process of construction and those that are Kingdom Offshore Steel Research Programme which
actually completed and operational. However the will, when completed, in all probability
Department always tries to minimise the amount necessitate further amendments to the Guidance
of retrospective work necessary to comply with Notes and re-assessment of the fatigue lives of
the latest requirements but where an item of offshore installations as a result of not only
major importance to the safety of the installa­ this and other research, but also the ever in­
tion is concerned, then obviously retrospective creasing degree of knowledge and competence in
work will be necessary. The degree of retro­ this field.
spective work is carefully considered in each
case. REFERENCES

25. Consequently the application of Section 1. Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design


4 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 ( b ) , "the calculations and data relating and Construction 1 9 7 4 HMSO.
to the fatigue life should be updated when 2. The Offshore Installations (Construction and
experience or research indicates that updating Survey) Regulations 1 9 7 4 SI 289 HMSO.
is necessary", will be applied. In the first J. Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design
instance this will consist of the identification and Construction Second Edition 1977 (-Amendment
of nodes, joints etc which in accordance with 1 issued) HMSO.

126
Discussion o n Papers 1 2a n d1 3

M R P E T R I E , Paper 13 (b) first t h r o u g h w a l l c r a c k i n g , d e t e c t e d e i t h e r


I s h o u l d like to m e n t i o n s o m e of t h e a p p r o a c h e s v i s u a l l y or m o r e a c c u r a t e l y b y n o t i n g f i r s t
that w i l l b e t a k e n in c o n s i d e r i n g the n e w loss o f i n t e r n a l l y a p p l i e d a i r p r e s s u r e t o
guidance notes. the damaged member
It is s t i l l n e c e s s a r y to b a s e f a t i g u e d e s i g n (c) end o f t e s t : e x t e n s i v e c r a c k i n g in t h e b a s e
r u l e s on t e s t ' r e s u l t s e x p r e s s e d as S-N c u r v e s . p l a t e a w a y from the w e l d , l i m i t a t i o n o f
T h e r o u t e in d e r i v i n g the n e w f a t i g u e d e s i g n l o a d i n g a c t u a t o r s t r o k e and i m p l i e d
c r i t e r i a for w e l d e d t u b u l a r j o i n t s is as f o l l o w s . r e d u c t i o n in s t i f f n e s s , and o c c a s i o n a l l y
A b a s i c S-N c u r v e is e s t a b l i s h e d for j o i n t s m e m b e r p u l l - o u t , are the d e f i n i t i o n s u s e d .
t e s t e d in a i r o v e r s e c t i o n t h i c k n e s s r a n g e o f
1 6 - 4 0 mm. P e n a l t i e s are t h e n i m p o s e d for F o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s it w a s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e
t h i c k n e s s e s g r e a t e r t h a n 4 0 mm and on r e l e v a n t line b e t a k e n as (b) b e c a u s e s u c h a
u n p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s in a sea w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t . c r a c k s h o u l d be b o t h d e t e c t a b l e and r e p a i r a b l e ,
A l l o w a n c e s are t h e n g i v e n for the b e n e f i t s o f the structure should be capable of tolerating
joint p r o t e c t i o n , s t r e s s r e l i e f and w e l d such a crack without the intervention of
improvement. c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e , and s u c h a c r a c k s h o u l d
It w a s a l s o n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r the b e s m a l l e n o u g h for t h e s t r u c t u r e n o t to h a v e
d e f i n i t i o n o f f a i l u r e and s t r e s s r a n g e and in s h e d load a n d t h e r e b y ( p o s s i b l y ) d a m a g e o t h e r
the c o u r s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k t h r e e joints. W o r k i n g on t h i s p a r a m e t e r it g i v e s
s t a t e m e n t s of f a i l u r e w e r e r e c o r d e d : the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b i l i t y of r e p a i r t o r e i n s t a t e
the installation.
(a) first d i s c e r n i b l e s u r f a c e c r a c k i n g , u s u a l l y T h e top c u r v e in F i g . 1 is t h e b a s i c in a i r
d e t e c t e d from v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n or s t r a i n c u r v e w i t h a t h i c k n e s s o f less t h a n 32 mm; the
g a u g e m o n i t o r i n g a d j a c e n t to that p o r t i o n o t h e r c u r v e s a r e for t h i c k e r s t e e l s . Figure 2
o f t h e w e l d t o e w h e r e t h e hot spot s t r e s s s h o w s t h e a v a i l a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s on
is m e a s u r e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h i c k n e s s b a s e d on r e c e n t

1000r

Endurance N : cycles
2

Fig. 1

Fatigue in offshore structural steels. T h o m a s Telford Ltd, L o n d o n , 1981


127
S U M M A R Y O F C U R R E N T D E S I G N A N D F O R M U L A T I O N O F G U I D A N C E NOTES

B e n d i n g stress
across
diagonal
M M

[J^-f Nominal bending


ftp Reduced
b e n d i n g stress
stress d u e to fillet

M M
(b)

M (waif
C h o r d wall bending)

B r a c e wall

(C)

100
Thickness: mm

Fig. 2

reviews. It is c l e a r t h a t an e m p i r i c a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h i c k n e s s and f a t i g u e
strength exists. Additional tests indicate
t h a t t h e r e is a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r e s u l t s
c a r r i e d o u t in a i r a n d t h o s e c a r r i e d out w i t h
a c o r r o s i v e e n v i r o n m e n t s u c h as s e a w a t e r . (e)
(d)
W e c o n s i d e r t h e r e is a r e d u c t i o n b y a f a c t o r of
2 in the life of the j o i n t . F i g . 3. N o t c h s t r e s s e s and t h e i m p o r t a n c e of
It w a s f o u n d t h a t t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f weld profile
75 m m s p e c i m e n s s u b j e c t t o a l t e r n a t e l o a d s
was s u b s t a n t i a l l y improved w h e n the specimens
were stress relieved. However, this must be
c o n s i d e r e d in t h e light o f e v i d e n c e t h a t M R J. G. P A R K H O U S E , Atkins Research & Development
i n d i c a t e s t h a t an i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e f a t i g u e F i g u r e 3 ( a ) , i l l u s t r a t i n g an e l b o w s u b j e c t e d
s t r e n g t h is o b t a i n e d b y s t r e s s r e l i e f o n l y to a b e n d i n g m o m e n t , s h o w s the s t r e s s d i s t r i ­
when the applied stress cycle after stress b u t i o n a c r o s s the d i a g o n a l . T h e v e r y h i g h stress
r e l i e f is w h o l l y o r p a r t i a l l y c o m p r e s s i v e . c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the n o t c h c a n b e g r e a t l y
T h e r e f o r e , if the benefit of stress relief r e d u c e d b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a f i l l e t , as
is t o b e c l a i m e d f o r w e l d e d j o i n t s it m u s t b e s h o w n in F i g . 3 ( b ) . A s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e
c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t h o t spot r a d i u s fillet can r e d u c e t h e s t r e s s to b e no
stress range for tubular joints incorporates a m o r e t h a n the n o m i n a l b e n d i n g s t r e s s . Fig. 3(c)
c o m p r e s s i v e c o m p o n e n t w h i c h can b e q u a n t i f i e d . s h o w s that the e l b o w r e s e m b l e s p a r t o f a
If t h i s c a n b e d o n e w e a r e t h e n g i v i n g brace-chord wall intersection. It is p o s s i b l e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n to the p o s s i b i l i t y that the stress that a p o o r l y m a d e u n g r o u n d fillet w e l d o f
r a n g e i n t h e load h i s t o r y m a y b e r e d u c e d f o r s e n s i b l e p r o p o r t i o n s , as d e p i c t e d in F i g . 3 ( d ) ,
fatigue assessment only to the tensile component m a y h a v e a l o n g e r f a t i g u e life t h a n a w e l d w i t h
plus half of the compressive component. a lean p r o f i l e but w i t h a g r o u n d toe (Fig. 3 ( e ) ) .
We are of the opinion that the main criterion T h e r e f o r e the e f f e c t of w e l d p r o f i l e s h o u l d
f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e l i f e w o u l d b e to r e m o v e a l l n o t be o v e r l o o k e d .
t h e w e l d t o e d e f e c t s and t h a t t h i s c a n o n l y b e
done by grinding. It m a y b e p o s s i b l e , s u b j e c t M R P. L. S T U A R T , British Petroleum
t o t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f g r i n d i n g m e t h o d s and W h a t is the p l a n , if a n y , to s u m m a r i z e the d a t a
w o r k m a n s h i p , t h a t t h e f a t i g u e life m a y b e p r o d u c e d b y the p r o j e c t and to d r a w g e n e r a l
i m p r o v e d b y a f a c t o r o f u p o f 2. c o n c l u s i o n s and c o m p a r i s o n w i t h e x i s t i n g s t a t e
O t h e r a s p e c t s w h i c h r e l a t e to f a t i g u e w i l l o f the art and d e s i g n r u l e s ?
a l s o b e l o o k e d i n t o to e n a b l e m o r e c o m p l e t e What is t h e t i m e f r a m e for t h e p h a s e II
g u i d a n c e to be given r e g a r d i n g fatigue programme?
assessment of offshore installations.

128
D I S C U S S I O N O N PAPERS 1 2 A N D 1 3

M R P E T R I E , in reply M R D . C . A N D E R S O N , UKOSRP, Culcheth


Reference 1 summarizes the findings of the pro­ L i m i t e d d a t a b e i n g e x a m i n e d at p r e s e n t
ject in a form that j u s t i f i e s t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f suggest a roughly linear relationship b e t w e e n
E n e r g y ' s p r o p o s a l s f o r a m e n d i n g s e c t i o n 4.2 o f c r a c k d e p t h and c y c l e s . The data w o u l d thus
the guidance notes. It w i l l n o t c r e a t e a full s u g g e s t that t h e t w o joints c a n b e c o m p a r e d .
comparison with other design criteria but the F u r t h e r crack propagation data are n e e d e d to
drafting panel has had discussions with the link t h e i n f o r m a t i o n gained f r o m t u b u l a r a n d
d r a f t e r s o f such c o d e s a n d w i l l b e a r in m i n d cruciform welded testing.
their comments. H o w e v e r , t h i s p r o j e c t is t h e
latest s t a t e o f t h e a r t a n d t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r e n c e s D R G. P. T I L L Y , Transport and Road Research
from e x i s t i n g d e s i g n c o d e s and r u l e s m u s t b e Laboratory
expected. W i t h r e g a r d to t h e u s e o f the S-N c u r v e s a s in
2

T h e final d o c u m e n t w i l l b e d i s t r i b u t e d f o r t h e p h i l o s o p h y f o r BS 5 4 0 0 , f o r e n d u r a n c e s less
c o n s u l t a t i o n in t h e n o r m a l m a n n e r , b u t it w i l l t h a n 10? c y c l e s t h e s l o p e is m ; f o r h i g h e r
c o n t a i n o n l y p r o p o s a l s and m a y b e l i a b l e to e n d u r a n c e s it is (m + z ) . T h i s c h a n g e is t o
a l l o w f o r t h e fact that s t r e s s e s b e l o w t h e
change.
c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e f a t i g u e limit b e c o m e
DR N . M . I R V I N E , UKAEA, Culcheth damaging as a crack propagates and contemporary
T h e c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p a n s i o n in t u b u l a r joint values of AK increase. T h e p h i l o s o p h y is
f a t i g u e d a t a in r e c e n t y e a r s h a s e n a b l e d supported by calculations using fracture
r e a l i s t i c h o t spot f a t i g u e d e s i g n c u r v e s mechanics.
to b e d r a w n u p . T h e d a t a b a s e n o w i n c l u d e s a In f u t u r e w o r k it is s u g g e s t e d t h a t l a r g e
w i d e r a n g e o f joint g e o m e t r i e s a n d s i z e s and e n d u r a n c e s s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d , a l b e i t at t h e
thus the effect of p l a t e thickness can be expense of using higher frequencies; notional
t a k e n into a c c o u n t . The effect of environment s e r v i c e lives a r e about 2 x 1 0 ^ c y c l e s w h e r e a s
is n o t t a k e n from t u b u l a r joint d a t a , as w h a t available data are for significantly shorter
l i t t l e is a v a i l a b l e w o u l d n o t b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y endurances. U s e of a higher frequency, say
significant. T h e r e f o r e p l a t e and f r a c t u r e 1 H z , m a y i n t r o d u c e an effect b u t i f t h i s is
m e c h a n i c s d a t a m u s t b e u s e d in a s s e s s m e n t u n d e r s t o o d , it m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o c a l i b r a t e i t .
of the likely effect of environment on
tubular joints fatigue p e r f o r m a n c e . T h i s is MR ANDERSON
not i d e a l , b u t t u b u l a r j o i n t f a t i g u e t e s t i n g T h e e f f e c t o f f r e q u e n c y w a s i n d i c a t e d in t h e
in s e a w a t e r w i t h c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n w i l l e a r l y p a r t o f t h e U K O S R P I p r o g r a m m e a n d is
b e c a r r i e d out u n d e r U K O S R P I I . T h e r e s u l t s d e s c r i b e d in P a p e r 5.
from t h i s w o r k w i l l b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e to t h e
D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y as s o o n as p o s s i b l e . M R C . C . J O H N S T O N E , Matthew Hall Engineering
In v i e w o f t h e p r o p o s a l s for m o d i f y i n g t h e
M R J. G. H I C K S , Consultant g u i d a n c e n o t e s that S-N c u r v e s s h o u l d b e d i f f e r ­
What is t h e s u m m a t i o n to b e u s e d in c a l c u l a t i n g ing f o r d i f f e r i n g w e l d t h i c k n e s s e s a n d t h a t
f a t i g u e d a m a g e b y M i n e r ' s r u l e in t h e r e v i s e d b e n e f i t s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d for s t r e s s r e l i e v e d
guidance notes? w e l d s , will stress relieving o f thick welds b e
If t h e p r o p o s e d r e v i s e d Q c u r v e h a s b e e n mandatory?
d i s c u s s e d w i t h A W S / A P I , w h y is t h e r e a
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e XX line and t h e Q line? M R PETRIE
It is n o t a n t i c i p a t e d at p r e s e n t t h a t s t r e s s
MR PETRIE r e l i e v i n g f o r f a t i g u e life p u r p o s e s s h o u l d b e
T h e D e p a r t m e n t h a s n o t f u l l y looked i n t o t h e mandatory. T h e a l l o w a n c e for s t r e s s r e l i e f w i l l
f i g u r e for M i n e r ' s s u m m a t i o n y e t . It w i l l b e b e g i v e n o n l y on c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t a f t e r
c o n s i d e r e d in t h e o v e r a l l r e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e stress relieving the stress range moves from
fatigue guidance notes. A t p r e s e n t it is u n i t y . tensile to a tensile/compressive load. This
The Q curve has been discussed with AWS/API equates to the findings of the r e s e a r c h
w i t h a v i e w to h a v i n g t h e same c u r v e . We w i l l programme.
c o n t i n u e t o l i a i s e and in t i m e m a y b e a b l e to
a r r i v e at a c u r v e a c c e p t a b l e t o b o t h . D R R. J. S I M P S O N , UEG
If an i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y is u s e d t o c a r r y o u t
DR W. J. H A R R I S , London Centre for Marine tests on any corrosion fatigue samples, then
Technology, Imperial College of Science and t h e d e t r i m e n t a l effect o f c o r r o s i o n w i l l n o t
Technology b e f u l l y s e e n in t h e final r e s u l t . Frequencies
P r e s e n t l a r g e - s c a l e f a t i g u e p r o g r a m m e s on o f less t h a n 0.1 H z should be u s e d t o a c c o u n t
w e l d e d t u b u l a r j o i n t s all y i e l d e x t r e m e l y low for e f f e c t s o f long p e r i o d w a v e s t h a t o c c u r
S-N c u r v e s i n d i c a t i n g h i g h e f f e c t i v e v a l u e s o f on the North Sea.
K^. In this c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n r e g i m e ,
m e t a l l u r g i c a l f a c t o r s h a v e l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on MR PARKHOUSE
e l e v a t i n g t h e S-N c u r v e s , i.e. c h a n g e o f S-N c u r v e s u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e a p l a c e in d e s i g n ,
m a t e r i a l s t r e s s r e l i e v i n g and so on is o f for t h e i r v e r y s i m p l i c i t y . They have served
little effect. Consequently for the next w e l l in t h e p a s t , and p r o v i d e d t h e y a r e
g e n e r a t i o n o f p l a t f o r m s , if a s u b s t a n t i a l ' u n d e r p i n n e d ' w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f r a c t u r e
e l e v a t i o n o f f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h is to b e m e c h a n i c s t h e y s h o u l d b e u s e f u l as d e s i g n
achieved researches should be directed to g u i d e s in t h e f u t u r e . H o w e v e r , S-N c u r v e s
i n v e s t i g a t i n g n e w m e t h o d s o f d e s i g n and h a v e n o t h i n g to t e l l t h e e n g i n e e r a b o u t t h e
f a b r i c a t i o n , e.g. c a s t / e x t r u d e d n o d e s . residual strength of a cracked structure or o f

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S U M M A R Y O F C U R R E N T DESIGN A N D F O R M U L A T I O N O F G U I D A N C E NOTES

crack growth rates. F r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s is p o s e d that t h e m a n a g e m e n t and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n


a b l e t o d o t h i s a n d is a n i n v a l u a b l e aid to o f the p r o g r a m m e w i l l b e u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e
engineers who have responsibility for existing S a f e t y and R e l i a b i l i t y D i r e c t o r a t e o f t h e U K A E A .
oil p l a t f o r m s . S t r u c t u r a l a u d i t i n g is t h e The p u r p o s e o f t h e p r o g r a m m e is to p r o v i d e
process of assessing the present integrity of m o d i f i c a t i o n to t h e b a s i c S-N c u r v e as it is
a s t r u c t u r e and its remaining life. Such work affected by:
is a m a j o r e x e r c i s e in s t r e s s a c c o u n t a n c y ; it
is m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t and t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a n (a) i n c r e a s e d thickness of steel plates
that of the original design. For this work
b o t h S-N c u r v e s a n d f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s a r e (b) sea w a t e r c o r r o s i o n : c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e in
essential. From the information derived from t h e p r e s e n c e of d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of
t h e a u d i t , m o r e r e s p o n s i b l e and i n f o r m e d c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n and m e a n s t r e s s , and
d e c i s i o n s m a y b e m a d e as to w h a t r e m e d i a l t h e u s e of p r o t e c t i v e c o a t i n g s in t h e a b o v e -
a c t i o n s i f a n y a r e r e q u i r e d , and h o w u r g e n t l y water zones
they are needed. (c) p o s t - w e l d heat treatment

(d) o t h e r w e l d i m p r o v e m e n t t e c h n i q u e s , in
M R C. J. A N T O N A K I S , Consultant
particular weld p r o f i l i n g , toe grinding
All d e s i g n e r s need to know the m e c h a n i s m of
and h a m m e r p e e n i n g
t h e i r d e s i g n s a n d u n d e r s t a n d w h y it w o r k s .
S-N c u r v e s a r e d e s i g n t o o l s o n l y . I hope (e) g e o m e t r y o f d e s i g n , in p a r t i c u l a r m e t h o d s
t h a t t h e n e x t s t a g e o f U K O S R P w i l l p a y as o f ring s t i f f e n i n g a p p l i e d to a T j o i n t
m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s to t h e and K j o i n t s - w i t h o v e r l a p p i n g b r a c e s w h i c h
p r o d u c t i o n of design/review tools. a c h i e v e low s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s

(f) v a r i a b l e - a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g of w i d e - b a n d
DR J. H . F R E E M A N , MATSU, Department of Energy
c h a r a c t e r as e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e N o r t h S e a .
Some o f the d a t a generated by U K O S R P I and the
r e l a t e d E C S C p r o j e c t s h a v e s h o w n t h e n e e d to
m o d i f y the f a t i g u e design curves for welded REFERENCES
t u b u l a r j o i n t s in o f f s h o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s . They 1. D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y . Offshore installa­
h a v e a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d a s e r i o u s lack o f d a t a t i o n s : g u i d a n c e on d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .
about some factors which affect the specification The p r o p o s e d n e w f a t i g u e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s
of the design curves. for steel w e l d e d j o i n t s in o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s .
U K O S R P 1 1 ^ is a p r o g r a m m e o f r e s e a r c h w h i c h Department o f Energy, London, 1981, Draft
t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y h a s p r o p o s e d to m e e t document PET 63/964/25.
these data requirements. The technical content 2 . British S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n . Steel,
o f t h e p r o g r a m m e h a s r e s u l t e d from c o n s i d e r ­ c o n c r e t e and c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e s . BSI,
a b l e d i s c u s s i o n s with r e s e a r c h e r s , the Depart­ L o n d o n , 1 9 7 8 - 8 0 , BS 5 4 0 0 .
m e n t ^ a d v i s e r s and the offshore industry. 3. D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y . UKOSRP - II. Depart­
A n i n v i t a t i o n t o s u b s c r i b e to t h e p r o g r a m m e ment o f E n e r g y , 1 9 8 1 .
h a s b e e n m a d e t o t h e i n d u s t r y and it is p r o ­

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