An International Journal for Experimental Mechanics

Experimental Investigations of Fracture Process Using

DIC in Plain and Reinforced Concrete Beams under
Bending
Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland

ABSTRACT: The fracture behaviour of concrete and reinforced concrete beams under quasi-static three-point bending was comprehensively
investigated with experiments at laboratory scale. The eight various concrete mixes were tested. The influence of the shape, volume and size of
aggregate particles and reinforcement on concrete fracture under bending was studied. Displacements on the surface of concrete beams were
measured by means of the digital image correlation (DIC) technique. Attention was paid to the formation of a localized zone and its
characteristics. In order to avoid the effect of the search patch size and the cut-off value at displacement and strain profiles, a consistent method
was proposed to determine uniformly and accurately the width of a localized zone. Measured surface displacements from DIC were fitted by the
error function ERF, whereas surface strains calculated from displacements were fitted by the usual normal distribution (Gauss) function. The
width of a localized zone preceding a macro-crack grew strongly with increasing maximum aggregate size and slightly with diminishing aggregate
volume. It did not depend on the aggregate roughness and reinforcement presence.
KEY WORDS: concrete beam, digital image correlation, fracture, strain localization, three-point bending

Introduction A direct observation of fracture is difficult because of a

Fracture is a fundamental phenomenon in concrete, and its
understanding and description is of a major importance for
a safe design of structures [1, 2]. During a fracture process,
micro-cracks first arise, which change gradually into
dominant distinct macroscopic discrete cracks up to rupture.
Thus, a fracture process is generally subdivided into two
main stages: appearance of narrow regions of intense
deformation (including micro-cracks) called fracture process
zones and occurrence of discrete macro-cracks [3]. Localized
zones are not negligibly small as compared to the specimen
size and are large enough to cause significant stress
redistribution in structures and associated energy release
contributing to a size effect [1]. Thus, a realistic description
of localized zones in concrete (their width, length, shape
and distance) is of a major importance to understand
degradation problems in concrete, to ensure safety and
durability of concrete and reinforced concrete structures,
to predict and optimize the concrete behaviour and to
calculate a combined deterministic-statistical size effect.
The determination of the width of a localized zone is also
extremely important for a calibration of a characteristic
length of micro-structure in continuum crack models [3].
A characteristic length is introduced into continuum
crack models via, e.g. non-local or strain-gradient theories
to properly describe the size of localized zones, to obtain
mesh-independent finite element results and to capture a
deterministic size effect [1, 3–5]. In turn, the determination
of a transition phase between strain localization and
cracking is important for a calibration of coupled
continuous–discontinuous fracture approaches for cementitious
materials [3, 6].
small scale at which micro-structural events interact with a
failure process. Different techniques have been used up to
now to experimentally investigate a fracture process in
quasi-brittle materials (concrete, rock and masonry) at the
laboratory scale such as scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) [7, 8], high-speed photography [9], laser speckle
interferometry [10–12], acoustic emission technique [13, 14],
X-rays [15] and digital image correlation technique [16–19].
Recently, the most popular method (due to its availability,
simplicity and low cost) has become the digital image
correlation (DIC) technique, which is an optical and a
non-contact measurement method to visualize surface
displacements—obtained by tracking the deformation of a
random speckle pattern applied to the surface through
digital images acquired at different instances of deformation.
Next, strains, which are the best indicator for localized
zones, based on displacements are calculated using
standard finite-element shape functions. The method gives
high-resolution measurements of a displacement field [20].
It can be used for both 2D and 3D measurements [21]. Using
this method, both strain localization and cracks can be
easily identified in concrete, which are certainly two key
parameters needed to estimate the strength and durability
of structural concrete components [1]. Three functions are
of a major importance for DIC: (a) image field intensity;
(b) cross-correlation function; and (c) interpolation
function [22, 23]. The image intensity field assigns to each
point in the image plane a scalar value which reflects the
light intensity of the corresponding point in the physical
space (it maps simply the light energy of an individual
particle in a physical space). A so-called area of interest
is cut out of the digital image, and small overlapping

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman
sub-areas called search subsets (patches or windows) are
chosen. If the deformation between two images is sufficiently
small, the patterns of the interrogation cells are supposed
not to change their characteristics (only their locations). A
deformation pattern is detected by comparing two
consecutive images captured by a camera which remains in a
fixed position with its axis oriented perpendicularly to the
plane of deformation. To find a local displacement between
images ‘1’ and ‘2’, a search zone is extracted from the second
image. A correct local displacement vector for each
interrogation cell is accomplished by means of a cross-
correlation function between two consecutive brightness
distributions in two digital images. The function calculates
simply possible displacements by correlating all gray values
from the first image with all gray values from the second
image. The correlation plane is evaluated at single pixel
intervals, which means that the resolution is equal to one
pixel. By fitting an interpolation function to the region close
to the peak, the displacement vector is established with a high
accuracy (equal to the correlation offset). The peak in the
correlation function indicates that two images are overlaying
each other (thus, it indicates the ‘degree of match’ between
two images). We used the Pearson’s product-moment
correlation function [22, 23]. The peak (best match) of
the correlation function is usually not clearly distinguished
as the correlation function produces results for each
pixel of image. To precisely locate the peak, a sub-pixel
interpolation was performed using the function sinc256
with the 16
16 pixel image area [22]:
sinðπaÞ sinðπa=8Þ
wðaÞ ¼
for a≠0;
πa πa=8 (1)
wðaÞ ¼ 1 for a ¼ 0;
where a denotes the distance in pixels. The interpolation was
evaluated at the 1/500th pixel intervals, yielding the system
accuracy of the 0.002 pixel. A general procedure to evaluate
DIC displacement measurements errors has been proposed
by Bornert et al. [20]. However, the accuracy of this method
depends strongly on the material being tested. Our own DIC
program was used [22, 23] to process digital images and to
describe a fracture process (strain localization and cracks).
Choi and Shah [24] pioneered the use of DIC to concrete.
It was found out next that DIC was very effective at
determining crack width and location of small cracks. In
the experiments by Alam et al. [19], and Robert et al. [25]
and Ferreira et al. [26] (concrete under bending), by Choi
and Shah [24] (concrete under compression) and by Corr
et al. [17] (concrete during pulling), strain localization was
not investigated. In turn, Wu et al. [18] investigated a
localized zone in concrete beams under three-point bending
with the maximum aggregate size of 8 mm. The width of a
localized zone estimated on the basis of strain contours
was 2.8 mm (0.35
dmax,), where dmax is the maximum
522
aggregate size at the peak load. The maximum localized
zone height was about 25.5–44 mm [(0.55–0.65)
D], where
D is the beam depth. With the acoustic emission technique,
the width of a micro-crack region was about 70 mm
(2.8
dmax) [27] and 40 mm (2.9
dmax) [28]. In turn, the
height of a micro-crack region was about 75 mm
(0.125
D) [27], 80 mm (0.55
D) [28] and 54.9 mm
(0.77
D) [23]. When using X-rays, the width of a localized
zone was 6.5 mm (5.4
dmax) [29] and 20–45 mm
[(2.25–4)
dmax] [15], and the height was 16 mm (0.4
D)
[29] and 30–40 mm [(0.375–0.5)
D] [14], respectively. In
turn, the measured width of a localized zone was 33 mm
(2.35
dmax) and the height 90 mm (0.4
D) [28] during
application of a scanning electron microscope technique.
The measurements outcomes indicate that fracture in
concrete significantly depends on the material micro-
structure, specimen size and deformation type. The size of
localized zones is also affected by the accuracy of a
measurement technique applied mainly due to an extremely
low deformation level in cementitious bodies as compared
to, e.g. granular bodies [30].
The main objective of this comprehensive experimental
study is to investigate a fracture mechanism in concrete
beams under quasi-static three-point bending. The entire
fracture process was identified by monitoring both strain
localization and crack opening by means of the 2D DIC
technique. The effect of the shape, volume and size of
aggregate particles and reinforcement quantity was
analysed. Attention was paid to the main characteristics of
a localized zone (shape, width and length). The experiments
were conducted in order to enable a better calibration of our
continuous and discontinuous [3, 6, 31] and discrete models
[32, 33] used for the concrete behaviour description. The
research work presented in this paper follows our initial
experiments on strain localization in plain concrete beams
using DIC [22, 23].
Experimental Set-up and Materials
The comprehensive tests were carried out with the free-
supported rectangular notched concrete beams D = 80 mm
high, 40 mm wide and L = 320 mm long only (the width of
a localized zone was similar in larger beams 160
640 mm2
and 320
1280 mm2 [22]) (Figure 1). A notch of the height
of D/10 = 8 mm and width of 3 mm was located at the mid-
span (Figure 1A). For reinforced unnotched concrete beams,
one steel reinforcement bar of 8 mm diameter was placed in
the middle of the beam thickness (Figure 1B). The concrete
cover was equal to 16 mm. Before the tests, the concrete
surface was carefully polished and painted white. Next, a
speckle pattern (serving as a tracer in DIC) was put on this
surface using a black spray.
The tests were performed using the universal servo-testing
machine INSTRON 5569 (Spectro-Lab, Warsaw, Poland)
© 2013 Wiley Publishing Ltd | Strain (2013) 49, 521–543
doi: 10.1111/str.12064

(A)
(B)
Figure 1: Geometry of experimental beams subjected to three-point
bending with height of 80 mm and length of 320 mm: (A) notched
concrete beam and (B) unnotched reinforced concrete beam (F is
the vertical force and u the vertical displacement)
Figure 2: Concrete beam placed in the testing machine
(Figure 2). The quasi-static tests with concrete beams were
performed with a controlled notch opening displacement
rate [or crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD)] of
0.002 mm min1. This type of control allowed for obtaining
a gradual increase in the crack opening and a steady strength
decrease in a post-peak regime. A CMOD gauge with the
length of 5 mm was located under the notch at the beam
bottom. The gauge precision was 0.0025 mm at the maximum
permissible axial displacement of 2 mm. In turn, quasi-static
deformation in reinforced beams was controlled by a vertical
displacement u prescribed at the top of the beam mid-span
© 2013 Wiley Publishing Ltd | Strain (2013) 49, 521–543
doi: 10.1111/str.12064
Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman : Fracture Process in Concrete
Figure 3: Grading curve of aggregate particles used for sand
concrete (solid line) and gravel concrete (dashed line)
with a rate of 0.02 mm min1. The digital camera Canon
EOS-1Ds Mark II (Canon Poland, Warsaw, Poland) with the
16.7 megapixel CMOS sensor was applied. It was mounted
on the tripod with its axis perpendicular to the photographed
specimen surface. In our experimental program, the digital
images were continuously shot every 6 s during each test (i.e.
at the CMOD increment of 0.0002 mm). The camera with
the image size of 3546 pixels
2304 pixels was fixed in a
certain distance from the beam in order to provide the image
with the area of about 40
25 mm2. Thus, 1 pixel represented
approximately the square of 11 μm on the beam surface, and
the length image resolution was 90 pixel mm1. The patch
size was assumed to be bigger at least by 1 pixel than the
biggest speckle used [34, 35], i.e. ≥90 pixels.
Eight different concrete mixes were prepared with the
ordinary Portland cement (Ożarów Group, Ożarów, Poland)
(CEM I 32.5R), aggregate and water. A sand (called fine-grained
concrete) concrete mix was composed of aggregate particles
with the mean aggregate diameter d50 = 0.5 mm and maximum
aggregate diameter dmax = 2 mm. A usual concrete mix (called
gravel concrete) was composed of aggregate particles with the
mean aggregate diameter d50 = 2 mm and maximum aggregate
diameter dmax = 16 mm. For each concrete mix, two different
aggregate volumes β were used (β = 40% and β = 75%).
Additional concrete mixes were prepared using round-shaped
or crushed-stone aggregate grains. The water to cement ratio
was always equal to 0.42. A small superplasticizer quantity
was always used to improve the workability of the fresh
concrete. The grading curves are shown in Figure 3, and the
mix proportions are depicted in Table 1. The reinforcement
ribbed bars with the diameter of 8 mm were made from
steel (B500SP, Center of Steel Quality Promotion, Warsaw,
Poland). The reinforcement ratio was ρ = 1.5%. The tensile
strength of steel was 600 MPa and the elastic modulus
210 GPa. The concrete beams (40
80
320 mm3) for DIC
bending experiments, concrete beams (4
4
16 cm3) for
determining the concrete tensile strength and concrete cubes
523
Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman

Table 1: Concrete mixes used in experiments

3
Density [kg m ]

d50 = 0.5 mm d50 = 0.5 mm d50 = 2 mm d50 = 2 mm

dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm
Concrete components β = 40% β = 75% β = 40% β = 75%

Cement (Portland 32.5R) 810 360 810 810

Sand aggregate (0–2 mm) 1120 1810 400 650
Gravel aggregate (2–8 mm) — — 360 580
Large aggregate (8–16 mm) — — 360 580
Water 340 150 340 340

(100
100
100 mm3) for determining the concrete compres-
sive strength were accurately cut out from the same mix block
after the 7th day (the block was covered with a plastic foil during
the initial curing period to avoid the surface evaporation and
autogeneous shrinkage). All concrete elements were next kept
28 days in water.
The uniaxial compressive strength of concrete, 16–60 MPa
(Table 2), was determined after 28 days with cubes of
100
100
100 cm3 according to the polish standards
[36, 37] (Table 2). The compressive strength was higher
when the aggregate size was higher, the aggregate volume
was smaller and the aggregate roughness was higher (Table 2).
In addition, the tensile bending strength under bending after
28 days, 2.4–4 MPa (Table 3), was determined on the beams
(4
4
16 cm3) subjected to three-point bending according
to the polish standard [38]. The tensile strength was higher
when the aggregate size and aggregate volume were higher
(Table 3). The stress–strain curve for reinforcement,
determined on steel bars with the diameter of 8 mm under
uniaxial tension, is presented in Figure 4.
Determination of Width of Localized Zones
Our experimental results clearly showed that the width of a
localized zone in concrete could not be objectively
determined based on colour post-processing DIC images
since it depended on the search patch size and length
resolution [39]. The width of a localized zone became larger
with decreasing length resolution and increasing search
patch size. In addition, it was difficult to determine precisely
the edges of a localized zone based on actual experimental
images. In order to avoid the effect of both the search patch
size and the cut-off value at displacement and strain profiles,
a consistent method was proposed to determine uniformly
and relatively accurately the width of a localized zone in
all concrete beams [39].
The measured surface displacements from DIC (Figure 5B)
were fitted by the error function ERF (Equation (2)), whereas
the surface strains calculated from the displacements
(Figure 5C) were fitted by the usual normal distribution
(Gauss) function f (Equation (3)):

Table 2: Compressive strength of concrete with round-shaped and crushed-stone aggregate particles

Compressive strength for round-shape Compressive strength for crushed-stone

aggregate particles [MPa] aggregate particles [MPa]
Aggregate Average Average
properties 1 2 3 strength [MPa] 1 2 3 strength [MPa]

d50 = 0.5 mm 52.66 53.94 47.01 51.20 49.88 53.19 54.88 52.65
dmax = 2 mm
β = 40%
d50 = 0.5 mm 17.68 15.06 17.46 16.73 22.75 18.58 23.99 21.77
dmax = 2 mm
β = 75%
d50 = 2 mm 61.46 59.25 59.78 60.16 57.36 64.58 65.12 62.35
dmax = 16 mm
β = 40%
d50 = 2 mm 51.71 50.55 53.18 51.81 58.17 59.66 54.73 57.52
dmax = 16 mm
β = 75%

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524 doi: 10.1111/str.12064
 Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman : Fracture Process in Concrete

Table 3: Tensile strength under bending of concrete with round-shaped and crushed-stone aggregate particles

Tensile strength for round-shape Tensile strength for crushed-stone

aggregate particles [MPa] aggregate particles [MPa]
Aggregate Average Average
properties 1 2 3 strength [MPa] 1 2 3 strength [MPa]

d50 = 0.5 mm 2.56 2.05 2.45 2.35 2.42 2.48 2.38 2.43
dmax = 2 mm
β = 40%
d50 = 0.5 mm 2.53 3.01 2.76 2.76 2.86 2.91 3.12 2.96
dmax = 2 mm
β = 75%
d50 = 2 mm 3.01 3.23 3.21 3.15 3.23 3.22 3.17 3.21
dmax = 16 mm
β = 40%
d50 = 2 mm 4.16 3.71 4.25 4.04 3.78 3.94 3.82 3.85
dmax = 16 mm
β = 75%

The fitting function parameter s in Equations (2) and (3)

was calculated as the average value, savr, of results for the
search patch sizes: 90, 120, 150 and 180 pixels (the results
are similar with Equations (2) and (3)). In order to determine
the width of a localized zone (called wc) in experimental
images, we considered first artificially generated localized
zones in experimental images. Several artificial localized
zones with the width wai c of 1–6 mm were manually
generated from laboratory experiment images. The images
were edited using the GNU Image Manipulation Program,
being a freely distributed program used for photo
retouching, image composition and image authoring. The
image mid-sections were stretched to obtain the assumed
Figure 4: Two experimental stress–strain tensile curves–ε for steel width of a localized zone. The strain distribution was
reinforcement bar described by a Gauss-shaped function (Equation (3)) as in
experimental images. Artificially generated images allowed
2 x 2 us for determining the multiplier m to obtain the assumed
ERFðxÞ ¼ pffiffiffi ∫0 et dt (2)
π width of a localized zone waic in artificial images according
to the following formula [39]:
and

c =savr ¼ 4:0
m ¼ wai ai
(4)
1
f ðx; sÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi e2ðsÞ :
1 x 2
(3)
s 2π
in order to estimate the width of a localized zone wc in
x ffiffi
p
experiments
The halved error function evaluated at s 2
for positive
x-values gives the probability that a measurement under
wc ¼ 4:0
savr : (5)
the influence of normally distributed errors with the
standard deviation s has a distance less than x from the Thus, 95% of the values of the normal distribution
mean value (ERF( spx ffiffi2 )/2 in Equation (2) is an integration function area were within the distance of 2 standard
results of Equation (3)). Some ‘teeth’ appearing in the upper deviations in both directions from the mean value (Figure 6).
part of the measured strain curve of Figure 5 (described by a The same multiplier m = 4 (Equation (4)) can be also used in
Gauss curve) had no influence on the determination of the the displacement analysis. Note that a smaller localized zone
width of a localized zone. width may be determined at a significantly higher image

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman
(A)
(B)
Figure 5: Arbitrary localized zone above beam notch from DIC measurements: (A) image, (B) horizontal displacement profile and (C)
horizontal normal strain profile across zone (image length resolution 90 pixel mm , search patch size 180 pixels, vertical and horizontal
axes denote coordinates in [mm] and colour scale denotes horizontal normal strain intensity) [39]
Figure 6: Determination of the width of localized zone based on
normal distribution function (Equation (3)) describing experimental
horizontal normal strain distribution [39]
resolution (e.g. 900 pixel mm1, which is impossible with
the current technology). Based on our test results of wc with
varying image length resolution in the range of 20–90 pixel
mm1, we expect, however, that the width of a localized
526
(C)
1
zone at the length resolution of 900 pixel mm1 will be
solely smaller by maximum of 10% from wc when using
the length resolution of 90 pixel mm1.
The width of a localized zone wc in beams was measured at
the peak vertical force based on the horizontal strain directly
above the notch (concrete beams) or beam bottom (reinforced
concrete beams).
Experimental Results on Concrete Beams
Figures 7 and 8 include the experimental curves of the
vertical force F versus CMOD (up to 0.2 mm) with the
concrete beams of Figure 1A and various concrete mixes
including round-shaped and crushed-stone aggregate
particles (for each concrete mix, three to five the same
concrete beams were tested). In addition, the average curves
were attached. They were calculated as the force averages at
the given CMOD value. In turn, the results of the vertical
forces F, CMODs and widths of a localized zone wc above
the notch (based on DIC) are summarized in Tables 4–7.
The quantitative effect of the distribution, size, volume
and shape of aggregate and of the reinforcement presence
was described below in the section on Effect of aggregate
distribution to the section on Effect of reinforcement.
© 2013 Wiley Publishing Ltd | Strain (2013) 49, 521–543
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 Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman : Fracture Process in Concrete

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Figure 7: Experimental force–CMOD curves for round-shaped aggregate and different concrete mixes: (A) d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm,
β = 40%; (B) d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, β = 5%; (C) d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm, β = 40%; (D) d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm, β = 75% (solid line
indicates mean curve)

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Figure 8: Experimental force–CMOD curves for crushed-stone aggregate and different concrete mixes: (A) d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm,
β = 40%; (B) d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, aggregate volume β = 75%; (C) d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm, β = 40%; (D) d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm,
β = 75% (solid line indicates mean curve)

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman

Table 4: Maximum vertical forces Fmax in five concrete beams at different concrete mixes from experiments

Maximum vertical force Fmax [kN]

dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm

Concrete beam 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% crushed 75% crushed 40% crushed 75% crushed

1 1.46 1.48 2.09 2.51 1.59 1.67 2.10 2.79

2 1.62 1.58 2.15 2.64 1.62 1.74 2.18 2.92
3 1.66 1.60 2.23 2.80 1.67 1.86 2.44 3.04
4 1.71 1.68 2.25 2.87 1.83 1.88 2.60 3.04
5 1.76 1.91 2.34 2.91 1.88 1.88 2.61 3.08
Average value 1.64 1.65 2.21 2.75 1.72 1.81 2.38 2.97
Standard deviation 0.102 0.145 0.086 0.150 0.116 0.086 0.211 0.107

Table 5: Horizontal CMOD at maximum vertical force Fmax in five concrete beams at different concrete mixes from experiments

CMOD at maximum vertical force Fmax [mm]

dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm

Concrete mix 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% crushed 75% crushed 40% crushed 75% crushed

1 0.044 0.024 0.041 0.021 0.021 0.025 0.026 0.032

2 0.031 0.026 0.020 0.035 0.043 0.034 0.023 0.029
3 0.028 0.029 0.027 0.023 0.023 0.028 0.018 0.020
4 0.045 0.032 0.049 0.032 0.034 0.031 0.034 0.025
5 0.035 0.041 0.037 0.022 0.031 0.034 0.045 0.022
Average value 0.037 0.030 0.035 0.027 0.030 0.030 0.029 0.026
Standard deviation 0.007 0.006 0.01 0.006 0.008 0.003 0.009 0.004

Table 6: Residual vertical forces Fres at CMOD = 0.2 mm in five concrete beams at different concrete mixes from experiments

Residual vertical force Fres at CMOD of 0.2 mm [kN]

dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm

Concrete mix 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% crushed 75% crushed 40% crushed 75% crushed

1 0.431 0.447 0.609 1.201 0.480 0.773 1.336 0.640

2 0.865 0.987 1.265 0.785 0.666 1.039 0.647 0.982
3 0.963 0.424 0.995 1.270 0.452 0.555 0.638 0.986
4 0.660 0.605 0.844 1.374 0.986 0.714 0.710 1.366
5 0.715 0.655 0.608 0.850 0.644 0.558 1.035 1.261
Average value 0.727 0.624 0.864 1.096 0.646 0.728 0.873 1.047
Standard deviation 0.183 0.202 0.249 0.235 0.190 0.178 0.273 0.253

Effect of aggregate distribution
The effect of a stochastic distribution of the round-shaped
aggregate on the force–CMOD diagram and localized zone is
demonstrated in Figures 9 and 10. The aggregate volume of
sand concrete (d50 = 0.5 mm and dmax = 2 mm) was β = 40%
and of gravel concrete (d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm) was β = 75%.
All measured vertical force–CMOD curves (Figure 9) were
initially the same in the entire elastic regime and are different
just before and after the peak load when strain localization
occurs (due to a strongly heterogeneous internal structure of
concrete). The maximum measured vertical forces Fmax
were higher in gravel concrete by up to 65%. They were
Fmax = 1.46–1.76 kN at CMOD equal to 0.028–0.045 mm

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528 doi: 10.1111/str.12064
 Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman : Fracture Process in Concrete

Table 7: Experimental width of localized zone wc at maximum force Fmax above notch in three concrete beams at different concrete mixes
based on DIC

Localized zone width wc [cm] at maximum vertical force Fmax

dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 2 mm dmax = 16 mm dmax = 16 mm

Concrete mix 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% rounded 75% rounded 40% crushed 75% crushed 40% crushed 75% crushed

1 2.43 2.45 3.45 3.40 3.07 2.56 3.42 3.27

2 3.03 2.26 3.52 3.11 2.85 2.41 3.35 2.96
3 1.94 2.39 3.30 3.34 2.81 2.21 3.47 3.16
Average value 2.46 2.37 3.42 3.28 2.90 2.39 3.41 3.13
Standard deviation 0.45 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.05 0.13

(A) (B)
Figure 9: Experimental force–CMOD diagrams for two different concrete mixes with round-shaped aggregate and five random distributions
of aggregate [curves (a)–(e)]: (A) sand concrete with d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, β = 40%, (B) gravel concrete with d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm,
β = 75%

(A) (B)

(C)
Figure 10: Localized zone directly above the notch in DIC experiments for sand concrete with round-shaped aggregate (d50 = 0.5 mm,
dmax = 2 mm, β = 40%) corresponding to force–CMOD curves of Figure 9A (subset size 90 pixels, vertical and horizontal axes denote
coordinates in [mm] and colour scale denotes horizontal normal strain intensity)

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman
(sand concrete) and Fmax = 2.51–2.91 kN at CMOD equal to
0.021–0.035 mm (gravel concrete) (Table 4). In turn, the
residual vertical force was Fres = 0.624–0.728 kN (sand
concrete) and Fres = 0.864–1.096 kN (gravel concrete) at
CMOD = 0.2 mm (Table 6). The displacement CMOD
corresponding to the peak force occurred earlier in gravel
concrete (Table 5). A localized zone on the concrete beam
surface had always a different curved shape (Figure 10)
mainly due to a non-homogeneous concrete micro-
structure (as in finite element analyses simulating concrete
as a three-phase material [31]) and also to the beam torsion.
It could be very curved or even branched (Figure 10A). Its
average width of above the notch was larger by 30% in
gravel concrete: wc = 2.46 mm (4.92
d50, 1.23
dmax,
β = 40%) in sand concrete (d50 = 0.5 mm and dmax = 2 mm)
and wc = 3.28 mm (1.64
d50, 0.20
dmax, β = 75%) in gravel
concrete (d50 = 2 mm and dmax = 16 mm) (Table 7). It was
assumed that a localized zone was always perpendicular to
the face of the beam. The height of localized zones and
cracks was hc = 40–50 mm. The crack width at CMOD = 0.2
mm was 0.14–0.22 mm.
The localized zone widths were similar as those measured
in [18, 29] using DIC (0.35
dmax) but were smaller than
those obtained in experiments using the acoustic emission
(2.8–2.9)
dmax [27, 28], X-rays (2.25–6.5)
dmax [15, 29] or
SEM (2.35
dmax) [28].
Figure 11: Average force–CMOD diagrams for concrete with aggregate volume β = 40% (I) and β = 75% (II): (A) round aggregate
particles, (B) crushed-stone aggregate particles: (a) sand concrete with d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, (b) gravel concrete with d50 = 2 mm,
dmax = 16 mm
530
Effect of aggregate size
Figures 11–13 demonstrate the effect of the aggregate size in
sand concrete (d50 = 0.5 mm and dmax = 2 mm) and gravel
concrete (d50 = 2 mm and dmax = 16 mm) at β = 40% and
β = 75%.
With increasing maximum aggregate size, the maximum
vertical force significantly increased (35–65%) in concrete
specimens independently of the aggregate shape (Figure 11,
Table 4). The effect was stronger in crushed-shape aggregate.
In turn, the residual vertical force Fres increases by about
20% (for round-shaped aggregate, β = 40%), by about 35%
(for crushed aggregate, β = 40%), by about 75% (for round-
shaped aggregate, β = 75%) or by about 45% (for crushed
aggregate, β = 75%) (Figure 11, Table 6). The CMOD
corresponding to the peak appeared slightly earlier in larger
crushed aggregate particles. The rate of softening was higher
at larger aggregate grains.
A localized zone became wider with increasing maximum
aggregate size (Tab. 7): wc = 2.46–2.90 mm (4.92–5.80)
d50,
(1.23–45)
dmax, sand concrete, β = 40%), wc = 3.41–3.42 mm
(1.70–1.71)
d50, 0.21
dmax, gravel concrete, β = 40%), wc =
2.37–2.39 mm (4.74–4.78)
d50, (1.18–1.19)
dmax, sand
concrete, β = 75%), wc = 3.13–3.28 mm (1.56–1.64)
d50, 0.40

dmax, gravel concrete, β = 75%) (Tab. 7, Figs. 12 and 13). Thus,
its width varied between 0.2
dmax and 1.7
dmax or between
1.5
d50 and 5.8
d50.
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 Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman : Fracture Process in Concrete

(a) (b)
(A)

(a) (b)
(B)
Figure 12: Localized zone directly above the notch in DIC experiments for force–CMOD curves of Figure 11I for round aggregate (A) and
crushed-stone aggregate (B) with aggregate volume β = 40%: (a) sand concrete with d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, (b) gravel concrete with
d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm (subset size 90 pixels, vertical and horizontal axes denote coordinates in [mm] and colour scale denotes horizontal
normal strain intensity)

(a) (b)
(A)

(a) (b)
(B)
Figure 13: Localized zone directly above the notch in DIC experiments for force–CMOD curves of Figure 11II for round-shaped aggregate (A)
and crushed-stone aggregate (B) with aggregate volume β = 75%: (a) sand concrete with d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, (b) gravel concrete with
d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm (subset size 90 pixels, vertical and horizontal axes denote coordinates in [mm] and colour scale denotes horizontal
normal strain intensity)

Effect of aggregate volume
The effect of the aggregate volume in sand concrete
(d50 = 0.5 mm and dmax = 2 mm) and gravel concrete
(d50 = 2 mm and dmax = 16 mm) is described in Figures 14–16.
With increasing aggregate volume from 40% to 75%, the
maximum vertical force increased by 1–5% in sand concrete
and by 25% in gravel concrete (Figure 14, Table 4). In turn,
the residual vertical force Fres for sand concrete could decrease
(for rounded-shape aggregate) or increase (for crushed-shape

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman

Figure 14: Average force–CMOD diagrams for sand concrete with d50 = 0.5 mm and dmax = 2 mm (I) and gravel concrete with d50 = 2 mm and
dmax = 16 mm (II): (A) round-shaped aggregate, (B) crushed-stone aggregate: (a) aggregate volume β = 40%, (b) aggregate volume β = 75%

Figure 15: Localized zone directly above the notch in DIC experiments for force–CMOD curves of Figure 14I for sand concrete with d50 = 0.5 mm,
dmax = 2 mm with round-shaped aggregate (A) and crushed-stone aggregate (B): (a) aggregate volume β = 40%, (b) aggregate volume β = 75%
(subset size 90 pixels, vertical and horizontal axes denote coordinates in [mm] and colour scale denotes horizontal normal strain intensity)

aggregate) by about 15%, and for gravel concrete, it increases
(for rounded-shape aggregate and for crushed-shape
aggregate) by about 25% (Figure 14, Table 6).
The mean width of a localized zone above the notch became
narrower (by 5% with rounded particles and 10–20%
with crushed particles) with increasing aggregate volume:
wc = 2.46–2.90 mm at ρ = 40% and wc = 2.37–2.39 mm at
β = 75% for sand concrete and wc = 3.41–3.42 mm at β = 40%
and wc = 3.13–3.28 mm at β = 75% for gravel concrete
(Table 7, Figures 14 and 16). The height of localized
zones and cracks was hc = 40–50 mm. The crack width at
CMOD = 0.2 mm was 0.12–0.24 mm.

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(a) (b)
(A)

(a) (b)
(B)
Figure 16: Localized zone directly above the notch in DIC experiments for force–CMOD curves of Figure 14II for gravel concrete with d50 = 2 mm,
dmax = 16 mm with round-shaped aggregate (A) and crushed-stone aggregate (B): (a) aggregate volume β = 40%, (b) aggregate volume β = 75%
(subset size 90 pixels, vertical and horizontal axes denote coordinates in [mm] and colour scale denotes horizontal normal strain intensity)

Effect of aggregate shape
Figure 17 demonstrates the effect of the aggregate shape
in concrete beams made from sand (d50 = 0.5 mm and
dmax = 2 mm) and gravel concrete (d50 = 2 mm and dmax = 8 mm)
at β = 40% and β = 75%.
The maximum vertical force was slightly higher for
concrete beams of crushed-stone aggregate (by 5–15%)
(Figure 17, Table 4). The residual vertical force Fres for sand
concrete might decrease (aggregate volume 40%) by about
20% or increase (aggregate volume 75%) by about 40% for
crushed-stone aggregate. The residual vertical force Fres for

(A) (B)
(I)

(A) (B)
(II)
Figure 17: Experimental force–CMOD diagrams for sand concrete with d50 = 0.5 mm and dmax = 2 mm (I) and gravel concrete with d50 = 2 mm
and dmax = 16 mm (II): (A) aggregate volume β = 40%, (B) aggregate volume β = 75%: (a) round-shaped aggregate, (b) crushed-stone aggregate

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman
gravel concrete might increase (aggregate volume 40%) by
about 50% or decrease (aggregate volume 75%) by about
20% for crushed-stone aggregate (Figure 17, Table 6). The
width (Table 7) and height of a localized zone are
insignificantly influenced by the aggregate shape.
Effect of reinforcement
Figures 18 and 19 present the force–deflection curve and crack
pattern in a reinforced beam of Figure 1B composed of gravel
concrete from one test (d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm, β = 40%,
round-shaped aggregate). In the DIC measurements, one
camera was located close to the beam in order to provide the
image of the mid-section part with the area 35
20 mm2 and
the second one to provide the image of the almost entire
beam (Figure 20). Hence, the image length resolution was
90 pixels mm1 and 20 pixels mm1, respectively.
The maximum vertical force was 12 kN (three to four times
higher than in plain concrete beams) at the beam deflection
of about 1.75 mm (Figure 18). The beam contained one
Figure 18: Force–deflection curve for reinforced concrete beam of
gravel concrete (d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, β = 40%, round aggregate)
Figure 19: Crack patterns on both sides of reinforced concrete beam of gravel concrete after failure: front side (upper figure) and back side
(lower figure)
534
straight bar (the reinforcement ratio was ρ = 1.5%). Thus, the
reinforcement steel did not yield, so the failure was due to
slipping of the bar and shear of the matrix. First, bending
cracks appeared at a mid-section (at the vertical force
3.2 kN), and then inclined tensile–shear cracks developed,
which grew up to the beam failure (Figure 20).
Crack patterns and crack widths were very similar on both
sides of the beam (Figure 19). At the beam failure, the width
of vertical tensile cracks was in the range of 0.1–0.4 mm,
whereas the width of a critical inclined tensile-shear crack
was 1.6 mm. The average crack spacing at the bar level was
about 50 mm. The measured width of the vertical localized
zone was equal to wc = 3.29 mm (Figure 20A) and of the
diagonal localized zone was wc = 3.59 mm (Figure 20B). It
was similar to the width of localized zones in plain concrete
beams (wc = 3.42 mm, Table 7).
Fracture Evolution
Concrete beams
A localized zone was always created before the peak on the
vertical force–CMOD diagram at 80–90% of Fmax (Figures 21
and 22). It might appear as a single slightly curved zone
(Figure 22A) or a tortuous branched zone (Figure 22B). The
zone tortuousity increased with growing aggregate volume
and aggregate roughness. In turn, the tendency for zone
branching increased with decreasing aggregate volume and
aggregate roughness.
The zone width rapidly developed during the CMOD
increment of 0.002–0.0025 mm in the CMOD range of
0.015–0.025 mm (Figure 23). To more accurately describe this
rapid development, the notch opening displacement rate
should be decreased. Next, it slightly decreased during a
deformation process in the range of CMOD = 0.015–0.07 until
a discrete macro-crack was created (Figures 21 and 23). This
small unexpected decrease may be caused by a closure of small
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(A)

(B)

Figure 20: Fracture during failure in reinforced concrete beam of gravel concrete in experiments using DIC: (A) observed small section at
1
mid-length (subset size 90 pixels, images resolution 90 pixels mm ), (B) observed full mid-section (subset size 90 pixels, images resolution
1
20 pixels mm ) (vertical and horizontal axes denote coordinates in [mm] and colour scale denotes horizontal normal strain intensity,
marked black rectangle indicate observed area)

(A) (B)
Figure 21: Experimental force–CMOD diagram for sand concrete with round aggregate volume β = 40%: (A) with d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm,
(B) gravel concrete with d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm (photo 1 indicates moment of fracture process zone appearance, and photo 3 shows
moment of macro-crack formation)

micro-cracks (when a macro-crack starts to develop) or distortion, refraction through a viewing window, pixel non-
inaccuracies of DIC such as image distortion, non-coplanarity squareness, non-smooth beam surface, out-of plane motions,
of the camera and object plane, radial and tangential lens numerical (correlation and interpolation) algorithms and

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman

Figure 22: Evolution of localized zone directly above the notch corresponding to image points of Figure 21A (A) and B (B) in DIC
experiments (vertical and horizontal axes denote coordinates in [mm], and colour scale denotes horizontal normal strain intensity)

(A) (B)
Figure 23: Evolution of width wc of localized zone above the notch against CMOD in experiments with notched beam of (A) sand concrete
(d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, β = 40%) and (B) gravel concrete (d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm, β = 40%) based on DIC (Š maximum vertical force
Pmax, • formation of macro-crack) [39]

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speckle-pattern generation [20]. This phenomenon merits
further investigations.
The maximum length and height of a localized zone
above the notch were Lc = 60–65 mm and hc = 40–45 mm
(hc/D ≈ 0.58) at CMOD ≈ 0.055–0.07 mm (Figure 24). Both
values were slightly higher with increasing aggregate size.
The length formation rate of a localized zone was always
not proportional to CMOD (Figure 24).
The width of a localized zone wc varied at the different
height h0 above the notch (Figure 25). For sand concrete, the

(A) (B)
Figure 24: Evolution of length Lc of localized zone against CMOD in experiments with notched beam of (A) sand concrete (d50 = 0.5 mm,
dmax = 2 mm, β = 40%) and (B) gravel concrete (d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm β = 40%) based on DIC (Š maximum vertical force, • formation of
macro-crack) [39]

’
Figure 25: Measured width wc of localized zone at peak force Fmax along height h above notch in experiments with notched beam of sand
concrete (A) and gravel concrete (B) with β = 40% calculated using Gauss fitting function (Equation (3))

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Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman
width of a localized zone was in the range of wc = 1.90 mm at
h0 = 4.75 mm and wc = 2.33 mm at h0 = 2.60 mm (Figure 25A).
For gravel concrete, the width of a localized zone was in
the range of wc = 3.30 mm at h0 = 0.35 mm and wc = 4.14 mm
at h0 = 26.8 mm (Figure 25B). The calculated width was
(A)
(B)
Figure 26: Horizontal displacement profiles at six different loading
stages in (A) sand concrete beam with (d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm
and β = 40%) and at nine different loading stages in (B) gravel
concrete beam (d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm and β = 40%)
(A)
Figure 27: Measurements of displacement and strain in gravel concrete beam from experiments using DIC [39]: (A) strain field with line I–I
across localized zone above notch, (B) displacement profile plotted along line I–I up to macro-crack (a) elastic range, (b)–(d) localization
formation, (e) macro-crack initiation
538
larger by up to 10% with the error function (Equation (2)).
The maximum horizontal strain was 0.0143–0.0225.
Figure 26 presents the horizontal displacement profiles
along a localized zone at different loading stages for sand
and gravel concrete beams [19]. Up to about 80–90% of
the peak load, the displacement profiles were almost
vertical, which indicate the lack of strain localization. A
localized zone started to rapidly develop at about 80–90%
of the peak load. At the range of about 80–90% of the
post-peak load, a localized zone changed into a macro-crack.
In both cases, the slope of a displacement profile became
inclined. They were more inclined for gravel concrete beams
than sand beams that indicated a faster fracture extension.
To precisely determine the moment of a discrete macro-crack
formation, some additional beam tests were carried out with a
prescribed vertical displacement u at the mid-span [39]. A
horizontal displacement jump measured in time by the CMOD
gauge was assumed to be equivalent with the occurrence of a
macro-crack. It occurred when CMOD between the edges of a
localized zone was on average 0.006 mm (Figure 27).
Figure 28 compares the experimental force–CMOD
diagram in a gravel concrete beam wherein CMOD was
measured with a gauge and calculated based on DIC. Both
curves are in a satisfactory agreement. A small discrepancy
is caused by the fact that the displacement was not exactly
measured at the same height where the widths of a localized
zone and a macro-crack were determined by means of DIC.
Finally, Figures 29 and 30 present the development of
fracture branching in a gravel concrete beam of Figure 22.
Initially, a single localized zone was created that evolved until
it reached a half of the beam height (Figure 29A). Then, at
95% of the post-peak load, it uniformly branched (Figure 29B).
One branch (right) began to dominate at 60% of the post-peak
load (Figures 29D–E and 30B). A macro-crack followed this
zone branch (Figure 29F). Along the left branch, the
displacement remained, however, the same (Figure 30A). This
phenomenon merits further investigations.
(B)
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and height of vertical tensile localized zone were Lc = 80 mm

Figure 28: Experimental force–CMOD diagram with gravel concrete
beam using (a) CMOD gauge and (b) DIC [39]
Reinforced concrete beam
As in plain concrete beams, a localized zone was created before
the peak on the vertical force–CMOD diagram. The length
and hc = 65 mm (hc/D ≈ 0.80) at the beam deflection u = 2 mm
(Figure 31A) and were higher by about 25 and 50%,
respectively, than in plain concrete (Lc = 60–65 mm and
hc = 40–46 mm). The length of the longest diagonal localized
zone was Lc = 145 mm at u = 2.5 mm (Figure 31B).
Our DIC experiments show that the shape of a localized
zone can be different on both sides of the beam, whereas
their width is similar. However, this width may be different
in the interior of beams due to a boundary effect. The
interior width cannot be investigated by DIC but can be
determined with the aid of, e.g. X-ray micro-tomography.
The experimental DIC results can be used to calibrate a
characteristic length in enhanced continuum constitutive
models with non-local softening [3] in two ways: in the
usual way from inverse finite element analyses of the
experimental width of a localized zone [31, 23] or by linking
directly a characteristic length with concrete micro-structure
(aggregate size and aggregate volume) based on tests.

Figure 29: Formation of branched localized zone and horizontal displacement profiles along two zone branches from DIC measurements in
gravel concrete beam at (A) peak load, (B) 95% of post-peak, (C) 85% of post-peak, (D) 80% of post-peak, (E) 60% of post-peak, (F) 50% of
post-peak (in displacement profiles, vertical axis denotes height above notch and horizontal axis horizontal displacement)

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Figure 29: (Continued)

(A) (B)
Figure 30: Horizontal displacement profiles at seven different loading stages during zone branching phenomenon in gravel concrete beam
(d50 = 2 mm, dmax = 16 mm and β = 40%): (A) left zone branch and (B) right zone branch

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Figure 31: Evolution of vertical (A) and inclined (B) localized zone in reinforced sand concrete beam (d50 = 0.5 mm, dmax = 2 mm, β = 40%)
based on DIC (Lc, length; wc, width; u, deflection; Š maximum vertical force Fmax; • formation of macro-crack)
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from quasi-static
experiments with notched concrete beams and unnotched
reinforced concrete beams under three-point bending:
• The DIC technique can be used for displacement
measurements in concrete but is very sensitive to the
assumed subset size and image length scale resolution.
The recommended image length scale resolution is at
least 90 pixel mm1 and the subset size ≥90 pixels.
• The force–CMOD curves are the same in an almost entire
elastic regime. However, they significantly differ in the
peak region due to a localized zone propagating between
aggregate grains distributed at random. A localized zone
is always non-symmetric and curved. The zone
tortuousity increases with increasing aggregate volume
and aggregate roughness. It may create branches in
particular in concrete with low aggregate volume and
rounded-shape particles.
• The beam strength increases strongly with increasing
aggregate size and moderately with increasing aggregate
volume and aggregate roughness. The beam strain
corresponding to the strength reduces with increasing
aggregate size, aggregate volume and aggregate roughness.
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Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman : Fracture Process in Concrete
The residual strength and softening rate are higher at larger
aggregate size.
• The width of a localized zone preceding a crack grows
strongly with increasing maximum aggregate size and
slightly with diminishing aggregate volume. It does not
depend on the aggregate roughness and reinforcement
presence. It is approximately equal to 2.5–3.5 mm
(0.25–1.5)
the maximum aggregate size and (1.5–6)

the mean aggregate size. The width may vary even by
25% at different height levels above the notch.
• Localized zones are always created before the peak on the
vertical force–CMOD diagram at 80–90% of the
maximum vertical force. Their formation is a strongly
non-proportional process. The length and height of a
localized zone above the notch are practically not
affected by a concrete mix. They are higher in reinforced
concrete beams. The maximum ratio between the height
of a localized zone and effective beam height is about
0.60 (concrete beams) and 0.80 (reinforced concrete
beams). A macro-crack occurs in a softening regime for
CMODs about two times larger than at the peak force.
• Due to discrepancies in the measured width of localized
zones in concrete using different measurement techniques
(DIC, acoustic emission, X-rays, SEM), this problem merits
further experimental investigations.
541
Fracture Process in Concrete : Ł. Skarżyński and J. Tejchman
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Research work has been carried out within the project:
‘Innovative ways and effective methods of safety improvement
and durability of buildings and transport infrastructure in the
sustainable development’ financed by the European Union
(POIG.01.01.02-10-106/09-01).
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