‘The Music Learnutg of Otuaren ae sve by touching or holding an instrument (receptive-passive) and conscious physical movement of conducting gestures, eurhyth- ies, and dance (participatory-active). The balance of experiences in ‘modes is present in the programs of successful music teachers el ‘Music programs at the primary level begin with aural experi- ces in preparation for note-reading. By second grade, most basal ries textbooks introduce symbols and labels for durational values. ‘notation that shows pitch levels and relationships is a signifi part of third-grade music. In many schools that employ music ers, fourth-grade children study recorder or song-flute in an 10 internalize musical symbols. In middle school music, the reading is transferred to beginning band and orchestral instru- ‘and part-songs are learned from scores that represent the CHAPTER 11 ee The Music Learning of Children Receptive Participatory For music teachers in the West, one of the primary goals music education program in American schools is music literae within only the mandatory six or seven years of general mu struction at the elementary level, prime targets for developmen: children are the abilities to read and write the conventional sy of music notation. Many believe that an understanding of music de rives from notational skills. To an extent, this is true in the Westen cultures that offer such a sophisticated system of music preserva however, the reading and writing of music should follow a rich prolonged period of aural experiences. It is in this combination children can develop 2 more thorough musical understanding Music instruction might be conceived of as a balanc: receptive-passive and participatory-active experiences. In the ai stening to recordings and to live performances is a recep! strategy in which the individual is a receiver of musical aural Ustening Singing visual Reading Weng formation presented by others. Chanting, singing, speaking, Kinestnese Moving playing an instrument involves the participatory-active component (reverent. dance) of the aural mode, as the student perforins the music, listening t part alone and as it combines with other parts. An example receptive-passive learning in the visual mode is the silent rea and comprehension of symbols, words, or notation, while writing participatory-active behavior of the visual mode. The kinest mode would appear to be entirely experiential. However, a dis tion might be made between the unconscious contact a student URE 11-1 Receptive and participatory experiences in . in three modes.cars as the main channels of sensory input in music instruction, The shift from ear to eye is a part of the process of developin; literacy, but the role of the ear as the natural channel of aural mation can play an important part in the development of com; ial rigidity of intellectual analysis. “First the instinct, and hensive musicianship. ie analysis” was his maxim. If students were capable of moving, Ia the past few decades, a growing number of music educate sythmically, then a transfer to the accurate performance of musical in the elementary and middle schools have been turning toward @ hms seemed likely. Movement became not an end but rather a periential instruction that stresses sound before sight and the pra ‘of developing a sensitivity to rhythm, phrasing, melody, and matic philosophy of learning by doing. An examination of m: “Jaques-Dalcroze maintained that the body was connected by a textbooks used in the general music classroom shows an increase “jek network of muscles and nerves to the brain, and that train- programs that use hands-on, participatory approaches to music. sysical response to music was the most direct approach to rhyth- orful illustrations are more frequent in recent songbooks, leaving espouse and musical understanding, Nearly a century later, space for notes and discussions of theoretical concepts; some vers in neurology and psychology continue to reveal evidence trations are pre-reading and pre-theory in nature. Textbooks and ¢ he mind-body link, lending support to the significance of the Dal- ementary music education curricula with an activities-oriented) techniques of ear-training through the kinesthetic approach. demonstrate the belief that playing instruments and singing are) ‘Because his mother was a Pestalozzian teacher, Jaques-Dalcroze initial rather than the end phase of the learning process. Althou intensely concerned with learning through experience. He was its formative stages, a philosophy that supports the development ated with his own classes as a student at the Conservatory of performance skills in practice before theory is gaining support. in Geneva where rote drills and abstract ai In elementary music classes of Western-style curricular ps grams, a number of instructional approaches utilizing aural, o and creativity techniques have been proposed and practiced, ‘most prevalent are the methods of Emile Jaques-Daleroze, Car! and Zoltan Kodély. Although they are best known for their mus ‘works, each of these men developed teaching techniques that focus introducing children to music at an early age. Their approaches ex qualities of music first, and then its symbolic form. g the salient features of the three prominent Ei pean approaches to music instruction, one may discover signifc patterns of music teaching and learning. In comparing common mentary school practices to certain world traditions in music le ing, one finds that the similarities among transmission systems often striking. The logic of developing musicality and performan skills in ways that emphasize aural skills will once more be rei forced through a review of these approaches. The related concepts imitation, creative mnemonics will be niques, based on research and observation of their use in the class room Will be offered in the following section on applications. nigh the system of Daleroze eurhythmics that movement, impro- ion, and solfége were integrated into music education. Jaques- ianship could be developed without ‘of theory, he searched for ways to develop musical sensitivi ef from intellectual analysis and mechanical performance. is plan was to present music to students in aural, oral, and physical that would eventually lead to greater expressiveness and cre- ry in music making. Kinesthetic Learning ‘The best-known facet of the Daleroze technique is eurhythmics hhich movement is employed to transform aural sensations into g. The kinesthetic sense connects hearing to moving, moving to and feeling to hearing, so that this chythmic learning comes circle. Students learn to attend to even the slightest changes and es of rhythm, melody, and harmony, and to evoke a muscular jonse that communicates the physical feeling of the rhythm to the for further information processing and storage in the memory s. Eurhythmies heightens attention, develops concentration, jeeply ingrains rhythmic sounds within the brain and body in ation for more musical performarices in the future. THE TEACHINGS OF EMILE JAQUES-DALCROZE ‘Aural Skills Rhythmic movement and dance came into prominence as a whythmics develops the ability to respond to music kines- ricular offering in schools at the tum of the century, but it W the objective of ear-training, or solfége, is to develop anith the teacher moving while sounding a drumbeat or rhythm, or g student providing the music for movement; both instances students opportunities to observe and imitate the teacher's , balance, and flexibility of movement. A solfége lesson may ‘with a musical phrase sung by the teacher; this is repeated and varied by students. Aside from canons, imitation in Daleroze on is indirect and fleeting, for the objective is to provide nts with the freedom for musical expression at the earliest op- ty. “inner hearing.” Through sight-singing and ear-training experiences, students learn to internalize beat, meter, rhythm, melody, and form, ‘tween pitches and among durational patterns. The inner hearin, ity is attained when the student can think and hear a melody. rhythm without the aid of an instrument or voice. Retention Improvisation Classroom exercises associated with the teachings of Jaques- require student responses such as stepping, clapping, mov- e arms, conducting, singing, and playing instruments. While exercises are perceived as games by students, an observer sensi- eto weaching techniques quickly sees that “playing” well demands ‘gente aural capacity, intense concentration, and almost immedi- tions to the music. An exercise called the interrupted canon is, technique that aids the development of the student's short emory. For example, the teacher sounds a rhythmic pattern immediately echoed by the class through vocal o cans or through movement. This use of imitatio : réagthen the student's memory capacity for hearing and perform- ments they have discovered become the basis for students music (figure 11~2). instrumental improvisation. ‘The continuous canon is 2 more difficult memory task that di- Jaques-Dalcroze also advocated vocal improvisation after a ‘students to follow the teacher's movement or sounds at a space ficient foundation of sight-singing and car-training had beer several beats or measures. The teacher begins a rhythmic pattern Among some Dalcroze teachers, solfége is taught in a way that the command that students begin “four beats” or “one mea- lenges the student to create musical pieces from the briefest mi "later. Again, the imitation device is a means of producing a and rhythmic motifs. While the teacher's piano improvisatio: jer Capacity for memorization rather than as a means of rote- sents theoretical concepts of music in a way that triggers a phi ting songs or passages for performance (figure 11-3). response, it can also provide ideas for the student's own imp: tion. The student then recombines and reconstructs these ideas in creative ways that demonstrate his or her understand musical phrasing, form, melody, and rhythm. Jaques-Dalcroze never intended to teach by direct imitations ‘was chiefly concerned with the student’s own creative discover solutions to musical problems. To assist in this discovery, he adi cated improvisation as an important part of the music i process. Daleroze teachers use the pia: alize student needs, often quickly shi styles to match the movement of their students. When students: explored sufficiently an array of expressive movement possibi and have been thoroughly exposed to many musical ideas, the; ‘encouraged to express themselves in musically creative ways Notation ing to read and write music is a result of the solfége train- e who adhere to Dalcroze techniques first give students a Staff to help them in rhythmically spéaking and singing the ge syllables (figure 114). Next, they practice singing notes on a en on three, and finally on the full five lines. Other Dalcroze proponents introduce mapping as a pre-reading gue, in which the melody’s rising and falling pitches are de- Imitation No emphasis is placed on imitative learning in Daleroze e and yet they demonstrate the natural tendency of the teacher to: as a model to students. Some eurhythmics activities are ps