Chapter 1 Introduction To Hydrology PDF

introduction to
hydrology modeling in
rainfall hydrology
hydrologic losses flow estimation
river flow flood routing
measurement frequency analysis
hydrograph analysis reservoir
groundwater
TARMIZI ISMAIL
M50-03-07
07-5538709
019-7547747
tarmiziismail@utm.my
tarmiziismail@yahoo.com
dept of hydraulics and hydrology
faculty of civil engineering
universiti teknologi malaysia
skudai, johor
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY
CHAPTER 2: RAINFALL
CHAPTER 3: HYDROLOGIC LOSSES
CHAPTER 4: RIVER FLOW MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER 5: HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 6: MODELLING IN HYDROLOGY
CHAPTER 7: FLOW ESTIMATION
CHAPTER 8: FLOOD ROUTING
CHAPTER 9: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 10: RESERVOIR
CHAPTER 11: GROUND WATER
3
Basic References
HYDROLOGY AND WATER QUANTITY CONTROL by Martin Wanielista, John Wiley and Sons, 1990.
HYDROLOGY, AN INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGIC SCIENCE by Rafael L. Bras, Addison
Wesley, 1990
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY by Warren Viessman et al, Crowell, Harper and Row, Fourth Edition, 1996
HYDROLOGY FOR ENGINEERS by Ray Linsley, Max Kohler and Joseph Paulhaus, McGraw Hill, 1975
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY by E.M. Wilson, Mac millan, 1991
APPLIED HYDROLOGY by Ven te Chow, David Maidment and Larry W. Ways, McGraw Hill, 1988
HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN by R. H. McCuen. Prentice Hall, 1989; 2nd Edition
HYDROLOGY IN PRACTICE by Elizabeth M. Shaw, Chapman & Hall, 1994
URBAN STORMWATER MANAGEMENT MANUAL FOR MALAYSIA Published by Department of
Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, 2000, and 2nd Edition, 2012
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 4

Assessment
No. Assessment Number % each % total Tentative
1. Assignment 1 10 10 Wk: 3 - 11
2. Quizzes 2 0 0 Wk: 4 & 11
3. Presentation 0 0 0
4. Test 2 20 40 Wk: 6 & 13
5. Final Exam 1 50 50 Wk: 18
Overall Total 100

- Introduction to the subject
Water supply and demand
Flood and drought occurrence
Water resources planning
- The Hydrologic Cycle
- River Basin & Catchment Area
Differences between river basin and catchment
Define: natural and urban
Delineation technique
- The Hydrologic Water Balance
Continuity equation
- Application of the water balance equation

Traditionally, it is an engineering discipline related to water
o Hydrological Science
o Engineering Hydrology
- How much water is there?
- Where is the water coming from?
- Where it is going?
- What if it is too little?
- What if it is too much?
- How to deal with or reduce the related problems?
What is hydrology?
• Hydrology is the study of water, its physical properties
and distribution on and beneath the surface of the earth.
• Basically, we’re going to be concerned with how much
water ends up in the various parts of the water cycle both
spatially and temporally.
• Take a look at the syllabus to see how we’ll approach this

• Hydrology is an earth science dealing with the occurrence, distribution,
movement, and properties of waters of the earth and its atmosphere.
[Viessman & Lewis].
• Scientific study of water and its properties, distribution, and effects on

Earth’s surface, soil, and atmosphere [Richard Mc Cuen].
• The study of water in all its forms and from all its origins to all its
destinations on the earth [Rafael L.Bras].
• Study about water (quantitative and qualitative). In Civil Engineering,

quantitative hydrology is given more emphasis because it relates to
infrastructural development.
• Hydrology is a science of water; its existence, its cycle, its distribution,

physical and chemical properties
• .
• Hydrology is a science to study the processes of controlling surface
water of the earth.
Hydrology as a Science
“Hydrology is the science that treats the

waters of the earth, their occurrence,
circulation and distribution, their chemical
and physical properties, and their reaction
with their environment, including their
relation to living things. The domain of
hydrology embraces the full life history of
water on the earth”

Hydrology as a Profession
• A profession is a “professional competence

requiring specialized knowledge, which has as its
prime purpose the rendering of a public service”
• What hydrologists do:
– Water resources – water withdrawal and
instream uses
– Water Supply
– Water Control – flood and drought mitigation
– Pollution Control – point and nonpoint sources

A car that was buried in the mud being moved A man carrying his
by workers elderly relative away
from the flood-hit
area near Ringlet at
Cameron Highlands

A resident looking at a car
that ended up in a ditch
Bertam Valley villagers inspecting the damage

outside their homes
destroyed classroom at the

SJKC Bertam Valley

Acknowledge with thanks -- The Star 22.12.2006

1967
1971
1967
1971
1971
2006-
2007
1967

Flooded Area In Peninsular Malaysia
PERLIS
Kangar THAILAND
PULAU Sg. Kelantan
LANGKAWI
Alor SetarKEDAH Kota Bharu
Sg. Muda
George Town
PULAU Sg.Terengganu
PINANG Kuala Terengganu
KELANTAN
TERENGGANU
PERAK S.Dungun
Ipoh
S.Cukai
Sg. Perak PAHANG

S.Bernam Kuantan
S.Kuantan
Sg .Pahang
SELANGOR
Shah Alam Kuala
Sg. Klang Lumpur NEGERI
SEMBILAN S.Rompin
S.Endau
Seremban
S.LinggiMELAKA
S.Melaka
Melaka JOHOR
S.Muar
S.Batu Pahat
S.Benut
Johor
Bahru
Sg. Johor
SINGAPORE
Flooded Area In Sabah & Sarawak
Kota Kinabalu
S.Kinabatangan
SABAH
LABUAN
S.Baram
SARAWAK
S.Rejang
S.Sarawak
Kucing
S.Sadong

Yong Peng Town, District of Batu Pahat on 19 Jan 2007 (Low lying area)

FLOODS IN JOHOR -2006/2007

FLOODS IN JOHOR -2006/2007

ANALISA SUMBER AIR DI SEMENANJUNG MALAYSIA
CURAHAN HUJAN SEBENAR BAGI BULAN JAN - MAC 2002
( MOVING 3 MONTHLY RAINFALL )
Droughts during dry season

( a ) PERIOD : NOV-DEC 2001 & JAN 2002 ( b ) PERIOD : DEC 2001 & JAN, FEB 2002 ( c ) PERIOD : JAN, FEB & MAC 2002
R1 -38(324) R1 -43(167) R1-71(179)

K1 36(255) K1 -6(141) K1-56(180)
K3 9(285)K4 -5(412) K4 -7(217)
K3 25(130) K3-48(141)K4-39(219)
K5 -38(423) K5 -50(213) K5-47(209)
D6 30(688) D6 26(486) D66(279)
P1 -34(438) T5 -17(1456) T5 -50(767) T5-26(319)

P1 -21(258) P1-29(263)
P3 -10(382)
P2 4(442) P3 -22(209)
P2 -41(283) P3-29(214)
P2-28(289)
A16 -13(354) A16 -13(209) A16-59(203)
A14 -30(765) A14 -44(588) A14-66(581)

A15 -83(376) A15 -61(273) A15-57(291)
T2 27(1222) T2 -16(786) T2-26(338)
D2 50(522) D2 73(371) D2-20(279)
D1 35(1820) D1 49(1335) D1-23(741)
A12 -21(687) A12 -4(380) A12-24(362)
T1 10(1450) T1 1(977) T1-53(480)
C8 6(624) C8 -26(461) C8-45(431)
A4 -6(530) A4 -16(453) A48(463)

A8 -58(1116) A8 -56(948) A8-47(874)
LEGEND : A6 -38(901) A6 -45(802) A6-41(775)
C9 12(1240) LEGEND : C9 3(1085) LEGEND : C9-59(763)
100% B6 -34(603) B6 -62(406) B6-38(394)

100%
80%
B3 5(504) B3 -32(398) B322(345)
100% 80%
60%
C3 6(477) C4 47(1130) C3 3(362) C4 86(866) B8-12(575) C3-62(357) C4-45(486)

B8 -21(659) 80% B8 -25(564)
B7 -53(522)
60%
B7-5(537)
40%
B7 -43(625)
20% N3 -12(645) 60% N3 -43(518) 40% N3-45(465)
B4 -45(600) B4 -65(474) B4-67(487)
B5-66(401)
B5 -36(353) 20%
Biasa B5 26(481)
0% 40%
Biasa
0%
20%
N1 -50(356) N1-27(373)
Amaran J10-21(441)
-20%
N1 -20(498) J10 -32(560) J10 -37(481)
Biasa J1-14(366)
-20%
J1 -21(417)
Amaran
0%
-40%
J1 -35(516)
Serius J9 -17(1660) -20% J8 36(363) J9 -21(1434) -40%
J80(423) J9-58(851)
J8 20(478) Amaran
-60%
-80%
M1 -12(436) -40% M1 -35(275) -60% Serius M1-3(304)
% Deviation from -60% Serius -80%
L-Term Mean -80%

% Deviation from
Cum. Rainfall % Deviation from L-Term Mean
J2 10(520) J212(464)
J2 28(614) L-Term Mean Cum. Rainfall
J7-16(513)
J7 -9(496)
J7 -6(584) Cum. Rainfall
C9 3 (1085) Stn C9 , 3% above L/T Mean ( Cum. RF) Rainfall Station
Rainfall Station J5 20(516) J50(525)
Note : Rainfall variations from (+ 20%) to ( - 20% ) J5 16(590)
of long-term mean is normal
Rajah 1 : Peta agihan curahan hujan sebenar Rajah 2 : Peta agihan curahan hujan sebenar Rajah 3 : Peta agihan curahan hujan sebenar
(November 2001 - Januari 2002) (Disember 2001 - Februari 2002) ( Januari - Mac 2002 )

Water Crisis

1998 drought
caused
serious water
rationing and
hardship for
1.8 million
residents of
Kuala Lumpur
& other towns
in Klang Valley
The hydrologic cycle is the continuous
movement of water on earth’s surface from
oceans and freshwater sources to the air,
land, and back to the bodies of water which
results in fresh water continuously being
renewed.
Water never leaves the Earth. It is constantly

being cycled through the atmosphere, ocean,
and land. The water cycle is crucial to the
existence of life on our planet and driven by
energy from the sun.

1) Evaporation
2) Transpiration
3) Interception
4) Precipitation
5) Infiltration
6) Percolation
7) Interflow
8) Groundwater flow
9) Surface Runoff
10) Through Fall
11) Exfiltration
12) Capillary Rise
13) Sublimation
14) Evapotranspiration
15) Streamflow (discharge or runoff).
16) Stemflow

HYDROLOGY | the hydrologic cycle
Transpiration
Evaporation
Infiltration
2
Condensation
4
Runoff
Precipitation
Subsurface flow
5
1

Evaporation is the process by which water
is converted from its liquid form to its vapor
form and thus transferred from land and
water masses to the atmosphere. About
86% of all evaporation is from the oceans,
while the remaining 14% is from inland and
vegetation About 86% of all evaporation is
from the oceans, while the remaining 14%
is from inland and vegetation
The rate of evaporation depends upon:

• Wind speed: the higher the wind speed, the more evaporation
• Temperature: the higher the temperature, the more evaporation
• Humidity: the lower the humidity, the more evaporation

 Transpiration is the process
by which plants release water
vapor into the atmosphere
(plants lose water out of their
leaves).
 Evapotranspiration is the
total loss of water from an
area, equaling the sum of
water lost from evaporation
and transpiration.

 Condensation is the process in which water
vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
 Responsible for cloud formation.
 Water vapor is losing energy.
 Warm air can hold MORE water vapor

than cool air.
 Molecules of water are becoming more

organized going a gas to a liquid state.
 When a large amount of water vapor
condenses, it results in the formation of
clouds.

 Any form of water falling from the
clouds in the form of rain,
freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail is
known as precipitation.
Precipitation occurs when so

much water has condensed that
the air cannot hold it anymore. The
clouds get heavy and water falls
back to the earth in the form of rain,
hail, sleet or snow.

Snow
Rain
Hail
Sleet

 Infiltration is the entry of water into
the soil surface.
 Infiltration results in the growth of
vegetation and helps to sustain the
continuous ground water supply to
wells, springs, and streams.
 The rate of infiltration is influenced
by the following factors:
 Physical characteristics of the soil
 Soil cover (i.e. plants, vegetation)
 Water content of the soil
 Soil temperature
 Rainfall intensity

 Percolation is the downward
movement of water through soil and
rock.
 Occurs beneath the root zone.
 Ground water percolates through soil

similar to water filling a sponge
 Water moves from space to space
along fractures in rock, through sand
and gravel, or through channels in
formations such as cavernous
limestone.
 The terms infiltration and percolation

are often used interchangeably.

 Runoff is the movement of water,
usually from precipitation, across
the Earth's surface towards stream
channels, lakes, oceans, or
depressions in the Earth's surface.
 The characteristics that affect the

rate of runoff include:
 Rainfall duration
 Rainfall intensity
 Elevation (slope)
 Soil type
 Vegetation

Stemflow (red arrows)
– Precipitation flows
down stems and
branches to ground
Throughflow (yellow)
Rate at which
precipitation flows
through branches

… infiltrates
downwards through the
soil and rocks where it
is returned to the
oceans through
groundwater flow.

SYMBOL UNIT
LENGTH L m
MASS m kg
TIME t s
TEMPERATURE T oC
RAINFAAL VOL P mm
RAINFALL RATE i mm/hr
EFFECTIVE RAINFALL R mm (m3)
INFILTRATION RATE f Cm/hr
VELOCITY v m/s
AREA A m2
VOLUME V m3
DISCHARGE Q m3/s
CONCENTRATION C Mg/L

105,000 km3 or
0.0076% of total
water

HYDROLOGY | watershed | definition
“A watershed is the natural unit of

land surface, upon which water
from direct precipitation,
snowmelt, and other storage
converges downhill to a single
point or a common outlet, usually
the exit of a basin, where the
water enters another water body
such as a river, lake, reservoir or
the ocean”
Also known as:
• Catchment
• Catchment area
• Catchment basin
• Drainage area
• River basin
• Water basin
What is watershed ?
• Drainage basin.
• Catchment Area
A well defined area of land intercepts the rainfall
and transports it to the stream.
• A topographically delineated area drained by a stream
system, or, the total land above some point, on a
river/stream that drains past that point.
• An area having a common outlet for its surface runoff.
• All land and water w/in the confines of a drainage divine
[Soil & Water Conservation]
• Natural unit of land upon which water from precipitation
or any storage collects in a channel and flows downhill to a
common outlet

• River basin ~ embraces a much larger
area from the river mouth to many
upstream watersheds
• Drainage divide (watershed boundary) ~

an imaginary line that outline the
boundary of the drainage basin
• Point of analysis (point of concentration)

~ point on the stream where the basin
starts

Principles of delineating a drainage basin from a
topographical map
1. Trace/outline the main stem of the stream that

you want to examine
2. Draw the divide perpendicular to contour lines
3. Draw the divide along a ridge and across a
saddle
4. Never draw the divide along or across a
swale/stream/river
5. Close boundary

TYPICAL DRAINAGE BASIN
Overland flow is directed by gravity away
from the divide and toward the stream

DELINEATION OF DRAINAGE BASIN ON CONTOUR MAP

PRINCIPLE OF DELINEATING A DRAINAGE BASIN

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| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM |
DELINEATING A DRAINAGE AREA FROM A TOPO MAP

68
Catchment
Area

Close-up View of the Dam @ 20m Height

SYSTEM
Ix , t  (River Basin or Ox , t 
Catchment)
ds
IO
dt
ds
 change in storage
O1  x, t  dt
O2  x, t  I = Input components
O = Output components

 Identify the control volume
 Surface budget equation
Ss = P - Q0 + Qi - I + Qg - Es - Ts
 sub-surface (groundwater) budget equation
Sg = I - G0 + Gi - Qg - Eg - Tg
 Total mass balance
(Ss + Sg) = S = P - (Q0 - Qi) - (G0 - Gi) - (Es - Eg) - (Ts - Tg)

Net mass exchanges can be summarized as:
S = P - Q - G - ET
S = change in storage
P = total precipitation
Q = Streamflow
G = GW flow
ET= Evapotranspiration

EXAMPLE 1
Estimate water loss due to E that

occurs within one year period
from a pond that has a surface
area of 1000 km2 if the average
annual rainfall of the area is 135
cm. The increase in pond depth
during the same period is 10 cm
and the average flow to the pond
is 1.56 x 106 m3/day. Neglect the
groundwater flow. Use 365 days
per year

P E
Q
S = I - O
G, E
P, Q
S = P + Q - G - E
1.56X106 m3/day = 57 cm/yr
135cm/yr
+10cm/yr
E = 135 + 57 – 10 = 182 cm/yr = 1.82x109 m3/yr

EXAMPLE 2
A multi-purpose reservoir is used

as a recreational and irrigation
water supply has a surface area
of 12.8 km2. If the evaporation of
the reservoir is 3.5 mm/day,
precipitation is 90 mm/ month,
calculate the change of reservoir
water level for the particular. The
inflow to the reservoir in June is
9.5 x 105 m3/month. Assume the
reservoir has a vertical wall.

P E
Qin
S = I - O 59mm
P, Qin
S = Qin + P - E
(3.5x10-3)(30)(12.8x106)
(90x10-3)(12.8x106)
9.5x105
S = 758,000 m3/yr
H = 59mm (+ve)

EXAMPLE 3
The only inflow to a reservoir that has an area of 60Ha is from surface
runoff. The source of this runoff is from rainfall in a catchment that
has an area of 37 km2. Surface runoff can generally be estimated by;
Q = CPA, where
C = runoff coefficient [0 < C  1]
P = Average monthly catchment precipitation
A = catchment area
The runoff coefficient C is influenced by I, ET of the catchment and

other losses.
Change in storage, S in the reservoir in a month is 116,000m3, the

outflow from the reservoir is 600,000m3/month, and ET in the
reservoir is3mm/day. Estimate C if the average rainfall in the
catchment to the reservoir is 50mm/month. Assume direct
precipitation in the reservoir is simliar to catchment mean average
rainfall. One month = 30days.

S = I - O
S = DR + Qin - E - Qo
DR E
Qin
DR = (50/1000)(60X104) = 30,000 m3/mth

Qin = Q = CPA
A = 37x106 m2
QO
P = (50/1000) m/mth
Qin = 1,850,000 C m3/month
E = (3/1000)(60x104)(30) = 54,000 m3/month

Qo = 600,000 m3/month
S = 116,000 m3/month
116,000 = 30,000 + 1,850,000C – 54,000 – 600,000
C = 0.4

Sg Layang Water
Upper Layang Catchment Treatment Plant
Upper Layang
Reservoir
Lower Layang
Reservoir
Johor River
Schematic Representation of Sg Layang Water Treatment Plant System
84

DR E
Qin
Basin Transfer
(From river, reservoir) Seepage
To TP
Seepage

∆𝑺 = 𝑰 − 𝑶
∆𝑺 = 𝑷 + 𝑹 + 𝑷𝑷 − 𝑰 − 𝑬 − 𝑻𝑷
150.87 𝑥 103
2.8
𝑥 639.95 𝐻𝑎
1000
104 𝑚3
= 2.8𝑚 𝑥 639.95𝐻𝑎 𝑥 = 17.9 𝑥 103 𝑚3
1𝐻𝑎
0
𝐽𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿 = 220.8 + 100 𝑥 103 𝑚3
𝐶1 𝑅−5 + 𝐶2 𝑅−4 + 𝐶3 𝑅−3 + 𝐶4 𝑅−2 + 𝐶5 𝑅−1 + 𝐶6 𝑅0 = 55.9 𝑥 103 𝑚3
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0
∆𝑺 = 𝟐𝟎𝟕. 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝟑

Given Vol and Area vs WL , find H
Vol Area
S
Level
H H

a) Before rainfall, water level of a reservoir with
surface area of 5km2 was at 471m (Refer Figure
1a). In a week, a 20mm rainfall was recorded at a
nearby station. The inflow to the reservoir resulted
from that rainfall is 10m3/s with a continuous
outflow from the reservoir is 5m3/s. Assume there
is no losses from the reservoir except evaporation
at 3mm/day.
i. Calculate the total storage in reservoir after a
week.
ii. If this situation is continuously occurred for 15
days (with rainfall is 20mm/week, evaporation
is 3mm/day, constant inflow and outflow of
respectively 10m3/s and 5m3/s), what will be
the water level of the reservoir after the end of
that period.
Water Level (m)

𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖 + ∆𝑠
∆𝑆 = 𝑄𝑖 + 𝐷𝑅 − 𝐸 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
5𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥 24 𝑥 3600 = 4.32 𝑥 105
𝑠
𝐸 = 0.003 𝑥 5 𝑥 106 = 1.5 𝑥 104
1
𝐷𝑅 = 0.02 𝑥 𝑥 5 𝑥 106 = 1.43 𝑥 104
7
10𝑚3 24ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑥 𝑥 = 8.64 𝑥 105
𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1ℎ𝑟
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖 + 8.64 𝑥 105 + 1.43 𝑥 104 − 1.5 𝑥 104 − 4.32 𝑥 105
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖 + 4.31 𝑥 105 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖 + 4.31 𝑥 105 𝑥 7𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖 + 3.02 𝑥 106 𝑚3 /𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘
𝑆𝑖 𝑎𝑡 471𝑚 = 7.5 𝑥 106 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒
∴ 𝑆 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘 = 7.5 𝑥 106 + 3.02 𝑥 106 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝟑
∆𝑆 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 15 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 4.31 𝑥 105 15 = 6.46 𝑥 106 𝑚3
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑊𝐿 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 15𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 𝟒𝟕𝟒. 𝟓 𝒎 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒
2.75E+07
2.50E+07
6.46 x 106
2.25E+07
2.00E+07
Isipadu (m3)
1.75E+07
1.50E+07
1.25E+07
1.00E+07
7.5 x 106
7.50E+06
5.00E+06
470 470.5 471 471.5 472 472.5 473 473.5 474 474.5 475 475.5 476 476.5 477 477.5 478 478.5 479 479.5 480
Paras Air (cm)

A 10 km2 irrigation project has been
developed in a 800 km2 catchment area
resulting in only 790 km2 are left without any
vegetation. The average annual precipitation
is 2100 mm and the average annual
evaporation from the non-vegetated
catchment is 1200 mm. Compute the average
daily evapotranspiration from the irrigated
area in mm/day if the average discharge at the
outlet of the whole catchment area are
22.5 m3/s. It is suggested to calculate the
mass balance in cubic meter
20132014 2


Chapter 1 Introduction To Hydrology PDF

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introduction to

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 4

No. Assessment Number % each % total Tentative

2. Quizzes 2 0 0 Wk: 4 & 11

4. Test 2 20 40 Wk: 6 & 13

5. Final Exam 1 50 50 Wk: 18

Overall Total 100

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• Scientific study of water and its properties, distribution, and effects on

• Study about water (quantitative and qualitative). In Civil Engineering,

• Hydrology is a science of water; its existence, its cycle, its distribution,

“Hydrology is the science that treats the

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• A profession is a “professional competence

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Bertam Valley villagers inspecting the damage

destroyed classroom at the

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Sg. Perak PAHANG

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Droughts during dry season

R1 -38(324) R1 -43(167) R1-71(179)

D6 30(688) D6 26(486) D66(279)

P1 -34(438) T5 -17(1456) T5 -50(767) T5-26(319)

A14 -30(765) A14 -44(588) A14-66(581)

A4 -6(530) A4 -16(453) A48(463)

100% B6 -34(603) B6 -62(406) B6-38(394)

C3 6(477) C4 47(1130) C3 3(362) C4 86(866) B8-12(575) C3-62(357) C4-45(486)

L-Term Mean -80%

of long-term mean is normal

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Water never leaves the Earth. It is constantly

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The rate of evaporation depends upon:

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 Responsible for cloud formation.

 Water vapor is losing energy.

 Warm air can hold MORE water vapor

 Molecules of water are becoming more

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Precipitation occurs when so

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 Ground water percolates through soil

 The terms infiltration and percolation

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 The characteristics that affect the

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